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id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Typology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport_comparisons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport_comparisons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Transport comparisons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport_comparisons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Security</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Developments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Developments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_WWII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_WWII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Before WWII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_WWII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-WWII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-WWII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Post-WWII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-WWII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jetliners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jetliners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Jetliners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jetliners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hazards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Hazards</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hazards-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hazards subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hazards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unapproved_parts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unapproved_parts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Unapproved parts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unapproved_parts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_object_debris" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_object_debris"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Foreign object debris</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_object_debris-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misleading_information_and_lack_of_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misleading_information_and_lack_of_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Misleading information and lack of information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misleading_information_and_lack_of_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lightning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lightning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Lightning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lightning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice_and_snow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_and_snow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Ice and snow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_and_snow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wind_shear_or_microburst" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wind_shear_or_microburst"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Wind shear or microburst</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wind_shear_or_microburst-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engine_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engine_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Engine failure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engine_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_failure_of_the_aircraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_failure_of_the_aircraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Structural failure of the aircraft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_failure_of_the_aircraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stalling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stalling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Stalling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stalling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Fire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bird_strike" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bird_strike"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Bird strike</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bird_strike-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Human factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pilot_fatigue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pilot_fatigue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12.1</span> <span>Pilot fatigue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pilot_fatigue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piloting_while_intoxicated" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piloting_while_intoxicated"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12.2</span> <span>Piloting while intoxicated</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piloting_while_intoxicated-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pilot_suicide_and_murder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pilot_suicide_and_murder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12.3</span> <span>Pilot suicide and murder</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pilot_suicide_and_murder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deliberate_aircrew_inaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deliberate_aircrew_inaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12.4</span> <span>Deliberate aircrew inaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deliberate_aircrew_inaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_factors_of_third_parties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_factors_of_third_parties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12.5</span> <span>Human factors of third parties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_factors_of_third_parties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controlled_flight_into_terrain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controlled_flight_into_terrain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12.6</span> <span>Controlled flight into terrain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controlled_flight_into_terrain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromagnetic_interference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromagnetic_interference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12.7</span> <span>Electromagnetic interference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromagnetic_interference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ground_damage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ground_damage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.13</span> <span>Ground damage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ground_damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volcanic_ash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volcanic_ash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.14</span> <span>Volcanic ash</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volcanic_ash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Runway_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Runway_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.15</span> <span>Runway safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Runway_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.16</span> <span>Terrorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.17</span> <span>Military action</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accident_survivability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accident_survivability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Accident survivability</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Accident_survivability-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Accident survivability subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Accident_survivability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Airport_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Airport_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Airport design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Airport_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergency_airplane_evacuations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergency_airplane_evacuations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Emergency airplane evacuations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergency_airplane_evacuations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aircraft_materials_and_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aircraft_materials_and_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Aircraft materials and design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aircraft_materials_and_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radar_and_wind_shear_detection_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radar_and_wind_shear_detection_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Radar and wind shear detection systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radar_and_wind_shear_detection_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accidents_and_incidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accidents_and_incidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Accidents and incidents</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Accidents_and_incidents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Accidents and incidents subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Accidents_and_incidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-National_investigation_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_investigation_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>National investigation organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_investigation_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_safety_investigators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_safety_investigators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Air safety investigators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_safety_investigators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety_improvement_initiatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety_improvement_initiatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Safety improvement initiatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety_improvement_initiatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Regulators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Aviation safety</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="سلامة جوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلامة جوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="বিমান নিরাপত্তা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিমান নিরাপত্তা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyvesikkerhed" title="Flyvesikkerhed – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Flyvesikkerhed" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flugsicherheit" title="Flugsicherheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Flugsicherheit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennuohutus" title="Lennuohutus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lennuohutus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seguridad_a%C3%A9rea" title="Seguridad aérea – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Seguridad aérea" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9curit%C3%A9_a%C3%A9rienne" title="Sécurité aérienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sécurité aérienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%AD%EA%B3%B5_%EC%95%88%EC%A0%84" title="항공 안전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="항공 안전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keselamatan_penerbangan" title="Keselamatan penerbangan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keselamatan penerbangan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicurezza_aerea" title="Sicurezza aerea – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sicurezza aerea" data-language-autonym="Italiano" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">State in which risks associated with aviation are at an acceptable level</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Aviation_safety" title="Special:EditPage/Aviation safety">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Aviation+safety%22">"Aviation safety"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Aviation+safety%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Aviation+safety%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Aviation+safety%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Aviation+safety%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Aviation+safety%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg/300px-Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg/450px-Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg/600px-Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Air_Malta" title="Air Malta">Air Malta</a> crewman performing a <a href="/wiki/Pre-flight_inspection" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-flight inspection">pre-flight inspection</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus A320">Airbus A320</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Aviation safety</b> is the study and practice of managing risks in aviation. This includes preventing <a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">aviation accidents and incidents</a> through research, educating air travel personnel, passengers and the general public, as well as the design of aircraft and aviation infrastructure. The aviation industry is subject to significant regulation and oversight.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aviation_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation security">Aviation security</a> is focused on protecting air travelers, aircraft and infrastructure from intentional harm or disruption, rather than unintentional mishaps. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statistics">Statistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Statistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Number_of_fatalities_from_airliners_hull-loss_accidents_per_year.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Number_of_fatalities_from_airliners_hull-loss_accidents_per_year.svg/220px-Number_of_fatalities_from_airliners_hull-loss_accidents_per_year.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Number_of_fatalities_from_airliners_hull-loss_accidents_per_year.svg/330px-Number_of_fatalities_from_airliners_hull-loss_accidents_per_year.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Number_of_fatalities_from_airliners_hull-loss_accidents_per_year.svg/440px-Number_of_fatalities_from_airliners_hull-loss_accidents_per_year.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>Yearly fatalities<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since 1942, 5 year average in red: fatalities peaked in 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fatalities_per_revenue_passenger_kilometre_in_air_transport_since_1970.