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and theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definitions,_types,_and_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Real_wage_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Real_wage_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Real wage unemployment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Real_wage_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyclical_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyclical_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Cyclical unemployment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyclical_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unemployment_under_"full_employment"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unemployment_under_"full_employment""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Unemployment under "full employment"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unemployment_under_"full_employment"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Structural unemployment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frictional_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frictional_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Frictional unemployment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frictional_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hidden_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hidden_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Hidden unemployment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hidden_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Long-term unemployment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marxian_theory_of_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marxian_theory_of_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Marxian theory of unemployment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marxian_theory_of_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Measurement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Measurement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_Union_(Eurostat)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union_(Eurostat)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>European Union (Eurostat)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union_(Eurostat)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_Bureau_of_Labor_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_Bureau_of_Labor_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>United States Bureau of Labor statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_Bureau_of_Labor_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Alternatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Limitations_of_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations_of_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Limitations of definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations_of_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_force_participation_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_force_participation_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Labor force participation rate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_force_participation_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unemployment-to-population_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unemployment-to-population_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Unemployment-to-population ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unemployment-to-population_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Costs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Individual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Individual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_and_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_and_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Gender and age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_and_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociopolitical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociopolitical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Sociopolitical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociopolitical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Benefits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_in_work_hours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_in_work_hours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Decline in work hours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_in_work_hours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remedies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remedies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Remedies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Remedies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Remedies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Remedies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Demand-side_solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demand-side_solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Demand-side solutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demand-side_solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supply-side_solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supply-side_solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Supply-side solutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supply-side_solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-16th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>16th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-16th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_Revolution_to_late_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_Revolution_to_late_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Industrial Revolution to late 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_Revolution_to_late_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical:_Europe_and_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical:_Europe_and_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Historical: Europe and Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical:_Europe_and_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical:_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical:_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Historical: United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical:_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Unemployment</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 99 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-99" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">99 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werkloosheid" title="Werkloosheid – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Werkloosheid" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9" title="بطالة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بطالة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ature" title="Ature – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ature" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desemplegu" title="Desemplegu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Desemplegu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0%C5%9Fsizlik" title="İşsizlik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İşsizlik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ایشسیزلیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایشسیزلیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="বেকারত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেকারত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sit-gia%CC%8Dp" title="Sit-gia̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sit-gia̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%88%D2%BB%D0%B5%D2%99%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Эшһеҙлек – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Эшһеҙлек" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%B5" title="Беспрацоўе – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Беспрацоўе" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%B5" title="Беспрацоўе – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Беспрацоўе" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="बेरोजगारी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बेरोजगारी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Безработица – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Безработица" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nezaposlenost" title="Nezaposlenost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nezaposlenost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atur" title="Atur – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Atur" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%94%C3%A7%D1%81%C4%95%D1%80%D0%BB%C4%95%D1%85" title="Ĕçсĕрлĕх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ĕçсĕрлĕх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nezam%C4%9Bstnanost" title="Nezaměstnanost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nezaměstnanost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diweithdra" title="Diweithdra – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Diweithdra" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbejdsl%C3%B8shed" title="Arbejdsløshed – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Arbejdsløshed" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="شوماج – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="شوماج" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeitslosigkeit" title="Arbeitslosigkeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arbeitslosigkeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6%C3%B6puudus" title="Tööpuudus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tööpuudus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ανεργία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανεργία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desempleo" title="Desempleo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Desempleo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senlaboreco" title="Senlaboreco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Senlaboreco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langabezia" title="Langabezia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Langabezia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="بیکاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بیکاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%B4mage" title="Chômage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chômage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%ADfhosta%C3%ADocht" title="Dífhostaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dífhostaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desemprego" title="Desemprego – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Desemprego" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A4%EC%97%85" title="실업 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="실업" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AE%D5%A1%D5%A6%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գործազրկություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գործազրկություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="बेकारी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बेकारी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nezaposlenost" title="Nezaposlenost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nezaposlenost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomeso" title="Chomeso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Chomeso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengangguran" title="Pengangguran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengangguran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disoccupation" title="Disoccupation – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Disoccupation" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atvinnuleysi" title="Atvinnuleysi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Atvinnuleysi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disoccupazione" title="Disoccupazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disoccupazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%94" title="אבטלה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבטלה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%97" title="ನಿರುದ್ಯೋಗ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನಿರುದ್ಯೋಗ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D2%B1%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Жұмыссыздық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жұмыссыздық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomaj" title="Chomaj – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Chomaj" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%88%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Жумушсуздук – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жумушсуздук" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inopia_quaestus" title="Inopia quaestus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Inopia quaestus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezdarbs" title="Bezdarbs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bezdarbs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nedarbas" title="Nedarbas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nedarbas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munkan%C3%A9lk%C3%BClis%C3%A9g" title="Munkanélküliség – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Munkanélküliség" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Невработеност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Невработеност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%B4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE" title="തൊഴിലില്ലായ്മ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തൊഴിലില്ലായ്മ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="बेकारी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बेकारी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengangguran" title="Pengangguran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengangguran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangangguran" title="Pangangguran – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Pangangguran" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B3%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Ажилгүйдэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ажилгүйдэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%B2%E1%80%B7%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="အလုပ်လက်မဲ့ဖြစ်ခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အလုပ်လက်မဲ့ဖြစ်ခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werkloosheid" title="Werkloosheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Werkloosheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="बेरोजगारी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बेरोजगारी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%B1%E6%A5%AD" title="失業 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="失業" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Белхазалла – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Белхазалла" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeidsledighet" title="Arbeidsledighet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arbeidsledighet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeidsl%C3%B8yse" title="Arbeidsløyse – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Arbeidsløyse" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caumatge" title="Caumatge – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Caumatge" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishsizlik" title="Ishsizlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ishsizlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਬੇਰੁਜ਼ਗਾਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੇਰੁਜ਼ਗਾਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="بیروزگاری – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بیروزگاری" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="بیکاری – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بیکاری" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezrobocie" title="Bezrobocie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bezrobocie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desemprego" title="Desemprego – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Desemprego" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98omaj" title="Șomaj – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Șomaj" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Безробітность – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Безробітность" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Безработица – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Безработица" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BE%D1%85_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83" title="Үлэтэ суох буолуу – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Үлэтэ суох буолуу" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papun%C3%ABsia" title="Papunësia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Papunësia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disuccupazzioni" title="Disuccupazzioni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Disuccupazzioni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Unemployment" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nezamestnanos%C5%A5" title="Nezamestnanosť – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nezamestnanosť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezposelnost" title="Brezposelnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Brezposelnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaqo_la%27aan" title="Shaqo la'aan – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Shaqo la'aan" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8E%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="بێکاری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بێکاری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Незапосленост – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Незапосленост" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nezaposlenost" title="Nezaposlenost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nezaposlenost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ty%C3%B6tt%C3%B6myys" title="Työttömyys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Työttömyys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbetsl%C3%B6shet" title="Arbetslöshet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Arbetslöshet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawalang_trabaho" title="Kawalang trabaho – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kawalang trabaho" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="வேலைவாய்ப்பின்மை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வேலைவாய்ப்பின்மை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%88%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Эшсезлек – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Эшсезлек" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%82" title="నిరుద్యోగం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నిరుద్యోగం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="การว่างงาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การว่างงาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D3%A3" title="Бекорӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бекорӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0%C5%9Fsizlik" title="İşsizlik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İşsizlik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8F" title="Безробіття – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Безробіття" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="بیروزگاری – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بیروزگاری" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BA%A5t_nghi%E1%BB%87p" title="Thất nghiệp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thất nghiệp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tch%C3%B4maedje" title="Tchômaedje – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Tchômaedje" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weirkl%C3%B4oseid" title="Weirklôoseid – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Weirklôoseid" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%B1%E4%B8%9A" title="失业 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="失业" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%B2%D7%98" title="ארבעטסלאזיקײט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ארבעטסלאזיקײט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%B1%E6%A5%AD" title="失業 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="失業" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%B1%E6%A5%AD" title="失業 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="失業" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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to unemployed people, see <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">Unemployment benefits</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployment_rate,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Unemployment_rate%2C_OWID.svg/440px-Unemployment_rate%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Unemployment_rate%2C_OWID.svg/660px-Unemployment_rate%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Unemployment_rate%2C_OWID.svg/880px-Unemployment_rate%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment rate, 2021<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef;padding:0.2em;font-size:200%;"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/120px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/180px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Micro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_methodology" title="Economic methodology">Methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" title="JEL classification codes">JEL classification codes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts, theory and techniques</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Economic growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">National accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_income_trap" title="Middle income trap">Middle income trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_complex" title="Industrial complex">Industrial complex</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">By application</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_digitization" title="Economics of digitization">Digitization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></i></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" 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nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Macroeconomics" title="Category:Macroeconomics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ec_8_(26088200676)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Federal Reserve" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1633" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">Aggregate demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Aggregate supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_annual_growth_rate" title="Compound annual growth rate">CAGR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">Deflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_shock" title="Demand shock">Demand shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinflation" title="Disinflation">Disinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">Effective demand</a></li> <li>Expectations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_expectations" title="Adaptive expectations">Adaptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_expectations" title="Rational expectations">Rational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand-pull_inflation" title="Demand-pull inflation">Demand-pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost-push_inflation" title="Cost-push inflation">Cost-push</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">Interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(macroeconomics)" title="Investment (macroeconomics)">Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquidity_trap" title="Liquidity trap">Liquidity trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measures_of_national_income_and_output" title="Measures of national income and output">Measures of national income and output</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_national_income" title="Gross national income">GNI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_national_income" title="Net national income">NNI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfoundations" title="Microfoundations">Microfoundations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_money" title="Endogenous money">Endogenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_creation" title="Money creation">Money creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_for_money" title="Demand for money">Demand for money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liquidity_preference" title="Liquidity preference">Liquidity preference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">Money supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">National accounts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/System_of_National_Accounts" title="System of National Accounts">SNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">Nominal rigidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_level" title="Price level">Price level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrinkflation" title="Shrinkflation">Shrinkflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Stagflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_shock" title="Supply shock">Supply shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_saving" title="National saving">Saving</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unemployment</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_policy" title="Commercial policy">Commercial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">Universal basic income</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Models</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IS%E2%80%93LM_model" title="IS–LM model">IS–LM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AD%E2%80%93AS_model" title="AD–AS model">AD–AS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_cross" title="Keynesian cross">Keynesian cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplier_(economics)" title="Multiplier (economics)">Multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accelerator_effect" title="Accelerator effect">Accelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_curve" title="Phillips curve">Phillips curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrow%E2%80%93Debreu_model" title="Arrow–Debreu model">Arrow–Debreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrod%E2%80%93Domar_model" title="Harrod–Domar model">Harrod–Domar</a>Нмиф</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solow%E2%80%93Swan_model" title="Solow–Swan model">Solow–Swan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey%E2%80%93Cass%E2%80%93Koopmans_model" title="Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model">Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlapping_generations_model" title="Overlapping generations model">Overlapping generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium_theory" title="General equilibrium theory">General equilibrium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_stochastic_general_equilibrium" title="Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium">DSGE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_growth_theory" title="Endogenous growth theory">Endogenous growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matching_theory_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matching theory (economics)">Matching theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundell%E2%80%93Fleming_model" title="Mundell–Fleming model">Mundell–Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshooting_model" title="Overshooting model">Overshooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAIRU" title="NAIRU">NAIRU</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Economic statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International economics</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_macroeconomic_thought" title="History of macroeconomic thought">Schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><i>Mainstream</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_school_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm school (economics)">Stockholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_neoclassical_synthesis" title="New neoclassical synthesis">New neoclassical synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_and_freshwater_economics" title="Saltwater and freshwater economics">Saltwater and freshwater</a></li></ul> <p><i>Heterodox</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_monetarism" title="Market monetarism">Market monetarism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Macroeconomists" title="Category:Macroeconomists">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Léon Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knut_Wicksell" title="Knut Wicksell">Knut Wicksell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Irving Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Clair_Mitchell" title="Wesley Clair Mitchell">Wesley Clair Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Hansen" title="Alvin Hansen">Alvin Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Michał Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Gunnar Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Simon Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Joan Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">John Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stone" title="Richard Stone">Richard Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Minsky" title="Hyman Minsky">Hyman Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Klein" title="Lawrence Klein">Lawrence Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Phelps" title="Edmund Phelps">Edmund Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Robert Lucas Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Prescott" title="Edward C. Prescott">Edward C. Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Diamond" title="Peter Diamond">Peter Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Nordhaus" title="William Nordhaus">William Nordhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Sargent" title="Thomas J. Sargent">Thomas J. Sargent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Mankiw" title="Greg Mankiw">N. Gregory Mankiw</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomic_model" title="Macroeconomic model">Macroeconomic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics#Macroeconomics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications in macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical economics</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/16px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/24px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/32px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="465" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Money" title="Portal:Money">Money portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Macroeconomics_sidebar" title="Template:Macroeconomics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Macroeconomics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Macroeconomics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Macroeconomics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Macroeconomics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Capitalism" title="Category:Capitalism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">Austerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Businessperson" title="Businessperson">Businessperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_market" title="Capital market">Capital markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competitive markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_surplus" title="Economic surplus">Economic surplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_capital" title="Fictitious capital">Fictitious capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_market" title="Financial market">Financial market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_price_system" title="Free price system">Free price system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">Goods and services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor" title="Investor">Investor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_hand_(economics)" title="Visible hand (economics)">Visible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalization" title="Liberalization">Liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent_seeking" class="mw-redirect" title="Rent seeking">Rent seeking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_value" title="Surplus value">Surplus value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(economics)" title="Value (economics)">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Economic systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon capitalism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market#General_principles" title="Free market">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal capitalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian capitalism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market capitalism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed capitalism">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="National capitalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic capitalism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw capitalism">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capitalism" title="Regulatory capitalism">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine capitalism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="State-sponsored capitalism">State-sponsored</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Economic theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Monetary_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Monetary Theory">MMT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_monetarism" title="Market monetarism">Market monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism and Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_commodity_production" title="Simple commodity production">Simple commodity production</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Development</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_capitalism" title="Consumer capitalism">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_capitalism" title="Community capitalism">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crony_capitalism" title="Crony capitalism">Crony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance_capitalism" title="Finance capitalism">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Global capitalism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Illiberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_capitalism" title="Late capitalism">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_capitalism" title="Merchant capitalism">Merchant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_capitalism" title="Progressive capitalism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rentier_capitalism" title="Rentier capitalism">Rentier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">State monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocapitalism" title="Technocapitalism">Technological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Coase</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_propaganda" title="Capitalist propaganda">Capitalist propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_realism" title="Capitalist realism">Capitalist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_state" title="Capitalist state">Capitalist state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_theory" title="Crisis theory">Crisis theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Culture of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evergreening" title="Evergreening">Evergreening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodizations_of_capitalism" title="Periodizations of capitalism">Periodizations of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspectives on capitalism">Perspectives on capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculation" title="Speculation">Speculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_philanthropy" title="Venture philanthropy">Venture philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_capitalism" title="Inclusive capitalism">Inclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal capitalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian capitalism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Capitalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordoliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatism" title="Privatism">Privatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitalismlogo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/16px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/24px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/32px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="912" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Capitalism" title="Portal:Capitalism">Capitalism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Template:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Unemployment</b>, according to the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), is people above a specified age (usually 15)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not being in paid <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a> or <a href="/wiki/Self-employment" title="Self-employment">self-employment</a> but currently available for <a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">work</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Reference_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference period">reference period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unemployment is measured by the unemployment rate, which is the number of people who are unemployed as a percentage of the <a href="/wiki/Labour_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour force">labour force</a> (the total number of people employed added to those unemployed).<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unemployment can have many sources, such as the following: </p> <ul><li>the status of the <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a>, which can be influenced by a <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competition</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a></li> <li>new <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policies</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">civil disorder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural disasters">natural disasters</a></li></ul> <p>Unemployment and the status of the economy can be influenced by a country through, for example, <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a>. Furthermore, the <a href="/wiki/Monetary_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary authority">monetary authority</a> of a country, such as the <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central bank</a>, can influence the availability and cost for money through its <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a>. </p><p>In addition to theories of unemployment, a few categorisations of unemployment are used for more precisely <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">modelling</a> the effects of unemployment within the economic system. Some of the main types of unemployment include <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">structural unemployment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frictional_unemployment" title="Frictional unemployment">frictional unemployment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclical_unemployment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclical unemployment">cyclical unemployment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_unemployment" title="Involuntary unemployment">involuntary unemployment</a> and classical unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Structural unemployment focuses on foundational problems in the economy and inefficiencies inherent in labor markets, including a mismatch between the supply and demand of laborers with necessary skill sets. Structural arguments emphasize causes and solutions related to <a href="/wiki/Disruptive_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Disruptive technology">disruptive technologies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. Discussions of frictional unemployment focus on voluntary decisions to work based on individuals' valuation of their own work and how that compares to current wage rates added to the time and effort required to find a job. Causes and solutions for frictional unemployment often address job entry threshold and wage rates. </p><p>According to the UN's <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> (ILO), there were 172 million people worldwide (or 5% of the reported global workforce) without work in 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of the difficulty in measuring the unemployment rate by, for example, using surveys (as in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>) or through registered unemployed citizens (as in some <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> countries), statistical figures such as the <a href="/wiki/Employment-to-population_ratio" title="Employment-to-population ratio">employment-to-population ratio</a> might be more suitable for evaluating the status of the <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">workforce</a> and the economy if they were based on people who are registered, for example, as <a href="/wiki/Taxpayer" title="Taxpayer">taxpayers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions,_types,_and_theories"><span id="Definitions.2C_types.2C_and_theories"></span>Definitions, types, and theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions, types, and theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployment_in_Mexico_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Unemployment_in_Mexico_2009.jpg/220px-Unemployment_in_Mexico_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Unemployment_in_Mexico_2009.jpg/330px-Unemployment_in_Mexico_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Unemployment_in_Mexico_2009.jpg/440px-Unemployment_in_Mexico_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment in Mexico 2009</figcaption></figure> <p>The state of being without any work yet looking for work is called unemployment. Economists distinguish between various overlapping types of and theories of unemployment, including <a href="#Cyclical_unemployment">cyclical or Keynesian unemployment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frictional_unemployment" title="Frictional unemployment">frictional unemployment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">structural unemployment</a> and classical unemployment definition. Some additional types of unemployment that are occasionally mentioned are seasonal unemployment, hardcore unemployment, and hidden unemployment. </p><p>Though there have been several definitions of "voluntary" and "<a href="/wiki/Involuntary_unemployment" title="Involuntary unemployment">involuntary unemployment</a>" in the economics literature, a simple distinction is often applied. Voluntary unemployment is attributed to the individual's decisions, but involuntary unemployment exists because of the socio-economic environment (including the market structure, government intervention, and the level of aggregate demand) in which individuals operate. In these terms, much or most of <a href="/wiki/Frictional_unemployment" title="Frictional unemployment">frictional unemployment</a> is voluntary since it reflects individual search behavior. Voluntary unemployment includes workers who reject low-wage jobs, but involuntary unemployment includes workers fired because of an economic crisis, <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">industrial decline</a>, company bankruptcy, or organizational restructuring. </p><p>On the other hand, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, and classical unemployment are largely involuntary in nature. However, the existence of structural unemployment may reflect choices made by the unemployed in the past, and classical (natural) unemployment may result from the legislative and economic choices made by labour unions or political parties. </p><p>The clearest cases of involuntary unemployment are those with fewer job vacancies than unemployed workers even when wages are allowed to adjust and so even if all vacancies were to be filled, some unemployed workers would still remain. That happens with cyclical unemployment, as macroeconomic forces cause microeconomic unemployment, which can boomerang back and exacerbate those macroeconomic forces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Real_wage_unemployment">Real wage unemployment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Real wage unemployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classical, natural, or real-wage unemployment, occurs when real wages for a job are set above the <a href="/wiki/Market-clearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Market-clearing">market-clearing</a> level, causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies. On the other hand, most economists argue that as wages fall below a livable wage, many choose to drop out of the labour market and no longer seek employment. That is especially true in countries in which low-income families are supported through public welfare systems. In such cases, wages would have to be high enough to motivate people to choose employment over what they receive through public welfare. Wages below a livable wage are likely to result in lower labor market participation in the above-stated scenario. In addition, consumption of goods and services is the primary driver of increased <a href="/wiki/Demand_for_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Demand for labor">demand for labor</a>. Higher wages lead to workers having more income available to consume goods and services. Therefore, higher wages increase general consumption and as a result demand for labor increases and unemployment decreases. </p><p>Many economists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2020)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> have argued that unemployment increases with increased governmental regulation. For example, <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a> laws raise the cost of some low-skill laborers above market equilibrium, resulting in increased unemployment as people who wish to work at the going rate cannot (as the new and higher enforced wage is now greater than the value of their labour).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laws restricting layoffs may make businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring becomes more risky.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, that argument overly simplifies the relationship between wage rates and unemployment by ignoring numerous factors that contribute to unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-P._Garegnani_1970_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P._Garegnani_1970-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robert_L._Vienneau_2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_L._Vienneau_2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ian_Steedman_2009_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ian_Steedman_2009-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wyne_Godley_1989_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyne_Godley_1989-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Graham_White_2001_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham_White_2001-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some, such as <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a>, suggest that even social taboos can prevent wages from falling to the market-clearing level.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Out of Work: Unemployment and Government in the Twentieth-Century America</i>, economists <a href="/wiki/Richard_Vedder" title="Richard Vedder">Richard Vedder</a> and Lowell Gallaway argue that the empirical record of wages rates, productivity, and unemployment in America validates classical unemployment theory. Their data shows a strong correlation between adjusted real wage and unemployment in the United States from 1900 to 1990. However, they maintain that their data does not take into account <a href="/wiki/Exogenous_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Exogenous variable">exogenous events</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyclical_unemployment">Cyclical unemployment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cyclical unemployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png/330px-US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png/495px-US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png/660px-US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>US unemployment rate, 1990—2022. The increase in unemployment during recessions (shaded) is called cyclical unemployment.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cyclical, deficient-demand, or <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> unemployment occurs when there is not enough <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a> in the economy to provide jobs for everyone who wants to work. Demand for most goods and services falls, less production is needed and consequently, fewer workers are needed, wages are sticky and do not fall to meet the equilibrium level, and unemployment results.<sup id="cite_ref-Keynes_2007_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keynes_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its name is derived from the frequent ups and downs in the <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business cycle</a>, but unemployment can also be persistent, such as during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. </p><p>With cyclical unemployment, the number of unemployed workers exceeds the number of job vacancies and so even if all open jobs were filled, some workers would still remain unemployed. Some associate cyclical unemployment with frictional unemployment because the factors that cause the friction are partially caused by cyclical variables. For example, a surprise decrease in the money supply may suddenly inhibit aggregate demand and thus inhibit <a href="/wiki/Labor_demand" title="Labor demand">labor demand</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Keynesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Keynesian">Keynesian</a> economists, on the other hand, see the lack of supply of jobs as potentially resolvable by government intervention. One suggested intervention involves <a href="/wiki/Deficit_spending" title="Deficit spending">deficit spending</a> to boost employment and goods demand. Another intervention involves an expansionary <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a> to increase the <a href="/wiki/Supply_of_money" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply of money">supply of money</a>, which should reduce <a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">interest rates</a>, which, in turn, should lead to an increase in non-governmental spending.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unemployment_under_"full_employment""><span id="Unemployment_under_.22full_employment.22"></span>Unemployment under "full employment"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Unemployment under "full employment""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">Full employment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAIRU-SR-and-LR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NAIRU-SR-and-LR.svg/220px-NAIRU-SR-and-LR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NAIRU-SR-and-LR.svg/330px-NAIRU-SR-and-LR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NAIRU-SR-and-LR.svg/440px-NAIRU-SR-and-LR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="469" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>Short-run <a href="/wiki/Phillips_curve" title="Phillips curve">Phillips curve</a> before and after Expansionary Policy, with Long-Run Phillips Curve (NAIRU). Note, however, that the unemployment rate is an inaccurate predictor of inflation in the long term.<sup id="cite_ref-chang_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chang-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hossfeld_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hossfeld-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In demands based theory, it is possible to abolish cyclical unemployment by increasing the aggregate demand for products and workers. However, the economy eventually hits an "<a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> barrier" that is imposed by the four other kinds of unemployment to the extent that they exist. Historical experience suggests that low unemployment affects inflation in the short term but not the long term.<sup id="cite_ref-chang_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chang-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the long term, the <a href="/wiki/Velocity_of_money" title="Velocity of money">velocity of money</a> supply measures such as the MZM ("money zero maturity", representing cash and equivalent <a href="/wiki/Demand_deposit" title="Demand deposit">demand deposits</a>) velocity is far more predictive of inflation than low unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-hossfeld_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hossfeld-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some demand theory economists see the inflation barrier as corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Natural_rate_of_unemployment" title="Natural rate of unemployment">natural rate of unemployment</a>. The "natural" rate of unemployment is defined as the rate of unemployment that exists when the labour market is in equilibrium, and there is pressure for neither rising inflation rates nor falling inflation rates. An alternative technical term for that rate is the <a href="/wiki/NAIRU" title="NAIRU">NAIRU</a>, the <i>Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment</i>. Whatever its name, demand theory holds that if the unemployment rate gets "too low", inflation will accelerate in the absence of wage and price controls (incomes policies). </p><p>One of the major problems with the NAIRU theory is that no one knows exactly what the NAIRU is, and it clearly changes over time.<sup id="cite_ref-chang_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chang-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The margin of error can be quite high relative to the actual unemployment rate, making it hard to use the NAIRU in policy-making.<sup id="cite_ref-hossfeld_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hossfeld-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another, normative, definition of full employment might be called the <i>ideal</i> unemployment rate. It would exclude all types of unemployment that represent forms of inefficiency. This type of "full employment" unemployment would correspond to only frictional unemployment (excluding that part encouraging the <a href="/wiki/McJob" title="McJob">McJobs</a> management strategy) and so would be very low. However, it would be impossible to attain this full-employment target using only demand-side <a href="/wiki/Keynesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Keynesian">Keynesian</a> stimulus without getting below the NAIRU and causing accelerating inflation (absent incomes policies). Training programs aimed at fighting structural unemployment would help here. </p><p>To the extent that hidden unemployment exists, it implies that official unemployment statistics provide a poor guide to what unemployment rate coincides with "full employment".<sup id="cite_ref-chang_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chang-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_unemployment">Structural unemployment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Structural unemployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">Structural unemployment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Okuns_law_quarterly_differences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Okuns_law_quarterly_differences.svg/220px-Okuns_law_quarterly_differences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Okuns_law_quarterly_differences.svg/330px-Okuns_law_quarterly_differences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Okuns_law_quarterly_differences.svg/440px-Okuns_law_quarterly_differences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="199" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Okun%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Okun's Law">Okun's Law</a> interprets unemployment as a function of the rate of growth in GDP.