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aria-controls="toc-Emergence_of_native_vernacular_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Emergence of native vernacular literature subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_native_vernacular_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sicilian_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sicilian_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Sicilian School </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sicilian_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Religious literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Tuscan_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Tuscan_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 First Tuscan literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Tuscan_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_early_prose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_early_prose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Development of early prose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_early_prose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dolce_Stil_Novo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dolce_Stil_Novo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Dolce Stil Novo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dolce_Stil_Novo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-14th_century:_the_roots_of_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#14th_century:_the_roots_of_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 14th century: the roots of Renaissance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-14th_century:_the_roots_of_Renaissance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 14th century: the roots of Renaissance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-14th_century:_the_roots_of_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dante" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dante"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Dante </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dante-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Petrarch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Petrarch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Petrarch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Petrarch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boccaccio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boccaccio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Boccaccio </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boccaccio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imitators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imitators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Imitators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imitators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronicles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronicles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.2 Chronicles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronicles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ascetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ascetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.3 Ascetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ascetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popular_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.4 Popular works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.5 Political works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-15th_century:_Renaissance_humanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#15th_century:_Renaissance_humanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 15th century: Renaissance humanism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-15th_century:_Renaissance_humanism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 15th century: Renaissance humanism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-15th_century:_Renaissance_humanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature_in_the_Florence_of_the_Medici" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_in_the_Florence_of_the_Medici"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Literature in the Florence of the Medici </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_in_the_Florence_of_the_Medici-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epic:_Pulci_and_Boiardo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epic:_Pulci_and_Boiardo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Epic: Pulci and Boiardo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epic:_Pulci_and_Boiardo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-16th_century:_the_High_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th_century:_the_High_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 16th century: the High Renaissance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-16th_century:_the_High_Renaissance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 16th century: the High Renaissance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-16th_century:_the_High_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baldassare_Castiglione" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baldassare_Castiglione"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Baldassare Castiglione </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baldassare_Castiglione-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_of_history:_Machiavelli_and_Guicciardini" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_of_history:_Machiavelli_and_Guicciardini"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Science of history: Machiavelli and Guicciardini </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_of_history:_Machiavelli_and_Guicciardini-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ludovico_Ariosto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ludovico_Ariosto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Ludovico Ariosto </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ludovico_Ariosto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pietro_Bembo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pietro_Bembo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Pietro Bembo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pietro_Bembo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torquato_Tasso" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torquato_Tasso"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Torquato Tasso </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torquato_Tasso-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minor_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minor_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Minor writers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minor_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-17th_century:_the_Baroque_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_century:_the_Baroque_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 17th century: the Baroque period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-17th_century:_the_Baroque_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 17th century: the Baroque period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-17th_century:_the_Baroque_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literary_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Literary theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marinism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marinism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Marinism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marinism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arcadia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arcadia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Arcadia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arcadia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baroque_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baroque_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Baroque novel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baroque_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baroque_theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baroque_theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Baroque theatre </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baroque_theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baroque_satire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baroque_satire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Baroque satire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baroque_satire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_literature:_Tommaso_Campanella" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_literature:_Tommaso_Campanella"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Philosophical literature: Tommaso Campanella </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_literature:_Tommaso_Campanella-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Age_of_Reason_and_Reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Age_of_Reason_and_Reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 The Age of Reason and Reform </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Age_of_Reason_and_Reform-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The Age of Reason and Reform subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_Age_of_Reason_and_Reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_and_society:_Vico,_Muratori_and_Beccaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_society:_Vico,_Muratori_and_Beccaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 History and society: Vico, Muratori and Beccaria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_society:_Vico,_Muratori_and_Beccaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metastasio_and_the_melodrama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metastasio_and_the_melodrama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Metastasio and the melodrama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metastasio_and_the_melodrama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carlo_Goldoni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carlo_Goldoni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Carlo Goldoni </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carlo_Goldoni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Giuseppe_Parini" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Giuseppe_Parini"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Giuseppe Parini </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Giuseppe_Parini-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_purism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_purism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Linguistic purism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_purism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minor_writers_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minor_writers_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Minor writers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minor_writers_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolution:_Patriotism_and_classicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolution:_Patriotism_and_classicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Revolution: Patriotism and classicism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolution:_Patriotism_and_classicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century:_Romanticism_and_the_Risorgimento" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century:_Romanticism_and_the_Risorgimento"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 19th century: Romanticism and the Risorgimento </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century:_Romanticism_and_the_Risorgimento-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 19th century: Romanticism and the Risorgimento subsection </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century:_Romanticism_and_the_Risorgimento-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_and_politics_in_the_19th" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_politics_in_the_19th"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 History and politics in the 19th </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_politics_in_the_19th-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Between_the_19th_and_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Between_the_19th_and_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Between the 19th and 20th century </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Between_the_19th_and_20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Between the 19th and 20th century subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Between_the_19th_and_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Minor_writers_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minor_writers_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Minor writers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minor_writers_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century_and_beyond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century_and_beyond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 20th century and beyond </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century_and_beyond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children's_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children's_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Children's literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children's_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Women writers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italians_awarded_with_the_Nobel_Prize_for_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italians_awarded_with_the_Nobel_Prize_for_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Italians awarded with the Nobel Prize for literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italians_awarded_with_the_Nobel_Prize_for_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" > 54 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italiaanse_letterkunde" title="Italiaanse letterkunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Italiaanse letterkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A" title="أدب إيطالي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب إيطالي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lliteratura_d%27Italia" title="Lliteratura d'Italia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lliteratura d'Italia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0taliya_%C9%99d%C9%99biyyat%C4%B1" title="İtaliya ədəbiyyatı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İtaliya ədəbiyyatı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastra_Italia" title="Sastra Italia – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Sastra Italia" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Италианска литература – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Италианска литература" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italijanska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Italijanska književnost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Italijanska književnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_italiana" title="Literatura italiana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Literatura italiana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italsk%C3%A1_literatura" title="Italská literatura – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Italská literatura" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ll%C3%AAn_yr_Eidal" title="Llên yr Eidal – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Llên yr Eidal" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italienische_Literatur" title="Italienische Literatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Italienische Literatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itaalia_kirjandus" title="Itaalia kirjandus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Itaalia kirjandus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ιταλική λογοτεχνία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιταλική λογοτεχνία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_de_Italia" title="Literatura de Italia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura de Italia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itala_literaturo" title="Itala literaturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Itala literaturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italierazko_literatura" title="Italierazko literatura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Italierazko literatura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="ادبیات ایتالیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ادبیات ایتالیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_italienne" title="Littérature italienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature italienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litr%C3%ADocht_na_hIod%C3%A1ilise" title="Litríocht na hIodáilise – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Litríocht na hIodáilise" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%ED%83%88%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="이탈리아 문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이탈리아 문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իտալական գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իտալական գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="इतालवी साहित्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इतालवी साहित्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talijanska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Talijanska književnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Talijanska književnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="ইতালির সাহিত্য – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="ইতালির সাহিত্য" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastra_Italia" title="Sastra Italia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sastra Italia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_letteratura_italiana" title="Storia della letteratura italiana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della letteratura italiana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%86" title="ಇಟಾಲಿಯನ್ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯವಿಮರ್ಶೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇಟಾಲಿಯನ್ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯವಿಮರ್ಶೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="იტალიური ლიტერატურა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იტალიური ლიტერატურა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D3%99%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Италия әдебиеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Италия әдебиеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%AAjeya_%C3%AEtal%C3%AE" title="Wêjeya îtalî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Wêjeya îtalî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litterae_Italiae" title="Litterae Italiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Litterae Italiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leteratur_italian" title="Leteratur italian – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Leteratur italian" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olasz_irodalom" title="Olasz irodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Olasz irodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Италијанска книжевност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Италијанска книжевност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italiaanse_literatuur" title="Italiaanse literatuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Italiaanse literatuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%BF%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="イタリア文学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イタリア文学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italiensk_litteratur" title="Italiensk litteratur – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Italiensk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A4" title="ਇਤਾਲਵੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਤਾਲਵੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_w%C5%82oska" title="Literatura włoska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Literatura włoska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_italian%C4%83" title="Literatura italiană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Literatura italiană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Итальянская литература – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Итальянская литература" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literadura_italiana" title="Literadura italiana – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Literadura italiana" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Italian literature" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talianska_literat%C3%BAra" title="Talianska literatúra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Talianska literatúra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%9A%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Италијанска књижевност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Италијанска књижевност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italijanska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Italijanska književnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Italijanska književnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_kirjallisuus" title="Italian kirjallisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Italian kirjallisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italiensk_litteratur" title="Italiensk litteratur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Italiensk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0talyan_edebiyat%C4%B1" title="İtalyan edebiyatı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İtalyan edebiyatı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Італійська література – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Італійська література" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%83n_h%E1%BB%8Dc_%C3%9D" title="Văn học Ý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Văn học Ý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_Italyano" title="Literatura Italyano – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Literatura Italyano" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E6%96%87%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="意大利文文學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="意大利文文學" 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href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railway</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">People</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh_language" title="Arbëresh language">Arbëresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algherese_dialect" title="Algherese dialect">Algherese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavomolisano_dialect" title="Slavomolisano dialect">Slavomolisano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aostan_French" title="Aostan French">Aostan French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friulian_language" title="Friulian language">Friulian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Italic_of_Sicily" title="Gallo-Italic of Sicily">Gallo-Italic of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germans_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Germans in Italy">Italian Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griko_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Griko dialect">Griko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladin_language" title="Ladin language">Ladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_Italy" title="Traditions of Italy">Traditions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Italy" title="Folklore of Italy">folklore</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_folk_dance" title="Italian folk dance">Folk dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_folk_music" title="Italian folk music">Folk music</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Cuisine</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Abruzzo" title="Cuisine of Abruzzo">Abruzzese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apulian_cuisine" title="Apulian cuisine">Apulian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh%C3%AB_cuisine" title="Arbëreshë cuisine">Arbëreshë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Corsica" title="Cuisine of Corsica">Corsican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Liguria" title="Cuisine of Liguria">Ligurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_cuisine" title="Lombard cuisine">Lombard</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Mantua" title="Cuisine of Mantua">Mantuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Basilicata" title="Cuisine of Basilicata">Lucanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_cuisine" title="Neapolitan cuisine">Neapolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_cuisine" title="Piedmontese cuisine">Piedmontese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_cuisine" title="Roman cuisine">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Sardinia" title="Cuisine of Sardinia">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_cuisine" title="Sicilian cuisine">Sicilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscan_food" title="Tuscan food">Tuscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Veneto" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Veneto">Venetian</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Italy" title="Public holidays in Italy">Festivals</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tricolour_Day" title="Tricolour Day">Tricolour Day</a> (7 January)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Memorial_Day_of_the_Exiles_and_Foibe" title="National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe">National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe</a> (10 February)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniversary_of_the_Unification_of_Italy" title="Anniversary of the Unification of Italy">Anniversary of the Unification of Italy</a> (17 March)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_Day_(Italy)" title="Liberation Day (Italy)">Liberation Day</a> (25 April)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festa_della_Repubblica" title="Festa della Repubblica">Republic Day</a> (2 June)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Unity_and_Armed_Forces_Day" title="National Unity and Armed Forces Day">National Unity and Armed Forces Day</a> (4 November)</li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Religion</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Italy" title="Catholic Church in Italy">Roman Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Italy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Italy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy_in_Italy" title="Oriental Orthodoxy in Italy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Italy" title="Protestantism in Italy">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Italy" title="Islam in Italy">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Italy" title="Baháʼí Faith in Italy">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Italy" title="Hinduism in Italy">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_Italy" title="Sikhism in Italy">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Italy" title="Irreligion in Italy">Irreligiosity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Art</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sculpture of Italy">Sculpture</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Italian_comics" title="Italian comics">Comics</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Music</a> and performing arts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Theatre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Italy">Media</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Italy" title="Books in Italy">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Italy" title="Internet in Italy">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magazines_in_Italy" title="List of magazines in Italy">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Italy" title="List of newspapers in Italy">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Italy" title="List of radio stations in Italy">Radio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Italy" title="Sport in Italy">Sport</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_Italy" title="Football in Italy">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athletics_in_Italy" title="Athletics in Italy">Athletics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_in_Italy" title="Baseball in Italy">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_union_in_Italy" title="Rugby union in Italy">Rugby union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_in_Italy" title="Tennis in Italy">Tennis</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Monuments_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments of Italy">Monuments</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Italy" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Italy">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Monuments_and_memorials_in_Italy" title="Category:Monuments and memorials in Italy">More</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of Italy">Symbols</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of Italy">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of Italy">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festa_della_Repubblica" title="Festa della Repubblica">National day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_Monument" title="Victor Emmanuel II Monument">National monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italia_turrita" title="Italia turrita">National personification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Organisations</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Istituto_Italiano_di_Cultura" title="Istituto Italiano di Cultura">Italian Cultural Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri_Society" title="Dante Alighieri Society">Dante Alighieri Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Italy" title="List of libraries in Italy">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Italy" title="List of museums in Italy">Museums</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture_of_Italy" title="Template:Culture of Italy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_Italy" title="Template talk:Culture of Italy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_Italy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of Italy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4706" data-file-height="4751" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> Italian writers portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a> in <a href="/wiki/Six_Tuscan_Poets" title="Six Tuscan Poets">Six Tuscan Poets</a> (1544). From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Landino" title="Cristoforo Landino">Cristoforo Landino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Petrarca" class="mw-redirect" title="Francesco Petrarca">Francesco Petrarca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guido_Cavalcanti" title="Guido Cavalcanti">Guido Cavalcanti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> Italian literature is written in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a>, particularly within <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. It may also refer to literature written by <a href="/wiki/Italian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian people">Italians</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">other languages spoken in Italy</a>, often languages that are closely related to <a href="/wiki/Italian_language#History" title="Italian language">modern Italian</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">regional varieties and vernacular dialects</a>. Italian literature began in the 12th century, when in different regions of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">peninsula</a> the Italian vernacular started to be used in a literary manner. The <a href="/wiki/Salv%27a_lo_vescovo_senato" title="Salv'a lo vescovo senato">Ritmo laurenziano</a> is the first extant document of Italian literature. In 1230, the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_School" title="Sicilian School">Sicilian School</a> became notable for being the first style in standard Italian. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> developed during the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici" title="Lorenzo de' Medici">Lorenzo de' Medici</a> is regarded as the standard bearer of the influence of <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> on the Renaissance in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian states">Italian states</a>. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> in the 15th century was very great. In the 16th century, the fundamental characteristic of the era following the end of the Renaissance was that it perfected the Italian character of its language. <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Francesco Guicciardini</a> were the chief originators of the science of history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Bembo" title="Pietro Bembo">Pietro Bembo</a> was an influential figure in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a>. In 1690, the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Arcadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Arcadia">Academy of Arcadia</a> was instituted with the goal of "restoring" literature by imitating the simplicity of the ancient shepherds with <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madrigal_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrigal (music)">madrigals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canzonette" class="mw-redirect" title="Canzonette">canzonette</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blank_verse" title="Blank verse">blank verses</a>. In the 18th century, the political condition of the Italian states began to improve, and philosophers disseminated their writings and ideas throughout Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>. The leading figure of the 18th century Italian literary revival was <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Parini" title="Giuseppe Parini">Giuseppe Parini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910-3">[3]</a> The philosophical, political, and socially progressive ideas behind the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789 gave a special direction to Italian literature in the second half of the 18th century, inaugurated with the publication of <a href="/wiki/On_Crimes_and_Punishments" title="On Crimes and Punishments">Dei delitti e delle pene</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>. Love of liberty and desire for equality created a literature aimed at national objects. Patriotism and classicism were the two principles that inspired the literature that began with the Italian dramatist and poet <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Vittorio Alfieri</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic movement</a> had as its organ the Conciliatore, established in 1818 at Milan. The main instigator of the reform was the Italian poet and novelist <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>. The great Italian poet of the age was <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a>. The literary movement that preceded and was contemporary with the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">political revolutions of 1848</a> may be said to be represented by four writers: <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Giusti" title="Giuseppe Giusti">Giuseppe Giusti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Domenico_Guerrazzi" title="Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi">Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gioberti" title="Vincenzo Gioberti">Vincenzo Gioberti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Balbo" title="Cesare Balbo">Cesare Balbo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a>, political literature became less important. The first part of this period is characterized by two divergent trends of literature that both opposed Romanticism: the <a href="/wiki/Scapigliatura" title="Scapigliatura">Scapigliatura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verismo_(literature)" title="Verismo (literature)">Verismo</a>. Important early 20th century Italian writers include <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pascoli" title="Giovanni Pascoli">Giovanni Pascoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italo_Svevo" title="Italo Svevo">Italo Svevo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio" title="Gabriele D'Annunzio">Gabriele D'Annunzio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Saba" title="Umberto Saba">Umberto Saba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Ungaretti" title="Giuseppe Ungaretti">Giuseppe Ungaretti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Montale" title="Eugenio Montale">Eugenio Montale</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a>. <a href="/wiki/Italian_neorealism" title="Italian neorealism">Neorealism</a> was developed by <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Moravia" title="Alberto Moravia">Alberto Moravia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pier_Paolo_Pasolini" title="Pier Paolo Pasolini">Pier Paolo Pasolini</a> became notable for being one of the most controversial authors in the history of Italy. <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a> became internationally successful with the Medieval detective story <a href="/wiki/The_Name_of_the_Rose" title="The Name of the Rose">Il nome della rosa</a> (1980). The Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded to Italian language authors six times (as of 2019) with winners including <a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grazia_Deledda" title="Grazia Deledda">Grazia Deledda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Montale" title="Eugenio Montale">Eugenio Montale</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dario_Fo" title="Dario Fo">Dario Fo</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_medieval_Latin_literature">Early medieval Latin literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early medieval Latin literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boethius_initial_consolation_philosophy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Boethius_initial_consolation_philosophy.jpg/220px-Boethius_initial_consolation_philosophy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Boethius_initial_consolation_philosophy.jpg/330px-Boethius_initial_consolation_philosophy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Boethius_initial_consolation_philosophy.jpg/440px-Boethius_initial_consolation_philosophy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of <a href="/wiki/Anicius_Manlius_Severinus_Boethius" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius">Boethius</a> teaching his students (1385). Boethius, a 6th century Christian philosopher, helped keep alive the classic tradition in post-<a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Italian_language" title="Category:Italian language">the series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Dalmatian_languages" title="Italo-Dalmatian languages">Italo-Dalmatian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Florentine_dialect" title="Florentine dialect">Florentine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accademia_della_Crusca" title="Accademia della Crusca">Accademia della Crusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treccani" title="Treccani">Enciclopedia Treccani</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_language#History" title="Italian language">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veronese_Riddle" title="Veronese Riddle">Veronese Riddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placiti_Cassinesi" title="Placiti Cassinesi">Placiti Cassinesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_School" title="Sicilian School">Sicilian School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolce_Stil_Novo" title="Dolce Stil Novo">Dolce Stil Novo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">The Divine Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Arcadia" title="Pontifical Academy of Arcadia">Pontifical Academy of Arcadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accademia_della_Crusca#Monosini_and_the_first_Vocabolario" title="Accademia della Crusca">Italian Purism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Letters_of_Jacopo_Ortis" title="The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis">The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Betrothed_(Manzoni_novel)" title="The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)">The Betrothed</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;font-size:110%;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a> and other</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Italy" title="Culture of Italy">Culture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_poetry" title="Italian poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_comics" title="Italian comics">Comics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italophilia" title="Italophilia">Italophilia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Grammar</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_conjugation" title="Italian conjugation">Verb conjugation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_orthography#Alphabet" title="Italian orthography">Alphabet</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_orthography" title="Italian orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Braille</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_phonology" title="Italian phonology">Phonology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_gemination" title="Syntactic gemination">Syntactic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscan_gorgia" title="Tuscan gorgia">Tuscan gorgia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italian_language" title="Template:Italian language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italian_language" title="Template talk:Italian language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italian_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italian language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> As the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> declined, the Latin tradition was kept alive by writers such as <a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anicius_Manlius_Severinus_Boethius" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius">Boethius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a>. The liberal arts flourished at <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> under <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric</a>, and the Gothic kings surrounded themselves with masters of <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>. Some lay schools remained in Italy, and noted scholars included <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Felix_Ennodius" title="Magnus Felix Ennodius">Magnus Felix Ennodius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arator" title="Arator">Arator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venantius_Fortunatus" title="Venantius Fortunatus">Venantius Fortunatus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Felix_the_Grammarian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Felix the Grammarian (page does not exist)">Felix the Grammarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Pisa" title="Peter of Pisa">Peter of Pisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paulinus_of_Aquileia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulinus of Aquileia">Paulinus of Aquileia</a>, and many others. The later establishment of the medieval universities of <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vicenza" title="Vicenza">Vicenza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modena" title="Modena">Modena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parma" title="Parma">Parma</a> helped to spread culture and prepared the ground in which the new <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_literature" title="Vernacular literature">vernacular literature</a> developed.<a href="#cite_note-duecento-e-trecento-5">[5]</a> Classical traditions did not disappear, and affection for the memory of Rome, a preoccupation with politics, and a preference for practice over theory combined to influence the development of Italian literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_medieval_literature">High medieval literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: High medieval literature">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trovatori">Trovatori</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Trovatori">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rambertino_Buvalelli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Rambertino_Buvalelli.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="98" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="98" /></a><figcaption>The beginning of <a href="/wiki/Rambertino_Buvalelli" title="Rambertino Buvalelli">Rambertino Buvalelli</a>'s D'un saluz uoill m'entremetre, with a decorated initial D, and Rambertino's name (Lanbertin de Buualel) at top</figcaption></figure> The earliest vernacular literary tradition in Italy was in <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, spoken in parts of northwest Italy. A tradition of vernacular <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric poetry</a> arose in <a href="/wiki/Poitou" title="Poitou">Poitou</a> in the early 12th century and spread south and east, eventually reaching Italy by the end of the 12th century. The first <a href="/wiki/Troubadours" class="mw-redirect" title="Troubadours">troubadours</a> (trovatori in Italian), as these Occitan lyric poets were called, to practise in Italy were from elsewhere, but the high aristocracy of the northern Italy was ready to patronise them.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> It was not long before native Italians adopted Occitan as a vehicle for poetic expression. Among the early patrons of foreign troubadours were especially the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Este" title="House of Este">House of Este</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Da_Romano" class="mw-redirect" title="Da Romano">Da Romano</a>, <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Malaspina_family" title="Malaspina family">Malaspina</a>. <a href="/wiki/Azzo_VI_of_Este" class="mw-redirect" title="Azzo VI of Este">Azzo VI of Este</a> entertained the troubadours <a href="/wiki/Aimeric_de_Belenoi" title="Aimeric de Belenoi">Aimeric de Belenoi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aimeric_de_Peguilhan" title="Aimeric de Peguilhan">Aimeric de Peguilhan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albertet_de_Sestaro" title="Albertet de Sestaro">Albertet de Sestaro</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peire_Raimon_de_Tolosa" title="Peire Raimon de Tolosa">Peire Raimon de Tolosa</a> from <a href="/wiki/Occitania" title="Occitania">Occitania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rambertino_Buvalelli" title="Rambertino Buvalelli">Rambertino Buvalelli</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, one of the earliest Italian troubadours. Azzo VI's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Beatrice_d%27Este_(died_1226)" class="mw-redirect" title="Beatrice d'Este (died 1226)">Beatrice</a>, was an object of the early poets "<a href="/wiki/Courtly_love" title="Courtly love">courtly love</a>". Azzo's son, <a href="/wiki/Azzo_VII_of_Este" class="mw-redirect" title="Azzo VII of Este">Azzo VII</a>, hosted <a href="/wiki/Elias_Cairel" title="Elias Cairel">Elias Cairel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arnaut_Catalan" title="Arnaut Catalan">Arnaut Catalan</a>. Rambertino was named <a href="/wiki/Podest%C3%A0" title="Podestà">podestà</a> of <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> in 1218 and it was probably during his three-year tenure there that he introduced Occitan lyric poetry to the city, which later developed a flourishing Occitan literary culture.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BnF_ms._12473_fol._109_-_Sordel_de_Mantoue_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/BnF_ms._12473_fol._109_-_Sordel_de_Mantoue_%281%29.jpg/220px-BnF_ms._12473_fol._109_-_Sordel_de_Mantoue_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/BnF_ms._12473_fol._109_-_Sordel_de_Mantoue_%281%29.jpg/330px-BnF_ms._12473_fol._109_-_Sordel_de_Mantoue_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/BnF_ms._12473_fol._109_-_Sordel_de_Mantoue_%281%29.jpg/440px-BnF_ms._12473_fol._109_-_Sordel_de_Mantoue_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sordello" title="Sordello">Sordello</a> from a 13th century manuscript</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Margraves_of_Montferrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Margraves of Montferrat">margraves of Montferrat</a>—<a href="/wiki/Boniface_I_of_Montferrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface I of Montferrat">Boniface I</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_VI_of_Montferrat" class="mw-redirect" title="William VI of Montferrat">William VI</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Boniface_II_of_Montferrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface II of Montferrat">Boniface II</a>—were patrons of Occitan poetry. Among the Genoese troubadours were <a href="/wiki/Lanfranc_Cigala" title="Lanfranc Cigala">Lanfranc Cigala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calega_Panzan" title="Calega Panzan">Calega Panzan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacme_Grils" title="Jacme Grils">Jacme Grils</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bonifaci_Calvo" title="Bonifaci Calvo">Bonifaci Calvo</a>. Genoa was also the place of the genesis of the podestà-troubadour phenomenon: men who served in several cities as podestàs on behalf of either the <a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelph or Ghibelline</a> party and who wrote <a href="/wiki/Political_poetry" title="Political poetry">political poetry</a> in Occitan. Rambertino Buvalelli was the first podestà-troubadour and in Genoa there were the Guelphs <a href="/wiki/Luca_Grimaldi" title="Luca Grimaldi">Luca Grimaldi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luchetto_Gattilusio" title="Luchetto Gattilusio">Luchetto Gattilusio</a> and the Ghibellines <a href="/wiki/Perceval_Doria" title="Perceval Doria">Perceval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simon_Doria" title="Simon Doria">Simon Doria</a>. Perhaps the most important aspect of the Italian troubadour phenomenon was the production of <a href="/wiki/Chansonnier" title="Chansonnier">chansonniers</a> and the composition of <a href="/wiki/Vida_(Occitan_literary_form)" title="Vida (Occitan literary form)">vidas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Razo" title="Razo">razos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Uc_de_Saint_Circ" title="Uc de Saint Circ">Uc de Saint Circ</a> undertook to author the entire razo corpus and a great many of the vidas. The most famous and influential Italian troubadour was <a href="/wiki/Sordello" title="Sordello">Sordello</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The troubadours had a connection with the rise of a school of poetry in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>. In 1220 <a href="/wiki/Obs_de_Biguli" title="Obs de Biguli">Obs de Biguli</a> was present as a "singer" at the coronation of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Frederick_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Frederick II">Emperor Frederick II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Guillem_Augier_Novella" title="Guillem Augier Novella">Guillem Augier Novella</a> before 1230 and <a href="/wiki/Guilhem_Figueira" title="Guilhem Figueira">Guilhem Figueira</a> thereafter were important Occitan poets at Frederick's court. The <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> had devastated <a href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</a> and forced many troubadours of the area to flee to Italy, where an Italian tradition of papal criticism was begun.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chivalric_romance">Chivalric romance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chivalric romance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PalazzoTrinci010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/PalazzoTrinci010.jpg/220px-PalazzoTrinci010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/PalazzoTrinci010.jpg/330px-PalazzoTrinci010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/PalazzoTrinci010.jpg/440px-PalazzoTrinci010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine" title="Jacobus de Voragine">Jacobus de Voragine</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Legend" title="Golden Legend">Golden Legend</a> in his hand, fresco by <a href="/wiki/Ottaviano_Nelli" title="Ottaviano Nelli">Ottaviano Nelli</a>, chapel of <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Trinci" title="Palazzo Trinci">Palazzo Trinci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foligno" title="Foligno">Foligno</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> The Historia de excidio Trojae, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Dares_Phrygius" title="Dares Phrygius">Dares Phrygius</a>, claimed to be an eyewitness account of the Trojan War. <a href="/wiki/Guido_delle_Colonne" title="Guido delle Colonne">Guido delle Colonne</a> of <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> poets of the Sicilian school, composed the <a href="/wiki/Historia_destructionis_Troiae" title="Historia destructionis Troiae">Historia destructionis Troiae</a>. In his poetry, Guido was an imitator of the <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provençals</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898-6">[6]</a> but in this book he converted <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_de_Sainte-Maure" title="Benoît de Sainte-Maure">Benoît de Sainte-Maure</a>'s French romance into what sounded like serious Latin history.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Much the same thing occurred with other great legends. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quilichino_of_Spoleto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quilichino of Spoleto (page does not exist)">Quilichino of Spoleto</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/Couplet" title="Couplet">couplets</a> about the legend of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. Europe was full of the legend of <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a>, but the Italians contented themselves with translating and abridging French romances. <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine" title="Jacobus de Voragine">Jacobus de Voragine</a>, while collecting his <a href="/wiki/Golden_Legend" title="Golden Legend">Golden Legend</a> (1260), remained a historian.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Farfa, <a href="/wiki/Marsicano" title="Marsicano">Marsicano</a>, and other scholars translated <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, the precepts of the school of <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>, and the travels of <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, linking the classics and the Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898-6">[6]</a> At the same time, epic poetry was written in a mixed language, a dialect of Italian based on French: hybrid words exhibited a treatment of sounds according to the rules of both languages, had French roots with Italian endings, and were pronounced according to Italian or Latin rules. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chansons de geste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macaire" title="Macaire">Macaire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Entr%C3%A9e_d%27Espagne" title="Entrée d'Espagne">Entrée d'Espagne</a> written by Anonymous of <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prise_de_Pampelune&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prise de Pampelune (page does not exist)">Prise de Pampelune</a>, written by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Niccol%C3%B2_of_Verona&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Niccolò of Verona (page does not exist)">Niccolò of Verona</a>, and others. All this preceded the appearance of purely Italian literature.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergence_of_native_vernacular_literature">Emergence of native vernacular literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Emergence of native vernacular literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cantico_delle_Creature.djvu" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Cantico_delle_Creature.djvu/page1-220px-Cantico_delle_Creature.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Cantico_delle_Creature.djvu/page1-330px-Cantico_delle_Creature.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Cantico_delle_Creature.djvu/page1-440px-Cantico_delle_Creature.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="1183" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Laudes_creaturarum" class="mw-redirect" title="Laudes creaturarum">Laudes creaturarum</a> by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Francis_of_Assisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Francis of Assisi">Saint Francis of Assisi</a></figcaption></figure> The French and Occitan languages gradually gave way to the native Italian. Hybridism recurred, but it no longer predominated. In the Bovo d'Antona and the Rainaldo e Lesengrino, <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a> is clearly felt, although the language is influenced by French forms. These writings, which <a href="/wiki/Graziadio_Isaia_Ascoli" title="Graziadio Isaia Ascoli">Graziadio Isaia Ascoli</a> has called miste (mixed), immediately preceded the appearance of purely Italian works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898-6">[6]</a> There is evidence that a type of literature already existed before the 13th century: the <a href="/wiki/Ritmo_cassinese" title="Ritmo cassinese">Ritmo cassinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritmo_di_Sant%27Alessio" title="Ritmo di Sant'Alessio">Ritmo di Sant'Alessio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laudes_creaturarum" class="mw-redirect" title="Laudes creaturarum">Laudes creaturarum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritmo_lucchese" title="Ritmo lucchese">Ritmo lucchese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritmo_laurenziano" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritmo laurenziano">Ritmo laurenziano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritmo_bellunese" title="Ritmo bellunese">Ritmo bellunese</a> are classified by <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Segre" title="Cesare Segre">Cesare Segre</a>, et al. as "Archaic Works" ("Componimenti Arcaici"): "such are labelled the first literary works in the Italian vernacular, their dates ranging from the last decades of the 12th century to the early decades of the 13th".<a href="#cite_note-duecento-e-trecento-5">[5]</a> However, as he points out, such early literature does not yet present any uniform stylistic or linguistic traits.<a href="#cite_note-duecento-e-trecento-5">[5]</a> This early development, however, was simultaneous in the whole peninsula, varying only in the subject matter of the art. In the north, the poems of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomino_da_Verona&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giacomino da Verona (page does not exist)">Giacomino da Verona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bonvesin_da_la_Riva" title="Bonvesin da la Riva">Bonvesin da la Riva</a> were written in a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Lombard_language" title="Lombard language">Lombard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> This sort of composition may have been encouraged by the old custom in the north of Italy of listening to the songs of the <a href="/wiki/Juggling" title="Juggling">jongleurs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898–899-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sicilian_School">Sicilian School</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sicilian School">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_School" title="Sicilian School">Sicilian School</a></div> The year 1230 marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_School" title="Sicilian School">Sicilian School</a> and of literature showing more uniform traits. Its importance lies more in the language (the creation of the first standard Italian) than its subject, a love song partly modelled on the Provençal poetry imported to the south by the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Swabia" title="Swabia">Svevs</a> under <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-scuola-poetica-siciliana-19">[19]</a> This poetry differs from the French equivalent in its treatment of the woman, less <a href="/wiki/Erotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Erotic">erotic</a> and more <a href="/wiki/Platonic_love" title="Platonic love">platonic</a>, a vein further developed by <a href="/wiki/Dolce_Stil_Novo" title="Dolce Stil Novo">Dolce Stil Novo</a> in later 13th century Bologna and <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>. The customary repertoire of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a> terms is adapted to Italian <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">phonotactics</a>, creating new Italian vocabulary. These were adopted by <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> and his contemporaries, and handed on to future generations of Italian writers.<a href="#cite_note-scuola-poetica-siciliana-19">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacopo_da_Lentini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Jacopo_da_Lentini.jpg/220px-Jacopo_da_Lentini.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Jacopo_da_Lentini.jpg/330px-Jacopo_da_Lentini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Jacopo_da_Lentini.jpg/440px-Jacopo_da_Lentini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_da_Lentini" title="Giacomo da Lentini">Giacomo da Lentini</a> (detail of a 14th century <a href="/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)" title="Miniature (illuminated manuscript)">miniature</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Central_Library_of_Florence" class="mw-redirect" title="National Central Library of Florence">National Central Library of Florence</a>)</figcaption></figure> To the Sicilian school belonged <a href="/wiki/Enzio_of_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzio of Sardinia">Enzio</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pietro_della_Vigna" title="Pietro della Vigna">Pietro della Vigna</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Inghilfredi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inghilfredi (page does not exist)">Inghilfredi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guido_delle_Colonne" title="Guido delle Colonne">Guido</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Odo_delle_Colonne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Odo delle Colonne (page does not exist)">Odo delle Colonne</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacopo_d%27Aquino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacopo d'Aquino (page does not exist)">Jacopo d'Aquino</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ruggieri_Apugliese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ruggieri Apugliese (page does not exist)">Ruggieri Apugliese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_da_Lentini" title="Giacomo da Lentini">Giacomo da Lentini</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arrigo_Testa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arrigo Testa (page does not exist)">Arrigo Testa</a>, and others. Most famous is Io m'aggio posto in core, by Giacomo da Lentini, the head of the movement, but there is also poetry written by Frederick himself. Giacomo da Lentini is also credited with inventing the <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnet</a>, a form later perfected by Dante, <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boccaccio" class="mw-redirect" title="Boccaccio">Boccaccio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> imposed by Frederick meant that no political matter entered literary debate. In this respect, the poetry of the north, still divided into <a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">communes</a> or <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> with relatively democratic governments, provided new ideas. These new ideas are shown in the <a href="/wiki/Sirventese" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirventese">Sirventese</a> genre, and later, Dante's <a href="/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Divine Comedy">Commedia</a>, full of invectives against contemporary political leaders and popes. Though the conventional love song prevailed at Frederick's (and later <a href="/wiki/Manfred_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Manfred of Sicily">Manfred</a>'s) court, more spontaneous poetry existed in the Contrasto attributed to <a href="/wiki/Cielo_d%27Alcamo" title="Cielo d'Alcamo">Cielo d'Alcamo</a>. The Contrasto is probably a scholarly re-elaboration of a lost popular rhyme and is the closest to a type of poetry that perished or was smothered by the ancient Sicilian literature.<a href="#cite_note-scuola-poetica-siciliana-19">[19]</a> The poems of the Sicilian school were written in the first known standard Italian.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> This was elaborated by these poets under the direction of Frederick II and combines many traits typical of the Sicilian, and to a lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulian</a> dialects and other southern dialects, with many words of Latin and French origin. Dante's styles illustre, cardinale, aulico, curiale were developed from his linguistic study of the Sicilian School, whose technical features had been imported by <a href="/wiki/Guittone_d%27Arezzo" title="Guittone d'Arezzo">Guittone d'Arezzo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a>. The standard changed slightly in Tuscany because Tuscan <a href="/wiki/Scrivener" title="Scrivener">scriveners</a> perceived the five-vowel system used by southern Italians as a seven-vowel one. As a consequence, the texts that Italian students read in their anthology contain lines that appear not to rhyme, a feature known as ″Sicilian rhyme" (rima siciliana) which was widely used later by poets such as Dante or Petrarch.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_literature">Religious literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Religious literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paolo_uccello,_beato_iacopone_da_todi,_1435-36,_da_duomo_di_prato,_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Paolo_uccello%2C_beato_iacopone_da_todi%2C_1435-36%2C_da_duomo_di_prato%2C_02.JPG/220px-Paolo_uccello%2C_beato_iacopone_da_todi%2C_1435-36%2C_da_duomo_di_prato%2C_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Paolo_uccello%2C_beato_iacopone_da_todi%2C_1435-36%2C_da_duomo_di_prato%2C_02.JPG/330px-Paolo_uccello%2C_beato_iacopone_da_todi%2C_1435-36%2C_da_duomo_di_prato%2C_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Paolo_uccello%2C_beato_iacopone_da_todi%2C_1435-36%2C_da_duomo_di_prato%2C_02.JPG/440px-Paolo_uccello%2C_beato_iacopone_da_todi%2C_1435-36%2C_da_duomo_di_prato%2C_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jacopone_da_Todi" title="Jacopone da Todi">Jacopone da Todi</a>, fresco by <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Uccello" title="Paolo Uccello">Paolo Uccello</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Prato" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral of Prato">cathedral of Prato</a></figcaption></figure> The earliest preserved sermons in the Italian language are from <a href="/wiki/Jordan_of_Pisa" title="Jordan of Pisa">Jordan of Pisa</a>, a Dominican.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a>, the founder of the Franciscans, also wrote poetry. According to legend, Francis dictated the <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymn</a> <a href="/wiki/Canticle_of_the_Sun" title="Canticle of the Sun">Cantico del Sole</a> in the eighteenth year of his penance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911899-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> It was the first great poetical work of northern Italy, written in a type of verse marked by <a href="/wiki/Assonance" title="Assonance">assonance</a>, a poetic device more widespread in Northern Europe. <a href="/wiki/Jacopone_da_Todi" title="Jacopone da Todi">Jacopone da Todi</a> was a poet who represented the religious feeling that had made special progress in <a href="/wiki/Umbria" title="Umbria">Umbria</a>. Jacopone was possessed by St. Francis's mysticism, but was also a satirist who mocked the <a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">corruption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">hypocrisy</a> of the Church.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The religious movement in Umbria was followed by another literary phenomenon, the religious drama. In 1258 a hermit, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Raniero_Fasani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Raniero Fasani (page does not exist)">Raniero Fasani</a>, represented himself as sent by God to disclose mysterious visions, and to announce to the world terrible visitations.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Fasani's pronouncements stimulated the formation of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Compagnie_di_Disciplinanti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Compagnie di Disciplinanti (page does not exist)">Compagnie di Disciplinanti</a>, who, for a penance, scourged themselves until they drew blood, and sang <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laudi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laudi (page does not exist)">Laudi</a> in dialogue in their <a href="/wiki/Confraternity" title="Confraternity">confraternities</a>. These laudi, closely connected with the <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a>, were the first example of drama in the vernacular tongue of Italy. They were written in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Umbrian_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umbrian dialect (page does not exist)">Umbrian dialect</a>, in verses of eight syllables. As early as the end of the 13th century the Devozioni del Giovedi e Venerdi Santo appeared, mixing liturgy and drama. Later, di un Monaco che andò al servizio di Dio ('of a monk who entered the service of God') approached the definite form the religious drama would assume in the following centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911899-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Tuscan_literature">First Tuscan literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: First Tuscan literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codice_Banco_Rari_217.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Codice_Banco_Rari_217.jpg/220px-Codice_Banco_Rari_217.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Codice_Banco_Rari_217.jpg/330px-Codice_Banco_Rari_217.