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Fatalities_per_revenue_passenger_kilometre_in_air_transport_since_1970.png/220px-Fatalities_per_revenue_passenger_kilometre_in_air_transport_since_1970.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Fatalities_per_revenue_passenger_kilometre_in_air_transport_since_1970.png/330px-Fatalities_per_revenue_passenger_kilometre_in_air_transport_since_1970.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Fatalities_per_revenue_passenger_kilometre_in_air_transport_since_1970.png/440px-Fatalities_per_revenue_passenger_kilometre_in_air_transport_since_1970.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>Fatalities per trillion <a href="/wiki/Revenue_passenger_kilometre" class="mw-redirect" title="Revenue passenger kilometre">revenue passenger kilometres</a> since 1970 (five-year moving average for fatalities)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">Aviation</a> is safer today than it has ever been. Modern commercial aviation boasts an accident rate of approximately 1 fatal accident per 16 million flights, far lower than historic numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On December 14, 1903, the <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright Brothers</a> conducted a test flight of their powered airplane from slope of Big Kill Devil Hill in North Carolina. Upon takeoff, the airplane lifted about 15 feet off the ground, stalled, and crashed into the sand.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only three days later, on December 17, 1903, Wilbur's brother, <a href="/wiki/Orville_Wright" class="mw-redirect" title="Orville Wright">Orville Wright</a>, would fly the airplane for the world's first powered, sustained, and controlled heavier-than-air flight in history. Although the failed test flight on December 14 would be mostly forgotten in aviation, it remains to this day one of the first <a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">aviation accidents</a> in history. </p><p>In the early years of air travel, accidents were exceedingly common. 1929 was named the year of "The Great Crash" due to the frequency of aircraft accidents that occurred during the year, with 24 fatal accidents reported.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1928 and 1929, the overall accident rate was about 1 in every million miles (1.6 million kilometers) flown.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In today's industry, that accident rate would translate to about 7,000 fatal accidents each year. </p><p>For the ten-year period 2002 to 2011, 0.6 fatal accidents happened per one million flights globally, 0.4 per million hours flown, 22.0 fatalities per one million flights or 12.7 per million hours flown.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 310 million passengers in 1970, air transport had grown to 3,696 million in 2016, led by 823 million in the United States, then 488 million in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, there were 19 fatal accidents of civil airliners of more than 14 passengers, resulting in 325 fatalities, the second safest year ever after 2015 with 16 accidents and 2013 with 265 fatalities.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For planes heavier than 5.7 t, there were 34.9 million departures and 75 accidents worldwide with 7 of these fatal for 182 fatalities, the lowest since 2013 : 5.21 fatalities per million departures.<sup id="cite_ref-ICAO_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICAO-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure.NTSB%E2%80%99s_Worldwide_Airplane_Mishaps_Investigation_Data_Since_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The visualization shows that unstable landing was most likely to result in a mishap, while the uncontrolled-descent had the highest fatality rate, up to 60%.The mishaps data comes from CAROL, which is NTSB's query tool for information about investigations and recommendations." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Figure.NTSB%E2%80%99s_Worldwide_Airplane_Mishaps_Investigation_Data_Since_2006.jpg/520px-Figure.NTSB%E2%80%99s_Worldwide_Airplane_Mishaps_Investigation_Data_Since_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="520" height="368" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Figure.NTSB%E2%80%99s_Worldwide_Airplane_Mishaps_Investigation_Data_Since_2006.jpg/780px-Figure.NTSB%E2%80%99s_Worldwide_Airplane_Mishaps_Investigation_Data_Since_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Figure.NTSB%E2%80%99s_Worldwide_Airplane_Mishaps_Investigation_Data_Since_2006.jpg/1040px-Figure.NTSB%E2%80%99s_Worldwide_Airplane_Mishaps_Investigation_Data_Since_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="20114" data-file-height="14223" /></a><figcaption>Stage of flight in which incidents occur, according to <a href="/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board" title="National Transportation Safety Board">National Transportation Safety Board</a> data from 2006 to 2023</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on <a href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940" class="extiw" title="phab:T334940">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Graph/Plans">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 2017, there were 10 fatal airliner accidents, resulting in 44 occupant fatalities and 35 persons on the ground: the safest year ever for commercial aviation, both by the number of fatal accidents as well as in fatalities.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2019, fatal accidents per million flights decreased 12 fold since 1970, from 6.35 to 0.51, and fatalities per trillion <a href="/wiki/Revenue_passenger_kilometre" class="mw-redirect" title="Revenue passenger kilometre">revenue passenger kilometre</a> (RPK) decreased 81 fold from 3,218 to 40.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typology">Typology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Typology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Runway safety represents 36% of accidents, ground safety 18% and loss of control in-flight 16%.<sup id="cite_ref-ICAO_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICAO-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on <a href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940" class="extiw" title="phab:T334940">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Graph/Plans">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_control_(aeronautics)" title="Loss of control (aeronautics)">Loss of control</a> inflight represents 35% of the fatal accidents, <a href="/wiki/Controlled_flight_into_terrain" title="Controlled flight into terrain">Controlled flight into terrain</a> 21%, <a href="/wiki/Runway_excursion" title="Runway excursion">runway excursions</a> 17%, system or <a href="/wiki/Component_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Component failure">component failure</a>: 6%, Touchdown off the <a href="/wiki/Runway" title="Runway">runway</a>: 5%, <a href="/wiki/Hard_landing" title="Hard landing">Abnormal Runway Contact</a>: 4% and <a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a>: 2%.<sup id="cite_ref-AirbusFeb2023_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AirbusFeb2023-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Safety has improved from better <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_design_process" title="Aircraft design process">aircraft design process</a>, engineering and maintenance, the evolution of navigation aids, and safety protocols and procedures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport_comparisons">Transport comparisons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transport comparisons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three main ways in which the risk of fatality in a certain mode of travel can be measured: (1) deaths per billion typical <i>journeys</i> taken, (2) deaths per billion <i>hours</i> traveled, and (3) deaths per billion <i>kilometers</i> traveled. The following table displays these statistics for the United Kingdom (1990–2000),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been appended. (Note that aviation safety does not include travelling to the airport.)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Relevant to topic, but nothing from source is used in article (anymore). (January 2024)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: right;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Transportation type </th> <th colspan="3">Deaths per billion </th></tr> <tr> <th>Journeys </th> <th>Hours </th> <th>Kilometers </th></tr> <tr> <td>Bus</td> <td>4.3</td> <td>11.1</td> <td>0.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rail</td> <td>20</td> <td>30</td> <td>0.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Van</td> <td>20</td> <td>60</td> <td>1.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Private Car</td> <td>40</td> <td>130</td> <td>3.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Foot</td> <td>40</td> <td>220</td> <td>54.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Water</td> <td>90</td> <td>50</td> <td>2.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Air</td> <td>117</td> <td>30.8</td> <td>0.05 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pedal cycle</td> <td>170</td> <td>550</td> <td>44.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Motorcycle</td> <td>1640</td> <td>4840</td> <td>108.9 </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;"> <td>Paragliding<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td>8850<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Skydiving</td> <td>7500<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>75000<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Space Shuttle<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>17000000</td> <td>70000</td> <td>6.6 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The first two statistics are computed for typical travels by their respective forms of transport, so they cannot be used directly to compare risks related to different forms of transport in a particular travel "from A to B". For example, these statistics suggest that a typical flight from <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> to <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> would carry a larger risk factor than a typical car travel from home to office. However, car travel from Los Angeles to New York would not be typical; that journey would be as long as <i>several dozen</i> typical car travels, and thus the associated risk would be larger as well. Because the journey would take a much longer time, the overall risk associated with making this journey by car would be higher than making the same journey by air, even if each individual hour of car travel is less risky than each hour of flight. </p><p>For risks associated with long-range intercity travel, the most suitable statistic is the third one: deaths per billion kilometers. Still, this statistic can lose credence in situations where the availability of an air option makes an otherwise inconvenient journey possible. </p><p>Aviation industry insurers base their calculations on the <i>deaths per journey</i> statistic while the aviation industry itself generally uses the <i>deaths per kilometre</i> statistic in press releases.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since 1997, the number of fatal air accidents has been no more than 1 for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> flown,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and thus is one of the safest modes of transportation when measured by <a href="/wiki/Passenger_miles" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger miles">distance traveled</a>. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i> notes that air travel is safer by distance travelled, but trains are as safe as planes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also notes that cars are four times more hazardous for deaths per time travelled, and cars and trains are respectively three times and six times safer than planes by number of journeys taken.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because the above figures are focused on providing a perspective to the realm of everyday transportation, air travel is taken to include only standard civil passenger aviation, as offered commercially to the general public. Military and special-purpose aircraft are excluded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between 1990 and 2015, there were 1874 commuter and <a href="/wiki/Air_taxi" title="Air taxi">air taxi</a> accidents in the U.S. of which 454 (24%) were fatal, resulting in 1296 deaths, including 674 accidents (36%) and 279 fatalities (22%) in Alaska alone.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of deaths per passenger-mile on commercial airlines in the United States between 2000 and 2010 was about 0.2 deaths per 10 billion passenger-miles.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For driving, the rate was 150 per 10 billion vehicle-miles for 2000 : 750 times higher per mile than for flying in a commercial airplane. </p><p>There were no fatalities on large scheduled commercial airlines in the United States for over nine years, between the <a href="/wiki/Colgan_Air_Flight_3407" title="Colgan Air Flight 3407">Colgan Air Flight 3407</a> crash in February 2009, and a catastrophic engine failure on <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Airlines_Flight_1380" title="Southwest Airlines Flight 1380">Southwest Airlines Flight 1380</a> in April 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security">Security</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Security"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another aspect of safety is protection from intentional harm or <a href="/wiki/Property_damage" title="Property damage">property damage</a>, also known as <i>security</i>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/September_11,_2001_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">terrorist attacks</a> of 2001 are not counted as accidents. However, even if they were counted as accidents they would have added about 1 death per billion person-miles. Two months later, <a href="/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_587" title="American Airlines Flight 587">American Airlines Flight 587</a> crashed in New York City, killing 265 people, including 5 on the ground, causing 2001 to show a very high fatality rate. Even so, the rate that year including the attacks (estimated here to be about 4 deaths per billion person-miles), is safe compared to some other forms of transport when measured by distance traveled. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developments">Developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_WWII">Before WWII</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Before WWII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first aircraft electrical or electronic device <a href="/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics">avionics</a> system was <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Sperry" title="Lawrence Sperry">Lawrence Sperry</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Autopilot" title="Autopilot">autopilot</a>, demonstrated in June 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-AvWeek1Aug2017_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvWeek1Aug2017-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Transcontinental_Airway_System" title="Transcontinental Airway System">Transcontinental Airway System</a> chain of beacons was built by the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Commerce Department">Commerce Department</a> in 1923 to guide <a href="/wiki/Airmail" title="Airmail">airmail</a> flights.