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">Structural unemployment</a> occurs when a labour market is unable to provide jobs for everyone who wants one because there is a mismatch between the skills of the unemployed workers and the skills needed for the available jobs. Structural unemployment is hard to separate empirically from frictional unemployment except that it lasts longer. As with frictional unemployment, simple demand-side stimulus will not work to abolish this type of unemployment easily. </p><p>Structural unemployment may also be encouraged to rise by persistent cyclical unemployment: if an economy suffers from longlasting low aggregate demand, it means that many of the unemployed become disheartened, and their skills (including <a href="/wiki/Job_hunting" title="Job hunting">job-searching</a> skills) become "rusty" and obsolete. Problems with debt may lead to <a href="/wiki/Homelessness" title="Homelessness">homelessness</a> and a fall into the vicious cycle of poverty, which means that people affected in this way may not fit the job vacancies that are created when the economy recovers. The implication is that sustained <i>high</i> demand may <i>lower</i> structural unemployment. This theory of persistence in structural unemployment has been referred to as an example of <a href="/wiki/Path_dependence" title="Path dependence">path dependence</a> or "<a href="/wiki/Hysteresis" title="Hysteresis">hysteresis</a>". </p><p>Much <i><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">technological unemployment</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Jerome_1934_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jerome_1934-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> caused by the replacement of workers by machines might be counted as structural unemployment. Alternatively, technological unemployment might refer to the way in which steady increases in labour productivity mean that fewer workers are needed to produce the same level of output every year. The fact that aggregate demand can be raised to deal with the problem suggests that the problem is instead one of cyclical unemployment. As indicated by <a href="/wiki/Okun%27s_law" title="Okun's law">Okun's law</a>, the demand side must grow sufficiently quickly to absorb not only the growing labour force but also the workers who are made redundant by the increased labour productivity. </p><p>Seasonal unemployment may be seen as a kind of structural unemployment since it is linked to certain kinds of jobs (construction and migratory farm work). The most-cited official unemployment measures erase this kind of unemployment from the statistics using "seasonal adjustment" techniques. That results in substantial and permanent structural unemployment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frictional_unemployment">Frictional unemployment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Frictional unemployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Frictional_unemployment" title="Frictional unemployment">Frictional unemployment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_beveridge_2004_through_fall_2010.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/US_beveridge_2004_through_fall_2010.gif/220px-US_beveridge_2004_through_fall_2010.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/US_beveridge_2004_through_fall_2010.gif/330px-US_beveridge_2004_through_fall_2010.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/US_beveridge_2004_through_fall_2010.gif/440px-US_beveridge_2004_through_fall_2010.gif 2x" data-file-width="1226" data-file-height="919" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Beveridge_curve" title="Beveridge curve">Beveridge curve</a> of 2004 <a href="/wiki/Vacancy_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacancy (economics)">job vacancy</a> and unemployment rate (from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics)</figcaption></figure> <p>Frictional unemployment is the time period between jobs in which a worker <a href="/wiki/Search_theory" title="Search theory">searches</a> for or transitions from one job to another. It is sometimes called <i>search unemployment</i> and can be voluntary, based on the circumstances of the unemployed individual. Frictional unemployment exists because both jobs and workers are <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneity_in_economics" title="Heterogeneity in economics">heterogeneous</a>, and a mismatch can result between the characteristics of supply and demand. Such a mismatch can be related to skills, payment, work-time, location, seasonal industries, attitude, taste, and a multitude of other factors. New entrants (such as graduating students) and re-entrants (such as former homemakers) can also suffer a spell of frictional unemployment. </p><p>Workers and employers accept a certain level of imperfection, risk or compromise, but usually not right away. They will invest some time and effort to find a better match. That is, in fact, beneficial to the economy since it results in a better allocation of resources. However, if the search takes too long and mismatches are too frequent, the economy suffers since some work will not get done. Therefore, governments will seek ways to reduce unnecessary frictional unemployment by multiple means including providing education, advice, training, and assistance such as <a href="/wiki/Daycare_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Daycare center">daycare centers</a>. </p><p>The frictions in the <a href="/wiki/Labour_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour market">labour market</a> are sometimes illustrated graphically with a <a href="/wiki/Beveridge_curve" title="Beveridge curve">Beveridge curve</a>, a downward-sloping, convex curve that shows a correlation between the unemployment rate on one axis and the vacancy rate on the other. Changes in the supply of or demand for labour cause movements along the curve. An increase or decrease in labour market frictions will shift the curve outwards or inwards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hidden_unemployment">Hidden unemployment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hidden unemployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Official statistics often underestimate unemployment rates because of hidden, or covered, unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is the unemployment of potential workers that are not reflected in official unemployment statistics because of how the statistics are collected. In many countries, only those who have no work but are actively looking for work and/or qualifying for social security benefits are counted as unemployed. Those who have given up looking for work and sometimes those who are on government "retraining" programs are not officially counted among the unemployed even though they are not employed. </p><p>The statistic also does not count the "<a href="/wiki/Underemployment" title="Underemployment">underemployed</a>", those working fewer hours than they would prefer or in a job that fails to make good use of their capabilities. In addition, those who are of working age but are currently in full-time education are usually not considered unemployed in government statistics. Traditional unemployed native societies who survive by gathering, hunting, herding, and farming in wilderness areas may or may not be counted in unemployment statistics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_unemployment">Long-term unemployment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Long-term unemployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Long-term unemployment (LTU) is defined in <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> statistics as unemployment lasting for longer than one year (while unemployment lasting over two years is defined as <i>very long-term unemployment</i>). The United States <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> (BLS), which reports current long-term unemployment rate at 1.9 percent, defines this as unemployment lasting 27 weeks or longer. Long-term unemployment is a component of <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">structural unemployment</a>, which results in long-term unemployment existing in every social group, industry, occupation, and all levels of education.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015 the European Commission published recommendations on how to reduce long-term unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These advised governments to: </p> <ul><li>encourage long-term unemployed people to register with an <a href="/wiki/Public_employment_service" title="Public employment service">employment service</a>;</li> <li>provide each registered long-term unemployed person with an individual in-depth assessment to identify their needs and potential within 18 months;</li> <li>offer a tailor-made job integration agreement (JIA) to all registered long-term unemployed within 18 months. These might include measures such as <a href="/wiki/Mentorship" title="Mentorship">mentoring</a>, help with <a href="/wiki/Job_hunting" title="Job hunting">job search</a>, <a href="/wiki/Further_education" title="Further education">further education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Training" title="Training">training</a>, support for housing, transport, child and care services and rehabilitation. Each person would have a single point of contact to access this support, which would be implemented in partnership with employers.</li></ul> <p>In 2017–2019 it implemented the Long-Term Unemployment project to research solutions implemented by EU member states and produce a toolkit<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to guide government action. Progress was evaluated<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 2019. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marxian_theory_of_unemployment">Marxian theory of unemployment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Marxian theory of unemployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marx_-_Theorien_%C3%BCber_den_Mehrwert,_1956_-_5708926.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Marx_-_Theorien_%C3%BCber_den_Mehrwert%2C_1956_-_5708926.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Marx_-_Theorien_%C3%BCber_den_Mehrwert%2C_1956_-_5708926.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="362" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Marx_-_Theorien_%C3%BCber_den_Mehrwert%2C_1956_-_5708926.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Marx_-_Theorien_%C3%BCber_den_Mehrwert%2C_1956_-_5708926.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Marx_-_Theorien_%C3%BCber_den_Mehrwert%2C_1956_-_5708926.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Marx_-_Theorien_%C3%BCber_den_Mehrwert%2C_1956_-_5708926.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2027" data-file-height="3337" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, <i>Theorien über den Mehrwert</i>, 1956</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is in the very nature of the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">capitalist mode of production</a> to overwork some workers while keeping the rest as a <a href="/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour" title="Reserve army of labour">reserve army</a> of unemployed paupers.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Marx, <a href="/wiki/Theories_of_Surplus_Value" title="Theories of Surplus Value">Theory of Surplus Value</a><sup id="cite_ref-Marx_1863_478_or_at_MEW,_26.3,_300_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marx_1863_478_or_at_MEW,_26.3,_300-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Marxists share the Keynesian viewpoint of the relationship between economic demand and employment, but with the caveat that the market system's propensity to slash wages and reduce labor participation on an enterprise level causes a requisite decrease in aggregate demand in the economy as a whole, causing crises of unemployment and periods of low economic activity before the <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> (investment) phase of economic growth can continue. According to <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, unemployment is inherent within the unstable capitalist system and periodic crises of mass unemployment are to be expected. He theorized that unemployment was inevitable and even a necessary part of the capitalist system, with recovery and regrowth also part of the process.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The function of the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> within the capitalist system is to provide a "<a href="/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour" title="Reserve army of labour">reserve army of labour</a>" that creates downward pressure on wages. This is accomplished by dividing the proletariat into surplus labour (employees) and under-employment (unemployed).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reserve army of labour fight among themselves for scarce jobs at lower and lower wages. At first glance, unemployment seems inefficient since unemployed workers do not increase profits, but unemployment is profitable within the global capitalist system because unemployment lowers wages which are costs from the perspective of the owners. From this perspective low wages benefit the system by reducing <a href="/wiki/Economic_rent" title="Economic rent">economic rents</a>. Yet, it does not benefit workers; according to Karl Marx, the workers (proletariat) work to benefit the bourgeoisie through their production of capital.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Capitalist systems unfairly manipulate the market for labour by perpetuating unemployment which lowers laborers' demands for fair wages. Workers are pitted against one another at the service of increasing profits for owners. As a result of the capitalist mode of production, Marx argued that workers experienced alienation and estrangement through their economic identity.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Marx, the only way to permanently eliminate unemployment would be to abolish capitalism and the system of forced competition for wages and then shift to a socialist or communist economic system. For contemporary Marxists, the existence of persistent unemployment is proof of the inability of capitalism to ensure full employment.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Unemployment rate" redirects here. For a list of countries, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of countries by unemployment rate">List of countries by unemployment rate</a>.</div> <p>There are also different ways national statistical agencies measure unemployment. The differences may limit the validity of international comparisons of unemployment data.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To some degree, the differences remain despite national statistical agencies increasingly adopting the definition of unemployment of the International Labour Organization.<sup id="cite_ref-ilo.org_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ilo.org-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To facilitate international comparisons, some organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/OECD#Statistics" title="OECD">OECD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eurostat" title="Eurostat">Eurostat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Division_of_international_labor_comparisons" title="Division of international labor comparisons">International Labor Comparisons Program</a>, adjust data on unemployment for comparability across countries. </p><p>Though many people care about the number of unemployed individuals, economists typically focus on the unemployment rate, which corrects for the normal increase in the number of people employed caused by increases in population and increases in the labour force relative to the population. The unemployment rate is expressed as a <a href="/wiki/Percentage" title="Percentage">percentage</a> and calculated as follows: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{Unemployment rate}}={\frac {\text{Unemployed workers}}{\text{Total labor force}}}\times 100}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Unemployment rate</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mtext>Unemployed workers</mtext> <mtext>Total labor force</mtext> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mn>100</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{Unemployment rate}}={\frac {\text{Unemployed workers}}{\text{Total labor force}}}\times 100}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1c71f742ec36a9117fcad52e66fdb84cd0fef55c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:51.431ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{Unemployment rate}}={\frac {\text{Unemployed workers}}{\text{Total labor force}}}\times 100}"></span></dd></dl> <p>As defined by the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>, "unemployed workers" are those who are currently not working but are willing and able to work for pay, currently available to work, and have actively searched for work.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals who are actively seeking job placement must make the effort to be in contact with an employer, have job interviews, contact job placement agencies, send out resumes, submit applications, respond to advertisements, or some other means of active job searching within the prior four weeks. Simply looking at advertisements and not responding will not count as actively seeking job placement. Since not all unemployment may be "open" and counted by government agencies, official statistics on unemployment may not be accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-sfgate.com_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfgate.com-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, for example, the unemployment rate does not take into consideration part-time workers, or those individuals who are not actively looking for employment, due to attending college or having tried to find a job and given up.<sup id="cite_ref-sfgate.com_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfgate.com-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the OECD, Eurostat, and the US <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> the unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour force. </p><p>"An unemployed person is defined by Eurostat, according to the guidelines of the International Labour Organization, as: </p> <ul><li>someone aged 15 to 74 (in Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Iceland, Norway: 16 to 74 years);</li> <li>without work during the reference week;</li> <li>available to start work within the next two weeks (or has already found a job to start within the next three months);</li> <li>actively having sought employment at some time during the last four weeks."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The labour force, or workforce, includes both employed (employees and self-employed) and unemployed people but not the economically inactive, such as pre-school children, school children, students and pensioners.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The unemployment rate of an individual country is usually calculated and reported on a monthly, quarterly, and yearly basis by the National Agency of Statistics. Organisations like the OECD report statistics for all of its member states.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain countries provide unemployment compensation for a certain period of time for unemployed citizens who are registered as unemployed at the government <a href="/wiki/Employment_agency" title="Employment agency">employment agency</a>. Furthermore, pension receivables or claims could depend on the registration at the government employment agency.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many countries like in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the unemployment rate is based on the number of people who are registered as unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other countries like the United States use a labour force survey to calculate the unemployment rate.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ILO describes four different methods to calculate the unemployment rate:<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Labour Force Sample Surveys</i> are the most preferred method of unemployment rate calculation since they give the most comprehensive results and enables calculation of unemployment by different group categories such as race and gender. This method is the most internationally comparable.</li> <li><i>Official Estimates</i> are determined by a combination of information from one or more of the other three methods. The use of this method has been declining in favor of labour surveys.</li> <li><i>Social Insurance Statistics</i>, such as unemployment benefits, are computed based on the number of persons insured representing the total labour force and the number of persons who are insured that are collecting benefits. This method has been heavily criticized because if the expiration of benefits before the person finds work.</li> <li><i>Employment Office Statistics</i> are the least effective since they include only a monthly tally of unemployed persons who enter employment offices. This method also includes those who are not unemployed by the ILO definition.</li></ul> <p>The primary measure of unemployment, U3, allows for comparisons between countries. Unemployment differs from country to country and across different time periods. For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States had lower unemployment levels than many countries in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which had significant internal variation, with countries like the United Kingdom and <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> outperforming <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. However, large economic events like the Great Depression can lead to similar unemployment rates across the globe. </p><p>In 2013, the ILO adopted a resolution to introduce new indicators to measure the unemployment rate.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>LU1: Unemployment rate: [persons in unemployment / labour force] × 100</li> <li>LU2: Combined rate of time-related underemployment and unemployment: [(persons in time-related underemployment + persons in unemployment) / labour force]</li></ul> <p>x 100 </p> <ul><li>LU3: Combined rate of unemployment and potential labour force: [(persons in unemployment + potential labour force) / (extended labour force)] × 100</li> <li>LU4: Composite measure of labour underutilization: [(persons in time-related underemployment + persons in unemployment + potential</li></ul> <p>labour force) / (extended labour force)] × 100 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union_(Eurostat)"><span id="European_Union_.28Eurostat.29"></span>European Union (Eurostat)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: European Union (Eurostat)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by unemployment rate">List of sovereign states in Europe by unemployment rate</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_European_regions_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of European regions by unemployment rate">List of European regions by unemployment rate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployment_Rate_in_Europe_(2020).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Unemployment_Rate_in_Europe_%282020%29.svg/220px-Unemployment_Rate_in_Europe_%282020%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Unemployment_Rate_in_Europe_%282020%29.svg/330px-Unemployment_Rate_in_Europe_%282020%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Unemployment_Rate_in_Europe_%282020%29.svg/440px-Unemployment_Rate_in_Europe_%282020%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment in Europe (2021) according to Worldbank</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployment_rates_EU-28,_EA-19,_US_and_Japan,_seasonally_adjusted,_January_2000_-_October_2019.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Unemployment_rates_EU-28%2C_EA-19%2C_US_and_Japan%2C_seasonally_adjusted%2C_January_2000_-_October_2019.png/220px-Unemployment_rates_EU-28%2C_EA-19%2C_US_and_Japan%2C_seasonally_adjusted%2C_January_2000_-_October_2019.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Unemployment_rates_EU-28%2C_EA-19%2C_US_and_Japan%2C_seasonally_adjusted%2C_January_2000_-_October_2019.png/330px-Unemployment_rates_EU-28%2C_EA-19%2C_US_and_Japan%2C_seasonally_adjusted%2C_January_2000_-_October_2019.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Unemployment_rates_EU-28%2C_EA-19%2C_US_and_Japan%2C_seasonally_adjusted%2C_January_2000_-_October_2019.png/440px-Unemployment_rates_EU-28%2C_EA-19%2C_US_and_Japan%2C_seasonally_adjusted%2C_January_2000_-_October_2019.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="935" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment rates from 2000 to 2019 for United States, Japan and <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Eurostat" title="Eurostat">Eurostat</a>, the statistical office of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, defines unemployed as those persons between age 15 and 74 who are not working, have looked for work in the last four weeks, and are ready to start work within two weeks; this definition conforms to ILO standards. Both the actual count and the unemployment rate are reported. Statistical data are available by member state for the European Union as a whole (EU28) as well as for the <a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">eurozone</a> (EA19). Eurostat also includes a long-term unemployment rate, which is defined as part of the unemployed who have been unemployed for more than one year.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main source used is the European Union Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS). It collects data on all member states each quarter. For monthly calculations, national surveys or national registers from employment offices are used in conjunction with quarterly EU-LFS data. The exact calculation for individual countries, resulting in harmonized monthly data, depends on the availability of the data.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_Bureau_of_Labor_statistics">United States Bureau of Labor statistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: United States Bureau of Labor statistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/JOLTS_report" title="JOLTS report">JOLTS report</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_2008_unemployment_by_county.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/USA_2008_unemployment_by_county.svg/220px-USA_2008_unemployment_by_county.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/USA_2008_unemployment_by_county.svg/330px-USA_2008_unemployment_by_county.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/USA_2008_unemployment_by_county.svg/440px-USA_2008_unemployment_by_county.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment rate in the US by county in 2008<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0000ff; color:white;"> </span> 1.2–3%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00dddd; color:black;"> </span> 3.1–4%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00ffaa; color:black;"> </span> 4.1–5%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00ff00; color:black;"> </span> 5.1–6%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#77cc00; color:black;"> </span> 6.1–7%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff00; color:black;"> </span> 7.1–8%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffaa00; color:black;"> </span> 8.1–9%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> </span> 9.1–10%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff00aa; color:black;"> </span> 10.1–11%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#666666; color:white;"> </span> 11.1–13%</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#000000; color:white;"> </span> 13.1–22.9%</div></div></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> measures employment and unemployment (of those over 17 years of age) by using two different labor force surveys<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> conducted by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a> (within the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">United States Department of Commerce</a>) and/or the Bureau of Labor Statistics (within the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">United States Department of Labor</a>) that gather employment statistics monthly. The <a href="/wiki/Current_Population_Survey" title="Current Population Survey">Current Population Survey</a> (CPS), or "Household Survey", conducts a survey based on a sample of 60,000 households. The survey measures the unemployment rate based on the ILO definition.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Current Employment Statistics survey (CES), or "Payroll Survey", conducts a survey based on a sample of 160,000 businesses and government agencies, which represent 400,000 individual employers.<sup id="cite_ref-c_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the survey measures only civilian nonagricultural employment, it does not calculate an unemployment rate, and it differs from the ILO unemployment rate definition. Both sources have different classification criteria and usually produce differing results. Additional data are also available from the government, such as the unemployment insurance weekly claims report available from the Office of Workforce Security, within the U.S. Department of Labor's <a href="/wiki/Employment_and_Training_Administration" title="Employment and Training Administration">Employment and Training Administration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bureau of Labor Statistics provides up-to-date numbers via a PDF linked here.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BLS also provides a readable concise current Employment Situation Summary, updated monthly.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Unemployment_measures.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/US_Unemployment_measures.svg/220px-US_Unemployment_measures.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/US_Unemployment_measures.svg/330px-US_Unemployment_measures.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/US_Unemployment_measures.svg/440px-US_Unemployment_measures.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>U1–U6 since 1950, as reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics</figcaption></figure> <p>The Bureau of Labor Statistics also calculates six alternate measures of unemployment, U1 to U6, which measure different aspects of unemployment:<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>U1:<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Percentage of labor force unemployed 15 weeks or longer.</li> <li>U2: Percentage of labor force who lost jobs or completed temporary work.