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Codice_Banco_Rari_217.jpg/440px-Codice_Banco_Rari_217.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="1413" /></a><figcaption>Page of the Banco Rari Code in which it is contained Al cor gentil rempaira sempre amore by <a href="/wiki/Guido_Guinizelli" title="Guido Guinizelli">Guido Guinizelli</a></figcaption></figure> 13th century Tuscans spoke a dialect that closely resembled Latin and afterwards became, almost exclusively, the language of literature, and which was already regarded at the end of the 13th century as surpassing other dialects.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In Tuscany, too, popular love poetry existed. A school of imitators of the Sicilians was led by <a href="/wiki/Dante_da_Majano" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante da Majano">Dante da Majano</a>, but its literary originality took another line—that of humorous and satirical poetry.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The entirely democratic form of government created a style of poetry that stood strongly against the medieval mystic and chivalrous style. The sonnets of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rustico_di_Filippo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rustico di Filippo (page does not exist)">Rustico di Filippo</a> are half-fun and half-satire, as is the work of <a href="/wiki/Cecco_Angiolieri" title="Cecco Angiolieri">Cecco Angiolieri</a> of Siena, the oldest known humorist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Another type of poetry also began in Tuscany. Guittone d'Arezzo made art quit chivalry and Provençal forms for national motives and Latin forms. He attempted political poetry and prepared the way for the Bolognese school. Bologna was the city of science, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> poetry appeared there. <a href="/wiki/Guido_Guinizelli" title="Guido Guinizelli">Guido Guinizelli</a> was the poet after the new fashion of the art. In his work, the ideas of chivalry are changed and enlarged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900-30">[30]</a> Guinizelli's <a href="/wiki/Canzone" title="Canzone">Canzoni</a> make up the bible of Dolce Stil Novo, and one in particular, "Al cor gentil" ('To a Kind Heart'), is considered the manifesto of the new movement that bloomed in Florence under Cavalcanti, Dante, and their followers.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> He marks a great development in the history of Italian art, especially because of his close connection with Dante's <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric poetry</a>. In the 13th century, there were several major <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegorical poems</a>. One of these is by <a href="/wiki/Brunetto_Latini" title="Brunetto Latini">Brunetto Latini</a>: his Tesoretto is a short poem, in seven-syllable verses, rhyming in couplets, in which the author is lost in a wilderness and meets a lady, who represents Nature and gives him much instruction. <a href="/wiki/Francesco_da_Barberino" title="Francesco da Barberino">Francesco da Barberino</a> wrote two little allegorical poems, the Documenti d'amore and Del reggimento e dei costumi delle donne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900-30">[30]</a> The poems today are generally studied not as literature, but for historical context.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In the 15th century, humanist and publisher <a href="/wiki/Aldus_Manutius" title="Aldus Manutius">Aldus Manutius</a> published Tuscan poets <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a> (Divine Comedy), creating the model for what became a standard for modern Italian.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_early_prose">Development of early prose</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Development of early prose">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marco_Polo,_Il_Milione,_Chapter_CXXIII_and_CXXIV_Cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Marco_Polo%2C_Il_Milione%2C_Chapter_CXXIII_and_CXXIV_Cropped.jpg/220px-Marco_Polo%2C_Il_Milione%2C_Chapter_CXXIII_and_CXXIV_Cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Marco_Polo%2C_Il_Milione%2C_Chapter_CXXIII_and_CXXIV_Cropped.jpg/330px-Marco_Polo%2C_Il_Milione%2C_Chapter_CXXIII_and_CXXIV_Cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Marco_Polo%2C_Il_Milione%2C_Chapter_CXXIII_and_CXXIV_Cropped.jpg/440px-Marco_Polo%2C_Il_Milione%2C_Chapter_CXXIII_and_CXXIV_Cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Travels_of_Marco_Polo" class="mw-redirect" title="Travels of Marco Polo">Travels of Marco Polo</a> by <a href="/wiki/Rustichello_da_Pisa" title="Rustichello da Pisa">Rustichello da Pisa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a></figcaption></figure> Italian prose of the 13th century was as abundant and varied as its poetry.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Halfway through the century, a certain Aldobrando or Aldobrandino wrote a book for <a href="/wiki/Beatrice_of_Savoy" title="Beatrice of Savoy">Beatrice of Savoy</a>, called Le Régime du corps. In 1267 <a href="/wiki/Martino_da_Canale" class="mw-redirect" title="Martino da Canale">Martino da Canale</a> wrote a history of Venice in the same Old French (<a href="/wiki/Langue_d%27o%C3%AFl" class="mw-redirect" title="Langue d'oïl">langue d'oïl</a>). <a href="/wiki/Rustichello_da_Pisa" title="Rustichello da Pisa">Rustichello da Pisa</a> composed many chivalrous romances, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Arthurian_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthurian cycle">Arthurian cycle</a>, and subsequently wrote the <a href="/wiki/Travels_of_Marco_Polo" class="mw-redirect" title="Travels of Marco Polo">Travels of Marco Polo</a>, which may have been dictated by Polo himself.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> And finally <a href="/wiki/Brunetto_Latini" title="Brunetto Latini">Brunetto Latini</a> wrote his Tesoro in French.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900-30">[30]</a> Latini also wrote some works in Italian prose such as La rettorica, an adaptation from <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>'s <a href="/wiki/De_inventione" class="mw-redirect" title="De inventione">De inventione</a>, and translated three orations from Cicero. Another important writer was the Florentine judge <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bono_Giamboni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bono Giamboni (page does not exist)">Bono Giamboni</a>, who translated <a href="/wiki/Paulus_Orosius" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulus Orosius">Orosius</a>'s Historiae adversus paganos, <a href="/wiki/Vegetius" title="Vegetius">Vegetius</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Epitoma_rei_militaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Epitoma rei militaris">Epitoma rei militaris</a>, made a translation/adaptation of Cicero's De inventione mixed with the <a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rethorica ad Erennium</a>, and a translation/adaptation of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Innocent III</a>'s De miseria humane conditionis. He also wrote an allegorical novel called Libro de' Vizi e delle Virtudi. <a href="/wiki/Andrea_of_Grosseto" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrea of Grosseto">Andrea of Grosseto</a>, in 1268, translated three Treaties of <a href="/wiki/Albertanus_of_Brescia" title="Albertanus of Brescia">Albertanus of Brescia</a>, from Latin to <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> After the original compositions in the langue d'oïl came translations or adaptations from the same. There are some moral narratives taken from religious legends, a romance of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, some short histories of ancient knights, the <a href="/wiki/Round_Table" title="Round Table">Tavola rotonda</a>, translations of the Viaggi of <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, and of Latini's Tesoro. At the same time, translations from Latin of moral and ascetic works, histories, and treatises on <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">oratory</a> appeared. Also noteworthy is Composizione del mondo, a scientific book by <a href="/wiki/Ristoro_d%27Arezzo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ristoro d'Arezzo">Ristoro d'Arezzo</a>, who lived about the middle of the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Another short treatise exists: De regimine rectoris, by <a href="/wiki/Paolino_Veneto" title="Paolino Veneto">Fra Paolino</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Minorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Minorite">Minorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">friar</a> of Venice, who was <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Pozzuoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Pozzuoli">bishop of Pozzuoli</a>, and who also wrote a Latin chronicle. His treatise stands in close relation to that of <a href="/wiki/Egidio_Colonna" class="mw-redirect" title="Egidio Colonna">Egidio Colonna</a>, De regimine principum. It is written in <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900-30">[30]</a> The 13th century was very rich in tales.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> A collection called the Cento Novelle antiche contains stories drawn from many sources, including Asian, Greek and Trojan traditions, ancient and medieval history, the legends of <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a> and Italy, the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, local Italian traditions, and histories of animals and old <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900-30">[30]</a> On the whole the Italian novels of the 13th century have little originality, and are a faint reflection of the very rich legendary <a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">literature of France</a>. Some attention should be paid to the Lettere of Fra Guittone d'Arezzo, who wrote many poems and also some letters in prose, the subjects of which are moral and religious. Guittone's love of antiquity and the traditions of Rome and its language was so strong that he tried to write Italian in a Latin style. The letters are obscure, involved and altogether barbarous. Guittone took as his special model <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Guittone viewed his style as very artistic, but later scholars view it as extravagant and grotesque.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dolce_Stil_Novo">Dolce Stil Novo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dolce Stil Novo">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dolce_Stil_Novo" title="Dolce Stil Novo">Dolce Stil Novo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blois_-_tableau_Guido_Cavalcanti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Blois_-_tableau_Guido_Cavalcanti.jpg/220px-Blois_-_tableau_Guido_Cavalcanti.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Blois_-_tableau_Guido_Cavalcanti.jpg/330px-Blois_-_tableau_Guido_Cavalcanti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Blois_-_tableau_Guido_Cavalcanti.jpg/440px-Blois_-_tableau_Guido_Cavalcanti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2564" data-file-height="2968" /></a><figcaption>Painting on the gallery of portraits from the castle of Beauregard in <a href="/wiki/Cellettes,_Loir-et-Cher" title="Cellettes, Loir-et-Cher">Cellettes</a> representing <a href="/wiki/Guido_Cavalcanti" title="Guido Cavalcanti">Guido Cavalcanti</a></figcaption></figure> With the school of <a href="/wiki/Lapo_Gianni" title="Lapo Gianni">Lapo Gianni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guido_Cavalcanti" title="Guido Cavalcanti">Guido Cavalcanti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cino_da_Pistoia" title="Cino da Pistoia">Cino da Pistoia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, lyric poetry became exclusively Tuscan.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The whole novelty and poetic power of this school, consisted in, according to Dante, Quando Amore spira, noto, ed a quel niodo Ch'ei detta dentro, vo significando: that is, in a power of expressing the feelings of the soul in the way in which love inspires them, in an appropriate and graceful manner, fitting form to matter, and by art fusing one with the other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901-43">[43]</a> This a neo-platonic approach widely endorsed by <a href="/wiki/Dolce_Stil_Novo" title="Dolce Stil Novo">Dolce Stil Novo</a>, and although in Cavalcanti's case, it can be upsetting and even destructive, it is nonetheless a metaphysical experience able to lift man onto a higher, spiritual dimension. Gianni's new style was still influenced by the Siculo-Provençal school.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Cavalcanti's poems fall into two classes: those that portray the philosopher (il sottilissimo dialettico, as <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_the_Magnificent" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorenzo the Magnificent">Lorenzo the Magnificent</a> called him) and those more directly the product of his poetic nature imbued with <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. To the first set belongs the famous poem Sulla natura d'amore, which in fact is a treatise on amorous <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, and was annotated later in a learned way by renowned Platonic philosophers of the 15th century, such as <a href="/wiki/Marsilius_Ficinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsilius Ficinus">Marsilius Ficinus</a> and others. On the other hand, in his Ballate, he pours himself out ingenuously, but with a consciousness of his art. The greatest of these is considered to be the ballata composed by Cavalcanti when he was banished from Florence with the party of the Bianchi in 1300, and took refuge at <a href="/wiki/Sarzana" title="Sarzana">Sarzana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="14th_century:_the_roots_of_Renaissance">14th century: the roots of Renaissance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 14th century: the roots of Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dante">Dante</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Dante">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:398px;max-width:398px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_de_Dante.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Portrait_de_Dante.jpg/190px-Portrait_de_Dante.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Portrait_de_Dante.jpg/285px-Portrait_de_Dante.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Portrait_de_Dante.jpg/380px-Portrait_de_Dante.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1519" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Profile portrait of <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli" title="Sandro Botticelli">Sandro Botticelli</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Inferno.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Inferno.jpg/200px-Inferno.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Inferno.jpg/300px-Inferno.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Inferno.jpg/400px-Inferno.jpg 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="995" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">First page of an early printed edition of Dante's <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a></div></div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, one of the greatest of Italian poets, also shows these lyrical tendencies.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In 1293 he wrote <a href="/wiki/La_Vita_Nuova" title="La Vita Nuova">La Vita Nuova</a>, in which he idealizes love. It is a collection of poems to which Dante added narration and explication. Everything is sensual, aerial, and heavenly, and the real Beatrice is supplanted by an idealized vision of her, losing her human nature and becoming a representation of the divine.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a> tells of the poet's travels through the three realms of the dead—<a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">Paradise</a>—accompanied by the Latin poet <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>. An allegorical meaning hides under the literal one of this great epic. Dante, travelling through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise, symbolizes mankind aiming at the double object of temporal and eternal happiness. The forest where the poet loses himself lost symbolizes sin.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The mountain illuminated by the sun is the universal monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901-43">[43]</a> Envy is Florence, Pride is the house of France, and Avarice is the papal court. Virgil represents reason and the empire.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Beatrice is the symbol of the supernatural aid mankind must have to attain the supreme end, which is God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901-43">[43]</a> The merit of the poem lies is the individual art of the poet, the classic art transfused for the first time into a Romance form. Whether he describes nature, analyses passions, curses the vices or sings hymns to the virtues, Dante is notable for the grandeur and delicacy of his art. He took the materials for his poem from <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, philosophy, history, and mythology, but especially from his own passions, from hatred and love.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The Divine Comedy ranks among the finest works of <a href="/wiki/World_literature" title="World literature">world literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Petrarch">Petrarch</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Petrarch">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Petrarca00.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Francesco_Petrarca00.jpg/220px-Francesco_Petrarca00.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Francesco_Petrarca00.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a></figcaption></figure> Petrarch was the first <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a>, and he was at the same time the first modern lyric poet.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> His career was long and tempestuous. He lived for many years at <a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a>, cursing the corruption of the papal court; he travelled through nearly the whole of Europe; he corresponded with emperors and popes, and he was considered the most important writer of his time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901-43">[43]</a> Petrarch's lyric verse is quite different, not only from that of the Provençal <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadours</a> and the Italian poets before him, but also from the lyrics of Dante.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Petrarch is a psychological poet, who examines all his feelings and renders them with an art of exquisite sweetness. The lyrics of Petrarch are no longer transcendental like Dante's, but keep entirely within human limits. The Canzoniere includes a few political poems, one supposed to be addressed to <a href="/wiki/Cola_di_Rienzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Cola di Rienzi">Cola di Rienzi</a> and several sonnets against the court of Avignon. These are remarkable for their vigour of feeling, and also for showing that, compared to Dante, Petrarch had a sense of a broader Italian consciousness.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boccaccio">Boccaccio</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Boccaccio">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrea_del_Castagno_Giovanni_Boccaccio_c_1450.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Andrea_del_Castagno_Giovanni_Boccaccio_c_1450.jpg/220px-Andrea_del_Castagno_Giovanni_Boccaccio_c_1450.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Andrea_del_Castagno_Giovanni_Boccaccio_c_1450.jpg/330px-Andrea_del_Castagno_Giovanni_Boccaccio_c_1450.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Andrea_del_Castagno_Giovanni_Boccaccio_c_1450.jpg/440px-Andrea_del_Castagno_Giovanni_Boccaccio_c_1450.jpg 2x" data-file-width="766" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a> presenting the <a href="/wiki/Decameron" class="mw-redirect" title="Decameron">Decamerone</a>, depicted by <a href="/wiki/Andrea_del_Castagno" title="Andrea del Castagno">Andrea del Castagno</a> in a fresco preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Uffizi" title="Uffizi">Uffizi</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a> had the same enthusiastic love of antiquity and the same worship for the new Italian literature as Petrarch.<a href="#cite_note-boccaccio-56">[56]</a> He was the first to put together a Latin translation of the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a> and, in 1375, the <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a>. His classical learning was shown in the work De genealogia deorum; as <a href="/wiki/A._H._Heeren" class="mw-redirect" title="A. H. Heeren">A. H. Heeren</a> said, it is an encyclopaedia of mythological knowledge; and it was the precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> movement of the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Boccaccio was also the first historian of women in his <a href="/wiki/De_mulieribus_claris" class="mw-redirect" title="De mulieribus claris">De mulieribus claris</a>, and the first to tell the story of the great unfortunates in his <a href="/wiki/De_casibus_virorum_illustrium" title="De casibus virorum illustrium">De casibus virorum illustrium</a>. He continued and perfected former geographical investigations in his De montibus, silvis, fontibus, lacubus, fluminibus, stagnis, et paludibus, et de nominibus maris, for which he made use of <a href="/wiki/Vibius_Sequester" title="Vibius Sequester">Vibius Sequester</a>. He did not invent the <a href="/wiki/Octave_stanza" class="mw-redirect" title="Octave stanza">octave stanza</a>, but was the first to use it in a work of length and artistic merit, his <a href="/w/index.php?title=Teseide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teseide (page does not exist)">Teseide</a>, the oldest Italian romantic poem. The <a href="/wiki/Filostrato" class="mw-redirect" title="Filostrato">Filostrato</a> relates the loves of Troiolo and Griseida (<a href="/wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida" title="Troilus and Cressida">Troilus and Cressida</a>). The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninfale_fiesolano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ninfale fiesolano (page does not exist)">Ninfale fiesolano</a> tells the love story of the nymph Mesola and the shepherd Africo. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorosa_Visione&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amorosa Visione (page does not exist)">Amorosa Visione</a>, a poem in triplets, doubtless owed its origin to the Divine Comedy. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ameto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ameto (page does not exist)">Ameto</a> is a mixture of prose and poetry, and is the first Italian pastoral romance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911902-58">[58]</a> Boccaccio became famous principally for the Italian work, <a href="/wiki/Decameron" class="mw-redirect" title="Decameron">Decamerone</a>, a collection of a hundred novels, related by a party of men and women who retired to a villa near Florence to escape the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">plague</a> in 1348. Novel writing, so abundant in the preceding centuries, especially in France, now for the first time assumed an artistic shape.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The style of Boccaccio tends to the imitation of Latin, but in him, prose first took the form of elaborated art. Over and above this, in the Decamerone, Boccaccio is a delineator of character and an observer of passions. Much has been written about the sources of the novels of the Decamerone. Probably Boccaccio made use both of written and of oral sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911902-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Others">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imitators">Imitators</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Imitators">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Federico_Frezzi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Federico_Frezzi.jpg/170px-Federico_Frezzi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Federico_Frezzi.jpg/255px-Federico_Frezzi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Federico_Frezzi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Federico_Frezzi" title="Federico Frezzi">Federico Frezzi</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fazio_degli_Uberti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fazio degli Uberti (page does not exist)">Fazio degli Uberti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Federico_Frezzi" title="Federico Frezzi">Federico Frezzi</a> were imitators of the Divine Comedy, but only in its external form.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Fiorentino" title="Giovanni Fiorentino">Giovanni Fiorentino</a> wrote, under the title of Pecorone, a collection of tales, which are supposed to have been related by a monk and a nun in the parlour of the monastery Novelists of Forli.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> He closely imitated Boccaccio, and drew on Villani's chronicle for his historical stories. <a href="/wiki/Franco_Sacchetti" title="Franco Sacchetti">Franco Sacchetti</a> wrote tales too, for the most part on subjects taken from Florentine history. The subjects are almost always improper, but it is evident that Sacchetti collected these anecdotes so he could draw his own conclusions and moral reflections, which he puts at the end of each story. From this point of view, Sacchetti's work comes near to the Monalisaliones of the Middle Ages. A third novelist was <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Sercambi" title="Giovanni Sercambi">Giovanni Sercambi</a> of Lucca, who after 1374 wrote a book, in imitation of Boccaccio, about a party of people who were supposed to fly from a plague and to go travelling about in different Italian cities, stopping here and there telling stories.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Later, but important, names are those of <a href="/wiki/Masuccio_Salernitano" title="Masuccio Salernitano">Masuccio Salernitano</a> (Tommaso Guardato), who wrote the Novellino, and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Cornazzano" title="Antonio Cornazzano">Antonio Cornazzano</a> whose Proverbii became extremely popular.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911902–903-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chronicles">Chronicles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Chronicles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Logge_del_mercato_nuovo,_statua_di_giovanni_villani_di_gaetano_trentanove,_1889-1892,_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Logge_del_mercato_nuovo%2C_statua_di_giovanni_villani_di_gaetano_trentanove%2C_1889-1892%2C_02.jpg/170px-Logge_del_mercato_nuovo%2C_statua_di_giovanni_villani_di_gaetano_trentanove%2C_1889-1892%2C_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Logge_del_mercato_nuovo%2C_statua_di_giovanni_villani_di_gaetano_trentanove%2C_1889-1892%2C_02.jpg/255px-Logge_del_mercato_nuovo%2C_statua_di_giovanni_villani_di_gaetano_trentanove%2C_1889-1892%2C_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Logge_del_mercato_nuovo%2C_statua_di_giovanni_villani_di_gaetano_trentanove%2C_1889-1892%2C_02.jpg/340px-Logge_del_mercato_nuovo%2C_statua_di_giovanni_villani_di_gaetano_trentanove%2C_1889-1892%2C_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2640" data-file-height="5010" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Villani" title="Giovanni Villani">Giovanni Villani</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Trentanove" title="Gaetano Trentanove">Gaetano Trentanove</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Loggia_del_Mercato_Nuovo" title="Loggia del Mercato Nuovo">Loggia del Mercato Nuovo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a></figcaption></figure> Chronicles formerly believed to have been of the 13th century are now mainly regarded as forgeries.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> At the end of the 13th century there is a chronicle by <a href="/wiki/Dino_Compagni" title="Dino Compagni">Dino Compagni</a>, probably authentic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Villani" title="Giovanni Villani">Giovanni Villani</a>, born in 1300, was more of a chronicler than a historian.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> He relates the events up to 1347. The journeys that he made in Italy and France, and the information thus acquired, mean that his chronicle, the Historie Fiorentine, covers events all over Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a> Matteo was the brother of Giovanni Villani, and continued the chronicle up to 1363. It was again continued by Filippo Villani.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ascetics">Ascetics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ascetics">edit</a>]</div> St <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a>'s mysticism was political.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> She aspired to bring back the Church of Rome to evangelical virtue, and left a collection of letters written to all types of people, including popes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Another Sienese, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Colombini_(Founder_of_the_Congregation_of_Jesuati)" class="mw-redirect" title="Giovanni Colombini (Founder of the Congregation of Jesuati)">Giovanni Colombini</a>, founder of the order of <a href="/wiki/Jesuati" title="Jesuati">Jesuati</a>, preached poverty by precept and example, going back to the religious idea of St Francis of Assisi. His letters are among the most remarkable in the category of ascetic works in the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bianco_da_Siena" title="Bianco da Siena">Bianco da Siena</a> wrote several religiously-inspired poems (lauda) that were popular in the Middle Ages. <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Passavanti" title="Jacopo Passavanti">Jacopo Passavanti</a>, in his Specchio della vera penitenza, attached instruction to narrative. <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Cavalca" title="Domenico Cavalca">Domenico Cavalca</a> translated from the Latin the Vite de' Santi Padri. Rivalta left behind him many sermons, and <a href="/wiki/Franco_Sacchetti" title="Franco Sacchetti">Franco Sacchetti</a> (the famous novelist) many discourses. On the whole, there is no doubt that one of the most important productions of the Italian spirit of the 14th century was religious literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Popular_works">Popular works</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Popular works">edit</a>]</div> Humorous poetry, largely developed in the 13th century, was carried on in the 14th by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bindo_Bonichi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bindo Bonichi (page does not exist)">Bindo Bonichi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arrigo_di_Castruccio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arrigo di Castruccio (page does not exist)">Arrigo di Castruccio</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cecco_Nuccoli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cecco Nuccoli (page does not exist)">Cecco Nuccoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Orcagna" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrea Orcagna">Andrea Orcagna</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lippo_Pasci_de%27_Bardi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lippo Pasci de' Bardi (page does not exist)">Lippo Pasci de' Bardi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adriano_de_Rossi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adriano de Rossi (page does not exist)">Adriano de Rossi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Pucci_(poet)" title="Antonio Pucci (poet)">Antonio Pucci</a> and other lesser writers. Orcagna was especially comic; Bonichi was comic with a satirical and moral purpose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Pucci was superior to all of them for the variety of his production.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_works">Political works</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Political works">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ser_Giovanni_Fiorentino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Ser_Giovanni_Fiorentino.jpg/170px-Ser_Giovanni_Fiorentino.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Ser_Giovanni_Fiorentino.jpg/255px-Ser_Giovanni_Fiorentino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Ser_Giovanni_Fiorentino.jpg/340px-Ser_Giovanni_Fiorentino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="1619" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Fiorentino" title="Giovanni Fiorentino">Giovanni Fiorentino</a></figcaption></figure> Many poets of the 14th century produced political works. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fazio_degli_Uberti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fazio degli Uberti (page does not exist)">Fazio degli Uberti</a>, the author of Dittamondo, who wrote a Serventese to the lords and people of Italy, a poem on Rome, and a fierce invective against Charles IV, deserves notice, as do <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_di_Vannozzo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francesco di Vannozzo (page does not exist)">Francesco di Vannozzo</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frate_Stoppa_de%27_Bostichi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frate Stoppa de' Bostichi (page does not exist)">Frate Stoppa de' Bostichi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Matteo_Frescobaldi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Matteo Frescobaldi (page does not exist)">Matteo Frescobaldi</a>. It may be said in general that following the example of Petrarch many writers devoted themselves to patriotic poetry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a> From this period also dates that literary phenomenon known under the name of Petrarchism.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The Petrarchists, or those who sang of love, imitating Petrarch's manner, were found already in the 14th century. But others treated the same subject with more originality, in a manner that might be called semi-popular. Such were the Ballate of Ser <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Fiorentino" title="Giovanni Fiorentino">Giovanni Fiorentino</a>, of Franco Sacchetti, of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Niccol%C3%B2_Soldanieri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Niccolò Soldanieri (page does not exist)">Niccolò Soldanieri</a>, and of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guido_Donati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guido Donati (page does not exist)">Guido</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bindo_Donati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bindo Donati (page does not exist)">Bindo Donati</a>. Ballate were poems sung to dancing, and we have very many songs for the music of the 14th century. We have already stated that Antonio Pucci versified Villani's Chronicle. It is enough to notice a chronicle of <a href="/wiki/Arezzo" title="Arezzo">Arezzo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Terza_rima" title="Terza rima">terza rima</a> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bartolomeo_Sinigardi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bartolomeo Sinigardi (page does not exist)">Bartolomeo Sinigardi</a>, and the history, also in terza rima, of the journey of Pope Alexander III to Venice, by <a href="/wiki/Petrus_de_Natalibus" title="Petrus de Natalibus">Pier de Natali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Besides this, every type of subject, whether history, tragedy or husbandry, was treated in verse. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neri_di_Landocio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neri di Landocio (page does not exist)">Neri di Landocio</a> wrote a life of St Catherine; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacopo_Gradenigo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacopo Gradenigo (page does not exist)">Jacopo Gradenigo</a> called il Belletto put the Gospels into triplets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="15th_century:_Renaissance_humanism">15th century: Renaissance humanism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 15th century: Renaissance humanism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walker_Art_Gallery,_Leonard_Bruni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Walker_Art_Gallery%2C_Leonard_Bruni.jpg/220px-Walker_Art_Gallery%2C_Leonard_Bruni.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Walker_Art_Gallery%2C_Leonard_Bruni.jpg/330px-Walker_Art_Gallery%2C_Leonard_Bruni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Walker_Art_Gallery%2C_Leonard_Bruni.jpg/440px-Walker_Art_Gallery%2C_Leonard_Bruni.jpg 2x" data-file-width="918" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a></figcaption></figure> Renaissance humanism developed during the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries, and was a response to the challenge of Mediæval scholastic education, emphasizing practical, pre-professional and -scientific studies. <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> focused on preparing men to be doctors, lawyers or professional theologians, and was taught from approved textbooks in logic, natural philosophy, medicine, law and theology.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The main centers of humanism were <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Rather than train professionals in jargon and strict practice, humanists sought to create a citizenry (including, sometimes, women) able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity. This was to be accomplished through the study of the <a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">studia humanitatis</a>, today known as the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Early humanists, such as <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coluccio_Salutati" title="Coluccio Salutati">Coluccio Salutati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a>, were great collectors of antique manuscripts. In Italy, the humanist educational program won rapid acceptance and, by the mid-15th century, many of the upper classes had received humanist educations. There were five 15th century Humanist Popes,<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> one of whom, <a href="/wiki/Aeneas_Silvius_Piccolomini" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini">Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini</a> (Pius II), was a prolific author and wrote a treatise on "The Education of Boys".<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_in_the_Florence_of_the_Medici">Literature in the Florence of the Medici</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Literature in the Florence of the Medici">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorenzo_de_Medici.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lorenzo_de_Medici.jpg/220px-Lorenzo_de_Medici.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lorenzo_de_Medici.jpg/330px-Lorenzo_de_Medici.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lorenzo_de_Medici.jpg/440px-Lorenzo_de_Medici.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="687" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici" title="Lorenzo de' Medici">Lorenzo de' Medici</a> by <a href="/wiki/Agnolo_Bronzino" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnolo Bronzino">Agnolo Bronzino</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Uffizi" title="Uffizi">Uffizi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Leone_Battista_Alberti" class="mw-redirect" title="Leone Battista Alberti">Leone Battista Alberti</a>, the learned Greek and Latin scholar, wrote in the vernacular, and <a href="/wiki/Vespasiano_da_Bisticci" title="Vespasiano da Bisticci">Vespasiano da Bisticci</a>, while he was constantly absorbed in Greek and Latin manuscripts, wrote the Vite di uomini illustri, valuable for their historical contents, and rivalling the best works of the 14th century in their candour and simplicity. <a href="/wiki/Andrea_da_Barberino" title="Andrea da Barberino">Andrea da Barberino</a> wrote the beautiful prose of the Reali di Francia, giving a coloring of romanità to the chivalrous romances. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Feo_Belcari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Feo Belcari (page does not exist)">Belcari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Benivieni" title="Girolamo Benivieni">Girolamo Benivieni</a> returned to the mystic idealism of earlier times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911904-80">[80]</a> But it is in <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_de%27_Medici" title="Cosimo de' Medici">Cosimo de' Medici</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici" title="Lorenzo de' Medici">Lorenzo de' Medici</a>, from 1430 to 1492, that the influence of Florence on the Renaissance is particularly seen.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Lorenzo de' Medici gave to his poetry the colors of the most pronounced realism as well as of the loftiest idealism, who passes from the Platonic <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnet</a> to the impassioned triplets of the Amori di Venere, from the grandiosity of the Salve to Nencia and to Beoni, from the <a href="/wiki/Canto_carnascialesco" class="mw-redirect" title="Canto carnascialesco">Canto carnascialesco</a> to the lauda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911904–905-82">[82]</a> Next to Lorenzo comes <a href="/wiki/Poliziano" title="Poliziano">Poliziano</a>, who also united, and with greater art, the ancient and the modern, the popular and the classical style. In his Rispetti and in his Ballate the freshness of imagery and the plasticity of form are inimitable.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> A great Greek scholar, Poliziano wrote Italian verses with dazzling colours; the purest elegance of the Greek sources pervaded his art in all its varieties, in the Orfeo as well as the Stanze per la giostra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905-84">[84]</a> A completely new style of poetry arose, the Canto carnascialesco. These were a type of choral songs, which were accompanied by symbolic masquerades, common in Florence at the carnival. They were written in a metre like that of the ballate; and for the most part, they were put into the mouth of a party of workmen and tradesmen, who, with not very chaste allusions, sang the praises of their art. These triumphs and masquerades were directed by Lorenzo himself. In the evening, there set out into the city large companies on horseback, playing and singing these songs. There are some by Lorenzo himself, which surpass all the others in their mastery of art. That entitled Bacco ed Arianna is the most famous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epic:_Pulci_and_Boiardo">Epic: Pulci and Boiardo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Epic: Pulci and Boiardo">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matteo_Maria_Boiardo.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Matteo_Maria_Boiardo.gif/170px-Matteo_Maria_Boiardo.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Matteo_Maria_Boiardo.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Boiardo" class="mw-redirect" title="Matteo Boiardo">Matteo Boiardo</a></figcaption></figure> Italy did not yet have true <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a>, but had, however, many poems called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cantari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cantari (page does not exist)">cantari</a>, because they contained stories that were sung to the people,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> and besides there were romantic poems, such as the <a href="/wiki/Buovo_d%27Antona" class="mw-redirect" title="Buovo d'Antona">Buovo d'Antona</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Regina_Ancroja&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Regina Ancroja (page does not exist)">Regina Ancroja</a> and others. But the first to introduce life into this style was <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pulci" title="Luigi Pulci">Luigi Pulci</a>, who wrote the <a href="/wiki/Morgante_Maggiore" class="mw-redirect" title="Morgante Maggiore">Morgante Maggiore</a>. The material of the Morgante is almost completely taken from an obscure chivalrous poem of the 15th century, rediscovered by <a href="/wiki/Pio_Rajna" title="Pio Rajna">Pio Rajna</a>. Pulci erected a structure of his own, often turning the subject into ridicule, burlesquing the characters, and introducing many digressions, now capricious, now scientific, now theological. Pulci raised the romantic epic into a work of art and united the serious and the comic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> With a more serious intention <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Boiardo" class="mw-redirect" title="Matteo Boiardo">Matteo Boiardo</a>, count of <a href="/wiki/Scandiano" title="Scandiano">Scandiano</a>, wrote his <a href="/wiki/Orlando_innamorato" class="mw-redirect" title="Orlando innamorato">Orlando innamorato</a>, in which he seems to have aspired to embrace the whole range of <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> legends; but he did not complete his task.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> A third romantic poem of the 15th century was the Mambriano by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Bello&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francesco Bello (page does not exist)">Francesco Bello</a> (Cieco of Ferrara). He drew from the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian cycle">Carolingian cycle</a>, from the romances of the <a href="/wiki/Round_Table" title="Round Table">Round Table</a>, and from classical antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uffizi_18,_Pier_Capponi.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Uffizi_18%2C_Pier_Capponi.JPG/170px-Uffizi_18%2C_Pier_Capponi.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Uffizi_18%2C_Pier_Capponi.JPG/255px-Uffizi_18%2C_Pier_Capponi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Uffizi_18%2C_Pier_Capponi.JPG/340px-Uffizi_18%2C_Pier_Capponi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Monument to <a href="/wiki/Piero_Capponi" title="Piero Capponi">Piero Capponi</a> in the niches of the courtyard of the <a href="/wiki/Uffizi" title="Uffizi">Uffizi</a> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Torello_Bacci&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Torello Bacci (page does not exist)">Torello Bacci</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Gioviano_Pontano" class="mw-redirect" title="Gioviano Pontano">Gioviano Pontano</a> wrote the history of Naples, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a> of Arezzo that of Florence, in Latin.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_Corio" title="Bernardino Corio">Bernardino Corio</a> wrote the history of <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> in Italian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> wrote a treatise on painting, <a href="/wiki/Leone_Battista_Alberti" class="mw-redirect" title="Leone Battista Alberti">Leone Battista Alberti</a> one on sculpture and architecture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Piero_Capponi" title="Piero Capponi">Piero Capponi</a>, author of the Commentari deli acquisto di Pisa and of the narration of the Tumulto dei Ciompi, belonged to both the 14th and the 15th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albertino_Mussato" title="Albertino Mussato">Albertino Mussato</a> of <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a> wrote in Latin a history of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Henry_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Henry VII">Emperor Henry VII</a>. He then produced a Latin tragedy on <a href="/wiki/Ezzelino_III_da_Romano" title="Ezzelino III da Romano">Ezzelino da Romano</a>, Henry's imperial vicar in northern Italy, the Eccerinus, which was probably not represented on the stage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911904-80">[80]</a> The development of drama in the 15th century was very great.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> This type of semi-popular literature was born in Florence, and attached itself to certain popular festivities that were usually held in honor of St <a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a>, patron saint of the city. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sacra_Rappresentazione&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sacra Rappresentazione (page does not exist)">Sacra Rappresentazione</a> is the development of the medieval Mistero (<a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">mystery play</a>). Although it belonged to popular poetry, some of its authors were literary men. From the 15th century, some element of the comic-profane found its way into the Sacra Rappresentazione.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> From its Biblical and legendary conventionalism Poliziano emancipated himself in his Orfeo, which, although in its exterior form belonging to the sacred representations, yet substantially detaches itself from them in its contents and in the artistic element introduced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="16th_century:_the_High_Renaissance">16th century: the High Renaissance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 16th century: the High Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baldassare_Castiglione,_by_Raffaello_Sanzio,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Baldassare_Castiglione%2C_by_Raffaello_Sanzio%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/220px-Baldassare_Castiglione%2C_by_Raffaello_Sanzio%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Baldassare_Castiglione%2C_by_Raffaello_Sanzio%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/330px-Baldassare_Castiglione%2C_by_Raffaello_Sanzio%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Baldassare_Castiglione%2C_by_Raffaello_Sanzio%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/440px-Baldassare_Castiglione%2C_by_Raffaello_Sanzio%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="15566" data-file-height="19363" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Baldassare_Castiglione" title="Baldassare Castiglione">Baldassare Castiglione</a>. Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>.</figcaption></figure> The fundamental characteristic of the literary epoch following that of the Renaissance is that it perfected itself in every type of art, in particular uniting the essentially Italian character of its language with the classicism of style.<a href="#cite_note-library-95">[95]</a> This period lasted from about 1494 to about 1560<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">[2]</a>—1494 being when Charles VIII descended into Italy, marking the beginning of Italy's foreign domination and political decadence. Literary activity that appeared from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 16th century was the product of the political and social conditions of an earlier age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-library-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baldassare_Castiglione">Baldassare Castiglione</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Baldassare Castiglione">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baldassare_Castiglione" title="Baldassare Castiglione">Baldassare Castiglione</a></div> Baldassare Castiglione wrote Il Cortegiano or <a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_the_Courtier" title="The Book of the Courtier">The Book of the Courtier</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Courtesy_book" title="Courtesy book">courtesy book</a> dealing with questions of the etiquette and morality of the <a href="/wiki/Courtier" title="Courtier">courtier</a>. Published in 1528, it was very influential in 16th century European court circles.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The Book of the Courtier is a lengthy philosophical <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</a> on the topic of what constitutes an ideal <a href="/wiki/Courtier" title="Courtier">courtier</a> or (in the third chapter) court lady, worthy to befriend and advise a Prince or political leader. Inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_nobility" title="Spanish nobility">Spanish court</a> during his time as <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Nunciature_to_Spain" title="Apostolic Nunciature to Spain">Ambassador of the Holy See</a> (1524–1529),<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Castiglione set the narrative of the book in his years as a courtier in his native <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Urbino" title="Duchy of Urbino">Duchy of Urbino</a>. The book quickly became enormously popular and was assimilated by its readers into the genre of prescriptive <a href="/wiki/Courtesy_book" title="Courtesy book">courtesy books</a> or books of manners, dealing with issues of <a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">etiquette</a>, self-presentation, and morals, particularly at <a href="/wiki/Court_(royal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Court (royal)">princely, or royal courts</a>, books such as <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Della_Casa" class="mw-redirect" title="Giovanni Della Casa">Giovanni Della Casa</a>'s Galateo (1558) and <a href="/wiki/Stefano_Guazzo" title="Stefano Guazzo">Stefano Guazzo</a>'s The civil conversation (1574).<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The Book of the Courtier was much more than that, however, having the character of a drama, an open-ended philosophical discussion, and an essay. It has also been seen as a veiled political <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_of_history:_Machiavelli_and_Guicciardini">Science of history: Machiavelli and Guicciardini</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Science of history: Machiavelli and Guicciardini">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> by <a href="/wiki/Santi_di_Tito" title="Santi di Tito">Santi di Tito</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Francesco Guicciardini</a> were the chief originators of the science of history.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Machiavelli's principal works are the Istorie fiorentine, the Discorsi sulla prima deca di Tito Livio, the Arte della guerra and the Principe. His merit consists in having emphasized the experimental side of the study of political action by having observed facts, studied histories and drawn principles from them. His history is sometimes inexact in facts; it is rather a political than a historical work.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Guicciardini was very observant and endeavoured to reduce his observations to a science.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> His Storia d'Italia, which extends from the death of <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici" title="Lorenzo de' Medici">Lorenzo de' Medici</a> to 1534, is full of political wisdom, is skillfully arranged in its parts, gives a lively picture of the character of the persons it treats of, and is written in a grand style. Machiavelli and Guicciardini may be considered distinguished historians as well as originators of the science of history founded on observation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Inferior to them were <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Nardi" title="Jacopo Nardi">Jacopo Nardi</a> (a just and faithful historian and a virtuous man, who defended the rights of Florence against the Medici before Charles V), <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Varchi" title="Benedetto Varchi">Benedetto Varchi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Adriani" class="mw-redirect" title="Giambattista Adriani">Giambattista Adriani</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bernardo_Segni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernardo Segni (page does not exist)">Bernardo Segni</a>, and, outside Tuscany, <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Porzio" title="Camillo Porzio">Camillo Porzio</a>, who related the Congiura de baroni and the history of Italy from 1547 to 1552; <a href="/wiki/Angelo_di_Costanzo" title="Angelo di Costanzo">Angelo di Costanzo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Bembo" title="Pietro Bembo">Pietro Bembo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Paruta" title="Paolo Paruta">Paolo Paruta</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ludovico_Ariosto">Ludovico Ariosto</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Ludovico Ariosto">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ludovico_Ariosto" title="Ludovico Ariosto">Ludovico Ariosto</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vincenzo_Catena_016_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Vincenzo_Catena_016_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="243" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="243" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ludovico_Ariosto" title="Ludovico Ariosto">Ludovico Ariosto</a>, detail of vinting Madonna with Saints Joseph, John, Catherine, Louis of Toulouse and Lodovico Ariosto by <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Catena" title="Vincenzo Catena">Vincenzo Catena</a>, 1512</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ludovico_Ariosto" title="Ludovico Ariosto">Ludovico Ariosto</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Orlando_furioso" class="mw-redirect" title="Orlando furioso">Orlando furioso</a> was a continuation of Boiardo's Innamorato. His characteristic is that he assimilated the romance of chivalry into the style and models of classicism. Romantic Ariosto was an artist only for the love of his art;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">[2]</a> his epic.<a href="#cite_note-Ariosto-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pietro_Bembo">Pietro Bembo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Pietro Bembo">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Bembo" title="Pietro Bembo">Pietro Bembo</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Bembo" title="Pietro Bembo">Pietro Bembo</a> was an influential figure in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a>, specifically Tuscan, as a literary medium, and his writings assisted in the 16th century revival of interest in the works of <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> As a writer, Bembo attempted to restore some of the legendary "effect" that <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> had on its hearers, but in Tuscan Italian instead. He held as his model and as the highest example of poetic expression ever achieved in Italian, the work of Petrarch and Boccaccio, two 14th century writers he assisted in bringing back into fashion. In the Prose della volgar lingua, he set Petrarch up as the perfect model and discussed <a href="/wiki/Poetry#Western_traditions" title="Poetry">verse composition</a> in detail.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Torquato_Tasso">Torquato Tasso</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Torquato Tasso">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Torquato_Tasso" title="Torquato Tasso">Torquato Tasso</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torquato_Tasso,_aged_22,_by_Jacopo_da_Ponte,_called_Jacopo_Bassano_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Torquato_Tasso%2C_aged_22%2C_by_Jacopo_da_Ponte%2C_called_Jacopo_Bassano_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Torquato_Tasso%2C_aged_22%2C_by_Jacopo_da_Ponte%2C_called_Jacopo_Bassano_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Torquato_Tasso%2C_aged_22%2C_by_Jacopo_da_Ponte%2C_called_Jacopo_Bassano_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Torquato_Tasso%2C_aged_22%2C_by_Jacopo_da_Ponte%2C_called_Jacopo_Bassano_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Torquato_Tasso%2C_aged_22%2C_by_Jacopo_da_Ponte%2C_called_Jacopo_Bassano_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Torquato_Tasso%2C_aged_22%2C_by_Jacopo_da_Ponte%2C_called_Jacopo_Bassano_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="940" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Torquato_Tasso" title="Torquato Tasso">Torquato Tasso</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Bassano" title="Jacopo Bassano">Jacopo Bassano</a></figcaption></figure> The historians of Italian literature are in doubt whether <a href="/wiki/Torquato_Tasso" title="Torquato Tasso">Torquato Tasso</a> should be placed in the period of the highest development of the Renaissance, or whether he should form a period by himself, intermediate between that and the one following.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In Rinaldo, he tried to reconcile the Aristotelian rules with the variety of Ariosto. He later wrote the Aminta, a pastoral drama. He explains his intentions in the three Discorsi, written while he composed the Gerusalemme: he would choose a great and wonderful subject, not so ancient as to have lost all interest, nor so recent as to prevent the poet from embellishing it with invented circumstances. He would treat it rigorously according to the rules of the unity of action observed in Greek and Latin poems but with a far greater variety and splendour of episodes. The Gerusalemme is the best heroic poem of Italy. As regards the style, however, although Tasso studiously endeavoured to keep close to the classical models, he makes excessive use of <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">antithesis</a>, of far-fetched conceits; and it is especially from this point of view that some historians have placed Tasso in the literary period generally known under the name of Secentismo, and that others, more moderate in their criticism, have said that he prepared the way for it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907–908-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minor_writers">Minor writers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Minor writers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacopo_Pontormo_057.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Jacopo_Pontormo_057.jpg/220px-Jacopo_Pontormo_057.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Jacopo_Pontormo_057.jpg/330px-Jacopo_Pontormo_057.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Jacopo_Pontormo_057.jpg/440px-Jacopo_Pontormo_057.jpg 2x" data-file-width="14265" data-file-height="18550" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_della_Casa" title="Giovanni della Casa">Giovanni della Casa</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Pontormo" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacopo Pontormo">Jacopo Pontormo</a></figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, there was an attempt at the historical epic. <a href="/wiki/Gian_Giorgio_Trissino" title="Gian Giorgio Trissino">Gian Giorgio Trissino</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vicenza" title="Vicenza">Vicenza</a> composed a poem called Italia liberata dai Goti, on the campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a>; he said that he had forced himself to observe all the rules of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and that he had imitated <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Monsignore <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Guidiccioni" title="Giovanni Guidiccioni">Giovanni Guidiccioni</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lucca" title="Lucca">Lucca</a> in sonnets expressed his grief for the sad state of his country. Other lyric poets of the period include <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Molza" class="mw-redirect" title="Francesco Molza">Francesco Molza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_della_Casa" title="Giovanni della Casa">Giovanni della Casa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Bembo" title="Pietro Bembo">Pietro Bembo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> and women <a href="/wiki/Vittoria_Colonna" title="Vittoria Colonna">Vittoria Colonna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veronica_Gambara" title="Veronica Gambara">Veronica Gambara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tullia_d%27Aragona" title="Tullia d'Aragona">Tullia d'Aragona</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giulia_Gonzaga" title="Giulia Gonzaga">Giulia Gonzaga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906–907-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isabella_di_Morra" title="Isabella di Morra">Isabella di Morra</a> is a singular example of female poetry of the time.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Many tragedies were written in the 16th century, but they are all weak. The first to occupy the tragic stage was Trissino with his Sofonisba. The Oreste and the Rosmunda of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_di_Bernardo_Rucellai" title="Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai">Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai</a> were no better, nor <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Alamanni" title="Luigi Alamanni">Luigi Alamanni</a>'s translation of <a href="/wiki/Antigone_(Sophocles_play)" title="Antigone (Sophocles play)">Antigone</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sperone_Speroni" title="Sperone Speroni">Sperone Speroni</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Canace_(play)" title="Canace (play)">Canace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giraldi_Cintio" class="mw-redirect" title="Giraldi Cintio">Giraldi Cintio</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Orbecche" title="Orbecche">Orbecche</a> tried to become innovators in tragic literature, but provoked criticisms of grotesquerie and debate over the role of decorum.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> They were often seen as inferior to the Torrismondo of <a href="/wiki/Torquato_Tasso" title="Torquato Tasso">Torquato Tasso</a>, especially remarkable for the choruses, reminiscent of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek theatre">Greek tragedies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907-115">[115]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Berni_incisione_a_bulino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Francesco_Berni_incisione_a_bulino.jpg/220px-Francesco_Berni_incisione_a_bulino.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Francesco_Berni_incisione_a_bulino.jpg/330px-Francesco_Berni_incisione_a_bulino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Francesco_Berni_incisione_a_bulino.jpg/440px-Francesco_Berni_incisione_a_bulino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1206" data-file-height="1491" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Berni" title="Francesco Berni">Francesco Berni</a> by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Marri" title="Giuseppe Marri">Giuseppe Marri</a></figcaption></figure> The Italian comedy of the 16th century was almost entirely modelled on Latin comedy. They were almost always alike in the plot. Thus the Lucidi of <a href="/wiki/Agnolo_Firenzuola" title="Agnolo Firenzuola">Agnolo Firenzuola</a>, and the Vecchio amoroso of <a href="/wiki/Donato_Giannotti" title="Donato Giannotti">Donato Giannotti</a> were modelled on comedies by <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>, as were the Sporta by <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Gelli" title="Giambattista Gelli">Giambattista Gelli</a>, the Marito by <a href="/wiki/Lodovico_Dolce" title="Lodovico Dolce">Lodovico Dolce</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The best comedy writers were Machiavelli, Ariosto, and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Maria_Cecchi" title="Giovanni Maria Cecchi">Giovanni Maria Cecchi</a>, and possibly <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Aretino" title="Pietro Aretino">Pietro Aretino</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907-115">[115]</a> The 15th century included humorous poetry. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Cammelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Cammelli (page does not exist)">Antonio Cammelli</a>, surnamed the Pistoian, is especially deserving of notice, because of his pungent bonhomie, as <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Beuve" class="mw-redirect" title="Sainte-Beuve">Sainte-Beuve</a> called it. But it was <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Berni" title="Francesco Berni">Francesco Berni</a> who and satire, carried this type of literature to perfection in the 16th century. From him, the style has been called "<a href="/wiki/Bernesque_poetry" title="Bernesque poetry">Bernesque poetry</a>". Bernesque poetry is the clearest reflection of that religious and moral scepticism that was a characteristic of Italian social life in the 16th century, and that showed itself in most of the works of that period—a scepticism<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> that stopped the religious <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Italy" title="Reformation in Italy">Reformation in Italy</a>, and which in its turn was an effect of historical conditions. Pure satirists, on the other hand, were <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Vinciguerra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Vinciguerra (page does not exist)">Antonio Vinciguerra</a>, Lodovico Alamanni and Ariosto, the last superior to the others for the <a href="/wiki/Attic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Attic dialect">Attic</a> elegance of his style.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907-115">[115]</a> In the 16th century, there were not a few <a href="/wiki/Didactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Didactic">didactic</a> works. In his poem Le Api <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_di_Bernardo_Rucellai" title="Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai">Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai</a> approaches the perfection of <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>. The most important didactic work, however, is Castiglione's Cortigiano, in which he imagines a discussion in the palace of the dukes of <a href="/wiki/Urbino" title="Urbino">Urbino</a> between knights and ladies as to what gifts a perfect <a href="/wiki/Courtier" title="Courtier">courtier</a> requires.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> This book is valuable as an illustration of the intellectual and moral state of the highest Italian society in the first half of the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907-115">[115]</a> Of the novelists of the 16th century, the two most important were Grazzini, and <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Bandello" title="Matteo Bandello">Matteo Bandello</a>. Bandello was a <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> <a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">friar</a> and a bishop, but that notwithstanding his novels were very loose in subject, and he often held up the ecclesiastics of his time to ridicule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907-115">[115]</a> Among the very numerous translations of the time those of the <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> and of the Pastorals of <a href="/wiki/Longus" title="Longus">Longus</a> the Sophist by <a href="/wiki/Annibale_Caro" title="Annibale Caro">Annibale Caro</a> are still famous; as are also the translations of <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses_(poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphoses (poem)">Metamorphoses</a> by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Andrea_dell%27_Anguillara" title="Giovanni Andrea dell' Anguillara">Giovanni Andrea dell' Anguillara</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass">The Golden Ass</a> by Firenzuola, and of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>'s Lives and Moralia by Marcello Adriani.