<sup id="cite_ref-AvWeek1Aug2017_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvWeek1Aug2017-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gyrocopters" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyrocopters">Gyrocopters</a> were developed by <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cierva" title="Juan de la Cierva">Juan de la Cierva</a> to avoid <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_stall" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic stall">stall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spin_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin (aircraft)">spin</a> accidents, and for that invented <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_and_collective" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclic and collective">cyclic and collective</a> controls used by <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AvWeek1Aug2017_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvWeek1Aug2017-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first flight of a gyrocopter was on 17 January 1923. </p><p>During the 1920s, the first laws were passed in the United States of America to regulate <a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation" title="Civil aviation">civil aviation</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Air_Commerce_Act_of_1926" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Commerce Act of 1926">Air Commerce Act of 1926</a>, which required pilots and aircraft to be examined and licensed, for accidents to be properly investigated, and for the establishment of safety rules and navigation aids; under the Aeronautics Branch of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">United States Department of Commerce</a> (US DoC). </p><p>A network of <a href="/wiki/Aerial_lighthouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerial lighthouse">aerial lighthouses</a> was established in the United Kingdom and Europe during the 1920s and 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of the lighthouses has declined with the advent of radio navigation aids such as <a href="/wiki/Non-directional_beacon" title="Non-directional beacon">non-directional beacon</a> (NDB), <a href="/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range" title="VHF omnidirectional range">VHF omnidirectional range</a> (VOR), and <a href="/wiki/Distance_measuring_equipment" title="Distance measuring equipment">distance measuring equipment</a> (DME). The last operational aerial lighthouse in the United Kingdom is on top of the <a href="/wiki/Cupola" title="Cupola">cupola</a> over the <a href="/wiki/RAF_College_Cranwell" class="mw-redirect" title="RAF College Cranwell">RAF College</a> main hall at <a href="/wiki/RAF_Cranwell" title="RAF Cranwell">RAF Cranwell</a>. </p><p>One of the first aids for <a href="/wiki/Air_navigation" title="Air navigation">air navigation</a> to be introduced in the United States in the late 1920s was <a href="/wiki/Approach_lighting_system" title="Approach lighting system">airfield lighting</a>, to assist pilots in making landings in poor weather or after dark. The <a href="/wiki/Precision_Approach_Path_Indicator" class="mw-redirect" title="Precision Approach Path Indicator">Precision Approach Path Indicator</a> (PAPI) was developed from this in the 1930s, indicating to the pilot the angle of descent to the airfield. This later became adopted internationally through the standards of the <a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">International Civil Aviation Organization</a> (ICAO). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Doolittle" title="Jimmy Doolittle">Jimmy Doolittle</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Instrument_rating" title="Instrument rating">instrument rating</a> and made his first 'blind' flight in September 1929. The March 1931 wooden wing failure of <a href="/wiki/1931_Transcontinental_%26_Western_Air_Fokker_F-10_crash" title="1931 Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-10 crash">a Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-10</a> carrying <a href="/wiki/Knute_Rockne" title="Knute Rockne">Knute Rockne</a>, coach of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a>'s football team, reinforced all-metal <a href="/wiki/Airframe" title="Airframe">airframes</a> and led to a more formal <a href="/wiki/Accident_investigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Accident investigation">accident investigation</a> system. </p><p>On 4 September 1933, a <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-1" title="Douglas DC-1">Douglas DC-1</a> test flight was conducted with one of the two engines shut down during the takeoff run, climbed to 8,000 feet (2,438 metres), and completed its flight, proving twin <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">aircraft engine</a> safety. With greater range than lights and weather immunity, <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">radio navigation</a> aids were first used in the 1930s, like the Australian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aeradio_station&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aeradio station (page does not exist)">Aeradio stations</a> guiding transport flights, with a light beacon and a modified <a href="/wiki/Lorenz_beam" title="Lorenz beam">Lorenz beam</a> transmitter (the German blind-landing equipment preceding the modern <a href="/wiki/Instrument_landing_system" title="Instrument landing system">instrument landing system</a> - ILS).<sup id="cite_ref-AvWeek1Aug2017_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvWeek1Aug2017-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ILS was first used by a scheduled flight to make a landing in a snowstorm at <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh,_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania">Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</a>, in 1938, and a form of ILS was adopted by the ICAO for international use in 1949. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-WWII">Post-WWII</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Post-WWII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hard <a href="/wiki/Runway" title="Runway">runways</a> were built worldwide for World War II to avoid waves and floating hazards plaguing <a href="/wiki/Seaplane" title="Seaplane">seaplanes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AvWeek1Aug2017_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvWeek1Aug2017-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Developed by the U.S. and introduced during World War II, <a href="/wiki/LORAN" title="LORAN">LORAN</a> replaced the sailors' less reliable <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">celestial navigation</a> over water and survived until it was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AvWeek1Aug2017_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvWeek1Aug2017-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MAKS-2007-Radar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MAKS-2007-Radar.jpg/220px-MAKS-2007-Radar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MAKS-2007-Radar.jpg/330px-MAKS-2007-Radar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MAKS-2007-Radar.jpg/440px-MAKS-2007-Radar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An airborne <a href="/wiki/Pulse-Doppler_radar" title="Pulse-Doppler radar">pulse-Doppler radar</a> antenna. Some airborne radars can be used as <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">meteorological radars</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the development of <a href="/wiki/Radar_in_World_War_II" title="Radar in World War II">radar in World War II</a>, it was deployed as a landing aid for civil aviation in the form of <a href="/wiki/Ground-controlled_approach" title="Ground-controlled approach">ground-controlled approach</a> (GCA) systems then as the <a href="/wiki/Airport_surveillance_radar" title="Airport surveillance radar">airport surveillance radar</a> as an aid to <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a> in the 1950s. </p><p>A number of ground-based <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a> systems can detect areas of severe turbulence. </p><p>A modern <a href="/wiki/Honeywell_Aerospace" class="mw-redirect" title="Honeywell Aerospace">Honeywell</a> Intuvue weather system visualizes weather patterns up to 300 miles (480 km) away.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Distance_measuring_equipment" title="Distance measuring equipment">Distance measuring equipment</a> (DME) in 1948 and <a href="/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range" title="VHF omnidirectional range">VHF omnidirectional range</a> (VOR) stations became the main route navigation means during the 1960s, superseding the low frequency radio ranges and the <a href="/wiki/Non-directional_beacon" title="Non-directional beacon">non-directional beacon</a> (NDB): the ground-based VOR stations were often co-located with DME transmitters and the pilots could establish their bearing and distance to the station.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jetliners">Jetliners</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jetliners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To highlight the <a href="/wiki/Jetliner" class="mw-redirect" title="Jetliner">jetliner</a> evolution, <a href="/wiki/Airbus" title="Airbus">Airbus</a> split them in four generations: </p> <ol><li>from 1952, early jets (<a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">Comet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sud_Aviation_Caravelle" title="Sud Aviation Caravelle">Caravelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/BAC_One-Eleven" title="BAC One-Eleven">BAC-111</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Siddeley_Trident" title="Hawker Siddeley Trident">Trident</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_707" title="Boeing 707">B707</a>, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-8" title="Douglas DC-8">DC-8</a>...) have dials and gauges <a href="/wiki/Cockpit" title="Cockpit">cockpits</a> and early auto-flight systems ;</li> <li>from 1964, new designs (<a href="/wiki/Airbus_A300" title="Airbus A300">A300</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fokker_F28_Fellowship" title="Fokker F28 Fellowship">F28</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Aerospace_146" title="British Aerospace 146">BAe 146</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_727" title="Boeing 727">B727</a>, original <a href="/wiki/Boeing_737" title="Boeing 737">B737</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747" title="Boeing 747">B747</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_L-1011_TriStar" title="Lockheed L-1011 TriStar">L-1011</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-9" title="McDonnell Douglas DC-9">DC-9</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-10" title="McDonnell Douglas DC-10">DC-10</a>...) have more elaborate <a href="/wiki/Autopilot" title="Autopilot">autopilot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autothrottle" title="Autothrottle">autothrottle</a> systems ;</li> <li>From 1980, <a href="/wiki/Glass_cockpit" title="Glass cockpit">glass cockpit</a> & <a href="/wiki/Flight_management_system" title="Flight management system">FMS</a> designs (<a href="/wiki/Airbus_A310" title="Airbus A310">A310</a>/A300-600, <a href="/wiki/Fokker_100" title="Fokker 100">F100</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_737_Classic" title="Boeing 737 Classic">B737 Classic</a> & NG/MAX, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_757" title="Boeing 757">B757</a>/<a href="/wiki/Boeing_767" title="Boeing 767">B767</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747-400" title="Boeing 747-400">B747-400</a>/-8, <a href="/wiki/Bombardier_CRJ" title="Bombardier CRJ">Bombardier CRJ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embraer_ERJ_family" title="Embraer ERJ family">Embraer ERJ</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_MD-11" title="McDonnell Douglas MD-11">MD-11</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_MD-80" title="McDonnell Douglas MD-80">MD-80</a>/<a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_MD-90" title="McDonnell Douglas MD-90">MD-90</a>...) have improved navigation performance and <a href="/wiki/Terrain_awareness_and_warning_system" title="Terrain awareness and warning system">Terrain Avoidance Systems</a>, to reduce <a href="/wiki/Controlled_flight_into_terrain" title="Controlled flight into terrain">CFIT</a> accidents;</li> <li> From 1988, <a href="/wiki/Fly-By-Wire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly-By-Wire">Fly-By-Wire</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A220" title="Airbus A220">A220</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus A320">A320 family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A330" title="Airbus A330">A330</a>/<a href="/wiki/Airbus_A340" title="Airbus A340">A340</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A350" title="Airbus A350">A350</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">A380</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_777" title="Boeing 777">B777</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_787" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing 787">B787</a> and <a href="/wiki/Embraer_E-Jets" class="mw-redirect" title="Embraer E-Jets">Embraer E-Jets</a>) enabled <a href="/wiki/Flight_envelope_protection" title="Flight envelope protection">flight envelope protection</a> to reduce <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_control_(aeronautics)" title="Loss of control (aeronautics)">LOC</a> in flight accidents.<sup id="cite_ref-AirbusFeb2023_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AirbusFeb2023-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The fatal accident rate fell from 3.0 per million flights for the first generation to 0.9 for the next, 0.3 for the third and 0.1 for the last.<sup id="cite_ref-AirbusFeb2023_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AirbusFeb2023-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Wide_Area_Augmentation_System" title="Wide Area Augmentation System">Wide Area Augmentation System</a> (WAAS), satellite navigation has become accurate enough for altitude as well as positioning use, and is being used increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. However, because the GPS constellation is a <a href="/wiki/Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">single point of failure</a>, on-board <a href="/wiki/Inertial_Navigation_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Inertial Navigation System">Inertial Navigation System</a> (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still required for backup. </p><p>In 2017, <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_Collins" title="Rockwell Collins">Rockwell Collins</a> reported it had become more costly to certify than to develop a system, from 75% engineering and 25% certification in past years.