</li> <li>U3: Official unemployment rate, per the ILO definition, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively looked for <a href="/wiki/Wage_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage labor">work</a> within the past four weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-a_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-a-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>U4: U3 + "<a href="/wiki/Discouraged_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Discouraged workers">discouraged workers</a>", or those who have stopped looking for work because current economic conditions make them believe that no work is available for them.</li> <li>U5: U4 + other "marginally attached workers," or "loosely attached workers", or those who "would like" and are able to work but have not looked for work recently.</li> <li>U6: U5 + Part-time workers who want to work full-time, but cannot for economic reasons (<a href="/wiki/Underemployment" title="Underemployment">underemployment</a>).</li></ul> <p><i>Note: "Marginally attached workers" are added to the total labour force for unemployment rate calculation for U4, U5, and U6.</i> The <a href="/wiki/Current_Population_Survey#1994_revisions" title="Current Population Survey">BLS revised the CPS in 1994</a> and among the changes the measure representing the official unemployment rate was renamed U3 instead of U5.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, Representative <a href="/wiki/Duncan_D._Hunter" title="Duncan D. Hunter">Hunter</a> proposed that the Bureau of Labor Statistics use the U5 rate instead of the current U3 rate.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Statistics for the US economy as a whole hide variations among groups. For example, in January 2008, the US unemployment rates were 4.4% for adult men, 4.2% for adult women, 4.4% for Caucasians, 6.3% for Hispanics or Latinos (all races), 9.2% for African Americans, 3.2% for Asian Americans, and 18.0% for teenagers.<sup id="cite_ref-c_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the US unemployment rate would be at least 2% higher if prisoners and jail inmates were counted.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The unemployment rate is included in a number of major economic <a href="/wiki/Index_(economics)" title="Index (economics)">indices</a> including the US <a href="/wiki/The_Conference_Board" title="The Conference Board">Conference Board</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Leading_Indicators" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Leading Indicators">Index of Leading Indicators</a> a <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomic</a> measure of the state of the economy. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:707px;max-width:707px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:318px;max-width:318px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Unemployment_1800-1890.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="US Unemployment 1800–1890" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/US_Unemployment_1800-1890.gif/316px-US_Unemployment_1800-1890.gif" decoding="async" width="316" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/US_Unemployment_1800-1890.gif/474px-US_Unemployment_1800-1890.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/US_Unemployment_1800-1890.gif 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="398" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Estimated US unemployment rate from 1800 to 1890. All data are estimates based on data compiled by Lebergott.<sup id="cite_ref-Lebergott1964_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lebergott1964-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See limitations section below on how to interpret unemployment statistics in self-employed, agricultural economies. See image information for complete data.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:385px;max-width:385px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_annual_unemployment_rate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="US Unemployment since 1890" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/US_annual_unemployment_rate.svg/383px-US_annual_unemployment_rate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="383" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/US_annual_unemployment_rate.svg/575px-US_annual_unemployment_rate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/US_annual_unemployment_rate.svg/766px-US_annual_unemployment_rate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="440" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Estimated US unemployment rate since 1890; 1890–1930 data are from <a href="/wiki/Christina_Romer" title="Christina Romer">Christina Romer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1930–1940 data is from Coen.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1940–2011 data is from <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See image info for complete data.</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Alternatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Limitations_of_definition">Limitations of definition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Limitations of definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some critics believe that current methods of measuring unemployment are inaccurate in terms of the impact of unemployment on people as these methods do not take into account the 1.5% of the available working population incarcerated in US prisons (who may or may not be working while they are incarcerated); those who have lost their jobs and have become <a href="/wiki/Discouraged_worker" title="Discouraged worker">discouraged</a> over time from actively looking for work; those who are <a href="/wiki/Self-employed" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-employed">self-employed</a> or wish to become self-employed, such as tradesmen or building contractors or information technology consultants; those who have retired before the official retirement age but would still like to work (involuntary early retirees); those on <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a> pensions who do not possess full health but still wish to work in occupations suitable for their medical conditions; or those who work for payment for as little as one hour per week but would like to work full time.<sup id="cite_ref-Krueger_1999_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krueger_1999-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last people are "involuntary part-time" workers, those who are underemployed, such as a computer programmer who is working in a retail store until he can find a permanent job, involuntary stay-at-home mothers who would prefer to work, and graduate and professional school students who are unable to find worthwhile jobs after they graduated with their bachelor's degrees. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P109961,_Berlin,_Arbeitsamt_Sonnenallee,_Arbeitslose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P109961%2C_Berlin%2C_Arbeitsamt_Sonnenallee%2C_Arbeitslose.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P109961%2C_Berlin%2C_Arbeitsamt_Sonnenallee%2C_Arbeitslose.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P109961%2C_Berlin%2C_Arbeitsamt_Sonnenallee%2C_Arbeitslose.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P109961%2C_Berlin%2C_Arbeitsamt_Sonnenallee%2C_Arbeitslose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P109961%2C_Berlin%2C_Arbeitsamt_Sonnenallee%2C_Arbeitslose.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P109961%2C_Berlin%2C_Arbeitsamt_Sonnenallee%2C_Arbeitslose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>A government unemployment office with job listings, <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, 1982</figcaption></figure> <p>Internationally, some nations' unemployment rates are sometimes muted or appear less severe because of the number of self-employed individuals working in agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-Lebergott1964_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lebergott1964-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small independent farmers are often considered self-employed and so cannot be unemployed. That can impact non-industrialized economies, such as the United States and Europe in the early 19th century, since overall unemployment was approximately 3% because so many individuals were self-employed, independent farmers; however, non-agricultural unemployment was as high as 80%.<sup id="cite_ref-Lebergott1964_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lebergott1964-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many economies industrialize and so experience increasing numbers of non-agricultural workers. For example, the United States' non-agricultural labour force increased from 20% in 1800 to 50% in 1850 and 97% in 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-Lebergott1964_65-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lebergott1964-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shift away from self-employment increases the percentage of the population that is included in unemployment rates. When unemployment rates between countries or time periods are compared, it is best to consider differences in their levels of industrialization and self-employment. </p><p>Additionally, the measures of employment and unemployment may be "too high". In some countries, the availability of <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">unemployment benefits</a> can inflate statistics by giving an incentive to register as unemployed. People who do not seek work may choose to declare themselves unemployed to get benefits; people with undeclared paid occupations may try to get unemployment benefits in addition to the money that they earn from their work.<sup id="cite_ref-Reporting_benefit_fraud._71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reporting_benefit_fraud.-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, Japan, and the European Union, unemployment is measured using a sample survey (akin to a <a href="/wiki/Gallup_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup Organization">Gallup</a> poll).<sup id="cite_ref-ilo.org_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ilo.org-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the BLS, a number of Eastern European nations have instituted labour force surveys as well. The sample survey has its own problems because the total number of workers in the economy is calculated based on a sample, rather than a census. </p><p>It is possible to be neither employed nor unemployed by ILO definitions by being outside of the "labour force".<sup id="cite_ref-sfgate.com_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfgate.com-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such people have no job and are not looking for one. Many of them go to school or are retired. Family responsibilities keep others out of the labour force. Still others have a physical or mental disability that prevents them from participating in the labour force. Some people simply elect not to work and prefer to be dependent on others for sustenance. </p><p>Typically, employment and the labour force include only work that is done for monetary gain. Hence, a <a href="/wiki/Homemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Homemaker">homemaker</a> is neither part of the labour force nor unemployed. Also, full-time students and prisoners are considered to be neither part of the labour force nor unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-Krueger_1999_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krueger_1999-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of prisoners can be important. In 1999, economists Lawrence F. Katz and Alan B. Krueger estimated that increased incarceration lowered measured unemployment in the United States by 0.17% between 1985 and the late 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Krueger_1999_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krueger_1999-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In particular, as of 2005, roughly 0.7% of the US population is incarcerated (1.5% of the available working population). Additionally, children, the elderly, and some individuals with disabilities are typically not counted as part of the labour force and so are not included in the unemployment statistics. However, some elderly and many disabled individuals are active in the labour market. </p><p>In the early stages of an <a href="/wiki/Boom_and_bust" class="mw-redirect" title="Boom and bust">economic boom</a>, unemployment often rises.<sup id="cite_ref-Keynes_2007_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keynes_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is because people join the labour market (give up studying, start a job hunt, etc.) as a result of the improving job market, but until they have actually found a position, they are counted as unemployed. Similarly, during a <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recession</a>, the increase in the unemployment rate is moderated by people leaving the labour force or being otherwise discounted from the labour force, such as with the self-employed. </p><p>For the fourth quarter of 2004, according to <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/36/30/35024561.pdf">Employment Outlook 2005</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-64-01045-9" title="Special:BookSources/92-64-01045-9">92-64-01045-9</a>), normalized unemployment for men aged 25 to 54 was 4.6% in the US and 7.4% in France. At the same time and for the same population, the employment rate (number of workers divided by population) was 86.3% in the US and 86.7% in France. That example shows that the unemployment rate was 60% higher in France than in the US, but more people in that demographic were working in France than in the US, which is counterintuitive if it is expected that the unemployment rate reflects the health of the labour market.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those deficiencies make many <a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">labour market</a> economists prefer to look at a range of economic statistics such as labour market participation rate, the percentage of people between 15 and 64 who are currently employed or searching for employment, the total number of full-time jobs in an economy, the number of people seeking work as a raw number and not a percentage, and the total number of person-hours worked in a month compared to the total number of person-hours people would like to work. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a> does not use the unemployment rate but prefers various employment rates to date recessions.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, some articles in prestigious magazines such as The Economist have argued that alternative ways to measure economic misery are needed.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Labor_force_participation_rate">Labor force participation rate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Labor force participation rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Labor_Force_Participation_Rate_by_gender.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/US_Labor_Force_Participation_Rate_by_gender.png/330px-US_Labor_Force_Participation_Rate_by_gender.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/US_Labor_Force_Participation_Rate_by_gender.png/495px-US_Labor_Force_Participation_Rate_by_gender.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/US_Labor_Force_Participation_Rate_by_gender.png/660px-US_Labor_Force_Participation_Rate_by_gender.png 2x" data-file-width="1138" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>US labor force participation rate from 1948 to 2021, by gender <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#4A90E2; color:black;"> </span> Male participation</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#000000; color:white;"> </span> Total labor force participation</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#AA4643; color:white;"> </span> Female participation</div></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Work_Force_Participation_Rate_by_Age_Group.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Work_Force_Participation_Rate_by_Age_Group.webp/300px-Work_Force_Participation_Rate_by_Age_Group.webp.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Work_Force_Participation_Rate_by_Age_Group.webp/450px-Work_Force_Participation_Rate_by_Age_Group.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Work_Force_Participation_Rate_by_Age_Group.webp/600px-Work_Force_Participation_Rate_by_Age_Group.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="4540" data-file-height="1719" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">US Work Force Participation Rate by Age Group</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#B8BEBA solid 3px;"> </span> 55+</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#61D836 solid 3px;"> </span> 25-54</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#FFD932 solid 3px;"> </span> 20-24</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#EE220C solid 3px;"> </span> 16-19</div> </figcaption></figure> <p>The labor force participation rate is the ratio between the <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labor force</a> and the overall size of their <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(statistics)" title="Cohort (statistics)">cohort</a> (national population of the same age range). In the West, during the latter half of the 20th century, the labor force participation rate increased significantly because of an increase in the number of women entering the workplace. </p><p>In the United States, there have been four significant stages of women's participation in the labour force: increases in the 20th century and decreases in the 21st century. Male labor force participation decreased from 1953 to 2013. Since October 2013, men have been increasingly joining the labour force. </p><p>From the late 19th century to the 1920s, very few women worked outside the home. They were young single women who typically withdrew from the labor force at marriage unless family needed two incomes. Such women worked primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacturing" title="Textile manufacturing">textile manufacturing</a> industry or as <a href="/wiki/Domestic_worker" title="Domestic worker">domestic workers</a>. That profession empowered women and allowed them to earn a living wage.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At times, they were a financial help to their families. </p><p>Between 1930 and 1950, female labor force participation increased primarily because of the increased demand for office workers, women's participation in the high school movement, and <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a>, which reduced the time that was spent on household chores. From the 1950s to the early 1970s, most women were secondary earners working mainly as secretaries, teachers, nurses, and librarians (<a href="/wiki/Pink-collar" class="mw-redirect" title="Pink-collar">pink-collar</a> jobs). </p><p>From the mid-1970s to the late 1990s, there was a period of revolution of women in the labor force brought on by various factors, many of which arose from the <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">second-wave feminism</a> movement. Women more accurately planned for their future in the work force by investing in more applicable majors in college that prepared them to enter and compete in the labor market. In the United States, the female labor force participation rate rose from approximately 33% in 1948 to a peak of 60.3% in 2000. As of April 2015, the female labor force participation is at 56.6%, the male labor force participation rate is at 69.4%, and the total is 62.8%.<sup id="cite_ref-research.stlouisfed.org_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-research.stlouisfed.org-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A common theory in modern economics claims that the rise of women participating in the US labor force in the 1950s to the 1990s was caused by the introduction of a new contraceptive technology, <a href="/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Combined oral contraceptive pill">birth control pills</a>, as well as the adjustment of <a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority" title="Age of majority">age of majority</a> laws. The use of birth control gave women the flexibility of opting to invest and to advance their career while they maintained a relationship. By having control over the timing of their fertility, they were not running a risk of thwarting their career choices. However, only 40% of the population actually used the birth control pill. </p><p>That implies that other factors may have contributed to women choosing to invest in advancing their careers. One factor may be that an increasing number of men delayed the age of marriage, which allowed women to marry later in life without them worrying about the quality of older men. Other factors include the changing nature of work, with machines replacing physical labor, thus eliminating many traditional male occupations, and the rise of the service sector in which many jobs are gender neutral. </p><p>Another factor that may have contributed to the trend was the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act of 1963</a>, which aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. Such legislation diminished sexual discrimination and encouraged more women to enter the labor market by receiving fair remuneration to help raising families and children. </p><p>At the turn of the 21st century, the labor force participation began to reverse its long period of increase. Reasons for the change include a rising share of older workers, an increase in school enrollment rates among young workers, and a decrease in female labor force participation.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The labor force participation rate can decrease when the rate of growth of the population outweighs that of the employed and the unemployed together. The labor force participation rate is a key component in long-term economic growth, almost as important as <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a>. </p><p>A historic shift began around the end of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> as women began leaving the labor force in the United States and other developed countries. The female labor force participation rate in the United States has steadily decreased since 2009, and as of April 2015, the female labor force participation rate has gone back down to 1988 levels of 56.6%.<sup id="cite_ref-research.stlouisfed.org_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-research.stlouisfed.org-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Participation rates are defined as follows: </p> <table style="margin:auto; width:90%;"> <tbody><tr> <td>Pop = total population</td> <td>LF = labor force = U + E </td></tr> <tr> <td>LFpop = labor force population <br /> (generally defined as all men and women aged 15–64)</td> <td>p = participation rate = LF / LFpop </td></tr> <tr> <td>E = number employed</td> <td>e = rate of employment = E / LFpop </td></tr> <tr> <td>U = number of unemployed</td> <td>u = rate of unemployment = U / LF </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The labor force participation rate explains how an increase in the unemployment rate can occur simultaneously with an increase in employment. If a large number of new workers enter the labor force but only a small fraction become employed, then the increase in the number of unemployed workers can outpace the growth in employment.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unemployment-to-population_ratio">Unemployment-to-population ratio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Unemployment-to-population ratio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The unemployment-to-population ratio calculates the share of unemployed for the whole population. This is in contrast to the unemployment rate, which calculates the percentage of unemployed persons in relation to the <i>active</i> population. Particularly, many young people between 15 and 24 are studying full-time and so are neither working nor looking for a job. That means that they are not part of the labor force, which is used as the <a href="/wiki/Denominator" class="mw-redirect" title="Denominator">denominator</a> when the unemployment rate is calculated.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Youth_unemployment" title="Youth unemployment">youth unemployment</a> ratios in the European Union range from 5.2 (Austria) to 20.6 percent (Spain). They are considerably lower than the standard youth unemployment rates, ranging from 7.9 (Germany) to 57.9 percent (Greece).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High and the persistent unemployment, in which <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a> increases, has a negative effect on subsequent long-run economic growth. Unemployment can harm growth because it is a waste of resources; generates redistributive pressures and subsequent distortions; drives people to poverty; constrains liquidity limiting labor mobility; and erodes self-esteem promoting social dislocation, unrest, and conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2013 winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics, <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Shiller" title="Robert J. Shiller">Robert J. Shiller</a>, said that rising inequality in the United States and elsewhere is the most important problem.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Costs">Costs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Costs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Individual">Individual</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Individual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/180px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/270px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/360px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6205" data-file-height="8066" /></a><figcaption><i>Migrant Mother</i>, photograph by <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a>, 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>Unemployed individuals are unable to earn money to meet financial obligations. Failure to pay mortgage payments or to pay rent may lead to <a href="/wiki/Homelessness" title="Homelessness">homelessness</a> through <a href="/wiki/Foreclosure" title="Foreclosure">foreclosure</a> or <a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">eviction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Across the United States the growing ranks of people made homeless in the foreclosure crisis are generating <a href="/wiki/Tent_cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Tent cities">tent cities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unemployment increases susceptibility to <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somatization" title="Somatization">somatization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>. In addition, unemployed people have higher rates of medication use, poor diet, physician visits, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverage</a> consumption, drug use, and lower rates of exercise.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a study published in Social Indicator Research, even those who tend to be optimistic find it difficult to look on the bright side of things when unemployed. Using interviews and data from German participants aged 16 to 94, including individuals coping with the stresses of real life and not just a volunteering student population, the researchers determined that even optimists struggled with being unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1979, <a href="/w/index.php?title=M._Harvey_Brenner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M. Harvey Brenner (page does not exist)">M. Harvey Brenner</a> found that for every 10% increase in the number of unemployed, there is an increase of 1.2% in total mortality, a 1.7% increase in <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a>, 1.3% more <a href="/wiki/Cirrhosis" title="Cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a> cases, 1.7% more suicides, 4.0% more arrests, and 0.8% more assaults reported to the police.