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="17th_century:_the_Baroque_period">17th century: the Baroque period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: 17th century: the Baroque period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis" title="Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis">Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis</a> in 1559 ushered in centuries of foreign domination over Italy.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> This period is known in the history of Italian literature as the Secentismo.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Its writers deployed complex, far-fetched comparisons, paradoxes, and paralogical statements (acutezze) in order to exhibit the writer's genius and ingenuity (ingegno), and provoke wonder (meraviglia) in the reader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_theory">Literary theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Literary theory">edit</a>]</div> The main theorist of Italian Secentismo was the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Emanuele_Tesauro" title="Emanuele Tesauro">Emanuele Tesauro</a>. His main work was Il cannocchiale aristotelico, first published in 1654 and reprinted at least ten times in the 17th century. Developing ideas adumbrated in Renaissance poetics, and using the Aristotle of the <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a> rather than of the <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a>, Tesauro builds up a vast theory of metaphor and <a href="/wiki/Conceptismo" title="Conceptismo">concettismo</a>. His theory depends on a distinction between intelletto and ingegno: intelletto apprehends facts and communicates them via literal signs directly and unadorned to the mind; ingegno apprehends facts and transforms them, through processes of analogy and lateral thinking, into pleasing, witty rhetorical conceits. Tesauro is conscious of the dangers of slippage between truth and language, but he appreciates the sensuous and intellectual pleasure and wonder that non-literal, non-transparent words and signs can create. For him, all language is inherently metaphorical in that it involves transference from thought to the senses. The role of ingegno is to investigate the hidden connection between all things, treating the world as a storehouse of potentially marvellous analogies. Metaphor is central to this metamorphosing process; and Tesauro shows how in kaleidoscopic fashion one metaphor can generate an infinite number of others in such a way that the scope of poetic and rhetorical analogy is extended, in theory, as never before. In this way he subverts Aristotle while paying lip-service to him, and opens up a new literary world which is akin to the new scientific and geographical worlds of the early 17th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marinism">Marinism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Marinism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marinism" title="Marinism">Marinism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Giovanni_Battista_Marino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Giovanni_Battista_Marino.jpg/220px-Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Giovanni_Battista_Marino.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Giovanni_Battista_Marino.jpg/330px-Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Giovanni_Battista_Marino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Giovanni_Battista_Marino.jpg/440px-Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Giovanni_Battista_Marino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1269" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Marino" title="Giambattista Marino">Giambattista Marino</a> by <a href="/wiki/Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger" title="Frans Pourbus the Younger">Frans Pourbus the Younger</a></figcaption></figure> At the head of the school of the Secentisti<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> was <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Marino" title="Giambattista Marino">Giambattista Marino</a>, especially known for his epic poem, L'Adone. Marino himself, as he declared in the Preface to La lira, wished to be a new leader and model for other poets. Second, he wished to surprise and shock the reader through the marvellous (meraviglioso) and the unusual (peregrino). The qualities he and his followers most valued were ingegno and acutezza, as demonstrated through far-fetched metaphors and <a href="/wiki/Conceit" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceit">conceits</a>, often ones that would assault the reader's senses. This meant being ready, in fact eager, to break literary rules and precepts. Marino and his followers mixed tradition and innovation: they worked with existing poetic forms, notably the <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnet</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sestina" title="Sestina">sestina</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Canzone" title="Canzone">canzone</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Madrigal" title="Madrigal">madrigal</a>, and less frequently the <a href="/wiki/Ottava_rima" title="Ottava rima">ottava rima</a>, but developed new, more fluid structures and line lengths. They also treated hallowed themes (love, woman, nature), but they made the senses and sensuality the dominant element. The passions, which had attracted the attention of Paduan writers and theorists in the mid-16th century as well as of Tasso, take centre stage, and are depicted in extreme forms in representations of subjects such as martyrdom, sacrifice, heroic grandeur, and abysmal existential fear. The Marinists also take up new themes—notably the visual and musical arts and indoor scenes—with a new repertoire of references embracing modern scientific advances, other specialized branches of knowledge, and exotic locations and animals. There are similarities with Tasso, but the balance between form and content in Tasso is deliberately unbalanced by Marino and his followers, who very often forget all concerns about unity in their poems (witness the Adone). The most striking difference, however, is the intensified role of <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a>. Marino and his followers looked for metaphors that would arrest the reader by suggesting a likeness between two apparently disparate things, thus producing startling metamorphoses, conceits (concetti), and far-fetched images that send sparks flying as they create a friction between two apparently diverse objects. The extent to which this new metaphorical freedom reveals a new world is still open to critical debate. In some ways it seems to make poetry a form of intellectual game or puzzle; in others it suggests new ways of perceiving and describing reality, parallel to the mathematical measures employed by Galileo and his followers in the experimental sciences. Almost all the poets of the 17th century were more or less influenced by Marinism. Many secentisti felt the influence of another poet, <a href="/wiki/Gabriello_Chiabrera" title="Gabriello Chiabrera">Gabriello Chiabrera</a>. Enamoured of the Greeks, he made new metres, especially in imitation of <a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> treating of religious, moral, historical, and amatory subjects. <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Alessandro_Guidi" title="Carlo Alessandro Guidi">Carlo Alessandro Guidi</a> was the chief representative of an early Pindarizing current based on imitation of Chiabrera as second only to Petrarch in Italian poetry. He was extolled by both Gravina and Crescimbeni, who edited his poetry (1726), and imitated by Parini. Alfieri attributed his own self-discovery to the power of Guidi's verse. <a href="/wiki/Fulvio_Testi" title="Fulvio Testi">Fulvio Testi</a> was another major exponent of the Hellenizing strand of Baroque classicism, combining Horatianism with the imitation of Anacreon and Pindar. His most important and interesting writings are not, however, his lyrics (only collected in 1653), but his extensive correspondence, which is a major document of Baroque politics and letters. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arcadia">Arcadia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Arcadia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Arcadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Arcadia">Academy of Arcadia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S_Eustachio_-_piazza_s_Agostino_Arcadia_e_Angelica_1150281.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/S_Eustachio_-_piazza_s_Agostino_Arcadia_e_Angelica_1150281.jpg/220px-S_Eustachio_-_piazza_s_Agostino_Arcadia_e_Angelica_1150281.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/S_Eustachio_-_piazza_s_Agostino_Arcadia_e_Angelica_1150281.jpg/330px-S_Eustachio_-_piazza_s_Agostino_Arcadia_e_Angelica_1150281.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/S_Eustachio_-_piazza_s_Agostino_Arcadia_e_Angelica_1150281.jpg/440px-S_Eustachio_-_piazza_s_Agostino_Arcadia_e_Angelica_1150281.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Arcadia" title="Pontifical Academy of Arcadia">Accademia dell' Arcadia</a> headquarters in Piazza Sant'Agostino in Rome</figcaption></figure> Marino's work, with its sensual metaphorical language and its non-epic structure and morality, stirred up a debate over the rival claims of classical purity and sobriety on the one hand and the excesses of marinism on the other. The debate went on until it was finally decided in favour of the classical by the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dell%27Arcadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Accademia dell'Arcadia">Accademia dell'Arcadia</a>, whose view of the matter prevailed in Italian criticism well into the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The Accademia dell'Arcadia was founded by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Mario_Crescimbeni" title="Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni">Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gian_Vincenzo_Gravina" class="mw-redirect" title="Gian Vincenzo Gravina">Gian Vincenzo Gravina</a> in 1690. The Arcadia was so called because its chief aim was to imitate the simplicity of the ancient shepherds who were supposed to have lived in <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_(utopia)" title="Arcadia (utopia)">Arcadia</a> in the golden age. The poems of the Arcadians are made up of <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madrigal_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrigal (music)">madrigals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canzonette" class="mw-redirect" title="Canzonette">canzonette</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blank_verse" title="Blank verse">blank verse</a>. The one who most distinguished himself among the sonneteers was <a href="/wiki/Felice_Zappi" class="mw-redirect" title="Felice Zappi">Felice Zappi</a>. Among the authors of songs, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Rolli" title="Paolo Rolli">Paolo Rolli</a> was illustrious. <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Innocenzo_Frugoni" title="Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni">Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni</a> was the best known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908-121">[121]</a> The members of the Arcadia were almost exclusively men, but at least one woman, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Antonia_Scalera_Stellini" title="Maria Antonia Scalera Stellini">Maria Antonia Scalera Stellini</a>, was elected on poetical merits.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_da_Filicaja" title="Vincenzo da Filicaja">Vincenzo da Filicaja</a> had a lyric talent, particularly in the songs about <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> besieged by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Turks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baroque_novel">Baroque novel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Baroque novel">edit</a>]</div> During the 17th century, Italy witnessed the development of the Baroque novel, which <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Asor_Rosa" title="Alberto Asor Rosa">Alberto Asor Rosa</a> has suggested came about through the secularization of chivalric poetry and the increasingly literary character of the <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> There were a few developments in other directions. Giovanni Ambrogio Marini presented an idealization of aristocratic life in his highly successful Calloandro fedele (1640–1), and, in a radical move, <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Brusoni" title="Girolamo Brusoni">Girolamo Brusoni</a>'s Trilogia di Glisomiro (1657–62) replaced the lives and loves of the aristocracy with those of the contemporary bourgeoisie. Italy in the 17th century produced several distinguished novelists, notably <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Francesco_Biondi" title="Giovanni Francesco Biondi">Giovanni Francesco Biondi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Morando_(poet)" title="Bernardo Morando (poet)">Bernardo Morando</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luca_Assarino" title="Luca Assarino">Luca Assarino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pace_Pasini" title="Pace Pasini">Pace Pasini</a>. Biondi wrote a celebrated trilogy of novels—L'Eromena (1624), La donzella desterrada (1627), and Il Coralbo ( 1632). Morando's Rosalinda (1650) enjoyed over twenty reprints and was translated into French and English. Luca Assarino's extremely successful novels included La Stratonica (1635), which was translated into French, English, and German, and L'Almerinda (1640), later expanded and completely reworked in I giuochi di fortuna (1655). Pace Pasini's L'historia del cavalier perduto (1644), which combines chivalric, picaresque, and political themes, was likely a source for <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Betrothed_(Manzoni_novel)" title="The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)">The Betrothed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Marana" title="Giovanni Paolo Marana">Giovanni Paolo Marana</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Letters_Writ_by_a_Turkish_Spy" title="Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy">Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy</a> (1684) was one of the first epistolary novels. The work became one of the best-sellers of late seventeenth-century and influenced <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> in writing the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Letters" title="Persian Letters">Persian Letters</a> (1721).<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a> wrote an unofficial sequel to Marana's work, A Continuation of Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (1718).<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baroque_theatre">Baroque theatre</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Baroque theatre">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Federico_Della_Valle" title="Federico Della Valle">Federico Della Valle</a> was the most important Italian Baroque dramatist. He worked at the court of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy">Charles Emanuel I of Savoy</a> in Turin, and was active also in Milan. He has been rediscovered only in the present century. He composed a youthful <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">tragicomedy</a>, Adelonda di Frigia (publ. 1629), but his best plays are <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedies</a> on religious themes, Judit (1627) and Ester (1627), on Biblical subjects, and La reina di Scotia (1628) on the fate of <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary Stuart</a>, who is presented as a Catholic <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyr</a>. They show the dynamic influence of religion on conduct, not through abstract rhetoric but with real poetic feeling for the tragic in human situations. The direct forcefulness of his writing is little touched by the baroque grandiloquence of the <a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baroque_satire">Baroque satire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Baroque satire">edit</a>]</div> Anti-Spanish satire begins with <a href="/wiki/Trajano_Boccalini" title="Trajano Boccalini">Trajano Boccalini</a>'s Ragguagli di Parnaso, and continues with Fulvio Testi's Filippiche. The Renaissance epic becomes satire in <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Tassoni" title="Alessandro Tassoni">Alessandro Tassoni</a>'s <a href="/wiki/La_secchia_rapita" title="La secchia rapita">La secchia rapita</a>, which reduces a real dispute of 1393 between <a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a> to farce. More wide-ranging was the Neapolitan Italian painter and poet <a href="/wiki/Salvator_Rosa" title="Salvator Rosa">Salvator Rosa</a>, whose seven long satires follow in the footsteps of Ariosto. Arcadians such as Gian Vincenzo Gravina and Paolo Rolli used satire to attack the excesses of Marino's followers; Rolli also edited an anthology of Italian satire in London. On stage, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Maria_Maggi" title="Carlo Maria Maggi">Carlo Maria Maggi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Milanese_dialect" title="Milanese dialect">Milanese dialect</a> satires ushered in a genre continued by the Sienese playwright <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Gigli" title="Girolamo Gigli">Girolamo Gigli</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_literature:_Tommaso_Campanella">Philosophical literature: Tommaso Campanella</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Philosophical literature: Tommaso Campanella">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Tommaso_Campanella_(by_Francesco_Cozza).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Portrait_of_Tommaso_Campanella_%28by_Francesco_Cozza%29.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Tommaso_Campanella_%28by_Francesco_Cozza%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Portrait_of_Tommaso_Campanella_%28by_Francesco_Cozza%29.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Tommaso_Campanella_%28by_Francesco_Cozza%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Portrait_of_Tommaso_Campanella_%28by_Francesco_Cozza%29.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Tommaso_Campanella_%28by_Francesco_Cozza%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="1182" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Tommaso Campanella</a> by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Cozza_(painter)" title="Francesco Cozza (painter)">Francesco Cozza</a></figcaption></figure> The philosopher, theologian, astrologer, and poet <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Tommaso Campanella</a> is an interesting albeit isolated figure in 17th century Italian literature. His Poesie, published in 1622, consist of eighty-nine poems in various metrical forms. Some are autobiographical, but all are stamped with a seriousness and directness which bypasses the literary fashions of his day. He wrote in Latin on dialectics, rhetoric, poetics, and historiography, as well as the Italian Del senso delle cose e della magia, composed in 1604 and published in 1620. In this fascinating work, influenced by the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_Telesio" title="Bernardino Telesio">Bernardino Telesio</a>, Campanella imagines the world as a living statue of God, in which all aspects of reality have meaning and sense. With its animism and sensuality this vision foreshadows in many ways the views of <a href="/wiki/Daniello_Bartoli" title="Daniello Bartoli">Daniello Bartoli</a> and Tesauro.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Campanella's theological work, closely connected with his philosophical writings, includes the Atheismus triumphatus and the thirty-volume Theologia (1613–24). His most famous work, and the one that brings together all his interests, is La città del sole, first drafted in 1602 in Italian and then later translated into Latin in 1613 and 1631. In it a Genoese sailor from <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>' crew describes the ideal state of the City of the Sun ruled over in both temporal and spiritual matters by the Prince Priest, called Sun or Metaphysician. Under him there are three ministers: Power (concerned with war and peace), Wisdom (concerned with science and art, all written down in one book), and Love (concerned with procreation and education of the citizens of the Sun). The life of the citizens is based on a system of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>: all property is held publicly, there are no families, no rights of inheritance, no marriage, and sexual relations are regulated by the state. Everyone has his or her function in the society, and certain duties are required of all citizens. Education is the perfect training of the mind and the body, and it is radically opposed to the bookish and academic culture of Renaissance Italy: the objects of study should be not ‘dead things’ but nature and the mathematical and physical laws that govern the physical world. There are links here with the burgeoning modernism of the <a href="/wiki/Quarrel_of_the_Ancients_and_the_Moderns" title="Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns">Querelle des anciens et des modernes</a>, and with the methods and scientific aspirations of Galileo, whom Campanella defended in writing in 1616. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Science">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_(Uffizi).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg/220px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg/330px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg/440px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2113" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> by <a href="/wiki/Justus_Sustermans" title="Justus Sustermans">Justus Sustermans</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Lyncean_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyncean Academy">Lyncean Academy</a>, the first and most famous of the scientific academies in Italy, was founded in 1603 in Rome by <a href="/wiki/Federico_Cesi" title="Federico Cesi">Federico Cesi</a>. The academy dedicated its activities to the study of the natural and mathematical sciences and to the use of the experimental method associated with Galileo. The European dimension of the Academy was characteristic of the founders' foresight and perspective: elections were made of foreign corresponding members, a practice that continues to this day. Members included <a href="/wiki/Claudio_Achillini" title="Claudio Achillini">Claudio Achillini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Della_Valle" title="Pietro Della Valle">Pietro Della Valle</a>, Galileo (from 1611), <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Sforza_Pallavicino" title="Francesco Sforza Pallavicino">Francesco Sforza Pallavicino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_della_Porta" title="Giambattista della Porta">Giambattista Della Porta</a> (from 1610 ), and <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Salviati" title="Filippo Salviati">Filippo Salviati</a>. Their work involved the large-scale publishing of scientific results based on direct observation, including Galileo's work on the moon's surface (1610) and his <a href="/wiki/The_Assayer" title="The Assayer">Assayer</a> (1623). The Academy defended Galileo at his trial in 1616, and played a crucial role in the early diffusion and promotion of his method. The successor of the Lynceans was the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_del_Cimento" title="Accademia del Cimento">Accademia del Cimento</a>, founded in Florence in 1657. Never as organized as the Lynceans had been, it began as a meeting of disciples of Galileo, all of whom were interested in the progress of the experimental sciences. Official status came in 1657, when cardinal <a href="/wiki/Leopoldo_de%27_Medici" title="Leopoldo de' Medici">Leopoldo de’ Medici</a> sponsored the academy’s foundation. With the motto ‘provando e riprovando’, the members, including <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Roberto_Dati" title="Carlo Roberto Dati">Carlo Roberto Dati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Magalotti" title="Lorenzo Magalotti">Lorenzo Magalotti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani" title="Vincenzo Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a>, set seriously about their work. Unlike Galileo, who tackled large-scale issues, the Cimento worked on a smaller scale. One of the legacies of the Cimento is the elegant Italian prose, capable of describing things accurately, that characterizes the Saggi di naturali esperienze edited by Magalotti and published in 1667. <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> occupied a conspicuous place in the history of letters. A devoted student of Ariosto, he seemed to transfuse into his prose the qualities of that great poet: clear and frank freedom of expression, precision and ease, and at the same time elegance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paganino_Bonafede&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paganino Bonafede (page does not exist)">Paganino Bonafede</a> in the Tesoro dei rustici gave many precepts in agriculture, beginning that type of georgic poetry later fully developed by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Alamanni" title="Luigi Alamanni">Luigi Alamanni</a> in his Coltivazione, by <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Baruffaldi" title="Girolamo Baruffaldi">Girolamo Baruffaldi</a> in the Canapajo, by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_di_Bernardo_Rucellai" title="Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai">Rucellai</a> in Le Api, by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bartolomeo_Lorenzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bartolomeo Lorenzi (page does not exist)">Bartolomeo Lorenzi</a> in the Coltivazione de' monti, and by <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Spolverini" title="Giambattista Spolverini">Giambattista Spolverini</a> in the Coltivazione del riso.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Age_of_Reason_and_Reform">The Age of Reason and Reform</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: The Age of Reason and Reform">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italian Enlightenment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Settecento" class="mw-redirect" title="Settecento">Settecento</a></div> In the 18th century, the political condition of Italy began to improve, under <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, and his successors. These princes were influenced by philosophers, who in their turn felt the influence of a general movement of ideas at large in many parts of Europe, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_and_society:_Vico,_Muratori_and_Beccaria">History and society: Vico, Muratori and Beccaria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: History and society: Vico, Muratori and Beccaria">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cesare_Beccaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/220px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/330px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/440px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eliseo_Sala" title="Eliseo Sala">Eliseo Sala</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a> showed the awakening of historical consciousness in Italy. In his Scienza nuova, he investigated the laws governing the progress of the human race, and according to which events develop. From the psychological study of man, he tried to infer the comune natura delle nazioni, i.e., the universal laws of history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911909-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lodovico_Antonio_Muratori" class="mw-redirect" title="Lodovico Antonio Muratori">Lodovico Antonio Muratori</a>, after having collected in his Rerum Italicarum scriptores the <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a>, biographies, letters and diaries of Italian history from 500 to 1500, and having discussed the most obscure historical questions in the Antiquitates Italicae medii aevi, wrote the Annali d'Italia, minutely narrating facts derived from authentic sources.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Muratori's associates in his historical research were <a href="/wiki/Scipione_Maffei" class="mw-redirect" title="Scipione Maffei">Scipione Maffei</a> of Verona and <a href="/wiki/Apostolo_Zeno" title="Apostolo Zeno">Apostolo Zeno</a> of Venice. In his Verona illustrata Maffei left a treasure of learning that was also an excellent historical monograph. Zeno added much to the erudition of literary history, both in his Dissertazioni Vossiane and in his notes to the Biblioteca dell'eloquenza italiana of Monsignore <a href="/wiki/Giusto_Fontanini" title="Giusto Fontanini">Giusto Fontanini</a>. <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Tiraboschi" title="Girolamo Tiraboschi">Girolamo Tiraboschi</a> and Count <a href="/wiki/Giammaria_Mazzucchelli" title="Giammaria Mazzucchelli">Giammaria Mazzucchelli</a> of Brescia devoted themselves to literary history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911909-133">[133]</a> While the new spirit of the times led to the investigation of historical sources, it also encouraged inquiry into the mechanism of economic and social laws. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Ferdinando Galiani</a> wrote on currency; <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Filangieri" title="Gaetano Filangieri">Gaetano Filangieri</a> wrote a Scienza della legislazione. <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/On_Crimes_and_Punishments" title="On Crimes and Punishments">Trattato dei delitti e delle pene</a>, made a contribution to the reform of the penal system and promoted the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911909-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metastasio_and_the_melodrama">Metastasio and the melodrama</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Metastasio and the melodrama">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria">Opera seria</a></div> The reforming movement sought to throw off the conventional and the artificial, and to return to truth. <a href="/wiki/Apostolo_Zeno" title="Apostolo Zeno">Apostolo Zeno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Metastasio" title="Pietro Metastasio">Pietro Metastasio</a> had endeavoured to make <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a> and reason compatible. Metastasio gave fresh expression to the affections, a natural turn to the dialogue and some interest to the plot; if he had not fallen into constant unnatural overrefinement and mawkishness, and into frequent <a href="/wiki/Anachronism" title="Anachronism">anachronisms</a>, he might have been considered the most important writer of <a href="/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria">opera seria</a> libretti and the first dramatic reformer of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911909-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carlo_Goldoni">Carlo Goldoni</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Carlo Goldoni">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Goldoni" title="Carlo Goldoni">Carlo Goldoni</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alessandro_Longhi_-_Ritratto_di_Carlo_Goldoni_(c_1757)_Ca_Goldoni_Venezia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Alessandro_Longhi_-_Ritratto_di_Carlo_Goldoni_%28c_1757%29_Ca_Goldoni_Venezia.jpg/220px-Alessandro_Longhi_-_Ritratto_di_Carlo_Goldoni_%28c_1757%29_Ca_Goldoni_Venezia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Alessandro_Longhi_-_Ritratto_di_Carlo_Goldoni_%28c_1757%29_Ca_Goldoni_Venezia.jpg/330px-Alessandro_Longhi_-_Ritratto_di_Carlo_Goldoni_%28c_1757%29_Ca_Goldoni_Venezia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Alessandro_Longhi_-_Ritratto_di_Carlo_Goldoni_%28c_1757%29_Ca_Goldoni_Venezia.jpg/440px-Alessandro_Longhi_-_Ritratto_di_Carlo_Goldoni_%28c_1757%29_Ca_Goldoni_Venezia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7336" data-file-height="8465" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Goldoni" title="Carlo Goldoni">Carlo Goldoni</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Longhi" title="Alessandro Longhi">Alessandro Longhi</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Goldoni" title="Carlo Goldoni">Carlo Goldoni</a> overcame resistance from the old popular form of comedy, with the masks of <a href="/wiki/Pantalone" title="Pantalone">pantalone</a>, of the doctor, <a href="/wiki/Harlequin" title="Harlequin">harlequin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brighella" title="Brighella">Brighella</a>, etc., and created the comedy of character, following <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a>'s example. Many of his comedies were written in <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911909–910-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> His works include some of Italy's most famous and best-loved plays. Goldoni also wrote under the <a href="/wiki/Pen_name" title="Pen name">pen name</a> and title Polisseno Fegeio, Pastor Arcade, which he claimed in his memoirs the "<a href="/wiki/Accademia_degli_Arcadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Accademia degli Arcadi">Arcadians</a> of Rome" bestowed on him.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> One of his best-known works is the comic play <a href="/wiki/Servant_of_Two_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="Servant of Two Masters">Servant of Two Masters</a>, which has been translated and adapted internationally numerous times. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Giuseppe_Parini">Giuseppe Parini</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Giuseppe Parini">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Parini" title="Giuseppe Parini">Giuseppe Parini</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Parini_pastel_on_paper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Giuseppe_Parini_pastel_on_paper.jpg/220px-Giuseppe_Parini_pastel_on_paper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Giuseppe_Parini_pastel_on_paper.jpg/330px-Giuseppe_Parini_pastel_on_paper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Giuseppe_Parini_pastel_on_paper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Parini" title="Giuseppe Parini">Giuseppe Parini</a> by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzola" title="Giuseppe Mazzola">Giuseppe Mazzola</a></figcaption></figure> The leading figure of the literary revival of the 18th century was <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Parini" title="Giuseppe Parini">Giuseppe Parini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> In a collection of poems he published at twenty-three years of age, under the name of Ripano Eupilino, the poet shows his faculty of taking his scenes from real life, and in his satirical pieces he exhibits a spirit of outspoken opposition to his own times. Improving on the poems of his youth, he showed himself an innovator in his lyrics, rejecting at once Petrarchism, Secentismo and Arcadia. In the Odi the satirical note is already heard, but it comes out more strongly in Del giorno, which assumes major social and historical value. As an artist, going straight back to classical forms, he opened the way to the school of <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Vittorio Alfieri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Monti" title="Vincenzo Monti">Vincenzo Monti</a>. As a work of art, the Giorno is sometimes a little hard and broken, as a protest against the Arcadian monotony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911909-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_purism">Linguistic purism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Linguistic purism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_medicea_di_Castello_Facciata_(vista_frontale).