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It calls for a global harmonization between certifying authorities to avoid redundant engineering and certification tests rather than recognizing the others approval and validation.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Groundings of entire classes of aircraft out of equipment safety concerns is unusual, but this has occurred to the <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">de Havilland Comet</a> in 1954 after multiple crashes due to metal fatigue and hull failure, the <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-10" title="McDonnell Douglas DC-10">McDonnell Douglas DC-10</a> in 1979 after the crash of <a href="/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_191" title="American Airlines Flight 191">American Airlines Flight 191</a> due to engine loss, the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner" title="Boeing 787 Dreamliner">Boeing 787 Dreamliner</a> in 2013 after its <a href="/wiki/2013_Boeing_787_Dreamliner_grounding" title="2013 Boeing 787 Dreamliner grounding">battery problems</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_737_MAX_groundings" title="Boeing 737 MAX groundings">Boeing 737 MAX in 2019</a> after two crashes preliminarily tied to a flight control system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hazards">Hazards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hazards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unapproved_parts">Unapproved parts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Unapproved parts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unapproved_aircraft_part" title="Unapproved aircraft part">Unapproved aircraft part</a></div> <p>Parts manufactured without an aviation authority's approval are described as "unapproved". Unapproved parts include inferior counterfeits, those used beyond their time limits, those that were previously approved but not properly returned to service, those with fraudulent labels, production overruns that were not sold with the agency's permission, and those that are untraceable.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unapproved faulty parts have caused hundreds of incidents and crashes, some fatal, including about 24 crashes between 2010 and 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_object_debris">Foreign object debris</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Foreign object debris"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_object_debris" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign object debris">Foreign object debris</a></div> <p>Foreign object debris (FOD) includes items left in the aircraft structure during manufacture/repairs, debris on the runway and solids encountered in flight (e.g. hail and dust). Such items can damage engines and other parts of the aircraft. In 2000, <a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_4590" title="Air France Flight 4590">Air France Flight 4590</a> crashed after hitting a part that had fallen from a departing Continental Airlines DC-10. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misleading_information_and_lack_of_information">Misleading information and lack of information</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Misleading information and lack of information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A pilot misinformed by a printed document (manual, map, etc.), reacting to a faulty instrument or indicator (in the cockpit or on the ground),<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or following inaccurate instructions or information from flight or ground control can lose <a href="/wiki/Situational_awareness" class="mw-redirect" title="Situational awareness">situational awareness</a>, or make errors, and accidents or near misses may result.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crash of <a href="/wiki/Air_New_Zealand_Flight_901" class="mw-redirect" title="Air New Zealand Flight 901">Air New Zealand Flight 901</a> was a result of receiving and interpreting incorrect coordinates, which caused the pilots to inadvertently fly into a mountain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lightning">Lightning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Lightning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Boeing studies showed that airliners are struck by <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> twice per year on average; aircraft withstand typical lightning strikes without damage. </p><p>The dangers of more powerful <a href="/wiki/Lightning#Positive_and_negative_lightning" title="Lightning">positive lightning</a> were not understood until the destruction of a <a href="/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)" title="Glider (sailplane)">glider</a> in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-schleicher_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schleicher-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has since been suggested that positive lightning might have caused the crash of <a href="/wiki/Pan_Am_Flight_214" title="Pan Am Flight 214">Pan Am Flight 214</a> in 1963. At that time, aircraft were not designed to withstand such strikes because their existence was unknown. The 1985 standard in force in the US at the time of the glider crash, Advisory Circular AC 20-53A,<sup id="cite_ref-schleicher_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schleicher-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was replaced by Advisory Circular AC 20-53B in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is unclear whether adequate protection against positive lightning was incorporated.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effects of typical lightning on traditional metal-covered aircraft are well understood and serious damage from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. Modern airliners like the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner" title="Boeing 787 Dreamliner">Boeing 787 Dreamliner</a> with exteriors and wings made from <a href="/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer">carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer</a> have been tested and shown to receive no damage from lightning strikes during testing.<sup id="cite_ref-www.wired.com_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.wired.com-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ice_and_snow">Ice and snow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ice and snow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boeing_747-400_(British_Airways)_(5282775118).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Boeing_747-400_%28British_Airways%29_%285282775118%29.jpg/220px-Boeing_747-400_%28British_Airways%29_%285282775118%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Boeing_747-400_%28British_Airways%29_%285282775118%29.jpg/330px-Boeing_747-400_%28British_Airways%29_%285282775118%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Boeing_747-400_%28British_Airways%29_%285282775118%29.jpg/440px-Boeing_747-400_%28British_Airways%29_%285282775118%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a> building on the intake to a <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_RB211" title="Rolls-Royce RB211">Rolls-Royce RB211</a> engine of a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747-400" title="Boeing 747-400">Boeing 747-400</a>. Snow and ice present unique threats and aircraft operating in these weather conditions often require de-icing equipment.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ice and <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a> can be major factors in airline accidents. In 2005, <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Airlines_Flight_1248" title="Southwest Airlines Flight 1248">Southwest Airlines Flight 1248</a> slid off the end of a <a href="/wiki/Runway" title="Runway">runway</a> after landing in heavy snow conditions, killing one child on the ground. </p><p>Even a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Icing_(aviation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Icing (aviation)">icing</a> or coarse <a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">frost</a> can greatly impair the ability of a wing to develop adequate <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">lift</a>, which is why regulations prohibit ice, snow or even frost on the wings or tail, prior to takeoff.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Air_Florida_Flight_90" title="Air Florida Flight 90">Air Florida Flight 90</a> crashed on takeoff in 1982, as a result of ice/snow on its wings. </p><p>An accumulation of ice during flight can be catastrophic, as evidenced by the loss of control and subsequent crashes of <a href="/wiki/American_Eagle_Flight_4184" title="American Eagle Flight 4184">American Eagle Flight 4184</a> in 1994, and <a href="/wiki/Comair_Flight_3272" title="Comair Flight 3272">Comair Flight 3272</a> in 1997. Both aircraft were <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> airliners, with straight wings, which tend to be more susceptible to inflight ice accumulation, than are swept-wing jet airliners.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Airlines and airports ensure that aircraft are properly <a href="/wiki/Ground_deicing_of_aircraft" title="Ground deicing of aircraft">de-iced</a> before <a href="/wiki/Takeoff" title="Takeoff">takeoff</a> whenever the weather involves <a href="/wiki/Icing_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Icing conditions">icing conditions</a>. Modern airliners are designed to prevent ice buildup on <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">engines</a>, and tails (<a href="/wiki/Empennage" title="Empennage">empennage</a>) by either routing heated air from <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engines</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Leading_edge" title="Leading edge">leading edges</a> of the wing, and inlets,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or on slower aircraft, by use of inflatable rubber "<a href="/wiki/Deicing_boot" title="Deicing boot">boots</a>" that expand to break off any accumulated ice. </p><p>Airline flight plans require <a href="/wiki/Flight_dispatcher" title="Flight dispatcher">airline dispatch offices</a> to monitor the progress of weather along the routes of their flights, helping the <a href="/wiki/Aviator" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviator">pilots</a> to avoid the worst of inflight icing conditions. Aircraft can also be equipped with an <a href="/wiki/Ice_detector" title="Ice detector">ice detector</a> in order to warn pilots to leave unexpected ice accumulation areas, before the situation becomes critical.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pitot_tube" title="Pitot tube">Pitot tubes</a> in modern airplanes and helicopters have been provided with the function of "Pitot Heating" to prevent accidents like <a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_447" title="Air France Flight 447">Air France Flight 447</a> caused by the pitot tube freezing and giving false readings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wind_shear_or_microburst">Wind shear or microburst</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Wind shear or microburst"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Windshearaircraftnasa.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Windshearaircraftnasa.gif/200px-Windshearaircraftnasa.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Windshearaircraftnasa.gif/300px-Windshearaircraftnasa.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Windshearaircraftnasa.gif/400px-Windshearaircraftnasa.gif 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>Effect of wind shear on aircraft trajectory. Note how merely correcting for the initial gust front can have dire consequences.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</a> is a change in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. A <a href="/wiki/Microburst" class="mw-redirect" title="Microburst">microburst</a> is a localized column of sinking air that drops down in a thunderstorm. Both of these are potential weather threats that may cause an aviation accident.<sup id="cite_ref-Shiavo_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shiavo-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delta_191_wreckage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Delta_191_wreckage.jpg/220px-Delta_191_wreckage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Delta_191_wreckage.jpg/330px-Delta_191_wreckage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Delta_191_wreckage.jpg/440px-Delta_191_wreckage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>Wreckage of <a href="/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines_Flight_191" title="Delta Air Lines Flight 191">Delta Air Lines Flight 191</a> tail section after a microburst slammed the aircraft into the ground.</figcaption></figure> <p>Strong outflow from thunderstorms causes rapid changes in the three-dimensional wind velocity just above ground level. Initially, this outflow causes a headwind that increases airspeed, which normally causes a pilot to reduce engine power if they are unaware of the wind shear. As the aircraft passes into the region of the downdraft, the localized headwind diminishes, reducing the aircraft's airspeed and increasing its sink rate. Then, when the aircraft passes through the other side of the downdraft, the headwind becomes a tailwind, reducing lift generated by the wings, and leaving the aircraft in a low-power, low-speed descent. This can lead to an accident if the aircraft is too low to effect a recovery before ground contact. Between 1964 and 1985, wind shear directly caused or contributed to 26 major civil transport aircraft accidents in the U.S. that led to 620 deaths and 200 injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration,_Langley_Research_Center_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration,_Langley_Research_Center-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engine_failure">Engine failure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Engine failure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Turbine_engine_failure" title="Turbine engine failure">Turbine engine failure</a> and <a href="/wiki/ETOPS" title="ETOPS">ETOPS</a></div> <p>An engine may fail to function because of <a href="/wiki/Fuel_starvation" title="Fuel starvation">fuel starvation</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/British_Airways_Flight_38" title="British Airways Flight 38">British Airways Flight 38</a>), <a href="/wiki/Fuel_exhaustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel exhaustion">fuel exhaustion</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gimli_Glider" title="Gimli Glider">Air Canada Flight 143</a>), <a href="/wiki/Foreign_object_damage" title="Foreign object damage">foreign object damage</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/US_Airways_Flight_1549" title="US Airways Flight 1549">US Airways Flight 1549</a>), mechanical failure due to <a href="/wiki/Metal_fatigue" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal fatigue">metal fatigue</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Kegworth_air_disaster" title="Kegworth