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-b_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ruhm" title="Christopher Ruhm">Christopher Ruhm</a> in 2000 on the effect of recessions on health found that several measures of health actually improve during recessions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruhm_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruhm-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As for the impact of an economic downturn on crime, during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, the crime rate did not decrease. The unemployed in the US often use <a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare</a> programs such as <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Nutrition_Assistance_Program" title="Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program">food stamps</a> or accumulating <a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">debt</a> because unemployment insurance in the US generally does not replace most of the income that was received on the job, and one cannot receive such aid indefinitely. </p><p>Not everyone suffers equally from unemployment. In a prospective study of 9,570 individuals over four years, highly conscientious people suffered more than twice as much if they became unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors suggested that may because of conscientious people making different attributions about why they became unemployed or through experiencing stronger reactions following failure. There is also the possibility of reverse causality from poor health to unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some researchers hold that many of the low-income jobs are not really a better option than unemployment with a <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a>, with its <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment insurance">unemployment insurance</a> benefits. However, since it is difficult or impossible to get unemployment insurance benefits without having worked in the past, those jobs and unemployment are more complementary than they are substitutes. (They are often held short-term, either by students or by those trying to gain experience; turnover in most low-paying jobs is high.) </p><p>Another cost for the unemployed is that the combination of unemployment, lack of financial resources, and social responsibilities may push unemployed workers to take jobs that do not fit their skills or allow them to use their talents. Unemployment can cause <a href="/wiki/Underemployment" title="Underemployment">underemployment</a>, and fear of job loss can spur psychological anxiety. As well as anxiety, it can cause depression, lack of confidence, and huge amounts of stress, which is increased when the unemployed are faced with health issues, poverty, and lack of relational support.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another personal cost of unemployment is its impact on relationships. A 2008 study from Covizzi, which examined the relationship between unemployment and divorce, found that the rate of divorce is greater for couples when one partner is unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a more recent study has found that some couples often stick together in "unhappy" or "unhealthy" marriages when they are unemployed to buffer financial costs.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2014 study by Van der Meer found that the stigma that comes from being unemployed affects personal well-being, especially for men, who often feel as though their masculine identities are threatened by unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gender_and_age">Gender and age</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Gender and age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Effects_of_unemployment_on_men"></span>Unemployment can also bring personal costs in relation to gender. One study found that women are more likely to experience unemployment than men and that they are less likely to move from temporary positions to permanent positions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study on gender and unemployment found that men, however, are more likely to experience greater stress, depression, and adverse effects from unemployment, largely stemming from the perceived threat to their role as breadwinner.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study found that men expect themselves to be viewed as "less manly" after a job loss than they actually are and so they engage in compensating behaviors, such as <a href="/wiki/Financial_risk" title="Financial risk">financial risk</a>-taking and increased assertiveness. Unemployment has been linked to extremely adverse effects on men's <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor Ian Hickie of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sydney" title="University of Sydney">University of Sydney</a> said that evidence showed that men have more restricted social networks than women and that men have are heavily work-based. Therefore, the loss of a job for men means the loss of a whole set of social connections as well. That loss can then lead to men becoming <a href="/wiki/Social_isolation" title="Social isolation">socially isolated</a> very quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An Australian study on the mental health impacts of graduating during an economic downturn found that the negative mental health outcomes are greater and more scarring for men than women. The effect was particularly pronounced for those with vocational or secondary education.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Costs of unemployment also vary depending on age. The young and the old are the two largest age groups currently experiencing unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2007 study from Jacob and Kleinert found that young people (ages 18 to 24) who have fewer resources and limited work experiences are more likely to be unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other researchers have found that today's high school seniors place a lower value on work than those in the past, which is likely because they recognize the limited availability of jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the other end of the age spectrum, studies have found that older individuals have more barriers than younger workers to employment, require stronger social networks to acquire work, and are also less likely to move from temporary to permanent positions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, some older people see <a href="/wiki/Age_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Age discrimination">age discrimination</a> as the reason for them not getting hired.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social">Social</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dyfiharipadarally_(32).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Dyfiharipadarally_%2832%29.jpg/220px-Dyfiharipadarally_%2832%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Dyfiharipadarally_%2832%29.jpg/330px-Dyfiharipadarally_%2832%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Dyfiharipadarally_%2832%29.jpg/440px-Dyfiharipadarally_%2832%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Demonstration against unemployment in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> on 27 January 2004</figcaption></figure> <p>An economy with high unemployment is not using all of the resources, specifically labour, available to it. Since it is operating below its <a href="/wiki/Production_possibility_frontier" class="mw-redirect" title="Production possibility frontier">production possibility frontier</a>, it could have higher output if all of the workforce were usefully employed. However, there is a tradeoff between economic efficiency and unemployment: if all <a href="/wiki/Frictional_unemployment" title="Frictional unemployment">frictionally unemployed</a> accepted the first job that they were offered, they would be likely to be operating at below their skill level, reducing the economy's efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During a long period of unemployment, workers can lose their skills, causing a loss of <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>. Being unemployed can also reduce the <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> of workers by about seven years.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High unemployment can encourage <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">xenophobia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a> since workers fear that foreigners are stealing their jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Efforts to preserve existing jobs of domestic and native workers include legal barriers against "outsiders" who want jobs, obstacles to immigration, and/or <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> and similar <a href="/wiki/Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">trade barriers</a> against foreign competitors. </p><p>High unemployment can also cause social problems such as crime. If people have less disposable income than before, it is very likely that crime levels within the economy will increase. </p><p>A 2015 study published in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a></i>, estimates that unemployment causes 45,000 suicides a year globally.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sociopolitical">Sociopolitical</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sociopolitical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployment_in_Germany_2003_by_states.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Unemployment_in_Germany_2003_by_states.png/220px-Unemployment_in_Germany_2003_by_states.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Unemployment_in_Germany_2003_by_states.png/330px-Unemployment_in_Germany_2003_by_states.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Unemployment_in_Germany_2003_by_states.png/440px-Unemployment_in_Germany_2003_by_states.png 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="729" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment rate in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> in 2003 by <a href="/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">states</a></figcaption></figure> <p>High levels of unemployment can be causes of civil unrest,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in some cases leading to revolution, particularly <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>. The fall of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> in 1933 and <a href="/wiki/Machtergreifung" class="mw-redirect" title="Machtergreifung">Adolf Hitler's rise to power</a>, which culminated in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and the deaths of tens of millions and the destruction of much of the physical capital of Europe, is attributed to the poor economic conditions in Germany at the time, notably a high unemployment rate<sup id="cite_ref-leopold_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leopold-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of above 20%; see Great Depression in Central Europe for details. </p><p>However the <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic</a> is not directly blamed for the Nazi rise. Hyperinflation occurred primarily in 1921 to 1923, the year of Hitler's <a href="/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">Beer Hall Putsch</a>. Although hyperinflation has been blamed for damaging the credibility of democratic institutions, the Nazis did not assume government until 1933, ten years after the hyperinflation but in the midst of high unemployment. </p><p>Rising unemployment has traditionally been regarded by the public and the media in any country as a key guarantor of electoral defeat for any government that oversees it. That was very much the consensus in the United Kingdom until 1983, when Thatcher's Conservative government won a <a href="/wiki/1983_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1983 United Kingdom general election">landslide in the general election</a>, despite overseeing a rise in unemployment from 1.5 million to 3.2 million since the <a href="/wiki/1979_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1979 United Kingdom general election">1979 election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benefits">Benefits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">Full employment</a></div> <p>The primary benefit of unemployment is that people are available for hire, without being <a href="/wiki/Recruiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruiter">headhunted</a> away from their existing employers. That permits both new and old businesses to take on staff. </p><p>Unemployment is argued to be "beneficial" to the people who are not unemployed in the sense that it averts inflation, which itself has damaging effects, by providing (in <a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a> terms) a <a href="/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour" title="Reserve army of labour">reserve army of labour</a>, which keeps wages in check.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the direct connection between full local employment and local inflation has been disputed by some because of the recent increase in <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> that supplies low-priced goods even while local employment rates rise to full employment.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Efficiency_wage_Shapiro_Stiglitz.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Efficiency_wage_Shapiro_Stiglitz.svg/220px-Efficiency_wage_Shapiro_Stiglitz.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Efficiency_wage_Shapiro_Stiglitz.svg/330px-Efficiency_wage_Shapiro_Stiglitz.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Efficiency_wage_Shapiro_Stiglitz.svg/440px-Efficiency_wage_Shapiro_Stiglitz.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>In the <a href="/wiki/Shapiro%E2%80%93Stiglitz_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Shapiro–Stiglitz model">Shapiro–Stiglitz model</a> of efficiency wages, workers are paid at a level that dissuades shirking. That prevents wages from dropping to market clearing levels.</figcaption></figure><p> Full employment cannot be achieved because workers would shirk if they were not threatened with the possibility of unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The curve for the no-shirking condition (labelled NSC) thus goes to infinity at full employment. The inflation-fighting benefits to the entire economy arising from a presumed optimum level of unemployment have been studied extensively.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Shapiro%E2%80%93Stiglitz_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Shapiro–Stiglitz model">Shapiro–Stiglitz model</a> suggests that wages never bid down sufficiently to reach 0% unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-SHAPIROSTGLTZMATH_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SHAPIROSTGLTZMATH-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That occurs because employers know that when wages decrease, workers will shirk and expend less effort. Employers avoid shirking by preventing wages from decreasing so low that workers give up and become unproductive. The higher wages perpetuate unemployment, but the threat of unemployment reduces shirking. </p><p>Before current levels of world trade were developed, unemployment was shown to reduce inflation, following the <a href="/wiki/Phillips_curve" title="Phillips curve">Phillips curve</a>, or to decelerate inflation, following the NAIRU/<a href="/wiki/Natural_rate_of_unemployment" title="Natural rate of unemployment">natural rate of unemployment</a> theory since it is relatively easy to seek a new job without losing a current job. When more jobs are available for fewer workers (lower unemployment), that may allow workers to find the jobs that better fit their tastes, talents and needs. </p><p>As in the Marxian theory of unemployment, <a href="/wiki/Special_interests" class="mw-redirect" title="Special interests">special interests</a> may also benefit. Some employers may expect that employees with no fear of losing their jobs will not work as hard or will demand increased wages and benefit. According to that theory, unemployment may promote general labour <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">profitability</a> by increasing employers' rationale for their <a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">monopsony</a>-like power (and profits).<sup id="cite_ref-Marx_1863_478_or_at_MEW,_26.3,_300_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marx_1863_478_or_at_MEW,_26.3,_300-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Optimal unemployment has also been defended as an environmental tool to brake the constantly accelerated growth of the GDP to maintain levels that are sustainable in the context of resource constraints and environmental impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the tool of denying jobs to willing workers seems a blunt instrument for conserving resources and the environment. It reduces the consumption of the unemployed across the board and only in the short term. Full employment of the unemployed workforce, all focused toward the goal of developing more environmentally efficient methods for production and consumption, might provide a more significant and lasting cumulative environmental benefit and reduced <a href="/wiki/Resource_consumption" title="Resource consumption">resource consumption</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some critics of the "culture of work" such as the anarchist <a href="/wiki/The_Abolition_of_Work" title="The Abolition of Work">Bob Black</a> see employment as culturally overemphasized in modern countries. Such critics often propose quitting jobs when possible, working less, reassessing the cost of living to that end, creation of jobs that are "fun" as opposed to "work," and creating cultural norms in which work is seen as unhealthy. These people advocate an "<a href="/wiki/Anti-work" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-work">anti-work</a>" ethic for life.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_in_work_hours">Decline in work hours</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Decline in work hours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a result of productivity, the work week declined considerably during the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1920s, the average workweek in the US was 49 hours, but it was reduced to 40 hours (after which overtime premium was applied) as part of the 1933 <a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Industrial Recovery Act">National Industrial Recovery Act</a>. During the Great Depression, the enormous productivity gains caused by <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>, and agricultural mechanization were believed to have ended the need for a large number of previously employed workers.<sup id="cite_ref-Jerome_1934_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jerome_1934-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remedies">Remedies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Remedies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Job_creation_index" title="Job creation index">Job creation index</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; font-size: 75%; float: right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption>United States families on relief (in 1,000s)<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>1936 </th> <th>1937 </th> <th>1938 </th> <th>1939 </th> <th>1940 </th> <th>1941 </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Workers employed </th></tr> <tr> <th>WPA </th> <td>1,995 </td> <td>2,227 </td> <td>1,932 </td> <td>2,911 </td> <td>1,971 </td> <td>1,638 </td></tr> <tr> <th>CCC and NYA </th> <td>712 </td> <td>801 </td> <td>643 </td> <td>793 </td> <td>877 </td> <td>919 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Other federal work projects </th> <td>554 </td> <td>663 </td> <td>452 </td> <td>488 </td> <td>468 </td> <td>681 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Cases on public assistance </th></tr> <tr> <th>Social security programs </th> <td>602 </td> <td>1,306 </td> <td>1,852 </td> <td>2,132 </td> <td>2,308 </td> <td>2,517 </td></tr> <tr> <th>General relief </th> <td>2,946 </td> <td>1,484 </td> <td>1,611 </td> <td>1,647 </td> <td>1,570 </td> <td>1,206 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Totals </th></tr> <tr> <th>Total families helped </th> <td>5,886 </td> <td>5,660 </td> <td>5,474 </td> <td>6,751 </td> <td>5,860 </td> <td>5,167 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Unemployed workers (BLS) </th> <td>9,030 </td> <td>7,700 </td> <td>10,390 </td> <td>9,480 </td> <td>8,120 </td> <td>5,560 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Coverage (cases/unemployed) </th> <td>65% </td> <td>74% </td> <td>53% </td> <td>71% </td> <td>72% </td> <td>93% </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Societies try a number of different measures to get as many people as possible into work, and various societies have experienced close to <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a> for extended periods, particularly during the <a href="/wiki/Post-World_War_II_economic_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-World War II economic expansion">post-World War II economic expansion</a>. The United Kingdom in the 1950s and 1960s averaged 1.6% unemployment,<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in Australia, the 1945 <i><a href="/wiki/White_Paper_on_Full_Employment_in_Australia" title="White Paper on Full Employment in Australia">White Paper on Full Employment in Australia</a></i> established a government policy of full employment, which lasted until the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream economic</a> discussions of full employment since the 1970s suggest that attempts to reduce the level of unemployment below the <a href="/wiki/Natural_rate_of_unemployment" title="Natural rate of unemployment">natural rate of unemployment</a> will fail but result only in less output and more inflation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demand-side_solutions">Demand-side solutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Demand-side solutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increases in the demand for labour move the economy along the <a href="/wiki/Demand_curve" title="Demand curve">demand curve</a>, increasing wages and employment. The demand for labour in an economy is derived from the demand for goods and services. As such, if the demand for goods and services in the economy increases, the demand for labour will increase, increasing employment and wages. </p><p>There are many ways to stimulate demand for goods and services. Increasing wages to the working class (those more likely to spend the increased funds on goods and services, rather than various types of savings or commodity purchases) is one theory that is proposed. Increased wages are believed to be more effective in boosting demand for goods and services than central banking strategies, which put the increased money supply mostly into the hands of wealthy persons and institutions. Monetarists suggest that increasing money supply in general increases short-term demand. As for the long-term demand, the increased demand is negated by inflation. A rise in fiscal expenditures is another strategy for boosting aggregate demand. </p><p>Providing aid to the unemployed is a strategy that is used to prevent cutbacks in consumption of goods and services, which can lead to a vicious cycle of further job losses and further decreases in consumption and demand. Many countries aid the unemployed through social <a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare</a> programs. Such unemployment benefits include <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment insurance">unemployment insurance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_compensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment compensation">unemployment compensation</a>, welfare, and subsidies to aid in retraining. The main goal of such programs is to alleviate short-term hardships and, more importantly, to allow workers more time to search for a job. </p><p>A direct demand-side solution to unemployment is government-funded employment of the able-bodied poor. This was notably implemented in Britain from the 17th century until 1948 in the institution of the <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a>, which provided jobs for the unemployed with harsh conditions and poor wages to dissuade their use. A modern alternative is a <a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">job guarantee</a> in which the government guarantees work at a living wage. </p><p>Temporary measures can include <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> programs such as the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a>. Government-funded employment is not widely advocated as a solution to unemployment except in times of crisis. That is attributed to the public sector jobs' existence depending directly on the tax receipts from private sector employment. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Top_10%25.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Top_10%25.jpg/220px-State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Top_10%25.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Top_10%25.jpg/330px-State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Top_10%25.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Top_10%25.jpg/440px-State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Top_10%25.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="761" /></a><figcaption>Supply-side economics proposes that lower taxes lead to employment growth. Historical state data from the United States shows a heterogeneous result.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the US, the unemployment insurance allowance is based solely on previous income (not time worked, family size, etc.) and usually compensates for one third of previous income. To qualify, people must reside in their respective state for at least a year and work. The system was established by the <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Act" title="Social Security Act">Social Security Act</a> of 1935. Although 90% of citizens are covered by unemployment insurance, less than 40% apply for and receive benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the number applying for and receiving benefits increases during recessions. For highly-seasonal industries, the system provides income to workers during the off-season, thus encouraging them to stay attached to the industry. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Bottom_90%25_v2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Bottom_90%25_v2.jpg/220px-State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Bottom_90%25_v2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Bottom_90%25_v2.jpg/330px-State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Bottom_90%25_v2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Bottom_90%25_v2.jpg/440px-State_Employment_growth_and_Tax_Changes_for_the_Bottom_90%25_v2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1065" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>Tax decreases on high income earners (top 10%) are not correlated with employment growth, but tax decreases on lower-income earners (bottom 90%) are correlated with employment growth.<sup id="cite_ref-economix.blogs.nytimes.com_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economix.blogs.nytimes.com-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>According to classical economic theory, markets reach equilibrium where supply equals demand; everyone who wants to sell at the market price can do so. Those who do not want to sell at that price do not; in the labour market, this is classical unemployment. Monetary policy and fiscal policy can both be used to increase short-term growth in the economy, increasing the demand for labour and decreasing unemployment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supply-side_solutions">Supply-side solutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Supply-side solutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>However, the labor market is not 100% efficient although it may be more efficient than the bureaucracy. Some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2021)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> argue that minimum wages and union activity keep wages from falling, which means that too many people want to sell their labour at the going price but cannot. That assumes <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfect competition</a> exists in the labour market, specifically that no single entity is large enough to affect wage levels and that employees are similar in ability. </p><p>Advocates<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2021)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> of <a href="/wiki/Supply-side" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply-side">supply-side</a> policies believe those policies can solve the problem by making the labour market more flexible. These include removing the minimum wage and reducing the power of unions. Supply-siders argue that their reforms increase long-term growth by reducing labour costs. The increased supply of goods and services requires more workers, increasing employment. It is argued<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (March 2021)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> that supply-side policies, which include cutting taxes on businesses and reducing regulation, create jobs, reduce unemployment, and decrease labor's share of national income. Other supply-side policies include education to make workers more attractive to employers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployed_men_queued_outside_a_depression_soup_kitchen_opened_in_Chicago_by_Al_Capone,_02-1931_-_NARA_-_541927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Unemployed_men_queued_outside_a_depression_soup_kitchen_opened_in_Chicago_by_Al_Capone%2C_02-1931_-_NARA_-_541927.jpg/220px-Unemployed_men_queued_outside_a_depression_soup_kitchen_opened_in_Chicago_by_Al_Capone%2C_02-1931_-_NARA_-_541927.