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Villa_medicea_di_Castello_Facciata_%28vista_frontale%29.JPG/220px-Villa_medicea_di_Castello_Facciata_%28vista_frontale%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Villa_medicea_di_Castello_Facciata_%28vista_frontale%29.JPG/330px-Villa_medicea_di_Castello_Facciata_%28vista_frontale%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Villa_medicea_di_Castello_Facciata_%28vista_frontale%29.JPG/440px-Villa_medicea_di_Castello_Facciata_%28vista_frontale%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Villa_di_Castello" title="Villa di Castello">Villa di Castello</a>, headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_della_Crusca" title="Accademia della Crusca">Accademia della Crusca</a></figcaption></figure> In the second half of the 18th century, the Italian language was especially full of French expressions; a question arose about <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism" title="Linguistic purism">purism of language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Prose needed to be restored for the sake of national dignity, and it was believed that this could not be done except by going back to the writers of the 14th century, to the aurei trecentisti, as they were called, or else to the classics of Italian literature. One of the promoters of the new school was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Cesari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Cesari (page does not exist)">Antonio Cesari</a>, who republished ancient authors, and brought out a new edition, with additions, of the Vocabolario della Crusca. He wrote a dissertation Sopra lo stato presente della lingua italiana, and endeavoured to establish the supremacy of Tuscan and of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. To this Tuscan supremacy, proclaimed and upheld by Cesari, there was opposed a Lombard school,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> which with Dante's <a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a> returned to the idea of the lingua illustre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911911-145">[145]</a> At the head of the Lombard school were Monti and his son-in-law Count <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Perticari" title="Giulio Perticari">Giulio Perticari</a>. This caused <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Monti" title="Vincenzo Monti">Vincenzo Monti</a> to write Proposta di alcune correzioni ed aggiunte al vocabolario della Crusca, in which he attacked the Tuscanism of the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_della_Crusca" title="Accademia della Crusca">Accademia della Crusca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> The dispute about language took its place beside literary and political disputes, and all Italy took part in it: <a href="/wiki/Basilio_Puoti" title="Basilio Puoti">Basilio Puoti</a> at Naples, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Costa_(poet)" title="Paolo Costa (poet)">Paolo Costa</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Romagna" title="Romagna">Romagna</a>, Marc' Antonio Parenti at <a href="/wiki/Modena" title="Modena">Modena</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Salvatore_Betti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salvatore Betti (page does not exist)">Salvatore Betti</a> at Rome, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giovanni_Gherardini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giovanni Gherardini (page does not exist)">Giovanni Gherardini</a> in Lombardy, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luigi_Fornaciari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luigi Fornaciari (page does not exist)">Luigi Fornaciari</a> at Lucca, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vincenzo_Nannucci&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vincenzo Nannucci (page does not exist)">Vincenzo Nannucci</a> at Florence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911911-145">[145]</a> A patriot, a classicist and a purist all at once was <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Giordani" title="Pietro Giordani">Pietro Giordani</a>, born in 1774; he was almost a compendium of the literary movement of the time. Learned in Greek and Latin authors, and in the Italian trecentisti, he left only a few writings, but they were carefully elaborated in point of style, and his prose was greatly admired in its time.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Giordani closes the literary epoch of the classicists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911911-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minor_writers_2">Minor writers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Minor writers">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Gasparo_Gozzi" title="Gasparo Gozzi">Gasparo Gozzi</a>'s satire was less elevated, but directed towards the same end as Parini's. Gozzi's satire has some slight resemblance in style to <a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a>'s. In a journal called the Frusta letteraria he mercilessly criticized the works then being published in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> The Frusta was the first book of independent criticism directed particularly against the Arcadians and the pedants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911909-133">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ritratto_di_Carlo_Botta,_1800-1899_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_-_Ritratti_0107_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Ritratto_di_Carlo_Botta%2C_1800-1899_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_-_Ritratti_0107_B.jpg/220px-Ritratto_di_Carlo_Botta%2C_1800-1899_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_-_Ritratti_0107_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Ritratto_di_Carlo_Botta%2C_1800-1899_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_-_Ritratti_0107_B.jpg/330px-Ritratto_di_Carlo_Botta%2C_1800-1899_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_-_Ritratti_0107_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Ritratto_di_Carlo_Botta%2C_1800-1899_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_-_Ritratti_0107_B.jpg/440px-Ritratto_di_Carlo_Botta%2C_1800-1899_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_-_Ritratti_0107_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2115" data-file-height="2357" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Botta" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlo Botta">Carlo Botta</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Niccolini" title="Giovanni Battista Niccolini">Giovanni Battista Niccolini</a> was a classicist; in imitating <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, as well as in writing the Discorsi sulla tragedia greca, and the Sublime Michelangelo, Niccolini displayed his devotion to ancient literature. In his tragedies, he set himself free from the excessive rigidity of Alfieri, and partly approached the English and German tragic authors. He nearly always chose political subjects.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Such are <a href="/wiki/Nabucco" title="Nabucco">Nabucco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Foscarini" title="Antonio Foscarini">Antonio Foscarini</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Procida" title="John of Procida">Giovanni da Procida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lodovico_il_Moro" class="mw-redirect" title="Lodovico il Moro">Lodovico il Moro</a> and others. He assailed papal Rome in <a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_da_Brescia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnaldo da Brescia">Arnaldo da Brescia</a>. Niccolini's tragedies show a rich lyric vein rather than dramatic genius. He has the merit of having vindicated liberal ideas, and of having opened a new path to Italian tragedy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910–911-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Giuseppe_Guglielmo_Botta" title="Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo Botta">Carlo Botta</a> wrote a History of Italy from 1789 to 1814; and later continued Guicciardini's History up to 1789.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Close to Botta comes <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Colletta" title="Pietro Colletta">Pietro Colletta</a>; he also in his Storia del reame di Napoli dal 1734 al 1825 had the idea of defending the independence and liberty of Italy in a style borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lazzaro_Papi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lazzaro Papi (page does not exist)">Lazzaro Papi</a> of Lucca, author of the Commentari della rivoluzione francese dal 1789 al 1814, was not altogether unlike Botta and Colletta. He also was a historian in the classical style and treats his subject with patriotic feeling, but as an artist, he perhaps excels in the other two.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911911-145">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fortis" title="Alberto Fortis">Alberto Fortis</a> started the <a href="/wiki/Morlachist" class="mw-redirect" title="Morlachist">Morlachist</a> literary movement in Italian and <a href="/wiki/Venetian_literature" title="Venetian literature">Venetian literature</a> with his 1774 work <a href="/wiki/Viaggio_in_Dalmazia" title="Viaggio in Dalmazia">Viaggio in Dalmazia</a> ('Journey to Dalmatia').<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolution:_Patriotism_and_classicism">Revolution: Patriotism and classicism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Revolution: Patriotism and classicism">edit</a>]</div> The ideas behind the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789 gave a special direction to Italian literature in the second half of the 18th century. Love of liberty and desire for equality created a literature aimed at national objects, seeking to improve the condition of the country by freeing it from the double yoke of political and religious despotism.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> The Italians who aspired to political redemption believed it inseparable from an intellectual revival, and thought that this could only be effected by a reunion with ancient classicism. This was a repetition of what had occurred in the first half of the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910-3">[3]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VAlfieriFabre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/VAlfieriFabre.jpg/220px-VAlfieriFabre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/VAlfieriFabre.jpg/330px-VAlfieriFabre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/VAlfieriFabre.jpg/440px-VAlfieriFabre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Vittorio Alfieri</a> by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Fabre" title="François-Xavier Fabre">François-Xavier Fabre</a></figcaption></figure> Patriotism and classicism were the two principles that inspired the literature that began with <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Vittorio Alfieri</a>. He worshipped the Greek and Roman idea of popular liberty in arms against tyranny. He took the subjects of his tragedies from the history of these nations and made his ancient characters talk like revolutionists of his time. The Arcadian school, with its verbosity and triviality, was rejected.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> His aim was to be brief, concise, strong and bitter, to aim at the sublime as opposed to the lowly and pastoral. He saved literature from Arcadian vacuities, leading it towards a national end, and armed himself with patriotism and classicism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910-3">[3]</a> It is to his dramas that Alfieri is chiefly indebted for the high reputation he has attained. The appearance of the tragedies of Alfieri was perhaps the most important literary event that occurred in Italy during the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Monti" title="Vincenzo Monti">Vincenzo Monti</a> was a patriot too, and wrote the Pellegrino apostolico, the Bassvilliana and the Feroniade; Napoleon's victories caused him to write the Prometeo and the Musagonia; in his Fanatismo and his Superstizione he attacked the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a>; afterwards he sang the praises of the <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austrians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Knowing little Greek, he succeeded in translating the Iliad in a way remarkable for its Homeric feeling, and in his Bassvilliana he is on a level with Dante. In him classical poetry seemed to revive in all its florid grandeur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910-3">[3]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ugo_Foscolo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ugo_Foscolo.jpg/220px-Ugo_Foscolo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ugo_Foscolo.jpg/330px-Ugo_Foscolo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ugo_Foscolo.jpg/440px-Ugo_Foscolo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1735" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a> by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Fabre" title="François-Xavier Fabre">François-Xavier Fabre</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a> was an eager patriot, inspired by classical models. The Lettere di Jacopo Ortis, inspired by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Sorrows_of_Young_Werther" title="The Sorrows of Young Werther">The Sorrows of Young Werther</a>, are a love story with a mixture of patriotism; they contain a violent protest against the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a>, and an outburst from Foscolo's own heart about an unhappy love-affair of his. His passions were sudden and violent.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> To one of these passions Ortis owed its origin, and it is perhaps the best and most sincere of all his writings. The Sepolcri, which is his best poem, was prompted by high feeling, and the mastery of versification shows wonderful art. Among his prose works a high place belongs to his translation of the <a href="/wiki/A_Sentimental_Journey_Through_France_and_Italy" title="A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy">Sentimental Journey</a> of <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Sterne" title="Laurence Sterne">Laurence Sterne</a>, a writer by whom Foscolo was deeply affected.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> He wrote for English readers some Essays on Petrarch and on the texts of the Decamerone and of Dante, which are remarkable for when they were written, and which may have initiated a new type of literary criticism in Italy. The men who made the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1848" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolution of 1848">revolution of 1848</a> were brought up in his work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century:_Romanticism_and_the_Risorgimento">19th century: Romanticism and the Risorgimento</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: 19th century: Romanticism and the Risorgimento">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg/220px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg/330px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg/440px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3704" data-file-height="4886" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Portrait of Alessandro Manzoni">Portrait of Alessandro Manzoni</a> by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a></figcaption></figure> The romantic school had as its organ the Conciliatore established in 1818 at Milan, on the staff of which were <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Pellico" title="Silvio Pellico">Silvio Pellico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludovico_di_Breme" title="Ludovico di Breme">Ludovico di Breme</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giovile_Scalvini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giovile Scalvini (page does not exist)">Giovile Scalvini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Grossi" title="Tommaso Grossi">Tommaso Grossi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Giovanni Berchet</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Samuele_Biava&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samuele Biava (page does not exist)">Samuele Biava</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>. All were influenced by the ideas that, especially in Germany, constituted the movement called <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> In Italy the course of literary reform took another direction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911911-145">[145]</a> The main instigator of the reform was <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>. He formulated the objects of the new school, saying that it aspired to try to discover and express il vero storico and il vero morale, not only as an end, but as the widest and eternal source of the beautiful. It is realism in art that characterizes Italian literature from Manzoni onwards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911911-145">[145]</a> The Promessi Sposi (<a href="/wiki/The_Betrothed_(Manzoni_novel)" title="The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)">The Betrothed</a>) is the work that has made him immortal.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> The Promessi Sposi is generally ranked among the masterpieces of <a href="/wiki/World_literature" title="World literature">world literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-162">[162]</a> The novel is also a symbol of the Italian <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Risorgimento</a>, both for its patriotic message<a href="#cite_note-britannica-162">[162]</a> and because it was a fundamental milestone in the development of the modern, unified <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg/220px-Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg/330px-Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Giacomo_Leopardi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="527" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a> by <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Morelli" title="Domenico Morelli">Domenico Morelli</a></figcaption></figure> The great poet of the age was <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a>. He was also an admirable prose writer. In his Operette Morali—dialogues and discourses marked by a cold and bitter smile at human destinies that freezes the reader—the clearness of style, the simplicity of language and the depth of conception are such that perhaps he is not only the greatest lyrical poet since Dante, but also one of the most perfect writers of prose that Italian literature has had.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a> He is widely seen as one of the most radical and challenging thinkers of the 19th century<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> but routinely compared by Italian critics to his older contemporary <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a> despite expressing "diametrically opposite positions".<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The strongly lyrical quality of his poetry made him a central figure on the European and international literary and cultural landscape.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_and_politics_in_the_19th">History and politics in the 19th</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: History and politics in the 19th">edit</a>]</div> As realism in art gained ground, the positive method in criticism kept pace with it. History returned to its spirit of learned research, as is shown in such works as the Archivio storico italiano, established at Florence by <a href="/wiki/Giovan_Pietro_Vieusseux" title="Giovan Pietro Vieusseux">Giovan Pietro Vieusseux</a>, the Storia d'Italia nel medio evo by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Troya" title="Carlo Troya">Carlo Troya</a>, a remarkable treatise by Manzoni himself, Sopra alcuni punti della storia longobardica in Italia, and the very fine history of the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Vespers" title="Sicilian Vespers">Vespri siciliani</a> by <a href="/wiki/Michele_Amari" title="Michele Amari">Michele Amari</a>. Alongside the great artists Leopardi and Manzoni, alongside the learned scholars, there was also in the 19th century patriotic literature.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Vieusseux had a distinct political object when in 1820 he established the monthly review Antologia. His Archivio storico italiano (1842) was, under a different form, a continuation of the Antologia, which was suppressed in 1833 owing to the action of the Russian government. The literary movement that preceded and was contemporary with the political revolution of 1848 may be said to be represented by four writers—<a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Giusti" title="Giuseppe Giusti">Giuseppe Giusti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Domenico_Guerrazzi" title="Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi">Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gioberti" title="Vincenzo Gioberti">Vincenzo Gioberti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Balbo" title="Cesare Balbo">Cesare Balbo</a>. Giusti wrote <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigrammatic</a> satires in popular language. Guerrazzi had a great reputation and great influence, but his historical novels, though avidly read before 1848, were soon forgotten. Gioberti was a powerful <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemical</a> writer; the Primato morale e civile degli Italiani will last as an important document of the times, and the Gesuita moderno is the most tremendous indictment of the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a> ever written in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Balbo was an earnest student of history. Like Gioberti in his first period, Balbo was zealous for the civil papacy, and for a federation of the Italian states presided over by it. His Sommario della storia d'Italia is an excellent epitome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Between_the_19th_and_20th_century">Between the 19th and 20th century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Between the 19th and 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci2.jpg/220px-Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci2.jpg/330px-Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci2.jpg/440px-Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="909" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a></figcaption></figure> After the Risorgimento, political literature became less important. The first part of this period is characterized by two divergent trends of literature that both opposed Romanticism. The first trend is the <a href="/wiki/Scapigliatura" title="Scapigliatura">Scapigliatura</a>, that attempted to rejuvenate Italian culture through foreign influences, notably from the poetry of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Charles Baudelaire</a> and the works of American writer <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>. The second trend is represented by <a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a>, a dominant figure of this period, fiery opponent of the Romantics and restorer of the ancient metres and spirit who, great as a poet, was scarcely less distinguished as a literary critic and historian.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> The influence of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Émile Zola</a> is evident in the <a href="/wiki/Verismo_(literature)" title="Verismo (literature)">Verismo</a>. <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Capuana" title="Luigi Capuana">Luigi Capuana</a> but most notably <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Verga" title="Giovanni Verga">Giovanni Verga</a> and were its main exponents and the authors of a verismo manifesto. Capuana published the novel Giacinta, generally regarded as the "manifesto" of Italian verismo.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Unlike French naturalism, which was based on <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivistic</a> ideals, Verga and Capuana rejected claims of the scientific nature and social usefulness of the movement. Instead Decadentism was based mainly on the <a href="/wiki/Decadent_movement" title="Decadent movement">Decadent</a> style of some artists and authors of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> about the end of the 19th century. The main authors of the Italian version were <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Fogazzaro" title="Antonio Fogazzaro">Antonio Fogazzaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pascoli" title="Giovanni Pascoli">Giovanni Pascoli</a>, best known for his Myricae and Poemetti, and <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio" title="Gabriele D'Annunzio">Gabriele D'Annunzio</a>. Although differing stylistically, they championed idiosyncrasy and irrationality against scientific rationalism. Gabriele d'Annunzio produced original work in poetry, drama and fiction, of extraordinary originality.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> He began with some lyrics distinguished no less by their exquisite beauty of form than by their licence, and these characteristics reappeared in a long series of poems, plays and novels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edmondo_de_Amicis" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmondo de Amicis">Edmondo de Amicis</a> is better known for his moral works and travels than for his fiction. Of the women novelists, <a href="/wiki/Matilde_Serao" title="Matilde Serao">Matilde Serao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grazia_Deledda" title="Grazia Deledda">Grazia Deledda</a> became popular.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a> Deledda was awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Literature for her works.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minor_writers_3">Minor writers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Minor writers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Gioachino_Belli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Giuseppe_Gioachino_Belli.jpg/220px-Giuseppe_Gioachino_Belli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Giuseppe_Gioachino_Belli.jpg/330px-Giuseppe_Gioachino_Belli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Giuseppe_Gioachino_Belli.jpg/440px-Giuseppe_Gioachino_Belli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2390" data-file-height="2955" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Gioacchino_Belli" class="mw-redirect" title="Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli">Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Prati" title="Giovanni Prati">Giovanni Prati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleardo_Aleardi" title="Aleardo Aleardi">Aleardo Aleardi</a> continued romantic traditions. Other classical poets are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giuseppe_Chiarini_(literary_critic)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giuseppe Chiarini (literary critic) (page does not exist)">Giuseppe Chiarini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Graf" title="Arturo Graf">Arturo Graf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guido_Mazzoni_(poet)" title="Guido Mazzoni (poet)">Guido Mazzoni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Marradi" title="Giovanni Marradi">Giovanni Marradi</a>, of whom the two last named may perhaps be regarded as special disciples of Carducci. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enrico_Panzacchi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enrico Panzacchi (page does not exist)">Enrico Panzacchi</a> was at heart still a romantic. <a href="/wiki/Olindo_Guerrini" title="Olindo Guerrini">Olindo Guerrini</a> (who wrote under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Stecchetti) is the chief representative of verismo in poetry, and, though his early works obtained a succès de scandale, he is the author of many lyrics of intrinsic value.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alfredo_Baccelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfredo Baccelli (page does not exist)">Alfredo Baccelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mario_Rapisardi" title="Mario Rapisardi">Mario Rapisardi</a> are epic poets of distinction. <a href="/wiki/Felice_Cavallotti" title="Felice Cavallotti">Felice Cavallotti</a> is the author of the stirring Marcia de Leonida.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a> Among dialect writers, the great Roman poet <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Gioacchino_Belli" class="mw-redirect" title="Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli">Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli</a> found numerous successors, such as <a href="/wiki/Renato_Fucini" title="Renato Fucini">Renato Fucini</a> (Pisa) and <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Pascarella" title="Cesare Pascarella">Cesare Pascarella</a> (Rome). Among the women poets, <a href="/wiki/Ada_Negri" title="Ada Negri">Ada Negri</a>, with her socialistic Fatalità and Tempeste, achieved a great reputation; and others, such as <a href="/wiki/Annie_Vivanti" title="Annie Vivanti">Annie Vivanti</a>, were highly esteemed in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Among the dramatists, <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Cossa" title="Pietro Cossa">Pietro Cossa</a> in tragedy, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Martini" title="Ferdinando Martini">Ferdinando Martini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Ferrari_(writer)" title="Paolo Ferrari (writer)">Paolo Ferrari</a> in comedy, represent the older schools. More modern methods were adopted by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Giacosa" title="Giuseppe Giacosa">Giuseppe Giacosa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a> In fiction, the historical romance fell into disfavour, though <a href="/wiki/Emilio_De_Marchi_(writer)" title="Emilio De Marchi (writer)">Emilio De Marchi</a> produced some good examples. The novel of intrigue was cultivated by <a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Farina" title="Salvatore Farina">Salvatore Farina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century_and_beyond">20th century and beyond</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: 20th century and beyond">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luigi_Pirandello_1932.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Luigi_Pirandello_1932.jpg/220px-Luigi_Pirandello_1932.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Luigi_Pirandello_1932.jpg/330px-Luigi_Pirandello_1932.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Luigi_Pirandello_1932.jpg/440px-Luigi_Pirandello_1932.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3342" data-file-height="4021" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umberto_Eco_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Umberto_Eco_04.jpg/220px-Umberto_Eco_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Umberto_Eco_04.jpg/330px-Umberto_Eco_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Umberto_Eco_04.jpg/440px-Umberto_Eco_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1205" data-file-height="1539" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a></figcaption></figure> Important early-20th century writers include <a href="/wiki/Italo_Svevo" title="Italo Svevo">Italo Svevo</a>, the author of <a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_Conscience" title="Zeno's Conscience">La coscienza di Zeno</a> (1923), and <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a> (winner of the 1934 Nobel Prize in Literature), who explored the shifting nature of reality in his prose fiction and such plays as Sei personaggi in cerca d'autore (<a href="/wiki/Six_Characters_in_Search_of_an_Author" title="Six Characters in Search of an Author">Six Characters in Search of an Author</a>, 1921). <a href="/wiki/Federigo_Tozzi" title="Federigo Tozzi">Federigo Tozzi</a> was a great novelist, critically appreciated only in recent years, and considered one of the forerunners of existentialism in the European novel. <a href="/wiki/Grazia_Deledda" title="Grazia Deledda">Grazia Deledda</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinian</a> writer who focused on the life, customs, and traditions of the <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_people" title="Sardinian people">Sardinian people</a> in her works.<a href="#cite_note-Migiel,_Marilyn_1994-176">[176]</a> In 1926 she won the Nobel Prize for literature, becoming Italy's first and only woman recipient.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sibilla_Aleramo" title="Sibilla Aleramo">Sibilla Aleramo</a> published her first novel, Una Donna (A Woman) in 1906. Today the novel is widely acknowledged as Italy's premier feminist novel.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Her writing mixes together autobiographical and fictional elements. <a href="/wiki/Pitigrilli" title="Pitigrilli">Pitigrilli</a> was the pseudonym of Dino Segre who published his most famous novel (cocaine) in 1921. Due to his portrayal of drug use and sex, the Catholic Church listed it as a "forbidden book". It has been translated into numerous languages, reprinted in new editions, and has become a classic. <a href="/wiki/Maria_Messina" title="Maria Messina">Maria Messina</a> was a Sicilian writer who focused heavily on Sicilian culture with a dominant theme being the isolation and oppression of young Sicilian women.<a href="#cite_note-Lombardo,_Maria_Nina_1994-179">[179]</a> She achieved modest recognition during her life including receiving the Medaglia D'oro Prize for "La Mérica".<a href="#cite_note-Lombardo,_Maria_Nina_1994-179">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anna_Banti" title="Anna Banti">Anna Bantiis</a> most well known for her short story Il Coraggio Delle Donne (The Courage of Women) which was published in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-Aricó_1990-180">[180]</a> Her autobiographical work, Un Grido Lacerante, was published in 1981 and won the Antonio Feltrinelli prize.<a href="#cite_note-Aricó_1990-180">[180]</a> As well as being a successful author, Banti is recognized as a literary, cinematic, and art critic.<a href="#cite_note-Aricó_1990-180">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elsa_Morante" title="Elsa Morante">Elsa Morante</a> began writing at an early age. One of the central themes in Morante's works is narcissism. She also uses love as a metaphor in her works, saying that love can be passion and obsession and can lead to despair and destruction.<a href="#cite_note-Aricó_1990-180">[180]</a> She won the Premio Viareggio award in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alba_de_C%C3%A9spedes" title="Alba de Céspedes">Alba de Céspedes</a> was a Cuban-Italian writer from Rome.<a href="#cite_note-Nerenberg,_Ellen_1994-182">[182]</a> She was an anti-Fascist and was involved in the Italian Resistance.<a href="#cite_note-Nerenberg,_Ellen_1994-182">[182]</a> Her work was greatly influenced by the history and culture that developed around World War II.