air disaster">Kegworth air disaster</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Al_Flight_1862" title="El Al Flight 1862">El Al Flight 1862</a>, <a href="/wiki/China_Airlines_Flight_358" title="China Airlines Flight 358">China Airlines Flight 358</a>), mechanical failure due to improper maintenance (e.g. <a href="/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_191" title="American Airlines Flight 191">American Airlines Flight 191</a>), mechanical failure caused by an original manufacturing defect in the engine (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Qantas_Flight_32" title="Qantas Flight 32">Qantas Flight 32</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Airlines_Flight_232" title="United Airlines Flight 232">United Airlines Flight 232</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines_Flight_1288" title="Delta Air Lines Flight 1288">Delta Air Lines Flight 1288</a>), and pilot error (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pinnacle_Airlines_Flight_3701" title="Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701">Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701</a>). </p><p>In a multi-engine aircraft, failure of a single engine usually results in a precautionary landing being performed, for example, landing at a <a href="/wiki/Diversion_airport" title="Diversion airport">diversion airport</a> instead of continuing to the intended destination. Failure of a second engine (e.g. <a href="/wiki/US_Airways_Flight_1549" title="US Airways Flight 1549">US Airways Flight 1549</a>) or damage to other aircraft systems caused by an uncontained engine failure (e.g. <a href="/wiki/United_Airlines_Flight_232" title="United Airlines Flight 232">United Airlines Flight 232</a>) may, if an <a href="/wiki/Emergency_landing" title="Emergency landing">emergency landing</a> is not possible, result in the aircraft crashing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_failure_of_the_aircraft">Structural failure of the aircraft</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Structural failure of the aircraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Examples of failure of aircraft structures caused by <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">metal fatigue</a> include the <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">de Havilland Comet</a> accidents (1950s) and <a href="/wiki/Aloha_Airlines_Flight_243" title="Aloha Airlines Flight 243">Aloha Airlines Flight 243</a> (1988). Improper repair procedures can also cause structural failures include <a href="/wiki/Japan_Airlines_Flight_123" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Airlines Flight 123">Japan Airlines Flight 123</a> (1985) and <a href="/wiki/China_Airlines_Flight_611" title="China Airlines Flight 611">China Airlines Flight 611</a> (2002). Now that the subject is better understood, rigorous inspection and <a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">nondestructive testing</a> procedures are in place. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">Composite materials</a> consist of layers of <a href="/wiki/Fiber" title="Fiber">fibers</a> embedded in a <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resin</a> matrix. In some cases, especially when subjected to <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_stress" title="Cyclic stress">cyclic stress</a>, the layers of the material separate from each other (<a href="/wiki/Delamination" title="Delamination">delaminate</a>) and lose strength. As the failure develops inside the material, nothing is shown on the surface; instrument methods (often <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a>-based) have to be used to detect such a material failure. In the 1940s several <a href="/wiki/Yakovlev_Yak-9" title="Yakovlev Yak-9">Yakovlev Yak-9s</a> experienced delamination of <a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a> in their construction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stalling">Stalling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Stalling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stall_(flight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stall (flight)">Stalling</a> an aircraft (increasing the <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_attack" title="Angle of attack">angle of attack</a> to a point at which the wings fail to produce enough <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">lift</a>) is dangerous and can result in a crash if the pilot fails to make a timely correction. </p><p>Devices to warn the pilot when the aircraft's speed is decreasing close to the stall speed include stall warning horns (now standard on virtually all powered aircraft), <a href="/wiki/Stick_shaker" title="Stick shaker">stick shakers</a>, and voice warnings. Most stalls are a result of the pilot allowing the airspeed to be too slow for the particular weight and configuration at the time. Stall speed is higher when ice or frost has attached to the wings and/or tail stabilizer. The more severe the icing, the higher the stall speed, not only because smooth airflow over the wings becomes increasingly more difficult, but also because of the added weight of the accumulated ice. </p><p>Crashes caused by a full stall of the airfoils include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_European_Airways_Flight_548" title="British European Airways Flight 548">British European Airways Flight 548</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Airlines_Flight_553" class="mw-redirect" title="United Airlines Flight 553">United Airlines Flight 553</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeroflot_Flight_7425" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeroflot Flight 7425">Aeroflot Flight 7425</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrow_Air_Flight_1285" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrow Air Flight 1285">Arrow Air Flight 1285</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Airlines_Flight_255" title="Northwest Airlines Flight 255">Northwest Airlines Flight 255</a> (1987)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wellstone" title="Paul Wellstone">Paul Wellstone</a> crash (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colgan_Air_Flight_3407" title="Colgan Air Flight 3407">Colgan Air Flight 3407</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Airlines_Flight_1951" title="Turkish Airlines Flight 1951">Turkish Airlines Flight 1951</a> crash (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_447" title="Air France Flight 447">Air France Flight 447</a> (2009)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fire">Fire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Fire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Controlled_impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Controlled_impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg/220px-Controlled_impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Controlled_impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg/330px-Controlled_impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Controlled_impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg/440px-Controlled_impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2396" /></a><figcaption>NASA air safety experiment (<a href="/wiki/Controlled_Impact_Demonstration" title="Controlled Impact Demonstration">CID project</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Safety regulations control aircraft materials and the requirements for automated fire safety systems. Usually these requirements take the form of required tests. The tests measure <a href="/wiki/Inflammability" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflammability">flammability</a> of materials and <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> of <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a>. When the tests fail, it is on a prototype in an engineering laboratory rather than in an aircraft. </p><p>Fire and its toxic smoke have been the cause of accidents. An electrical fire on <a href="/wiki/Air_Canada_Flight_797" title="Air Canada Flight 797">Air Canada Flight 797</a> in 1983 caused the deaths of 23 of the 46 passengers, resulting in the introduction of floor level lighting to assist people to evacuate a smoke-filled aircraft. In 1985, a fire on the runway caused the loss of 55 lives, 48 from the effects of incapacitating and subsequently lethal toxic gas and smoke in the <a href="/wiki/British_Airtours_Flight_28M" class="mw-redirect" title="British Airtours Flight 28M">British Airtours Flight 28M</a> accident which raised serious concerns relating to survivability – something that had not been studied in such detail. The swift incursion of the fire into the fuselage and the layout of the aircraft impaired passengers' ability to evacuate, with areas such as the forward galley area becoming a bottle-neck for escaping passengers, with some dying very close to the exits. Much research into evacuation and cabin and seating layouts was carried out at <a href="/wiki/Cranfield_Institute" title="Cranfield Institute">Cranfield Institute</a> to try to measure what makes a good evacuation route, which led to the seat layout by <a href="/wiki/Overwing_exits" title="Overwing exits">Overwing exits</a> being changed by mandate and the examination of evacuation requirements relating to the design of galley areas. The use of <a href="/wiki/Smoke_hood" title="Smoke hood">smoke hoods</a> or misting systems were also examined although both were rejected. </p><p><a href="/wiki/South_African_Airways_Flight_295" title="South African Airways Flight 295">South African Airways Flight 295</a> was lost in the Indian Ocean in 1987 after an in-flight fire in the cargo hold could not be suppressed by the crew. The cargo holds of most airliners are now equipped with automated <a href="/wiki/Halomethane" title="Halomethane">halon</a> fire extinguishing systems to combat a fire that might occur in the baggage holds. In May 1996, <a href="/wiki/ValuJet_Flight_592" title="ValuJet Flight 592">ValuJet Flight 592</a> crashed into the Florida <a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a> a few minutes after takeoff because of a fire in the forward cargo hold. All 110 people on board were killed. </p><p>At one time, fire fighting <a href="/wiki/Foam_path" title="Foam path">foam paths</a> were laid down before an emergency landing, but the practice was considered only marginally effective, and concerns about the depletion of firefighting capability due to pre-foaming led the United States FAA to withdraw its recommendation in 1987. </p><p>One possible cause of fires in airplanes is wiring problems that involve intermittent faults, such as wires with breached insulation touching each other, having water dripping on them, or short circuits. Notable was <a href="/wiki/Swissair_Flight_111" title="Swissair Flight 111">Swissair Flight 111</a> in 1998 due to an arc in the wiring of <a href="/wiki/Inflight_entertainment" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflight entertainment">IFE</a> which ignited flammable <a href="/wiki/MPET" class="mw-redirect" title="MPET">MPET</a> insulation. These are difficult to detect once the aircraft is on the ground. However, there are methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Spread-spectrum_time-domain_reflectometry" title="Spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry">spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry</a>, that can feasibly test live wires on aircraft during flight.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bird_strike">Bird strike</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bird strike"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bird_strike" title="Bird strike">Bird strike</a></div> <p><i>Bird strike</i> is an aviation term for a collision between a bird and an aircraft. Fatal accidents have been caused by both engine failure following bird ingestion and bird strikes breaking cockpit windshields. </p><p>Jet engines have to be designed to withstand the ingestion of birds of a specified weight and number and to not lose more than a specified amount of thrust. The weight and numbers of birds that can be ingested without hazarding the safe flight of the aircraft are related to the engine intake area.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hazards of ingesting birds beyond the "designed-for" limit were shown on <a href="/wiki/US_Airways_Flight_1549" title="US Airways Flight 1549">US Airways Flight 1549</a> when the aircraft struck Canada geese. </p><p>The outcome of an ingestion event and whether it causes an accident, be it on a small fast plane, such as military jet fighters, or a large transport, depends on the number and weight of birds and where they strike the fan blade span or the nose cone. Core damage usually results with impacts near the blade root or on the nose cone. </p><p>The highest risk of a bird strike occurs during takeoff and <a href="/wiki/Landing" title="Landing">landing</a> in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">airports</a>, and during low-level flying, for example by military aircraft, crop dusters and helicopters. Some airports use active countermeasures, including a person with a <a href="/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">shotgun</a>, playing recorded sounds of predators through loudspeakers, or employing <a href="/wiki/Falconry" title="Falconry">falconers</a>. Poisonous grass can be planted that is not palatable to birds, nor to insects that attract <a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">insectivorous</a> birds. Passive countermeasures involve sensible<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> land-use management, avoiding conditions attracting flocks of birds to the area (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfills</a>). Another tactic found effective is to let the grass at the airfield grow taller (to approximately 12 inches or 30 centimetres) as some species of birds won't land if they cannot see one another. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_factors">Human factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Human factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CID_slapdown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/CID_slapdown.jpg/220px-CID_slapdown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/CID_slapdown.jpg/330px-CID_slapdown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/CID_slapdown.jpg/440px-CID_slapdown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2348" /></a><figcaption>NASA air safety experiment (<a href="/wiki/Controlled_Impact_Demonstration" title="Controlled Impact Demonstration">CID project</a>). The airplane is a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_720" title="Boeing 720">Boeing 720</a> testing a form of jet fuel, known as "<a href="/wiki/Antimisting_kerosene" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimisting kerosene">antimisting kerosene</a>", which formed a difficult-to-ignite gel when agitated violently, as in a crash.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Human_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors">Human factors</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Pilot_error" title="Pilot error">pilot error</a>, are another potential set of factors, and currently the factor most commonly found in aviation accidents.