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Unemployed_men_queued_outside_a_depression_soup_kitchen_opened_in_Chicago_by_Al_Capone%2C_02-1931_-_NARA_-_541927.jpg/330px-Unemployed_men_queued_outside_a_depression_soup_kitchen_opened_in_Chicago_by_Al_Capone%2C_02-1931_-_NARA_-_541927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Unemployed_men_queued_outside_a_depression_soup_kitchen_opened_in_Chicago_by_Al_Capone%2C_02-1931_-_NARA_-_541927.jpg/440px-Unemployed_men_queued_outside_a_depression_soup_kitchen_opened_in_Chicago_by_Al_Capone%2C_02-1931_-_NARA_-_541927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2939" data-file-height="2392" /></a><figcaption>Unemployed men outside a soup kitchen in <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Depression</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, 1931</figcaption></figure> <p>There are relatively limited historical records on unemployment because it has not always been acknowledged or measured systematically. Industrialization involves <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>, which often prevent individuals from having the capital to create their own jobs to be self-employed. An individual who cannot join an enterprise or create a job is unemployed. As individual farmers, ranchers, spinners, doctors and merchants are organized into large enterprises, those who cannot join or compete become unemployed. </p><p>Recognition of unemployment occurred slowly as economies across the world industrialized and bureaucratized. Before that, traditional <a href="/wiki/Self-sustainability" title="Self-sustainability">self-sufficient</a> native societies had no concept of unemployment. The recognition of the concept of "unemployment" is best exemplified through the well documented historical records in England. For example, in 16th-century, England no distinction was made between <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vagrancy (people)">vagrants</a> and the jobless; both were simply categorized as "<a href="/wiki/Sturdy_beggar" title="Sturdy beggar">sturdy beggars</a>", who were to be punished and moved on.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="16th_century">16th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: 16th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The closing of the <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> in the 1530s increased <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> had helped the poor. In addition, there was a significant rise in <a href="/wiki/Enclosures" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclosures">enclosures</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a>. Also, the population was rising. Those unable to find work had a stark choice: starve or break the law. In 1535, a bill was drawn up calling for the creation of a system of <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> to deal with the problem of unemployment, which were to be funded by a tax on income and capital. A law that was passed a year later allowed vagabonds to be whipped and hanged.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1547, a bill was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law: two years' servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offense and death for the second.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the reign of Henry VIII, as many as 72,000 people are estimated to have been executed.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1576 Act, each town was required to provide work for the unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Poor_Relief_Act_1601" title="Poor Relief Act 1601">Poor Relief Act 1601</a>, one of the world's first government-sponsored welfare programs, made a clear distinction between those who were unable to work and those able-bodied people who refused employment.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Poor Law">Poor Law</a> systems of <a href="/wiki/English_Poor_Laws" title="English Poor Laws">England and Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Poor_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Poor Laws">Scotland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_Poor_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Poor Laws">Ireland</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a> was a place people unable to support themselves could go to live and work.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_Revolution_to_late_19th_century">Industrial Revolution to late 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Industrial Revolution to late 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tompkins_square_riot_1874.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tompkins_square_riot_1874.jpg/220px-Tompkins_square_riot_1874.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tompkins_square_riot_1874.jpg/330px-Tompkins_square_riot_1874.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tompkins_square_riot_1874.jpg/440px-Tompkins_square_riot_1874.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3290" data-file-height="2156" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1873%E2%80%9379" class="mw-redirect" title="Depression of 1873–79">Depression of 1873–79</a>: <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department" title="New York City Police Department">New York City police</a> violently attacking unemployed workers in <a href="/wiki/Tompkins_Square_Riot_(1874)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tompkins Square Riot (1874)">Tompkins Square Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, 1874</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Poverty was a highly visible problem in the eighteenth century, both in cities and in the countryside. In France and Britain by the end of the century, an estimated 10 percent of the people depended on charity or begging for their food.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jackson J. Spielvogel, , 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fwxLkRmd-4QC">Western Civilization: Since 1500</a>. Cengage Learning. p.566. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-495-50287-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-495-50287-1">0-495-50287-1</a></cite></div></blockquote><p> By 1776, some 1,912 parish and corporation workhouses had been established in England and Wales and housed almost 100,000 paupers. </p><p>A description of the miserable living standards of the mill workers in England in 1844 was given by <a href="/wiki/Fredrick_Engels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fredrick Engels">Fredrick Engels</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</a> in 1844</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the preface to the 1892 edition, Engels noted that the extreme poverty he had written about in 1844 had largely disappeared. <a href="/wiki/David_Ames_Wells" title="David Ames Wells">David Ames Wells</a> also noted that living conditions in England had improved near the end of the 19th century and that unemployment was low. </p><p>The scarcity and the high price of labor in the US in the 19th century was well documented by contemporary accounts, as in the following: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The laboring classes are comparatively few in number, but this is counterbalanced by, and indeed, may be one of the causes of the eagerness by which they call in the use of machinery in almost every department of industry. Wherever it can be applied as a substitute for manual labor, it is universally and willingly resorted to.... It is this condition of the labor market, and this eager resort to machinery wherever it can be applied, to which, under the guidance of superior education and intelligence, the remarkable prosperity of the United States is due."<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</a>, 1854</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Scarcity of labor was a factor in the economics of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery in the United States</a>. </p><p>As new territories were opened and federal land sales were conducted, land had to be cleared and new homesteads established. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants annually came to the US and found jobs digging canals and building railroads. Almost all work during most of the 19th century was done by hand or with horses, mules, or oxen since there was very little mechanization. The workweek during most of the 19th century was 60 hours. Unemployment at times was between one and two percent. </p><p>The tight labor market was a factor in productivity gains by allowing workers to maintain or to increase their nominal wages during the secular deflation that caused real wages to rise at various times in the 19th century, especially in its final decades.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:149px;max-width:149px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R79053,_Arbeitsloser_auf_Arbeitssuche.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R79053%2C_Arbeitsloser_auf_Arbeitssuche.jpg/147px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R79053%2C_Arbeitsloser_auf_Arbeitssuche.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R79053%2C_Arbeitsloser_auf_Arbeitssuche.jpg/221px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R79053%2C_Arbeitsloser_auf_Arbeitssuche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R79053%2C_Arbeitsloser_auf_Arbeitssuche.jpg/294px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R79053%2C_Arbeitsloser_auf_Arbeitssuche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="532" data-file-height="792" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">An unemployed <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a>, 1928. Unemployment in <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a> reached almost 30% of the workforce after the Great Depression.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:UnemployedMarch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UnemployedMarch.jpg/165px-UnemployedMarch.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UnemployedMarch.jpg/248px-UnemployedMarch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UnemployedMarch.jpg/330px-UnemployedMarch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Unemployed <a href="/wiki/Canadians" title="Canadians">Canadian</a> men, marching for jobs during the Great Depression to Bathurst Street United Church, <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, 1930</div></div></div></div></div> <p>There were labor shortages during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jerome_1934_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jerome_1934-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ford Motor Co. doubled wages to reduce turnover. After 1925, unemployment gradually began to rise.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1930s saw the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> impact unemployment across the globe. In Germany and the United States, the unemployment rate reached about 25% in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some towns and cities in the northeast of England, unemployment reached as high as 70%; the national unemployment level peaked at more than 22% in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unemployment in Canada reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1929, the U.S. unemployment rate averaged 3%.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WPA_Art_Poster,_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg/170px-WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg/255px-WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg/340px-WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>WPA poster promoting the benefits of employment</figcaption></figure> <p>In the US, the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> (1935–43) was the largest make-work program. It hired men (and some women) off the relief roles ("dole") typically for unskilled labor.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the New Deal, over three million unemployed young men were taken out of their homes and placed for six months into more than 2600 work camps managed by the <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unemployment in the United Kingdom fell later in the 1930s as the Depression eased, and it remained low (in single figures) after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. </p><p>Fredrick Mills found that in the US, 51% of the decline in work hours was due to the fall in production and 49% was from increased productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Rifkin_1995_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rifkin_1995-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1972, <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Unemployment in the United Kingdom">unemployment in the United Kingdom</a> had crept back up above 1,000,000, and it was even higher by the end of the decade, with inflation also being high. Although the <a href="/wiki/Monetarist" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetarist">monetarist</a> economic policies of <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative</a> government saw inflation reduced after 1979, unemployment soared in the early 1980s and in 1982, it exceeded 3,000,000, a level that had not been seen for some 50 years. That represented one in eight of the workforce, with unemployment exceeding 20% in some places that had relied on declining industries such as coal mining.<sup id="cite_ref-politics.co.uk_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-politics.co.uk-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, it was a time of high unemployment in all other major industrialised nations as well.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the spring of 1983, unemployment had risen by 6% in the previous 12 months, compared to 10% in Japan, 23% in the US, and 34% in <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> (seven years before <a href="/wiki/Reunification_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Reunification of Germany">Reunification</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unemployment in the United Kingdom remained above 3,000,000 until the spring of 1987, when the economy enjoyed a boom.<sup id="cite_ref-politics.co.uk_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-politics.co.uk-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of 1989, unemployment had fallen to 1,600,000. However, inflation had reached 7.8%, and the following year, it reached a nine-year high of 9.5%; leading to increased interest rates.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another <a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession" title="Early 1990s recession">recession occurred from 1990 to 1992</a>. Unemployment began to increase, and by the end of 1992, nearly 3,000,000 in the United Kingdom were unemployed, a number that was soon lowered by a strong economic recovery.<sup id="cite_ref-politics.co.uk_146-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-politics.co.uk-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With inflation down to 1.6% by 1993, unemployment then began to fall rapidly and stood at 1,800,000 by early 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg/350px-Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg/525px-Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg/700px-Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment rate of Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-OECDemp_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDemp-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red line is G7 average.<br /> 15-24 age (thin line) is <a href="/wiki/Youth_unemployment" title="Youth unemployment">youth unemployment</a>. </figcaption></figure> <p>The official unemployment rate in the 16 <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU) countries that use the euro rose to 10% in December 2009 as a result of <a href="/wiki/Late_2000s_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Late 2000s recession">another recession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.3% for November 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Europe's young workers have been especially hard hit.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2009, the unemployment rate in the <a href="/wiki/2007_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2007 enlargement of the European Union">EU27</a> for those aged 15–24 was 18.3%. For those under 25, the unemployment rate in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> was 43.8%.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unemployment has risen in two thirds of European countries since 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Into the 21st century, unemployment in the United Kingdom remained low and the economy remaining strong, and several other European economies, such as France and Germany, experienced a minor recession and a substantial rise in unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2008, when the recession brought on another increase in the United Kingdom, after 15 years of economic growth and no major rises in unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early 2009, unemployment passed the 2 million mark, and economists were predicting it would soon reach 3 million.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the end of the recession was declared in January 2010<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and unemployment peaked at nearly 2.7 million in 2011,<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> appearing to ease fears of unemployment reaching 3 million.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unemployment rate of Britain's young black people was 47.4% in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2013/2014 has seen the employment rate increase from 1,935,836 to 2,173,012 as supported by<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showing the UK is creating more job opportunities and forecasts the rate of increase in 2014/2015 will be another 7.2%.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932012_global_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="2008–2012 global recession">2008–2012 global recession</a> has been called a "mancession" because of the disproportionate number of men who lost their jobs as compared to women. The gender gap became wide in the United States in 2009, when 10.5% of men in the <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labor force</a> were unemployed, compared with 8% of women.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three quarters of the jobs that were lost in the recession in the US were held by men.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 26 April 2005 <i>Asia Times</i> article noted, "In regional giant South Africa, some 300,000 textile workers have lost their jobs in the past two years due to the influx of Chinese goods".<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increasing <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States#International_trade" title="Economy of the United States">US trade deficit</a> with China cost 2.4 million American jobs between 2001–2008, according to a study by the <a href="/wiki/Economic_Policy_Institute" title="Economic Policy Institute">Economic Policy Institute</a> (EPI).<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 2000 to 2007, the United States lost a total of 3.2 million manufacturing jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 12.1% of US military veterans who had served after the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> in 2001 were unemployed as of 2011; 29.1% of male veterans aged 18–24 were unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of September 2016, the total veteran unemployment rate was 4.3 percent. By September 2017, that figure had dropped to 3 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 25,000,000 people in the world's 30 richest countries lost their jobs between the end of 2007 and the end of 2010, as the economic downturn pushed most countries into <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 2010, the US unemployment rate was 9.9%, but the government's broader U-6 unemployment rate was 17.1%.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 2012, the unemployment rate was 4.6% in Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2012 story, the <i>Financial Post</i> reported, "Nearly 75 million youth are unemployed around the world, an increase of more than 4 million since 2007. In the European Union, where a debt crisis followed the financial crisis, the youth unemployment rate rose to 18% last year from 12.5% in 2007, the ILO report shows."<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2018, according to US Unemployment Rate Statistics, the unemployment rate was 4.1%, below the 4.5–5.0% norm.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, the labor force participation rate for non-white women and women with children declined significantly during the covid-19 pandemic, with approximately 20 million women leaving the workforce. Men were not nearly as impacted, leading some to describe the phenomenon as a "she-cession".<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Business and economics">Business and economics portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Career_and_Life_Planning_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Career and Life Planning Education">Career and Life Planning Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of 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migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jobseeker%27s_Allowance" title="Jobseeker's Allowance">Jobseeker's Allowance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_long-term_unemployment_rate" title="List of countries by long-term unemployment rate">List of countries by long-term unemployment rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of countries by unemployment rate">List of countries by unemployment rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_unemployment" title="List of films featuring unemployment">List of films featuring unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_unemployment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. states by unemployment rate">List of U.S. states by unemployment rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_regions_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of European regions by unemployment rate">List of European regions by unemployment rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_firm" title="Practice firm">Practice firm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salary_inversion" title="Salary inversion">Salary inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Unemployed_Workers_Network" title="Scottish Unemployed Workers Network">Scottish Unemployed Workers Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short-time_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Short-time working">Short-time working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_mismatch" title="Spatial mismatch">Spatial mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_extension" title="Unemployment extension">Unemployment extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">Universal basic income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waithood" title="Waithood">Waithood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workfare" title="Workfare">Workfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_exclusion" title="Youth exclusion">Youth exclusion</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/unemployment-rate">"Unemployment rate"</a>. <i>Our World in Data</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Our+World+in+Data&rft.atitle=Unemployment+rate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fourworldindata.org%2Fgrapher%2Funemployment-rate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.oecd.org/emp/employment-rate-by-age-group.htm">"Employment - Employment rate by age group - OECD Data"</a>. <i>theOECD</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=theOECD&rft.atitle=Employment+-+Employment+rate+by+age+group+-+OECD+Data&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdata.oecd.org%2Femp%2Femployment-rate-by-age-group.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stats.oecd.org/">"OECD Statistics"</a>. <i>stats.oecd.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=stats.oecd.org&rft.atitle=OECD+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstats.oecd.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawins1987" class="citation book cs1">Hawins, Kevin H. 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New York: NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8792-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8792-2"><bdi>978-0-8147-8792-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+Work%3A+Unemployment+and+Government+in+the+Twentieth-Century+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-8792-2&rft.aulast=Vedder&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Gallaway%2C+Lowell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keynes_2007-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Keynes_2007_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keynes_2007_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes2007" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (2007) [1936]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090316094655/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/keynes/keynescont.htm"><i>The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</i></a>. 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(1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/ACFC7.pdf">"Is Low Unemployment Inflationary?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131113212953/https://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/ACFC7.pdf">Archived</a> 13 November 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Economic Review</i> 1Q97:4–13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hossfeld-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hossfeld_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hossfeld_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hossfeld_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver Hossfeld (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131113215511/http://www.hhl.de/fileadmin/texte/publikationen/forschungspapiere/HOSSFELD_USMONEY_INFERWP_2010-4.pdf">"US Money Demand, Monetary Overhang, and Inflation Prediction"</a> <i>International Network for Economic Research</i> working paper no. 2010.4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/MZMV">"MZM velocity"</a>. 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Edited by David McLellan, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford, UK. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953570-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953570-5">978-0-19-953570-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm">"Communist Manifesto (Chapter 1)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Communist+Manifesto+%28Chapter+1%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2F1848%2Fcommunist-manifesto%2Fch01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/glossary/terms/a/l.htm">"Glossary of Terms: Al"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glossary+of+Terms%3A+Al&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Fglossary%2Fterms%2Fa%2Fl.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarx" class="citation web cs1">Marx, Karl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm">"The Communist Manifesto"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Park+History%3A+%22The+Spirit+of+the+Civilian+Conservation+Corps%22&rft.pub=National+Parks+Traveler&rft.date=2008-09-11&rft.aulast=Finegan&rft.aufirst=Chance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalparkstraveler.com%2F2008%2F09%2Fpark-history-spirit-civilian-conservation-corps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rifkin_1995-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rifkin_1995_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRifkin,_Jeremy1995" class="citation book cs1">Rifkin, Jeremy (1995). <a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Work" title="The End of Work"><i>The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era</i></a>. 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Conservative Party Archive Poster Collection. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/inquire/p/b88b2934-f50c-4ea7-9545-07ecda47865f">the original</a> on 12 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CPA+Poster+Collection&rft.pub=Conservative+Party+Archive+Poster+Collection&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.bodleian.ox.ac.uk%2Finquire%2Fp%2Fb88b2934-f50c-4ea7-9545-07ecda47865f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120830011628/http://safalra.com/other/historical-uk-inflation-price-conversion/">"Historical UK Inflation And Price Conversion"</a>. Safalra's Website. 15 April 2010. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+UK+Inflation+And+Price+Conversion&rft.pub=Safalra%27s+Website&rft.date=2010-04-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsafalra.com%2Fother%2Fhistorical-uk-inflation-price-conversion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/16/business/jobless-rate-in-britain-drops-to-six-year-low.html">"Jobless Rate in Britain Drops to Six-Year Low"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 16 January 1997<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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UPI.com. 8 January 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/07/13/europes_new_lost_generation">Europe's New Lost Generation</a>". Foreign Policy. 13 July 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=STAT/09/109&type=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en">November 2009 Euro area unemployment rate up to 10.0% EU27 up to 9.5% </a>. <a href="/wiki/Eurostat" title="Eurostat">Eurostat</a>. 8 January 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/apr/30/global-unemployment-outlook-gloomy-ilo">Global unemployment outlook gloomy, warns ILO</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. 