<a href="#cite_note-Nerenberg,_Ellen_1994-182">[182]</a> Although her books were bestsellers, Alba has been overlooked in recent studies of Italian women writers.<a href="#cite_note-Nerenberg,_Ellen_1994-182">[182]</a> Poetry was represented by the <a href="/wiki/Crepuscolari" title="Crepuscolari">Crepuscolari</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurists</a>; the foremost member of the latter group was <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti" title="Filippo Tommaso Marinetti">Filippo Tommaso Marinetti</a>. Leading <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernist</a> poets from later in the century include <a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a> (winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Literature), <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Ungaretti" title="Giuseppe Ungaretti">Giuseppe Ungaretti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Saba" title="Umberto Saba">Umberto Saba</a>, who won fame for his collection of poems Il canzoniere, and <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Montale" title="Eugenio Montale">Eugenio Montale</a> (winner of the 1975 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>). They were described by critics as "<a href="/wiki/Hermeticism_(poetry)" title="Hermeticism (poetry)">hermeticists</a>". <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_-_BEIC_6361580_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_-_BEIC_6361580_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_-_BEIC_6361580_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_-_BEIC_6361580_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_-_BEIC_6361580_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_-_BEIC_6361580_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="412" data-file-height="607" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Moravia" title="Alberto Moravia">Alberto Moravia</a>, one of the leading figures of Italian Neorealism in literature</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Neorealism_(art)" title="Neorealism (art)">Neorealism</a> was a movement that developed rapidly between the 1940s and the 1950s. Although its foundations were laid in the 1920s, it flourished only after the fall of Fascism in Italy, as this type of literature was not welcomed by Fascist authorities because of its social criticism and partially because some of the "new realist" authors could hold Anti-Fascist views. For example, <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Moravia" title="Alberto Moravia">Alberto Moravia</a>, one of the leading writers of the movement, had trouble with finding a publisher for his novel which brought him fame, <a href="/wiki/Gli_indifferenti" title="Gli indifferenti">Gli indifferenti</a> (1929), and after he published it, he was "driven into hiding"; <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Bernari" title="Carlo Bernari">Carlo Bernari</a>'s Tre operai (1934, Three Workers) was unofficially banned personally by Mussolini who saw "communism" in the novel;<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ignazio_Silone" title="Ignazio Silone">Ignazio Silone</a> published <a href="/wiki/Fontamara" title="Fontamara">Fontamara</a> (1933) in exile; <a href="/wiki/Elio_Vittorini" title="Elio Vittorini">Elio Vittorini</a> was put in prison after publishing <a href="/wiki/Conversations_in_Sicily" title="Conversations in Sicily">Conversazione in Sicilia</a> (1941). The movement was profoundly affected by the translations of socially conscious U.S. and English writers during the 1930s and 1940s, namely <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Steinbeck" title="John Steinbeck">John Steinbeck</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dos_Passos" title="John Dos Passos">John Dos Passos</a> and the others; the translators of their works, Vittorini and <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Pavese" title="Cesare Pavese">Cesare Pavese</a>, would later become acclaimed novelists of the movement. After the war, the movement began rapidly developing and took the label "Neorealism"; Marxism and the experiences of the war became sources of inspiration for the postwar authors. Moravia wrote the novels <a href="/wiki/The_Conformist" title="The Conformist">The Conformist</a> (1951) and <a href="/wiki/Two_Women_(novel)" title="Two Women (novel)">La Ciociara</a> (1957), while <a href="/wiki/The_Moon_and_the_Bonfires" title="The Moon and the Bonfires">The Moon and the Bonfires</a> (1949) became Pavese's most recognized work; <a href="/wiki/Primo_Levi" title="Primo Levi">Primo Levi</a> documented his experiences in <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a> in <a href="/wiki/If_This_Is_a_Man" title="If This Is a Man">If This Is a Man</a> (1947); among the other writers were <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Levi" title="Carlo Levi">Carlo Levi</a>, who reflected the experience of political exile in southern Italy in <a href="/wiki/Christ_Stopped_at_Eboli" title="Christ Stopped at Eboli">Christ Stopped at Eboli</a> (1951); <a href="/wiki/Curzio_Malaparte" title="Curzio Malaparte">Curzio Malaparte</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/Kaputt_(novel)" title="Kaputt (novel)">Kaputt</a> (1944) and <a href="/wiki/The_Skin_(novel)" title="The Skin (novel)">The Skin</a> (1949), novels dealing with the war on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> and in Naples; <a href="/wiki/Pier_Paolo_Pasolini" title="Pier Paolo Pasolini">Pier Paolo Pasolini</a>, also a poet and a film director, who described the life of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">lumpenproletariat</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ragazzi_di_vita" title="Ragazzi di vita">The Ragazzi</a> (1955);<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corrado_Alvaro" title="Corrado Alvaro">Corrado Alvaro</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dino_Buzzati" title="Dino Buzzati">Dino Buzzati</a> wrote fantastic and allegorical fiction that critics have compared to <a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Kafka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Beckett</a>. <a href="/wiki/Italo_Calvino" title="Italo Calvino">Italo Calvino</a> also ventured into fantasy in the trilogy I nostri antenati (<a href="/wiki/Our_Ancestors" class="mw-redirect" title="Our Ancestors">Our Ancestors</a>, 1952–1959) and <a href="/wiki/Post-modernism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-modernism">post-modernism</a> in the novel Se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore... (<a href="/wiki/If_on_a_Winter%27s_Night_a_Traveler" class="mw-redirect" title="If on a Winter's Night a Traveler">If on a Winter's Night a Traveller</a>, 1979). <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Emilio_Gadda" title="Carlo Emilio Gadda">Carlo Emilio Gadda</a> was the author of the experimental Quer pasticciaccio brutto de via Merulana (1957). <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Tomasi_di_Lampedusa" title="Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa">Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa</a> wrote only one novel, <a href="/wiki/Il_Gattopardo" class="mw-redirect" title="Il Gattopardo">Il Gattopardo</a> (The Leopard, 1958), but it is one of the most famous in Italian literature; it deals with the life of a <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicilian</a> nobleman in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Sciascia" title="Leonardo Sciascia">Leonardo Sciascia</a> came to public attention with his novel <a href="/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Owl" title="The Day of the Owl">Il giorno della civetta</a> (The Day of the Owl, 1961), exposing the extent of <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Mafia" title="Sicilian Mafia">Mafia</a> corruption in modern Sicilian society. More recently, <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a> became internationally successful with the Medieval detective story Il nome della rosa (<a href="/wiki/The_Name_of_the_Rose" title="The Name of the Rose">The Name of the Rose</a>, 1980). <a href="/wiki/Dacia_Maraini" title="Dacia Maraini">Dacia Maraini</a> is one of the most successful contemporary Italian women writers. Her novels focus on the condition of women in Italy and in some works she speaks to the changes women can make for themselves and society.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Busi" title="Aldo Busi">Aldo Busi</a> is also one of the most important Italian contemporary writers. His extensive production of novels, essays, travel books and manuals provides a detailed account of modern society, especially the Italian one. He is also well-known as a refined translator. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Children's_literature">Children's literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Children's literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinocchio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pinocchio.jpg/220px-Pinocchio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pinocchio.jpg/330px-Pinocchio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pinocchio.jpg/440px-Pinocchio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Pinocchio" title="The Adventures of Pinocchio">The Adventures of Pinocchio</a> is one of the world's most translated books<a href="#cite_note-Gasparini-188">[188]</a> and a canonical piece of children's literature.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a></figcaption></figure> Italy has a long history of <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">children's literature</a>. In 1634, the <a href="/wiki/Pentamerone" title="Pentamerone">Pentamerone</a> from Italy became the first major published collection of European folk tales.<a href="#cite_note-reynolds-190">[190]</a>: 7  The Pentamerone contained the first literary European version of the story of <a href="/wiki/Cinderella" title="Cinderella">Cinderella</a>. The author, <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Basile" title="Giambattista Basile">Giambattista Basile</a>, created collections of fairy tales that include the oldest recorded forms of many well-known European fairy tales.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> In the 1550s, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Francesco_Straparola" title="Giovanni Francesco Straparola">Giovanni Francesco Straparola</a> released <a href="/wiki/The_Facetious_Nights_of_Straparola" title="The Facetious Nights of Straparola">The Facetious Nights of Straparola</a>. Called the first European storybook to contain fairy tales, it eventually had 75 separate stories, albeit intended for an adult audience.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Cesare_Croce" title="Giulio Cesare Croce">Giulio Cesare Croce</a> also borrowed from stories children enjoyed for his books.<a href="#cite_note-Silvey-193">[193]</a>: 757  In 1883, Carlo Collodi wrote <a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Pinocchio" title="The Adventures of Pinocchio">The Adventures of Pinocchio</a>, the first Italian fantasy novel. In the same year, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Salgari" title="Emilio Salgari">Emilio Salgari</a>, the man who would become "the adventure writer par excellence for the young in Italy"<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> published for the first time his <a href="/wiki/Sandokan" title="Sandokan">Sandokan</a>. In the 20th century, Italian children's literature was represented by such writers as <a href="/wiki/Gianni_Rodari" title="Gianni Rodari">Gianni Rodari</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/Il_romanzo_di_Cipollino" class="mw-redirect" title="Il romanzo di Cipollino">Il romanzo di Cipollino</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicoletta_Costa" title="Nicoletta Costa">Nicoletta Costa</a>, creator of Julian Rabbit and Olga the Cloud.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-repubblica-196">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_writers">Women writers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Women writers">edit</a>]</div> Italian women writers have always been underrepresented in academia. There has been an increase in the inclusion of women in academic scholarship in recent years, but representation is still inequitable. Italian women writers were first acknowledged by critics in the 1960s, and numerous feminist journals began in the 1970s, which increased readers' accessibility to and awareness of their work.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> The work of Italian women writers is both progressive and penetrating; through their explorations of the feminine psyche, their critiques of women's social and economic position in Italy, and their depiction of the persistent struggle to achieve equality in a "man's world", they have shattered traditional representations of women in literature.<a href="#cite_note-Ragusa_1959_5–9-198">[198]</a> The page played an important role in the rise of <a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Italy" title="Feminism in Italy">Italian feminism</a>, as it provided women with a space to express their perspectives. Reading and writing fiction became the easiest way for women to explore and determine their place in society.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Italian <a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">war novels</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Alba_de_C%C3%A9spedes" title="Alba de Céspedes">Alba de Céspedes</a>'s Dalla parte di lei (1949), trace women's awakenings to political realities of the time. Subsequent psychological and social novels of Italian women writers examine the difficult process of growing up for women in Italian society. Examples include Maria Messina's La casa nel vicolo (1989) and Laura Di Falco's Paura di giorno (1954).<a href="#cite_note-Ragusa_1959_5–9-198">[198]</a> After the public condemnation of women's abuse in Italian literature in the 1970s, women writers began expressing their thoughts about sexual differences in novels. Many Italian novels focus on facets of <a href="/wiki/Italian_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian identity">Italian identity</a>, and women writers have always been leaders in this genre.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Italians_awarded_with_the_Nobel_Prize_for_literature">Italians awarded with the Nobel Prize for literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Italians awarded with the Nobel Prize for literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grazia_Deledda_1926.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Grazia_Deledda_1926.jpg/220px-Grazia_Deledda_1926.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Grazia_Deledda_1926.jpg/330px-Grazia_Deledda_1926.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Grazia_Deledda_1926.jpg/440px-Grazia_Deledda_1926.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1131" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Grazia_Deledda" title="Grazia Deledda">Grazia Deledda</a></figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Winner</th> <th>Contribution </th></tr> <tr> <td>1906 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a> </td> <td>"Not only in consideration of his deep learning and critical research, but above all as a tribute to the creative energy, freshness of style, and lyrical force which characterize his poetic masterpieces."<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1926 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grazia_Deledda" title="Grazia Deledda">Grazia Deledda</a> </td> <td>"For her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general."<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1934 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a> </td> <td>"For his bold and ingenious revival of dramatic and scenic art."<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1959 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a> </td> <td>"For his lyrical poetry, which with classical fire expresses the tragic experience of life in our own times."<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1975 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Montale" title="Eugenio Montale">Eugenio Montale</a> </td> <td>"For his distinctive poetry which, with great artistic sensitivity, has interpreted human values under the sign of an outlook on life with no illusions."<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1997 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dario_Fo" title="Dario Fo">Dario Fo</a> </td> <td>"Who emulates the jesters of the Middle Ages in scourging authority and upholding the dignity of the downtrodden."<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/47px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/63px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional Italian</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.artsmia.org/art/1850/six-tuscan-poets-giorgio-vasari">"Six Tuscan Poets, Giorgio Vasari"</a>. collections.artsmia.org. <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis,_Minnesota" class="mw-redirect" title="Minneapolis, Minnesota">Minneapolis, Minnesota</a>: <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis_Institute_of_Art" title="Minneapolis Institute of Art">Minneapolis Institute of Art</a>. 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230617020304/https://collections.artsmia.org/art/1850/six-tuscan-poets-giorgio-vasari">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=collections.artsmia.org&rft.atitle=Six+Tuscan+Poets%2C+Giorgio+Vasari&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollections.artsmia.org%2Fart%2F1850%2Fsix-tuscan-poets-giorgio-vasari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911906_2-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 906. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911910_3-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 910. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911912_4-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 912. </li> <li id="cite_note-duecento-e-trecento-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-duecento-e-trecento_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-duecento-e-trecento_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-duecento-e-trecento_5-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/duecento-e-trecento-lingua-del_%28Enciclopedia-dell%27Italiano%29/">"Duecento e Trecento, lingua del"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 13 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Duecento+e+Trecento%2C+lingua+del&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fduecento-e-trecento-lingua-del_%2528Enciclopedia-dell%2527Italiano%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898_6-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 898. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230620223046/https://www.salernoeditrice.it/prodotto/i-trovatori-nel-veneto-e-a-venezia/">"I trovatori nel Veneto e a Venezia"</a> (in Italian). 26 February 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.salernoeditrice.it/prodotto/i-trovatori-nel-veneto-e-a-venezia/">the original</a> on 20 June 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=I+trovatori+nel+Veneto+e+a+Venezia&rft.date=2018-02-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.salernoeditrice.it%2Fprodotto%2Fi-trovatori-nel-veneto-e-a-venezia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/78395126.pdf">"LA LIRICA TROBADORICA A GENOVA"</a> (PDF) (in Italian). p. 24. 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Retrieved 15 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=LA+SEZIONE+AUREA+DEL+POEMA+CAVALLERESCO+IN+ITALIA&rft.pages=4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felea.unisa.it%2Fjspui%2Fbitstream%2F10556%2F2130%2F1%2Ftesi%2520D.%2520D%2527Arienzo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/italia_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/">"ITALIA"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 14 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ITALIA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fitalia_%2528Enciclopedia-Italiana%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://centrodantesco.it/notizie/cinquantanni-prima-di-dante-la-divina-commedia-esisteva-gia-ma-in-dialetto-lombardo/">"Cinquant'anni prima di Dante la Divina Commedia "esisteva" già: ma in dialetto lombardo"</a> (in Italian). 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Retrieved 15 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GIACOMINO+da+Verona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fgiacomino-da-verona_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898–899-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911898–899_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, pp. 898–899. </li> <li id="cite_note-scuola-poetica-siciliana-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scuola-poetica-siciliana_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scuola-poetica-siciliana_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scuola-poetica-siciliana_19-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/scuola-poetica-siciliana_%28Federiciana%29/">"SCUOLA POETICA SICILIANA"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 16 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SCUOLA+POETICA+SICILIANA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fscuola-poetica-siciliana_%2528Federiciana%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.celeste-ots.it/celeste_files/scuola_siciliana/scuola_siciliana_5.htm">"Alcamo e la Scuola poetica siciliana"</a> (in Italian). 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Retrieved 17 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jacopone+da+Todi%2C+%22O+papa+Bonifazio%2C+molt%27hai+iocato+al+monno%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.weschool.com%2Flezione%2Fjacopone-da-todi-spirito-5201.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/raniero-fasani_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/">"FASANI, Raniero"</a> (in Italian). 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Retrieved 18 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Volgari+medievali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fvolgari-medievali_%2528Enciclopedia-dell%2527Italiano%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusso1947" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Russo, Luigi (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26040044">"LA LETTERATURA COMICO-REALISTICA NELLA TOSCANA DEL DUE e TRECENTO (Continuazione dal vol. I, pp. 141-161, pp. 558-576)"</a>. Belfagor (in Italian). 2 (3): 293–313. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26040044">26040044</a>. Retrieved 18 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Belfagor&rft.atitle=LA+LETTERATURA+COMICO-REALISTICA+NELLA+TOSCANA+DEL+DUE+e+TRECENTO+%28Continuazione+dal+vol.+I%2C+pp.+141-161%2C+pp.+558-576%29&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=293-313&rft.date=1947&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26040044%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Russo&rft.aufirst=Luigi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26040044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900_30-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900_30-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900_30-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911900_30-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 900. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://annamariaromanello.wordpress.com/2017/03/13/altra-novella-di-l-pirandello-tutto-per-bene/">"L'UMORISMO DI LUIGI PIRANDELLO: PARTE PRIMA"</a> (in Italian). 13 March 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%27UMORISMO+DI+LUIGI+PIRANDELLO%3A+PARTE+PRIMA&rft.date=2017-03-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fannamariaromanello.wordpress.com%2F2017%2F03%2F13%2Faltra-novella-di-l-pirandello-tutto-per-bene%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.letteraturaitalia.it/1-antologia-di-testi-duecento-e-trecento/poesie-di-guido-guinizzelli-io-voglio-del-ver-la-mia-donna-laudare-e-altri-sonetti-parafrasi/">"Poesie di Guido Guinizzelli"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 18 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Poesie+di+Guido+Guinizzelli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.letteraturaitalia.it%2F1-antologia-di-testi-duecento-e-trecento%2Fpoesie-di-guido-guinizzelli-io-voglio-del-ver-la-mia-donna-laudare-e-altri-sonetti-parafrasi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/29189476">Francesco da Barberino tra Andrea Cappellano e Averroè: poesia, immagini, profetismo</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 18 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francesco+da+Barberino+tra+Andrea+Cappellano+e+Averro%C3%A8%3A+poesia%2C+immagini%2C+profetismo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F29189476&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.maremagnum.com/vetrina/aldo-manuzio?order_by=created_at%3Adesc">"ALDO MANUZIO, UNA STORIA DI "CARATTERE""</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 18 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ALDO+MANUZIO%2C+UNA+STORIA+DI+%22CARATTERE%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.maremagnum.com%2Fvetrina%2Faldo-manuzio%3Forder_by%3Dcreated_at%253Adesc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://letteritaliana.weebly.com/la-prosa-del-xiii-xiv-sec.html">"La prosa del XIII-XIV sec"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+prosa+del+XIII-XIV+sec.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fletteritaliana.weebly.com%2Fla-prosa-del-xiii-xiv-sec.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.liberliber.it/online/autori/autori-p/marco-polo/il-milione/">"Il Milione"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+Milione&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.liberliber.it%2Fonline%2Fautori%2Fautori-p%2Fmarco-polo%2Fil-milione%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arlima.net/ad/andrea_da_grosseto.html">"ANDREA DA GROSSETO"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ANDREA+DA+GROSSETO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arlima.net%2Fad%2Fandrea_da_grosseto.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ristoro-d-arezzo_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">"RISTORO d'Arezzo"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RISTORO+d%27Arezzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fristoro-d-arezzo_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/le-forme-del-racconto-breve_%28Storia-della-civilt%C3%A0-europea-a-cura-di-Umberto-Eco%29/">"Le forme del racconto breve"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+forme+del+racconto+breve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fle-forme-del-racconto-breve_%2528Storia-della-civilt%25C3%25A0-europea-a-cura-di-Umberto-Eco%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/guittone-d-arezzo_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">"GUITTONE d'Arezzo"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GUITTONE+d%27Arezzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fguittone-d-arezzo_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitmore1916" class="citation journal cs1">Whitmore, Charles E. (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/457066">"Some Tendencies of Italian Lyric Poetry in the Trecento"</a>. PMLA. 31 (1): 24–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F457066">10.2307/457066</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.hnubn6">2027/hvd.hnubn6</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/457066">457066</a>. Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PMLA&rft.atitle=Some+Tendencies+of+Italian+Lyric+Poetry+in+the+Trecento&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-42&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fhvd.hnubn6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F457066%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F457066&rft.aulast=Whitmore&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F457066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.weschool.com/lezione/dolce-stil-novo-dante-alighieri-guido-cavalcanti-cino-da-pistoia-guinizzelli-22013.html">"Il Dolce Stil Novo: riassunto"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+Dolce+Stil+Novo%3A+riassunto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.weschool.com%2Flezione%2Fdolce-stil-novo-dante-alighieri-guido-cavalcanti-cino-da-pistoia-guinizzelli-22013.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901_43-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901_43-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911901_43-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 901. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ricevuti-lapo-detto-lapo-gianni_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">"RICEVUTI, Lapo, detto Lapo Gianni"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RICEVUTI%2C+Lapo%2C+detto+Lapo+Gianni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fricevuti-lapo-detto-lapo-gianni_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://letteritaliana.weebly.com/perchi-no-spero-di-tornar-giammai.html">"Guido Cavalcanti"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guido+Cavalcanti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fletteritaliana.weebly.com%2Fperchi-no-spero-di-tornar-giammai.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/dante_%28Enciclopedia-dell%27Italiano%29/">"Dante"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dante&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fdante_%2528Enciclopedia-dell%2527Italiano%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/197680512.pdf">"LA FIGURA E IL RUOLO DI BEATRICE NELL'OPERA DANTESCA"</a> (PDF) (in Italian). p. 5. Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=LA+FIGURA+E+IL+RUOLO+DI+BEATRICE+NELL%27OPERA+DANTESCA&rft.pages=5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F197680512.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://letteritaliana.weebly.com/divina-commedia.html">"Divina Commedia"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Divina+Commedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fletteritaliana.weebly.com%2Fdivina-commedia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://divinacommedia.weebly.com/inferno-canto-i.html">"Inferno, Canto I"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inferno%2C+Canto+I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdivinacommedia.weebly.com%2Finferno-canto-i.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/magazine/atlante/cultura/Dante_Filippo_e_la_tintura_di_odio.html">"Dante, Filippo e la tintura di odio"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dante%2C+Filippo+e+la+tintura+di+odio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fmagazine%2Fatlante%2Fcultura%2FDante_Filippo_e_la_tintura_di_odio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloom1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom, Harold</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/westerncanonbook00bloorich">The Western Canon</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780151957477" title="Special:BookSources/9780151957477"><bdi>9780151957477</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Canon&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780151957477&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwesterncanonbook00bloorich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> See also <a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Western canon</a> for other "canons" that include the Divine Comedy. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.studenti.it/petrarca-vita-opere.html#:~:text=Il%20primo%20umanista,per%20comporre%20le%20loro%20opere.">"Francesco Petrarca: biografia, libri e poetica"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Francesco+Petrarca%3A+biografia%2C+libri+e+poetica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.studenti.it%2Fpetrarca-vita-opere.html%23%3A~%3Atext%3DIl%2520primo%2520umanista%2Cper%2520comporre%2520le%2520loro%2520opere.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221013183222/http://davidegrassi.it/Scuola/Lezioni/Argomenti/Petrarca.pdf">"Petrarca"</a> (PDF) (in Italian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://davidegrassi.it/Scuola/Lezioni/Argomenti/Petrarca.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Petrarca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdavidegrassi.it%2FScuola%2FLezioni%2FArgomenti%2FPetrarca.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.studenti.it/dante-petrarca-confronto.html">"Dante e Petrarca a confronto"</a> (in Italian). 8 April 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dante+e+Petrarca+a+confronto&rft.date=2021-04-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.studenti.it%2Fdante-petrarca-confronto.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenzi2013" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fenzi, Enrico (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/arzana/232">"Petrarca e l'esilio"</a>. Arzanà. Cahiers de Littérature Médiévale Italienne (in Italian) (16–17): 365–402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Farzana.232">10.4000/arzana.232</a>. Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arzan%C3%A0.+Cahiers+de+Litt%C3%A9rature+M%C3%A9di%C3%A9vale+Italienne&rft.atitle=Petrarca+e+l%27esilio&rft.issue=16%E2%80%9317&rft.pages=365-402&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Farzana.232&rft.aulast=Fenzi&rft.aufirst=Enrico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Farzana%2F232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-boccaccio-56"><a href="#cite_ref-boccaccio_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giovanni-boccaccio_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/">"BOCCACCIO, Giovanni"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BOCCACCIO%2C+Giovanni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fgiovanni-boccaccio_%2528Enciclopedia-Italiana%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220623140952/https://sites.google.com/site/gb69humanlitterae/home/letteratura-medievale/giovanni-boccaccio">"GIOVANNI BOCCACCIO"</a> (in Italian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/gb69humanlitterae/home/letteratura-medievale/giovanni-boccaccio">the original</a> on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GIOVANNI+BOCCACCIO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fsite%2Fgb69humanlitterae%2Fhome%2Fletteratura-medievale%2Fgiovanni-boccaccio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911902-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911902_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911902_58-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 902. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.studenti.it/madonna-oretta-trama-personaggi-parafrasi-novella-boccaccio.html">"Madonna Oretta: trama, personaggi e parafrasi"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madonna+Oretta%3A+trama%2C+personaggi+e+parafrasi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.studenti.it%2Fmadonna-oretta-trama-personaggi-parafrasi-novella-boccaccio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acikders.ankara.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/127124/mod_resource/content/1/imitatori%20della%20divina%20commedia.pdf">"Itinerario della Divina Commedia"</a> (PDF) (in Italian). Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Itinerario+della+Divina+Commedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facikders.ankara.edu.tr%2Fpluginfile.php%2F127124%2Fmod_resource%2Fcontent%2F1%2Fimitatori%2520della%2520divina%2520commedia.