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much progress in applying human factors analysis to improving aviation safety was made around the time of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> by such pioneers as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Fitts" title="Paul Fitts">Paul Fitts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Chapanis" title="Alphonse Chapanis">Alphonse Chapanis</a>. However, there has been progress in safety throughout the history of aviation, such as the development of the pilot's <a href="/wiki/Checklist" title="Checklist">checklist</a> in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CRM, or <a href="/wiki/Crew_resource_management" title="Crew resource management">crew resource management</a>, is a technique that makes use of the experience and knowledge of the complete flight crew to avoid dependence on just one crew member, and to improve <a href="/wiki/Pilot_decision_making" title="Pilot decision making">pilot decision making</a>. </p><p>Pilot error and improper communication are often factors in the <a href="/wiki/Collision" title="Collision">collision</a> of aircraft. This can take place <a href="/wiki/Mid-air_collision" title="Mid-air collision">in the air</a> (1978 <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Southwest_Airlines" title="Pacific Southwest Airlines">Pacific Southwest Airlines</a> <a href="/wiki/PSA_Flight_182" class="mw-redirect" title="PSA Flight 182">Flight 182</a>) (<a href="/wiki/TCAS" class="mw-redirect" title="TCAS">TCAS</a>) or on the ground (1977 <a href="/wiki/Tenerife_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenerife disaster">Tenerife disaster</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Runway_Awareness_and_Advisory_System" title="Runway Awareness and Advisory System">RAAS</a>). The barriers to effective communication have internal and external factors.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability of the flight crew to maintain <a href="/wiki/Situational_awareness" class="mw-redirect" title="Situational awareness">situational awareness</a> is a critical human factor in air safety. Human factors training is available to general aviation pilots and called <a href="/wiki/Single_pilot_resource_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Single pilot resource management">single pilot resource management</a> training. </p><p>Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the flight instruments caused the crash of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Air_Lines_Flight_401" title="Eastern Air Lines Flight 401">Eastern Air Lines Flight 401</a> in 1972. <a href="/wiki/Controlled_flight_into_terrain" title="Controlled flight into terrain">Controlled flight into terrain</a> (CFIT), and error during take-off and landing can have catastrophic consequences, for example causing the crash of <a href="/wiki/Prinair_Flight_191" title="Prinair Flight 191">Prinair Flight 191</a> on landing, also in 1972. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pilot_fatigue">Pilot fatigue</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pilot fatigue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pilot_fatigue" title="Pilot fatigue">Pilot fatigue</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">International Civil Aviation Organization</a> (ICAO) defines fatigue as "A physiological state of reduced mental or physical performance capability resulting from sleep loss or extended wakefulness, circadian phase, or workload."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phenomenon places great risk on the crew and passengers of an airplane because it significantly increases the chance of <a href="/wiki/Pilot_error" title="Pilot error">pilot error</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fatigue is particularly prevalent among pilots because of "unpredictable work hours, long duty periods, <a href="/wiki/Circadian_dysrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Circadian dysrhythmia">circadian disruption</a>, and insufficient sleep".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These factors can occur together to produce a combination of <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a>, circadian rhythm effects, and 'time-on task' fatigue.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regulators attempt to mitigate fatigue by limiting the number of hours pilots are allowed to fly over varying periods of time. Experts in aviation fatigue<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (December 2015)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> often find that these methods fall short of their goals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Piloting_while_intoxicated">Piloting while intoxicated</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Piloting while intoxicated"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rarely, flight crew members are arrested or subject to disciplinary action for being <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">intoxicated</a> on the job. In 1990, three <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Airlines" title="Northwest Airlines">Northwest Airlines</a> crew members were sentenced to jail for flying while drunk. In 2001, Northwest fired a pilot who failed a <a href="/wiki/Breathalyzer" title="Breathalyzer">breathalyzer</a> test after a flight. In July 2002, both pilots of <a href="/wiki/America_West_Airlines_Flight_556" title="America West Airlines Flight 556">America West Airlines Flight 556</a> were arrested just before they were scheduled to fly because they had been drinking alcohol. The pilots were fired and the FAA revoked their pilot licenses.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least one fatal airliner accident involving drunk pilots occurred when <a href="/wiki/Aero_Flight_311" title="Aero Flight 311">Aero Flight 311</a> crashed at Kvevlax, Finland, killing all 25 on board in 1961. Another example is the crash <a href="/wiki/Aeroflot_Flight_821" title="Aeroflot Flight 821">Aeroflot Flight 821</a>, in which the captain's intoxication contributed to the accident, killing all 88 on board. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pilot_suicide_and_murder">Pilot suicide and murder</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pilot suicide and murder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Aviation_safety" title="Special:EditPage/Aviation safety">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suicide_by_pilot" title="Suicide by pilot">Suicide by pilot</a></div> <p>There have been rare instances of <a href="/wiki/Suicide_by_pilot#By_pilots_in_control_of_whole_flight" title="Suicide by pilot">suicide by pilots</a>. Although most air crew are <a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_aviation" title="Mental health in aviation">screened for psychological fitness</a>, a very few authorized pilots have flown acts of suicide and even <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">mass murder</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1982, <a href="/wiki/Japan_Airlines_Flight_350" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Airlines Flight 350">Japan Airlines Flight 350</a> crashed while on approach to the Tokyo Haneda Airport, killing 24 of the 174 on board. The official investigation found the mentally ill captain had attempted suicide by placing the inboard engines into reverse thrust, while the aircraft was close to the runway. The first officer did not have enough time to countermand before the aircraft stalled and crashed. </p><p>In 1997, <a href="/wiki/SilkAir_Flight_185" title="SilkAir Flight 185">SilkAir Flight 185</a> suddenly went into a high dive from its cruising altitude. The speed of the dive was so high that the aircraft began to break apart before it finally crashed near <a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>. After three years of investigation, the Indonesian authorities declared that the cause of the accident could not be determined. However, the US NTSB concluded that deliberate suicide by the captain was the only reasonable explanation. </p><p>In 1999 in the case of <a href="/wiki/EgyptAir_Flight_990" title="EgyptAir Flight 990">EgyptAir Flight 990</a>, it appears that the <a href="/wiki/First_Officer_(civil_aviation)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Officer (civil aviation)">first officer</a> deliberately crashed into the Atlantic Ocean while the captain was away from his station.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crew involvement is <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370#Crew_involvement" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370">one of the speculative theories</a> in the disappearance of <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370">Malaysia Airlines Flight 370</a> on 8 March 2014. </p><p>On 24 March 2015, <a href="/wiki/Germanwings_Flight_9525" title="Germanwings Flight 9525">Germanwings Flight 9525</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320-200" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus A320-200">Airbus A320-200</a>) crashed 100 kilometres (62 miles) north-west of Nice, in the <a href="/wiki/French_Alps" title="French Alps">French Alps</a>, after a constant descent that began one minute after the last routine contact with air traffic control, and shortly after the aircraft had reached its assigned cruise altitude. All 144 passengers and six crew members were killed. The crash was intentionally caused by the co-pilot, Andreas Lubitz. Having been declared 'unfit to work' without telling his employer, Lubitz reported for duty, and during the flight locked the captain out of the flight-deck. In response to the incident and the circumstances of Lubitz's involvement, aviation authorities in Canada, New Zealand, Germany, and Australia implemented new regulations that require two authorised personnel to be present in the cockpit at all times. Three days after the incident, the <a href="/wiki/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="European Aviation Safety Agency">European Aviation Safety Agency</a> (EASA) issued a temporary recommendation for airlines to ensure that at least two crew members, including at least one pilot, are in the cockpit at all times of the flight. Several airlines announced they had already adopted similar policies voluntarily. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deliberate_aircrew_inaction">Deliberate aircrew inaction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Deliberate aircrew inaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inaction, <a href="/wiki/Omission_(law)" title="Omission (law)">omission</a>, failure to act as required, willful disregard of safety procedures, disdain for rules, and unjustifiable risk-taking by pilots have also led to <a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">accidents and incidents</a>. </p><p>Although Smartwings QS-1125 flight of 22 August 2019 successfully made an emergency landing at destination, the captain was censured for failing to follow mandatory procedures, including for not landing at the nearest possible diversion airport after an engine failure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_factors_of_third_parties">Human factors of third parties</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Human factors of third parties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unsafe human factors are not limited to pilot errors. Third party factors include ground crew mishaps, ground vehicle to aircraft collisions and engineering maintenance related problems. For example, failure to properly close a cargo door on <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Airlines_Flight_981" title="Turkish Airlines Flight 981">Turkish Airlines Flight 981</a> in 1974 caused the loss of the aircraft. (However, design of the cargo door latch was also a major factor in the accident.) In the case of <a href="/wiki/Japan_Airlines_Flight_123" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Airlines Flight 123">Japan Airlines Flight 123</a> in 1985, improper repair of previous damage led to explosive decompression of the cabin, which in turn destroyed the <a href="/wiki/Vertical_stabilizer" title="Vertical stabilizer">vertical stabilizer</a> and damaged all four hydraulic systems which powered all the flight controls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Controlled_flight_into_terrain">Controlled flight into terrain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Controlled flight into terrain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Controlled_flight_into_terrain" title="Controlled flight into terrain">Controlled flight into terrain</a></div> <p><i>Controlled flight into terrain</i> (CFIT) is a class of accidents in which an aircraft is flown under control into terrain or man-made structures. CFIT accidents typically result from pilot error or of navigational system error. Failure to protect <a href="/wiki/ILS_critical_area" class="mw-redirect" title="ILS critical area">ILS critical areas</a> can also cause CFIT accidents<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (August 2013)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Aviation_safety#Dubious" title="Talk:Aviation safety">discuss</a></i>]</sup>. In December 1995, <a href="/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_965" title="American Airlines Flight 965">American Airlines Flight 965</a> tracked off course while approaching <a href="/wiki/Cali" title="Cali">Cali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, and hit a mountainside despite a <a href="/wiki/Terrain_awareness_and_warning_system" title="Terrain awareness and warning system">terrain awareness and warning system</a> (TAWS) terrain warning in the cockpit and desperate pilot attempt to gain altitude after the warning. Crew position awareness and monitoring of navigational systems are essential to the prevention of CFIT accidents. As of February 2008<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, over 40,000 aircraft had enhanced TAWS installed, and they had flown over 800 million hours without a CFIT accident.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another anti-CFIT tool is the Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW) system which monitors the altitudes transmitted by aircraft transponders and compares that with the system's defined minimum safe altitudes for a given area. When the system determines the aircraft is lower, or might soon be lower, than the minimum safe altitude, the <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic controller</a> receives an acoustic and visual warning and then alerts the pilot that the aircraft is too low.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electromagnetic_interference">Electromagnetic interference</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Electromagnetic interference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_on_aircraft" title="Mobile phones on aircraft">Mobile phones on aircraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference" title="Electromagnetic interference">Electromagnetic interference</a></div> <p>The use of certain electronic equipment is partially or entirely prohibited as it might interfere with aircraft operation,<sup id="cite_ref-ladkin-elec-inter_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ladkin-elec-inter-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as causing <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> deviations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Use of some types of personal electronic devices is prohibited when an aircraft is below 10,000 feet (3,000 m), taking off, or landing. Use of a <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a> is prohibited on most flights because in-flight usage creates problems with ground-based cells.