30 April 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2003770.stm">"Germany's recession ends"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 23 May 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Germany%27s+recession+ends&rft.date=2002-05-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fbusiness%2F2003770.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7670800.stm">"Jobless rise highest for 17 years"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 15 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Jobless+rise+highest+for+17+years&rft.date=2008-10-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fbusiness%2F7670800.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7947766.stm">"Unemployment passes two million"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 18 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy"</a>. <i>(2022) 51(3) Industrial Law Journal 511–559</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3044448">10.2139/ssrn.3044448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219336439">219336439</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3044448">3044448</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%282022%29+51%283%29+Industrial+Law+Journal+511%E2%80%93559&rft.atitle=Will+Robots+Automate+Your+Job+Away%3F+Full+Employment%2C+Basic+Income%2C+and+Economic+Democracy&rft.date=2022-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219336439%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3044448%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.3044448&rft.aulast=McGaughey&rft.aufirst=Ewan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3044448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Reich, Robert B.</a> (2010). <i>Aftershock: The Next Economy and America's Future</i> (1st ed.). Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-59281-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-59281-1"><bdi>978-0-307-59281-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aftershock%3A+The+Next+Economy+and+America%27s+Future&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-307-59281-1&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomer2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Romer" title="David Romer">Romer, David</a> (2011). "Unemployment". <i>Advanced Macroeconomics</i> (Fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 456–512. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-351137-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-351137-5"><bdi>978-0-07-351137-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Unemployment&rft.btitle=Advanced+Macroeconomics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=456-512&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-07-351137-5&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimonazziVianello2001" class="citation book cs1">Simonazzi, Annamaria; <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Vianello" title="Fernando Vianello">Vianello, Fernando</a> (2001). "Financial Liberalization, the European Single Currency and the Problem of Unemployment". In Franzini, M.; Pizzuti, F. R. (eds.). <i>Globalization, Institutions and Social Cohesion</i>. Heidelberg: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67741-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67741-3"><bdi>978-3-540-67741-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Financial+Liberalization%2C+the+European+Single+Currency+and+the+Problem+of+Unemployment&rft.btitle=Globalization%2C+Institutions+and+Social+Cohesion&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3-540-67741-3&rft.aulast=Simonazzi&rft.aufirst=Annamaria&rft.au=Vianello%2C+Fernando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical:_Europe_and_Japan">Historical: Europe and Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Historical: Europe and Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeveridge1944" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">Beveridge, William H.</a> (1944). <i>Full Employment in a Free Society</i> (1st ed.). Allen & Unwin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Full+Employment+in+a+Free+Society&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Beveridge&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span>, in Great Britain.</li> <li>Broadberry, Stephen N., and Albrecht Ritschl. "Real Wages, Productivity, and Unemployment in Britain and Germany during the 1920s." <i>Explorations in Economic History</i> 32.3 (1995): 327-349.</li> <li>Dimsdale, Nicholas H., Nicholas Horsewood, and Arthur Van Riel. "Unemployment in interwar Germany: an analysis of the labor market, 1927-1936." <i>Journal of Economic History</i> (2006): 778-808. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2630c4a8-575b-4869-a30e-771e832ac650/download_file?file_format=pdf&safe_filename=Dimsdale.pdf&type_of_work=Journal+article">online</a></li> <li>Heimberger, Philipp, Jakob Kapeller, and Bernhard Schütz. "The NAIRU determinants: What’s structural about unemployment in Europe?." <i>Journal of Policy Modeling</i> 39.5 (2017): 883-908. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Philipp_Heimberger/publication/316748234_The_NAIRU_determinants_What%27s_structural_about_unemployment_in_Europe/links/5e60bc5e92851cefa1deed3d/The-NAIRU-determinants-Whats-structural-about-unemployment-in-Europe.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Kato, Michiya. "Unemployment and Public Works Policy in Interwar Britain and Japan: An International Comparison." (2010): 69-101. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osu.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=1274&item_no=1&attribute_id=18&file_no=1">online</a></li> <li>Kaufman, Roger T. "Patterns of Unemployment in North America, Western Europe and Japan." <i>Unemployment in Western countries</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 1980). 3-35.</li> <li>Nickell, Stephen, Luca Nunziata, and Wolfgang Ochel. "Unemployment in the OECD since the 1960s. What do we know?." <i>Economic Journal</i> 115.500 (2005): 1-27 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.475.2377&rep=rep1&type=pdf">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStachura1986" class="citation book cs1">Stachura, P.D. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iYGwCwAAQBAJ"><i>Unemployment and the Great Depression in Weimar Germany</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-18355-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-18355-5"><bdi>978-1-349-18355-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unemployment+and+the+Great+Depression+in+Weimar+Germany&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-1-349-18355-5&rft.aulast=Stachura&rft.aufirst=P.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiYGwCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Topp, Niels-Henrik. "Unemployment and Economic Policy in Denmark in the 1930s." <i>Scandinavian Economic History Review</i> 56.1 (2008): 71-90.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebb1912" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Webb,_1st_Baron_Passfield" title="Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield">Webb, Sidney</a> (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/howgovernmentcan00webb#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>How the Government Can Prevent Unemployment</i></a>. The National Committee for the Prevention of Destitution. (First ed.). Letchworth, Herts.: Garden City Press Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Government+Can+Prevent+Unemployment.&rft.place=Letchworth%2C+Herts.&rft.series=The+National+Committee+for+the+Prevention+of+Destitution.&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Garden+City+Press+Ltd.&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhowgovernmentcan00webb%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span>, in Great Britain</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical:_United_States">Historical: United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Historical: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Jensen, Richard J. "The causes and cures of unemployment in the Great Depression." <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i> 19.4 (1989): 553-583 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rjensen.people.uic.edu/causes-cures.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeyssar1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Keyssar" title="Alexander Keyssar">Keyssar, Alexander</a> (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/outofworkfirstce0000keys"><i>Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23016-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23016-2"><bdi>978-0-521-23016-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+Work%3A+The+First+Century+of+Unemployment+in+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-23016-2&rft.aulast=Keyssar&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foutofworkfirstce0000keys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnemployment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Margo, Robert A. "Employment and Unemployment in the 1930s." <i>Journal of Economic Perspectives</i> 7.2 (1993): 41-59. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.7.2.41">online</a></li> <li>Stricker, Frank. <i>American Unemployment: Past, Present, and Future</i> (University of Illinois Press, 2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eh.net/?s=Unemployment">online review</a></li> <li>Sundstrom, William A. "Last hired, first fired? Unemployment and urban black workers during the Great Depression." <i>Journal of Economic History</i> (1992): 415-429. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2123118">online</a></li> <li>Temin, Peter. "Socialism and Wages in the Recovery from the Great Depression in the United States and Germany." <i>Journal of Economic History</i> (1990): 297-307 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Timothy_Hatton2/publication/227465071_Labour_Markets_in_the_Interwar_Period_and_Economic_Recovery_in_the_UK_and_the_USA/links/5494da670cf2ec1337581c28.pdf">online</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/unemployment" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:unemployment">unemployment</a> at Wikiquote <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, 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.side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Unemployment</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Unemployment">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Unemployment" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Unemployment">Unemployment</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051223210842/http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm/datazone_uicalc_index">Economic Policy Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/unemployment-rate">Current unemployment figures</a>, CEIC Data</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/lab_une_rat-labor-unemployment-rate">Current unemployment rates by country</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=251">OECD Unemployment statistics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lebanese-economy-forum.com/wdi-gdf-advanced-data-display/show/SL-UEM-TOTL-ZS/">Unemployment statistics</a> by Lebanese-economy-forum, World Bank data</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jobcity.in">JobCity is Right Platform for Govt Jobs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200303142419/https://jobcity.in/">Archived</a> 3 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100601214002/http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi-data/#/2010/UNEM">Thermal maps of the world's unemployment percentage rates</a> – by country, 2007–2010</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Employment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Employment" title="Template:Employment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Employment" title="Template talk:Employment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Employment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Employment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Employment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_tenure" title="Academic tenure">Academic tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casual_employment_(contract)" title="Casual employment (contract)">Casual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_work" title="Contingent work">Contingent work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-time_job" title="Full-time job">Full-time job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gig_worker" title="Gig worker">Gig worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_sharing" title="Job sharing">Job sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Part-time_job" title="Part-time job">Part-time job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-employment" title="Self-employment">Self-employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side_job" title="Side job">Side job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skilled_worker" title="Skilled worker">Skilled worker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journeyman" title="Journeyman">Journeyman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technician" title="Technician">Technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradesperson" title="Tradesperson">Tradesperson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_contractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent contractor">Independent contractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_hire" title="Labour hire">Labour hire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_work" title="Temporary work">Temporary work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laborer" title="Laborer">Laborer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Recruitment" title="Recruitment">Hiring</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Application_for_employment" title="Application for employment">Application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_check" title="Background check">Background check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_networking" title="Business networking">Business networking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover_letter" title="Cover letter">Cover letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_vitae" title="Curriculum vitae">Curriculum vitae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_test" title="Drug test">Drug testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_contract" title="Employment contract">Employment contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_counsellor" class="mw-redirect" title="Employment counsellor">Employment counsellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_search" title="Executive search">Executive search</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_executive_search_firms" title="List of executive search firms">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_programme" title="Induction programme">Induction programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_fair" title="Job fair">Job fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_fraud" title="Job fraud">Job fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_hunting" title="Job hunting">Job hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_interview" title="Job interview">Job interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_recommendation" title="Letter of recommendation">Letter of recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onboarding" title="Onboarding">Onboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overqualification" title="Overqualification">Overqualification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person%E2%80%93environment_fit" title="Person–environment fit">Person–environment fit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality%E2%80%93job_fit_theory" title="Personality–job fit theory">Personality–job fit theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_hire" title="Personality hire">Personality hire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probation_(workplace)" title="Probation (workplace)">Probation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment" title="Recruitment">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sum%C3%A9" title="Résumé">Résumé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_recruiting_of_new_graduates" title="Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates">Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underemployment" title="Underemployment">Underemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work-at-home_scheme" title="Work-at-home scheme">Work-at-home scheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee">Employee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employer" class="mw-redirect" title="Employer">Employer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internship" title="Internship">Internship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job" class="mw-redirect" title="Job">Job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_hire" title="Labour hire">Labour hire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_employment" title="Permanent employment">Permanent employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervisor" title="Supervisor">Supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volunteering" title="Volunteering">Volunteering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Working class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_worker" title="Blue-collar worker">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-collar_worker" title="Green-collar worker">Green-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-collar" title="Grey-collar">Grey-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-collar_worker" title="Pink-collar worker">Pink-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">White-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">Red-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New-collar_worker" title="New-collar worker">New-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">No-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">Orange-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">Scarlet-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">Black-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">Gold-collar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Career" title="Career">Career</a> and <a href="/wiki/Training" title="Training">training</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">Apprenticeship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">Artisan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master_craftsman" title="Master craftsman">Master craftsman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avocation" title="Avocation">Avocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Career_assessment" title="Career assessment">Career assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Career_counseling" title="Career counseling">Career counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Career_development" title="Career development">Career development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching" title="Coaching">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_class" title="Creative class">Creative class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">Continuing education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-learning" class="mw-redirect" title="E-learning">E-learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employability" title="Employability">Employability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Further_education" title="Further education">Further education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate school">Graduate school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_training" title="Induction training">Induction training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licensure" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensure">Licensure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifelong_learning" title="Lifelong learning">Lifelong learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overspecialization" title="Overspecialization">Overspecialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice-based_professional_learning" title="Practice-based professional learning">Practice-based professional learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_association" title="Professional association">Professional association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">Professional certification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_development" title="Professional development">Professional development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional school">Professional school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_practice" title="Reflective practice">Reflective practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retraining" title="Retraining">Retraining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_school" title="Vocational school">Vocational school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_university" title="Vocational university">Vocational university</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentorship" title="Mentorship">Mentorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Outlook_Handbook" title="Occupational Outlook Handbook">Occupational Outlook Handbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_firm" title="Practice firm">Practice firm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">Profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operator_(profession)" title="Operator (profession)">Operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional" title="Professional">Professional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradesman" class="mw-redirect" title="Tradesman">Tradesman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocation" title="Vocation">Vocation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attendance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Break_(work)" title="Break (work)">Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Break_room" title="Break room">Break room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Career_break" title="Career break">Career break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furlough" title="Furlough">Furlough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gap_year" title="Gap year">Gap year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leave_of_absence" title="Leave of absence">Leave of absence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_service_leave" title="Long service leave">Long service leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_call,_no_show" title="No call, no show">No call, no show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbatical" title="Sabbatical">Sabbatical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">Sick leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_clock" title="Time clock">Time clock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schedule_(workplace)" title="Schedule (workplace)">Schedules</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35-hour_workweek" title="35-hour workweek">35-hour workweek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-day_week" class="mw-redirect" title="Four-day week">Four-day week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">Eight-hour day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/996_working_hour_system" title="996 working hour system">996 working hour system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flextime" title="Flextime">Flextime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On-call" class="mw-redirect" title="On-call">On-call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overtime" title="Overtime">Overtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_work" title="Remote work">Remote work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-hour_day" title="Six-hour day">Six-hour day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shift_work" title="Shift work">Shift work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_time" title="Working time">Working time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workweek_and_weekend" title="Workweek and weekend">Workweek and weekend</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">Wages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salary" title="Salary">salaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Income_bracket" title="Income bracket">Income bracket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">Income tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_wage" title="Living wage">Living wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_wage" title="Maximum wage">Maximum wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_average_salary" title="National average salary">National average salary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_average_wage" title="List of countries by average wage">World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_average_wage" title="List of European countries by average wage">Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">Minimum wage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_Canada" title="Minimum wage in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_Wage_Ordinance" title="Minimum Wage Ordinance">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_minimum_wage" title="List of European countries by minimum wage">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_wage" title="Progressive wage">Progressive wage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_wage" title="Progressive wage">Singapore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overtime_rate" title="Overtime rate">Overtime rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paid_time_off" title="Paid time off">Paid time off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance-related_pay" title="Performance-related pay">Performance-related pay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salary_cap" title="Salary cap">Salary cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_compression" title="Wage compression">Wage compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Employee_benefits" title="Employee benefits">Benefits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annual_leave" title="Annual leave">Annual leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casual_Friday" title="Casual Friday">Casual Friday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_insurance" title="Disability insurance">Disability insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">Life insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_leave" title="Marriage leave">Marriage leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_leave" title="Parental leave">Parental leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">Pension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">Sick leave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sick_leave_in_the_United_States" title="Sick leave in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Take-home_vehicle" title="Take-home vehicle">Take-home vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Safety and health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crunch_(video_games)" title="Crunch (video games)">Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_and_employment" title="Epilepsy and employment">Epilepsy and employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoshi" title="Karoshi">Karoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rate_of_fatal_workplace_accidents" title="List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents">List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">Occupational burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_disease" title="Occupational disease">Occupational disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_exposure_limit" title="Occupational exposure limit">Occupational exposure limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_injury" title="Occupational injury">Occupational injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_noise" title="Occupational noise">Occupational noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">Occupational stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repetitive_strain_injury" title="Repetitive strain injury">Repetitive strain injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit_in_the_United_States" title="Right to sit in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_building_syndrome" title="Sick building syndrome">Sick building syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_accident" title="Work accident">Work accident</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_fatality" title="Occupational fatality">Occupational fatality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_compensation" title="Workers' compensation">Workers' compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_health_promotion" title="Workplace health promotion">Workplace health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_phobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Workplace phobia">Workplace phobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_wellness" title="Workplace wellness">Workplace wellness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Equal opportunity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_pay_for_equal_work" title="Equal pay for equal work">Equal