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230614115117/https://lacittaimmaginaria.com/la-novella-del-pecorone-allorigine-de-il-mercante-di-venezia-di-william-shakespeare/">"La novella di Giovanni Fiorentino che ha ispirato "Il mercante di Venezia""</a> (in Italian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lacittaimmaginaria.com/la-novella-del-pecorone-allorigine-de-il-mercante-di-venezia-di-william-shakespeare/">the original</a> on 14 June 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+novella+di+Giovanni+Fiorentino+che+ha+ispirato+%22Il+mercante+di+Venezia%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flacittaimmaginaria.com%2Fla-novella-del-pecorone-allorigine-de-il-mercante-di-venezia-di-william-shakespeare%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giovanni-sercambi/">"Sercambi, Giovanni"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sercambi%2C+Giovanni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fgiovanni-sercambi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911902–903-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911902–903_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, pp. 902–903. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorgognoni2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Borgognoni, Rocco (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43780000">"Falsi e Falsificazioni (Tardo Medioevo-Prima Età Moderna) Xxi Seminario Residenziale di Studi – Fonti per la Storia della Civiltà Italiana Tardo Medievale, Fondazione Centro Studi Sulla Civiltà del Tardo Medioevo (San Miniato, 17-20 Settembre 2007)"</a>. Quaderni Storici (in Italian). 129 (3): 779–799. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43780000">43780000</a>. Retrieved 24 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaderni+Storici&rft.atitle=Falsi+e+Falsificazioni+%28Tardo+Medioevo-Prima+Et%C3%A0+Moderna%29+Xxi+Seminario+Residenziale+di+Studi+%E2%80%93+Fonti+per+la+Storia+della+Civilt%C3%A0+Italiana+Tardo+Medievale%2C+Fondazione+Centro+Studi+Sulla+Civilt%C3%A0+del+Tardo+Medioevo+%28San+Miniato%2C+17-20+Settembre+2007%29&rft.volume=129&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=779-799&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43780000%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Borgognoni&rft.aufirst=Rocco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43780000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911903_65-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 903. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giovanni-villani_%28Enciclopedia-Dantesca%29/">"Villani, Giovanni"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 24 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Villani%2C+Giovanni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fgiovanni-villani_%2528Enciclopedia-Dantesca%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giovanni-e-matteo-villani_%28Enciclopedia-machiavelliana%29/">"Villani, Giovanni e Matteo"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 24 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Villani%2C+Giovanni+e+Matteo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fgiovanni-e-matteo-villani_%2528Enciclopedia-machiavelliana%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edizionicantagalli.com/santa-caterina-da-siena-mistica-della-politica/">"Santa Caterina da Siena "mistica della politica""</a> (in Italian). 29 April 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Santa+Caterina+da+Siena+%22mistica+della+politica%22&rft.date=2020-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.edizionicantagalli.com%2Fsanta-caterina-da-siena-mistica-della-politica%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01694567/document">"L'eredità di Caterina da Siena nel Ducato Sabaudo fra XVI e XVIII secolo"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 24 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%27eredit%C3%A0+di+Caterina+da+Siena+nel+Ducato+Sabaudo+fra+XVI+e+XVIII+secolo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-01694567%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/colombini-giovanni-beato_(Dizionario-Biografico)/">"COLOMBINI, Giovanni, beato"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 24 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=COLOMBINI%2C+Giovanni%2C+beato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fcolombini-giovanni-beato_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/bindo-bonichi_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">"BONICHI, Bindo"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 25 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BONICHI%2C+Bindo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fbindo-bonichi_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sl-PnvFH3XUC&dq=antonio+pucci+il+pi%C3%B9+importante+letteratura+italiana&pg=PA61">Tutto letteratura italiana</a> (in Italian). De Agostini. 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788841861981" title="Special:BookSources/9788841861981"><bdi>9788841861981</bdi></a>. Retrieved 25 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tutto+letteratura+italiana&rft.pub=De+Agostini&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9788841861981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsl-PnvFH3XUC%26dq%3Dantonio%2Bpucci%2Bil%2Bpi%25C3%25B9%2Bimportante%2Bletteratura%2Bitaliana%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/petrarchismo_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/">"PETRARCHISMO"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 25 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PETRARCHISMO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fpetrarchismo_%2528Enciclopedia-Italiana%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N4QRJ7cWSIsC&dq=terza+rima+Pier+de+Natali&pg=PA467">"Giornale de' letterati d'Italia"</a> (in Italian). 1713. Retrieved 25 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Giornale+de%27+letterati+d%27Italia&rft.date=1713&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN4QRJ7cWSIsC%26dq%3Dterza%2Brima%2BPier%2Bde%2BNatali%26pg%3DPA467&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Craig W. Kallendorf, introduction to Humanist Educational Treatises, edited and translated by Craig W. Kallendorf (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London England: The I Tatti Renaissance Library, 2002) p. vii. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://corrieredelmezzogiorno.corriere.it/bari/notizie/arte_e_cultura/2009/3-novembre-2009/franco-cardini-incanta-auditorium-raiangio-aragona-nasce-grande-capitale--1601949162710.shtml">Franco Cardili (historical) </a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <blockquote>Early Italian humanism, which in many respects continued the grammatical and rhetorical traditions of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, not merely provided the old <a href="/wiki/Trivia" title="Trivia">Trivium</a> with a new and more ambitious name (Studia humanitatis), but also increased its actual scope, content and significance in the curriculum of the schools and universities and in its own extensive literary production. The studia hunanitatis excluded logic, but they added to the traditional grammar and rhetoric not only history, Greek, and moral philosophy, but also made poetry, once a sequel of grammar and rhetoric, the most important member of the whole group. —Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissance Thought II: Papers on Humanism and the Arts (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1965), p. 178.</blockquote> See also Kristeller's Renaissance Thought I, "Humanism and Scholasticism In the Italian Renaissance", Byzantion 17 (1944–45), pp. 346–74. Reprinted in Renaissance Thought (New York: Harper Torchbooks), 1961. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> They were <a href="/wiki/Innocent_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Innocent VII">Innocent VII</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas V">Nicholas V</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius II">Pius II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sixtus_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixtus IV">Sixtus IV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leo_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo X">Leo X</a>. Innocent VII, patron of Leonardo Bruni, is considered the first Humanist Pope. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BLgfAAAAIAAJ&dq=renaissance+Humanist+popes&pg=PA49">James Hankins, Plato in the Italian Renaissance (New York: Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition, 1990), p. 49</a>; for the others, see their respective entries in Sir John Hale's Concise Encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance (Oxford University Press, 1981). </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> See Humanist Educational Treatises, (2001) pp. 126–259. This volume (pp. 92–125) contains an essay by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a>, entitled "The Study of Literature", on the education of girls. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911904-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911904_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911904_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 904. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tuttatoscana.net/storia-e-microstoria-2/il-rinascimento-fiorentino-e-lera-dei-medici-dal-mito-alla-realta-parte-terza/">"Il Rinascimento fiorentino e l'era dei Medici dal mito alla realtà (parte terza)"</a> (in Italian). 24 March 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+Rinascimento+fiorentino+e+l%27era+dei+Medici+dal+mito+alla+realt%C3%A0+%28parte+terza%29&rft.date=2017-03-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftuttatoscana.net%2Fstoria-e-microstoria-2%2Fil-rinascimento-fiorentino-e-lera-dei-medici-dal-mito-alla-realta-parte-terza%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911904–905-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911904–905_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, pp. 904–905. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/angelo-ambrogini-detto-il-poliziano">"Poliziano, Angelo Ambrogini detto il"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 28 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Poliziano%2C+Angelo+Ambrogini+detto+il&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fangelo-ambrogini-detto-il-poliziano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905_84-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905_84-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905_84-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911905_84-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 905. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.weschool.com/lezione/trionfo-di-bacco-e-arianna-di-lorenzo-de-medici-riassunto-e-commento-5890.html">""Trionfo di Bacco e Arianna" di Lorenzo de' Medici: riassunto e commento"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 28 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Trionfo+di+Bacco+e+Arianna%22+di+Lorenzo+de%27+Medici%3A+riassunto+e+commento&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.weschool.com%2Flezione%2Ftrionfo-di-bacco-e-arianna-di-lorenzo-de-medici-riassunto-e-commento-5890.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enciclopediabresciana.it/enciclopedia/index.php?title=CANTASTORIE_e_Canterini">"CANTASTORIE e Canterini"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 22 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CANTASTORIE+e+Canterini&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enciclopediabresciana.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DCANTASTORIE_e_Canterini&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/luigi-pulci/">"Pulci, Luigi"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pulci%2C+Luigi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fluigi-pulci%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/orlando-innamorato">"Orlando innamorato"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Orlando+innamorato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Forlando-innamorato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/francesco-cieco-da-ferrara_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">"FRANCESCO Cieco da Ferrara"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FRANCESCO+Cieco+da+Ferrara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Ffrancesco-cieco-da-ferrara_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.storiadellaletteratura.it/print.php?cap=5&par=1">"L'età dell'umanesimo"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%27et%C3%A0+dell%27umanesimo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.storiadellaletteratura.it%2Fprint.php%3Fcap%3D5%26par%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.maremagnum.com/libri-antichi/l-historia-di-milano-volgarmente-scritta-dall/160514669">"L'HISTORIA DI MILANO VOLGARMENTE SCRITTA DALL'ECCELLENTISSIMO ORATORE M. BERNARDINO CORIO"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%27HISTORIA+DI+MILANO+VOLGARMENTE+SCRITTA+DALL%27ECCELLENTISSIMO+ORATORE+M.+BERNARDINO+CORIO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.maremagnum.com%2Flibri-antichi%2Fl-historia-di-milano-volgarmente-scritta-dall%2F160514669&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.letture.org/il-secolo-d-oro-del-rinascimento-andrea-antonioli">"Il secolo d'oro del Rinascimento"</a> (in Italian). 15 December 2017. Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+secolo+d%27oro+del+Rinascimento&rft.date=2017-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.letture.org%2Fil-secolo-d-oro-del-rinascimento-andrea-antonioli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniba.it/it/docenti/consiglio-cristina/attivita-didattica/letteratura-teatrale-europea-e-americana/teatro-rinascimentale-in-italia">"Il teatro del Rinascimento in Italia"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+teatro+del+Rinascimento+in+Italia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uniba.it%2Fit%2Fdocenti%2Fconsiglio-cristina%2Fattivita-didattica%2Fletteratura-teatrale-europea-e-americana%2Fteatro-rinascimentale-in-italia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sapere.it/sapere/strumenti/studiafacile/letteratura-francese/il_medioevo_/a8_il_teatro/Il-teatro-profano.html">"Il teatro profano"</a> (in Italian). 24 October 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+teatro+profano&rft.date=2020-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sapere.it%2Fsapere%2Fstrumenti%2Fstudiafacile%2Fletteratura-francese%2Fil_medioevo_%2Fa8_il_teatro%2FIl-teatro-profano.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-library-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-library_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-library_95-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.weschool.com/lezione/umanesimo-e-rinascimento-definizione-riassunto-storia-letteratura-sintesi-16139.html">"Il Rinascimento: sintesi dei temi e degli autori principali"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 30 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+Rinascimento%3A+sintesi+dei+temi+e+degli+autori+principali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.weschool.com%2Flezione%2Fumanesimo-e-rinascimento-definizione-riassunto-storia-letteratura-sintesi-16139.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Burke, Peter. The Fortunes of the Courtier: The European Reception of Castiglione's Cortegiano. Penn State University Press, 1995 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastiglione1901" class="citation book cs1">Castiglione, Baldesar (1901). Eckstein Opdycke, Leonard (ed.). The Book of the Courtier: The Scribner's Sons Translation. Translated by Singleton, Charles S. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 319.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+the+Courtier%3A+The+Scribner%27s+Sons+Translation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=319&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Castiglione&rft.aufirst=Baldesar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Courtesy literature can be traced back to 13th-century German and Italian writers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">"courtesy literature", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/140802/courtesy-literature">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a>, 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=courtesy+literature&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F140802%2Fcourtesy-literature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> See: W. R. Albury,Castiglione's Allegory: Veiled Policy in The Book of the Courtier (1528) (Routledge, 2014). </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sapere.it/sapere/strumenti/studiafacile/letteratura-italiana/il_cinquecento_/a3_niccolo_machiavelli__e_francesco_guicciardini/Riepilogando/In-sintesi.html">"In sintesi"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 30 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+sintesi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sapere.it%2Fsapere%2Fstrumenti%2Fstudiafacile%2Fletteratura-italiana%2Fil_cinquecento_%2Fa3_niccolo_machiavelli__e_francesco_guicciardini%2FRiepilogando%2FIn-sintesi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/niccolo-machiavelli_%28Il-Contributo-italiano-alla-storia-del-Pensiero:-Filosofia%29/">"Niccolò Machiavelli"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 30 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Niccol%C3%B2+Machiavelli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fniccolo-machiavelli_%2528Il-Contributo-italiano-alla-storia-del-Pensiero%3A-Filosofia%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.storiadifirenze.org/?storici=guicciardini-francesco">"Francesco Guicciardini"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 30 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Francesco+Guicciardini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.storiadifirenze.org%2F%3Fstorici%3Dguicciardini-francesco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://italianostoriablogsite.wordpress.com/2017/10/27/machiavelli-e-guicciardini-appunti-sintetici/">"MACHIAVELLI E GUICCIARDINI"</a> (in Italian). 27 October 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MACHIAVELLI+E+GUICCIARDINI&rft.date=2017-10-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fitalianostoriablogsite.wordpress.com%2F2017%2F10%2F27%2Fmachiavelli-e-guicciardini-appunti-sintetici%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ariosto-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Ariosto_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ludovico-ariosto_(Dizionario-Biografico)/">"ARIOSTO, Ludovico"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ARIOSTO%2C+Ludovico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fludovico-ariosto_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.weschool.com/lezione/bembo-prose-della-volgar-lingua-baldassar-castiglione-5995.html">""Prose della volgar lingua" di Pietro Bembo: introduzione all'opera"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Prose+della+volgar+lingua%22+di+Pietro+Bembo%3A+introduzione+all%27opera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.weschool.com%2Flezione%2Fbembo-prose-della-volgar-lingua-baldassar-castiglione-5995.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.unisi.it/ricerca/prog/musica/schede/madrigale.htm">"Madrigale"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madrigale&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.unisi.it%2Fricerca%2Fprog%2Fmusica%2Fschede%2Fmadrigale.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220702142249/http://www.letteraturaitaliana.net/autori/torquato_tasso.html#:~:text=La%20figura%20di%20Tasso%20si,questi%20due%20differenti%20movimenti%20culturali.">"Le peculiarità della poetica tassiana"</a> (in Italian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.letteraturaitaliana.net/autori/torquato_tasso.html#:~:text=La%20figura%20di%20Tasso%20si,questi%20due%20differenti%20movimenti%20culturali.">the original</a> on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 2 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+peculiarit%C3%A0+della+poetica+tassiana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.letteraturaitaliana.net%2Fautori%2Ftorquato_tasso.html%23%3A~%3Atext%3DLa%2520figura%2520di%2520Tasso%2520si%2Cquesti%2520due%2520differenti%2520movimenti%2520culturali.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907–908-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911907–908_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, pp. 907–908. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/torquato-tasso/">"Tasso, Torquato"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 2 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tasso%2C+Torquato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Ftorquato-tasso%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/gian-giorgio-trissino_%28Enciclopedia-dell%27Italiano%29/">"Trissino, Gian Giorgio"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 4 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trissino%2C+Gian+Giorgio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fgian-giorgio-trissino_%2528Enciclopedia-dell%2527Italiano%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://terzotriennio.blogspot.com/2011/01/il-petrarchismo-di-pietro-bembo-e.html">"Il petrarchismo di Pietro Bembo e Giovanni Della Casa"</a> (in Italian). 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Retrieved 4 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Storia+della+letteratura+italiana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.piccin.it%2Fit%2Fletteratura%2F1663-storia-della-letteratura-italiana-9788829919642.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nuovorinascimento.org/n-rinasc/saggi/pdf/giampieri/berni-donna.pdf">"Il sonetto "Alla sua donna" di Francesco Berni"</a> (PDF) (in Italian). Retrieved 4 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Il+sonetto+%22Alla+sua+donna%22+di+Francesco+Berni&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuovorinascimento.org%2Fn-rinasc%2Fsaggi%2Fpdf%2Fgiampieri%2Fberni-donna.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.studenti.it/baldassarre-castiglione-vita-opere-cortegiano.html">"Baldassarre Castiglione: vita, opere e Il Cortegiano"</a> (in Italian). 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Retrieved 5 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Secentismo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdizionari.corriere.it%2Fdizionario_italiano%2FS%2Fsecentismo.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908_121-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartoliOelsner1911908_121-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911">Bartoli & Oelsner 1911</a>, p. 908. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/secentismo/">"Secentismo"</a> (in Italian). 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Retrieved 16 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Novel&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Italian+Literature&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-818332-7&rft.aulast=Caesar&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198183327.001.0001%2Facref-9780198183327-e-2220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlawinski2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Slawinski, M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198183327.001.0001/acref-9780198183327-e-2375">"Pasini, Pace"</a>. 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Enlightenment Orientalism: Resisting the Rise of the Novel. University of Chicago Press. pp. 40–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226024486" title="Special:BookSources/9780226024486"><bdi>9780226024486</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enlightenment+Orientalism%3A+Resisting+the+Rise+of+the+Novel&rft.pages=40-50&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780226024486&rft.aulast=Aravamudan&rft.aufirst=Srinivas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallaster2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Ballaster" title="Rosalind Ballaster">Ballaster, Rosalind</a> (2005). 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Retrieved 12 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Literature+1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fliterature%2F1997%2Fsummary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartoliOelsner1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bartoli, Adolfo; Oelsner, Hermann (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Italian_Literature" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Italian Literature">Italian Literature</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 897–912.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italian+Literature&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=897-912&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Bartoli&rft.aufirst=Adolfo&rft.au=Oelsner%2C+Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+literature" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Addington_Symonds" title="John Addington Symonds">John Addington Symonds</a>'s Renaissance in Italy (especially, but not exclusively, vols. iv. and v.; new ed., London, 1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Garnett_(writer)" title="Richard Garnett (writer)">Richard Garnett</a>'s History of Italian Literature (London, 1898)</li> <li>A Short History of Italian Literature, by <a href="/w/index.php?title=J._H._Whitfield&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. H. Whitfield (page does not exist)">J. H. Whitfield</a> (1969, <a href="/wiki/Pelican_Books" title="Pelican Books">Pelican Books</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Garratt_Gardner" title="Edmund Garratt Gardner">Gardner, E. G.</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_National_Idea_in_Italian_Literature" class="extiw" title="s:The National Idea in Italian Literature">The National Idea in Italian Literature</a>, Manchester, 1921</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_literature&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liberliber.it/">Liber Liber(progetto Manuzio)</a> Italian literature texts.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.storiadellaletteratura.it/">www.StoriaDellaLetteratura.it - Storia della letteratura italiana (history of italian literature, full text, by Antonio Piromalli)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100609010811/http://www.inandoutdubai.com/30-Unabridged-Versions-of-Italian-Literature.php">Original and unabridged italian versions of italian literature</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603080455/http://www.spunti.com.au/">Original Italian literature academic journal articles</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline of Italian history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a 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title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latial_culture" title="Latial culture">Latial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Ancient peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapians" title="Messapians">Messapians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li>Italy under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">the Sardinian Judicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombard League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Napoleonic Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Late modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Monarchy and the World Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italian geographical region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Italy" title="Climate of Italy">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Italy" title="Fauna of Italy">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Italy" title="List of mountains in Italy">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_foothills" title="Alpine foothills">Prealps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy" title="Volcanism of Italy">Volcanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Italy" title="List of volcanoes in Italy">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Italy" title="List of beaches in Italy">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_Italy" title="List of canals in Italy">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_Italy" title="List of caves in Italy">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Italy" title="List of earthquakes in Italy">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Italy" title="List of islands of Italy">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Italy" title="List of lakes of Italy">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Italy" title="List of national parks of Italy">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Italy" title="List of regional parks of Italy">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Italy" title="List of rivers of Italy">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Italy" title="List of valleys of Italy">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Italy" title="Politics of Italy">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Italy" title="Elections in Italy">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Italy" title="Government of Italy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Italy" title="Human rights in Italy">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Italy">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Italy" title="Law enforcement in Italy">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces" title="Italian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Italy" title="List of political parties in Italy">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Italy" title="List of presidents of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Italy)" title="Council of Ministers (Italy)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Italy" title="Regions of Italy">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_cities_of_Italy" title="Metropolitan cities of Italy">Metropolitan cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Italy" title="List of cities in Italy">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">Comune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Italy" title="List of municipalities of Italy">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_intelligence_agencies" title="Italian intelligence agencies">Security and intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Italian regions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_brands" title="List of Italian brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Italy" title="Energy in Italy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Italy" title="List of airports in Italy">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Italy" title="Rail transport in Italy">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_welfare_state" title="Italian welfare state">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Italy" title="Category:Society of Italy">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Italy" title="Censorship in Italy">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Italy" title="Corruption in Italy">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Italy" title="Crime in Italy">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy" title="Demographics of Italy">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Emigration and diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Italy" title="Health in Italy">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Italy" title="Immigration to Italy">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Italy" title="List of people from Italy">People</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Italian provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Italy" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Italy">Orders, decorations, and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" title="Poverty in Italy">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Italy" title="Prostitution in Italy">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_public_administration" title="Italian public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Italy" title="Terrorism in Italy">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Italy" title="Culture of Italy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_culture_(1700s)" title="History of Italian culture (1700s)">Settecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Neoclassical_and_19th-century_art" title="Italian Neoclassical and 19th-century art">Ottocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Italy" title="List of castles in Italy">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cathedrals_in_Italy" title="List of cathedrals in Italy">Cathedrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Italy" title="Emblem of Italy">Coat of arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_design" title="Italian 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literature">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_literature" title="Armenian literature">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_literature" title="Aromanian literature">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asturian_literature" title="Asturian literature">Asturian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_literature" title="Austrian literature">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_literature" title="Basque literature">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_literature" title="Belarusian literature">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_literature" title="Belgian literature">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnian literature">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_literature" title="Breton literature">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_literature" title="Bulgarian literature">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_literature" title="Catalan literature">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_literature" title="Chuvash literature">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_literature" title="Cornish literature">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_literature" title="Crimean Tatar literature">Crimean Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_literature" title="Croatian literature">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_literature" title="Cypriot literature">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature" title="Czech literature">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature" title="Danish literature">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch-language_literature" title="Dutch-language literature">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English (Anglo-Saxon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_literature" title="Estonian literature">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature" title="Faroese literature">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_literature" title="Flemish literature">Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_literature" title="Frisian literature">Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friulian_literature" title="Friulian literature">Friulian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gagauz_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gagauz literature (page does not exist)">Gagauz</a> [<a 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title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Literature of Northern Ireland">Northern Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais_literature" title="Jèrriais literature">Jèrriais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_literature" title="Kazakh literature">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_literature" title="Kashubian literature">Kashubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Kosovo" title="Literature of Kosovo">Kosovar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_literature" title="Latvian literature">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_literature" title="Lithuanian literature">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg 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