<sup id="cite_ref-ladkin-elec-inter_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ladkin-elec-inter-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-live-sci-cells_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-live-sci-cells-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wireless devices such as cellphones feature an <a href="/wiki/Airplane_mode" title="Airplane mode">airplane mode</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ground_damage">Ground damage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Ground damage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ground_damage_to_aircraft.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ground_damage_to_aircraft.jpg/220px-Ground_damage_to_aircraft.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ground_damage_to_aircraft.jpg/330px-Ground_damage_to_aircraft.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ground_damage_to_aircraft.jpg/440px-Ground_damage_to_aircraft.jpg 2x" data-file-width="781" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Ground damage to an aircraft. Several <a href="/wiki/Stringer_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stringer (aircraft)">stringers</a> were cut and the aircraft was grounded</figcaption></figure> <p>Various <a href="/wiki/Ground_support_equipment" title="Ground support equipment">ground support equipment</a> operate in close proximity to the fuselage and wings to service the aircraft and occasionally cause accidental damage in the form of scratches in the paint or small dents in the skin. However, because aircraft structures (including the outer skin) play such a critical role in the safe operation of a flight, all damage is inspected, measured, and possibly tested to ensure that any damage is within safe tolerances. </p><p>An example problem was the depressurization incident on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alaska_Airlines_Flight_536&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alaska Airlines Flight 536 (page does not exist)">Alaska Airlines Flight 536</a> in 2005. During ground services, a <a href="/wiki/Baggage_handler" title="Baggage handler">baggage handler</a> hit the side of the aircraft with a tug towing a train of <a href="/wiki/Baggage_cart" title="Baggage cart">baggage carts</a>. This damaged the metal skin of the aircraft. This damage was not reported and the plane departed. Climbing through 26,000 feet (7,900 m) the damaged section of the skin gave way under the difference in pressure between the inside of the aircraft and the outside air. The cabin depressurized explosively necessitating a rapid descent to denser (breathable) air and an emergency landing. Post-landing examination of the fuselage revealed a 12-inch (30 cm) hole on the right side of the airplane.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volcanic_ash">Volcanic ash</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Volcanic ash"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash_and_aviation_safety" title="Volcanic ash and aviation safety">Volcanic ash and aviation safety</a></div> <p>Plumes of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a> near active <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> can damage <a href="/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Propeller (aircraft)">propellers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">engines</a> and cockpit windows.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1982, <a href="/wiki/British_Airways_Flight_9" class="mw-redirect" title="British Airways Flight 9">British Airways Flight 9</a> flew through an ash cloud and temporarily lost power from all four engines. The plane was badly damaged, with all the leading edges being scratched. The front windscreens had been so badly "sand" blasted by the ash that they could not be used to land the aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to 2010 the general approach taken by airspace regulators was that if the ash concentration rose above zero, then the airspace was considered unsafe and was consequently closed.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_Ash_Advisory_Center" title="Volcanic Ash Advisory Center">Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers</a> enable liaison between <a href="/wiki/Meteorologist" title="Meteorologist">meteorologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">volcanologists</a>, and the aviation industry.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Runway_safety">Runway safety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Runway safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mitsubishi_Outlander_Flight_Safety_Patrol_Car_of_Taipei_Songshan_Airport_20161220.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mitsubishi_Outlander_Flight_Safety_Patrol_Car_of_Taipei_Songshan_Airport_20161220.jpg/220px-Mitsubishi_Outlander_Flight_Safety_Patrol_Car_of_Taipei_Songshan_Airport_20161220.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mitsubishi_Outlander_Flight_Safety_Patrol_Car_of_Taipei_Songshan_Airport_20161220.jpg/330px-Mitsubishi_Outlander_Flight_Safety_Patrol_Car_of_Taipei_Songshan_Airport_20161220.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mitsubishi_Outlander_Flight_Safety_Patrol_Car_of_Taipei_Songshan_Airport_20161220.jpg/440px-Mitsubishi_Outlander_Flight_Safety_Patrol_Car_of_Taipei_Songshan_Airport_20161220.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Airport safety car at an Airport in Taiwan.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Runway_safety" title="Runway safety">Runway safety</a></div> <p>Types of runway safety incidents include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Runway_excursion" title="Runway excursion">Runway excursion</a> – an incident involving only a single aircraft making an inappropriate exit from the runway.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runway_overrun" class="mw-redirect" title="Runway overrun">Runway overrun</a> – a specific type of excursion where the aircraft does not stop before the end of the runway (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_358" title="Air France Flight 358">Air France Flight 358</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runway_incursion" title="Runway incursion">Runway incursion</a> – incorrect presence of a vehicle, person, or another aircraft on the runway (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Tenerife_airport_disaster" title="Tenerife airport disaster">Tenerife airport disaster</a>).</li> <li>Runway confusion – crew misidentification of the runway for landing or take-off (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Comair_Flight_5191" title="Comair Flight 5191">Comair Flight 5191</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore_Airlines_Flight_6" class="mw-redirect" title="Singapore Airlines Flight 6">Singapore Airlines Flight 6</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrorism">Terrorism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Terrorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aircrew are normally trained to handle <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_hijacking" title="Aircraft hijacking">hijack</a> situations. <sup id="cite_ref-Terrorism1_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Terrorism1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the <a href="/wiki/September_11,_2001_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>, stricter <a href="/wiki/Airport_security" title="Airport security">airport</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airline_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Airline security">airline security</a> measures are in place to prevent <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>, such as security checkpoints and locking the cockpit doors during flight. </p><p>In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Flight_Deck_Officer" title="Federal Flight Deck Officer">Federal Flight Deck Officer</a> program is run by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Air_Marshal_Service" title="Federal Air Marshal Service">Federal Air Marshal Service</a>, with the aim of training active and licensed airline pilots to carry weapons and defend their aircraft against criminal activity and terrorism. Upon completion of government training, selected pilots enter a covert law enforcement and counter-terrorism service. Their jurisdiction is normally limited to a flight deck or a cabin of a commercial airliner or a cargo aircraft they operate while on duty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_action">Military action</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Military action"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Passenger planes have rarely been attacked in both peacetime and war. Examples: </p> <ul><li>In 1955, Bulgaria shot down <a href="/wiki/El_Al_Flight_402" title="El Al Flight 402">El Al Flight 402</a>.</li> <li>In 1973, Israel shot down <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arab_Airlines_Flight_114" title="Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114">Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114</a>.</li> <li>In 1983, the Soviet Union shot down <a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a>.</li> <li>In 1988, the United States shot down <a href="/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655" title="Iran Air Flight 655">Iran Air Flight 655</a>.</li> <li>In 2001, the Ukrainian Air Force accidentally shot down <a href="/wiki/Siberia_Airlines_Flight_1812" title="Siberia Airlines Flight 1812">Siberia Airlines Flight 1812</a> during an exercise.</li> <li>In 2014, Russia shot down <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">Malaysia Airlines Flight 17</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2020, Iran shot down <a href="/wiki/Ukraine_International_Airlines_Flight_752" title="Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752">Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accident_survivability">Accident survivability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Accident survivability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pre-flight_safety_demonstration" title="Pre-flight safety demonstration">Pre-flight safety demonstration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_safety_card" title="Aircraft safety card">Aircraft safety card</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brace_position" title="Brace position">Brace position</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_rescue_and_firefighting" title="Aircraft rescue and firefighting">Aircraft rescue and firefighting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Airport_crash_tender" title="Airport crash tender">Airport crash tender</a></div> <p>Earlier tragedies investigations and improved engineering has allowed many safety improvements that have allowed an increasing safer aviation.<sup id="cite_ref-Shiavo_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shiavo-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Airport_design">Airport design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Airport design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Functional_EMAS_Bed_-_NTSB_Docket_Photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Functional_EMAS_Bed_-_NTSB_Docket_Photo.jpg/200px-Functional_EMAS_Bed_-_NTSB_Docket_Photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Functional_EMAS_Bed_-_NTSB_Docket_Photo.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="232" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Engineered_materials_arrestor_system" title="Engineered materials arrestor system">EMAS</a> bed after being run over by landing gear</figcaption></figure> <p>Airport design and location can have a large impact on aviation safety, especially since some airports such as <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Midway_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Midway International Airport">Chicago Midway International Airport</a> were originally built for propeller planes and many airports are in congested areas where it is difficult to meet newer safety standards. For instance, the FAA issued rules in 1999 calling for a <a href="/wiki/Runway_safety_area" title="Runway safety area">runway safety area</a>, usually extending 150 metres (500 ft) to each side and 300 metres (1,000 ft) beyond the end of a runway. This is intended to cover ninety percent of the cases of an aircraft leaving the runway by providing a buffer space free of obstacles.<sup id="cite_ref-Abend_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abend-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many older airports do not meet this standard. One method of substituting for the 300 metres (1,000 ft) at the end of a runway for airports in congested areas is to install an <a href="/wiki/Engineered_materials_arrestor_system" title="Engineered materials arrestor system">engineered materials arrestor system</a> (EMAS). These systems are usually made of lightweight, crushable concrete that absorbs the energy of the aircraft to bring it to a rapid stop. As of 2008<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, they have stopped three aircraft at <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_International_Airport" title="John F. Kennedy International Airport">JFK Airport</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergency_airplane_evacuations">Emergency airplane evacuations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Emergency airplane evacuations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a 2000 report by the <a href="/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board" title="National Transportation Safety Board">National Transportation Safety Board</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emergency_aircraft_evacuation" title="Emergency aircraft evacuation">emergency aircraft evacuations</a> happen about once every 11 days in the U.S. While some situations are extremely dire, such as when the plane is on fire, in many cases the greatest challenge for passengers can be the use of the <a href="/wiki/Evacuation_slide" title="Evacuation slide">evacuation slide</a>. In a <i>Time</i> article on the subject, Amanda Ripley reported that when a new supersized Airbus A380 underwent mandatory evacuation tests in 2006, thirty-three of the 873 evacuating volunteers got hurt. While the evacuation was considered a success, one volunteer suffered a broken leg, while the remaining 32 received slide burns. Such accidents are common. In her article, Ripley provided tips on how to make it down the airplane slide without injury.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another improvement to airplane evacuations is the requirement by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> for planes to demonstrate an evacuation time of 90 seconds with half the emergency exits blocked for each type of airplane in their fleet. According to studies, 90 seconds is the time needed to evacuate before the plane starts burning, before there can be a very large fire or explosions, or before fumes fill the cabin.