pay for equal work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infractions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_corporate_collapses_and_scandals" title="List of corporate collapses and scandals">Corporate collapses and scandals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_scandals" title="Accounting scandals">Accounting scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_fraud" title="Control fraud">Control fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behaviour" title="Corporate behaviour">Corporate behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dress_code" title="Dress code">Dress code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_handbook" title="Employee handbook">Employee handbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_monitoring" title="Employee monitoring">Employee monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaluation_(workplace)" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaluation (workplace)">Evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleeping_while_on_duty" title="Sleeping while on duty">Sleeping while on duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_theft" title="Wage theft">Wage theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistleblower" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistleblower">Whistleblower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_bullying" title="Workplace bullying">Workplace bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_harassment" title="Workplace harassment">Workplace harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_incivility" title="Workplace incivility">Workplace incivility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Willingness</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boreout" title="Boreout">Boreout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careerism" title="Careerism">Careerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_conscription" title="Civil conscription">Civil conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead-end_job" title="Dead-end job">Dead-end job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_satisfaction" title="Job satisfaction">Job satisfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McJob" title="McJob">McJob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_commitment" title="Organizational commitment">Organizational commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Bonded labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">Labour camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truck_wages" title="Truck wages">Truck wages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">Unfree labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_ethic" title="Work ethic">Work ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Work–life interface">Work–life interface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Downshifting_(lifestyle)" title="Downshifting (lifestyle)">Downshifting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_living" title="Slow living">Slow living</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workaholic" title="Workaholic">Workaholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Termination_of_employment" title="Termination of employment">Termination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/At-will_employment" title="At-will employment">At-will employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismissal_(employment)" title="Dismissal (employment)">Dismissal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_room" title="Banishment room">Banishment room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_dismissal" title="Constructive dismissal">Constructive dismissal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongful_dismissal" title="Wrongful dismissal">Wrongful dismissal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_offboarding" title="Employee offboarding">Employee offboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exit_interview" title="Exit interview">Exit interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layoff" title="Layoff">Layoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notice_period" title="Notice period">Notice period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_slip_(employment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pink slip (employment)">Pink slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation" title="Resignation">Resignation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_resignation" title="Letter of resignation">Letter of resignation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restructuring" title="Restructuring">Restructuring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retirement" title="Retirement">Retirement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_retirement" title="Mandatory retirement">Mandatory retirement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retirement_age" title="Retirement age">Retirement age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retirement_planning" title="Retirement planning">Retirement planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severance_package" title="Severance package">Severance package</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_handshake" title="Golden handshake">Golden handshake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_parachute" title="Golden parachute">Golden parachute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turnover_(employment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turnover (employment)">Turnover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unemployment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">Barriers to entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discouraged_worker" title="Discouraged worker">Discouraged worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Economic depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frictional_unemployment" title="Frictional unemployment">Frictional unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">Full employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_unemployment" title="Graduate unemployment">Graduate unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_unemployment" title="Involuntary unemployment">Involuntary unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jobless_recovery" title="Jobless recovery">Jobless recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_curve" title="Phillips curve">Phillips curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_losses_caused_by_the_Great_Recession" title="Job losses caused by the Great Recession">Job losses caused by the Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_recessions" title="Lists of recessions">Lists of recessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession-proof_job" title="Recession-proof job">Recession-proof job</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour" title="Reserve army of labour">Reserve army of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">Structural unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_unemployment" class="mw-redirect" title="Types of unemployment">Types of unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">Unemployment benefits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_Convention,_1919" title="Unemployment Convention, 1919">Unemployment Convention, 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_extension" title="Unemployment extension">Unemployment extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of countries by unemployment rate">List of countries by unemployment rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment-to-population_ratio" title="Employment-to-population ratio">Employment-to-population ratio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_employment_rate" title="List of sovereign states by employment rate">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_curve" title="Wage curve">Wage curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_unemployment" title="Youth unemployment">Youth unemployment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Workfare" title="Workfare">Workfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment insurance">Unemployment insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make-work_job" title="Make-work job">Make-work job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_creation_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Job creation program">Job creation program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_creation_index" title="Job creation index">Job creation index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">Job guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employer_of_last_resort" title="Employer of last resort">Employer of last resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaranteed_minimum_income" title="Guaranteed minimum income">Guaranteed minimum income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_work" title="Right to work">Right to work</a></li> <li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><i>U.S.A.:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Works_Administration" title="Civil Works Administration">Civil Works Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Employment_and_Training_Act" title="Comprehensive Employment and Training Act">Comprehensive Employment and Training Act</a> </p> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bullshit_job" title="Bullshit job">Bullshit job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Busy_work" title="Busy work">Busy work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credentialism_and_educational_inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Credentialism and educational inflation">Credentialism and educational inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_labor" title="Emotional labor">Emotional labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_corporation" title="Evil corporation">Evil corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Going_postal" title="Going postal">Going postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiss_up_kick_down" title="Kiss up kick down">Kiss up kick down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make-work_job" title="Make-work job">Make-work job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissism_in_the_workplace" title="Narcissism in the workplace">Narcissism in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-work_society" title="Post-work society">Post-work society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presenteeism" title="Presenteeism">Presenteeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy_in_the_workplace" title="Psychopathy in the workplace">Psychopathy in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunday_scaries" title="Sunday scaries">Sunday scaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_movement_(culture)" title="Slow movement (culture)">Slow movement (culture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_leader" title="Toxic leader">Toxic leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_workplace" title="Toxic workplace">Toxic workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">Workhouse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> See also templates</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_corporations" title="Template:Aspects of corporations">Aspects of corporations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_jobs" title="Template:Aspects of jobs">Aspects of jobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_occupations" title="Template:Aspects of occupations">Aspects of occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_organizations" title="Template:Aspects of organizations">Aspects of organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_workplaces" title="Template:Aspects of workplaces">Aspects of workplaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Corporate_titles" title="Template:Corporate titles">Corporate titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Critique_of_work" title="Template:Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Organized_labor" title="Template:Organized labor">Organized labor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economics" title="Template:Economics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economics" title="Template talk:Economics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics#Theoretical_research" title="Economics">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">Decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Price theory">Price theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_design" title="Mechanism design">Mechanism design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complexity_economics" title="Complexity economics">Complexity economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_computational_economics" title="Agent-based computational economics">Agent-based computational economics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_in_economics" title="Pluralism in economics">Pluralism in economics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics#Empirical_research" title="Economics">Empirical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Economic statistics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_digitization" title="Economics of digitization">Digitization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">history</a>)<br /></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American (National)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_economic_thought" title="Ancient economic thought">Ancient thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist economics">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lausanne_School" title="Lausanne School">Lausanne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_School_(economics)" title="Stockholm School (economics)">Stockholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">Thermo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">Economists</a><br /></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Capitalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Capitalism" title="Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Capitalism" title="Template talk:Capitalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Capitalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Aspects and <a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">perspectives</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_of_production" title="Anarchy of production">Anarchy of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centralisation" title="Centralisation">Centralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">Deregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">Economic bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopreneurship" title="Ecopreneurship">Ecopreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of capitalist theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy#Capitalism" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchantilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchantilism">Merchantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">Multinational corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">Wealth</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_model" title="Anglo-Saxon model">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market#General_principles" title="Free market">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market capitalism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed capitalism">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="National capitalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-capitalism" title="Neo-capitalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic capitalism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw capitalism">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capitalism" title="Regulatory capitalism">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine capitalism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social capitalism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="State-sponsored capitalism">State-sponsored</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Cultural aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(shopping)" title="Black Friday (shopping)">Black Friday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_mobility" title="Economic mobility">Economic mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li>Mainstream</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_foundation" title="Private foundation">Private foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#In_relation_to_economics" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility" title="Labour market flexibility">Labour market flexibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_supply" title="Labour supply">Labour supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity" title="Prosperity">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicate" title="Syndicate">Syndicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_venture_capital" title="Social venture capital">Social venture capital</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unemployment</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_propaganda" title="Capitalist propaganda">Capitalist propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_fundamentalism" title="Market fundamentalism">Market fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antithesis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Anarcho-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market socialism">Free-market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Market anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template talk:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">Economic expansions</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">recessions in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">Aggregate demand</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">Effective demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_glut" title="General glut">General glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AD%E2%80%93AS_model" title="AD–AS model">Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">Overproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift" title="Paradox of thrift">Paradox of thrift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">Price-and-wage stickiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underconsumption" title="Underconsumption">Underconsumption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">Deflation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_inflation" title="Chronic inflation">Chronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_dichotomy" title="Classical dichotomy">Classical dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinflation" title="Disinflation">Disinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">Money supply</a>/<a href="/wiki/Demand_for_money" title="Demand for money">demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrality_of_money" title="Neutrality of money">Neutrality of money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_level" title="Price level">Price level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Real versus nominal value (economics)">Real and nominal values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velocity_of_money" title="Velocity of money">Velocity of money</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_expansion" title="Economic expansion">Economic expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_recovery" title="Economic recovery">Recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stagnation" title="Economic stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">U.S. expansions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">Interest rate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_interest_rate" title="Nominal interest rate">Nominal interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_interest_rate" title="Real interest rate">Real interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yield_curve" title="Yield curve">Yield curve</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inverted_yield_curve" title="Inverted yield curve">Inverted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_sheet_recession" title="Balance sheet recession">Balance sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_recession" title="Global recession">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_recession" title="Rolling recession">Rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_shapes" title="Recession shapes">Shapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Stagflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of recessions in the United Kingdom">U.K. recessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">U.S. recessions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_(economics)" title="Shock (economics)">Shock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_shock" title="Demand shock">Demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_shock" title="Supply shock">Supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unemployment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahm_rule" title="Sahm rule">Sahm rule</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a><br />(1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Slump_(15th_century)" title="Great Slump (15th century)">Great Slump</a> (1430–1490)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">Slump of 1706</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Frost_of_1709" title="Great Frost of 1709">Great Frost of 1709</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">1st Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">British credit crisis of 1772–1773</a> <ul><li>1772–1774; <a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Effects_in_London" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Scotland" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">American Colonies</a></li></ul></li> <li>1785–1788</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Panic_of_1789" title="Copper Panic of 1789">Copper Panic of 1789</a>/<a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1792" title="Panic of 1792">Panic of 1792</a> (1789–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a> (1796–1799)</li> <li>1802–1804</li> <li>1807–1810</li> <li>1812</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Napoleonic_Depression" title="Post-Napoleonic Depression">Post-Napoleonic Depression</a> (1815–1821)</li> <li>1822–23</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1825" title="Panic of 1825">Panic of 1825</a> (1825–1826)</li> <li>1828–29</li> <li>1833–34</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a> (1836–1838 and 1839–1843)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Early Victorian Britain</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">Civil War-era United States</a><br />(1840–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1845–46</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a> (1847–1848)</li> <li>1853–54</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li>1860–61</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1866" title="Panic of 1866">Panic of 1866</a> (1865–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday</a> (1869–1870)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">2nd Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a>/<a href="/wiki/The_Great_Deflation" title="The Great Deflation">Great Deflation</a> <ul><li>1873–1879; <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_Kingdom" title="Long Depression">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_States" title="Long Depression">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1882%E2%80%931885" title="Depression of 1882–1885">Depression of 1882–1885</a></li> <li>1887–88</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">Baring crisis</a> (1890–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a> (1893–1897)</li> <li>1899–1900</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1901" title="Panic of 1901">Panic of 1901</a> (1902–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a> (1907–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1910%E2%80%9311" title="Panic of 1910–11">Panic of 1910–11</a> (1910–1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_1914" title="Financial crisis of 1914">Financial crisis of 1914</a> (1913–14)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a><br />(1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_I_recession" title="Post–World War I recession">Post–World War I recession</a> (1918–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1920%E2%80%931921" title="Depression of 1920–1921">Depression of 1920–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li>1923–1924</li> <li>1926–1927</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li>1929–1939; <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia" title="Great Depression in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Canada" title="Great Depression in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_India" title="Great Depression in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%931938" title="Recession of 1937–1938">Recession of 1937–1938</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a><br />(1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1945</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1949" title="Recession of 1949">Recession of 1949</a> (1948–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1953" title="Recession of 1953">Recession of 1953</a> (1953–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1958" title="Recession of 1958">Recession of 1958</a> (1957–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1960%E2%80%931961" title="Recession of 1960–1961">Recession of 1960–1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1969%E2%80%931970" title="Recession of 1969–1970">Recession of 1969–1970</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Great Inflation</a><br />(1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession" title="1973–1975 recession">1973–1975 recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession#United_Kingdom" title="1973–1975 recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession#United_States" title="1973–1975 recession">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession" title="Early 1980s recession">Early 1980s recession</a> <ul><li>1980–1982; <a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession#Canada" title="Early 1980s recession">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession#United_Kingdom" title="Early 1980s recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession_in_the_United_States" title="Early 1980s recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a><br />(1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1990s_United_States_boom" title="1990s United States boom">1990s United States boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession" title="Early 1990s recession">Early 1990s recession</a> <ul><li>1990–1991; <a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_Australia" title="Early 1990s recession in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession#Canada" title="Early 1990s recession">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession#United_Kingdom" title="Early 1990s recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_the_United_States" title="Early 1990s recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_2000s_recession" title="Early 2000s recession">Early 2000s recession</a> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a><br />(2007–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> <ul><li>2007–2009; <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#Australia" title="Great Recession in Oceania">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Bangladesh" title="Great Recession in Asia">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_Americas#Canada" title="Great Recession in the Americas">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#India" title="Great Recession in Asia">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Malysia" title="Great Recession in Asia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#New_Zealand" title="Great Recession in Oceania">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Pakistan" title="Great Recession in Asia">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Africa" title="Great Recession in Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Sri_Lanka" title="Great Recession in Asia">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#United_Kingdom" title="Great Recession in Europe">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">COVID-19 recession</a> <ul><li>2020–2022; <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Australia" title="COVID-19 recession">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Bangladsh" title="COVID-19 recession">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Belize" title="COVID-19 recession">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Botswana" title="COVID-19 recession">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Namibia" title="COVID-19 recession">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore#Economic_impact" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Zambia" title="COVID-19 recession">Zambia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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