<sup id="cite_ref-Shiavo_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shiavo-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abend_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abend-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aircraft_materials_and_design">Aircraft materials and design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Aircraft materials and design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Changes such as using new materials for seat fabric and insulation has given between 40 and 60 additional seconds to people on board to evacuate before the cabin gets filled with fire and potential deadly fumes.<sup id="cite_ref-Shiavo_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shiavo-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other improvements through the years include the use of properly rated seatbelts, impact resistant seat frames, and airplane wings and engines designed to shear off to absorb impact forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Abend_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abend-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radar_and_wind_shear_detection_systems">Radar and wind shear detection systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Radar and wind shear detection systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the result of the accidents due to wind shear and other weather disturbances, most notably the 1985 crash of <a href="/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines_Flight_191" title="Delta Air Lines Flight 191">Delta Air Lines Flight 191</a>, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> mandated that all commercial aircraft have <a href="/wiki/Airborne_wind_shear_detection_and_alert_system" title="Airborne wind shear detection and alert system">on-board wind shear detection systems</a> by 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration,_Langley_Research_Center_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration,_Langley_Research_Center-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 1995, the number of major civil aircraft accidents caused by wind shear has dropped to approximately one every ten years, due to the mandated on-board detection as well as the addition of Doppler <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a> units on the ground (<a href="/wiki/NEXRAD" title="NEXRAD">NEXRAD</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The installation of high-resolution <a href="/wiki/Terminal_Doppler_Weather_Radar" title="Terminal Doppler Weather Radar">Terminal Doppler Weather Radar</a> stations at many U.S. airports that are commonly affected by wind shear has further aided the ability of pilots and ground controllers to avoid wind shear conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-tdwr-nws_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tdwr-nws-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accidents_and_incidents">Accidents and incidents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Accidents and incidents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airship_accidents" title="List of airship accidents">List of airship accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Category:Lists of aviation accidents and incidents">Lists of aviation accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">Aviation accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airliner_shootdown_incidents" title="List of airliner shootdown incidents">List of airliner shootdown incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_recorder" title="Flight recorder">Flight recorder</a>, includes <i>flight data recorder</i> and <i>cockpit voice recorder</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_investigation_organizations">National investigation organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: National investigation organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Transport_Safety_Bureau" title="Australian Transport Safety Bureau">Australian Transport Safety Bureau</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bmvit.gv.at/verkehr/luftfahrt/behoerden/fusbmvit.html">Flugunfalluntersuchungsstelle im BMVIT</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080921203453/http://www.bmvit.gv.at/verkehr/luftfahrt/behoerden/fusbmvit.html">Archived</a> 2008-09-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Austria)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.fab.mil.br/cenipa/">Centro de Investigação e Prevenção de Acidentes Aeronáuticos</a> (Brazil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Safety_Board_of_Canada" title="Transportation Safety Board of Canada">Transportation Safety Board of Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Accidents_Investigation_Institute" title="Air Accidents Investigation Institute">Air Accidents Investigation Institute</a> (Czech Republic)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hcl.dk/">Danish Aircraft Accident Investigation Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_d%27Enqu%C3%AAtes_et_d%27Analyses_pour_la_s%C3%A9curit%C3%A9_de_l%27Aviation_Civile" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile">Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundesstelle_f%C3%BCr_Flugunfalluntersuchung" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung">Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilaviation.gov.in/en/aaib">Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau</a> (India)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://knkt.go.id">KNKT - Komite Nasional Keselamatan Transportasi</a> (Indonesia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">International Civil Aviation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Accident_Investigation_Unit" title="Air Accident Investigation Unit">Air Accident Investigation Unit</a> (Ireland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANSV" class="mw-redirect" title="ANSV">Agenzia Nazionale per la Sicurezza del Volo</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_and_Railway_Accidents_Investigation_Commission" title="Aircraft and Railway Accidents Investigation Commission">Aircraft and Railway Accidents Investigation Commission</a> (Japan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_of_New_Zealand" title="Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand">Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_Accident_Investigation_Commission" title="Transport Accident Investigation Commission">Transport Accident Investigation Commission</a> (New Zealand)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onderzoeksraad_voor_Veiligheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Onderzoeksraad voor Veiligheid">Onderzoeksraad voor Veiligheid</a> (The Netherlands)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_of_the_Philippines" title="Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines">Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Civil_Aviation_Authority" title="South African Civil Aviation Authority">South African Civil Aviation Authority</a> (South Africa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_de_Investigaci%C3%B3n_de_Accidentes_e_Incidentes_de_Aviaci%C3%B3n_Civil" class="mw-redirect" title="Comisión de Investigación de Accidentes e Incidentes de Aviación Civil">Comisión de Investigación de Accidentes e Incidentes de Aviación Civil</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Accident_Investigation_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Accident Investigation Board">Swedish Accident Investigation Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Accident_Investigation_Bureau_(Switzerland)" title="Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (Switzerland)">Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau</a> (Switzerland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Accidents_Investigation_Branch" title="Air Accidents Investigation Branch">Air Accidents Investigation Branch</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board" title="National Transportation Safety Board">National Transportation Safety Board</a> (USA)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20010303200204/http://eccairs-www.jrc.it/">European Co-ordination Center for Aircraft Incident Reporting Systems</a> (ECCAIRS)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air_safety_investigators">Air safety investigators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Air safety investigators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Air safety investigators are trained and authorized to investigate aviation accidents and incidents: to research, analyse, and report their conclusions. They may be specialized in flight operations, training, aircraft structures, air traffic control, flight recorders or human factors. They are employed by government organizations responsible for aviation safety, manufacturers or unions, though only government organizations have statutory powers to investigate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety_improvement_initiatives">Safety improvement initiatives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Safety improvement initiatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The safety improvement initiatives are aviation safety partnerships between regulators, manufacturers, operators, professional unions, research organisations, and international aviation organisations to further enhance safety.<sup id="cite_ref-Annex19_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Annex19-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some major safety initiatives worldwide are: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cast-safety.org/"><b>Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST)</b></a> in the US. The Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) was founded in 1998 with a goal to reduce the commercial aviation fatality rate in the United States by 80 percent by 2007.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://easa.europa.eu/essi/webapp/essi/www/index.php"><b>European Strategic Safety Initiative (ESSI) </b></a>. The European Strategic Safety Initiative (ESSI) is an aviation safety partnership between EASA, other regulators and the industry. The initiative objective is to further enhance safety for citizens in Europe and worldwide through safety analysis, implementation of cost effective action plans, and coordination with other safety initiatives worldwide.</li></ul> <p>After the disappearance of <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370">Malaysia Airlines Flight 370</a>, in June 2014, the <a href="/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association" title="International Air Transport Association">International Air Transport Association</a> said it was working on implementing new measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. A special panel was considering a range of options including the production of equipment especially designed to ensure real-time tracking.<sup id="cite_ref-FlightTracking_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FlightTracking-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since pilot error accounts for between one-third and 60% of aviation accidents, advances in automation and technology could replace some or all of the duties of the <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">aircraft pilots</a>. Automation since the 1980s has already eliminated the need for <a href="/wiki/Flight_engineer" title="Flight engineer">flight engineers</a>. In complex situations with severely degraded systems, the problem-solving and judgement capability of humans is challenging to achieve with automated systems, for example the catastrophic engine failures experienced by <a href="/wiki/United_Airlines_Flight_232" title="United Airlines Flight 232">United Airlines Flight 232</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qantas_Flight_32" title="Qantas Flight 32">Qantas Flight 32</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, with more accurate software modeling of aeronautic factors, test planes have been <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_STOL/MTD" title="McDonnell Douglas F-15 STOL/MTD">successfully flown</a> in these conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the <a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">accident</a> rate is very low, to ensure they do not rise with the <a href="/wiki/Air_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Air transport">air transport</a> growth, experts recommend creating a robust culture of collecting information from employees without blame.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulators">Regulators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Regulators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Directorate- General of Civil Aviation, India.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)">Civil Aviation Authority</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Infrastructure,_Transport,_Regional_Development_and_Local_Government" title="Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government">Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="European Aviation Safety Agency">European Aviation Safety Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Regulations" title="Federal Aviation Regulations">Federal Aviation Regulations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Aviation_Authority" title="Irish Aviation Authority">Irish Aviation Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_Canada" title="Transport Canada">Transport Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorate_General_of_Civil_Aviation_(Indonesia)" title="Directorate General of Civil Aviation (Indonesia)">Directorate General of Civil Aviation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/28px-Aviacionavion.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/42px-Aviacionavion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/56px-Aviacionavion.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Aviation" title="Portal:Aviation">Aviation portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">Air traffic control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_fire_trainer" title="Aircraft fire trainer">Aircraft fire trainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_hijacking" title="Aircraft hijacking">Aircraft hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_security" title="Airport security">Airport security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_Safety_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation Safety Network">Aviation Safety Network</a> (ASN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_Safety_Reporting_System" title="Aviation Safety Reporting System">Aviation Safety Reporting System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_parachute" title="Ballistic parachute">Ballistic parachute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crashworthiness" title="Crashworthiness">Crashworthiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Convention_on_International_Civil_Aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation">Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_analysis" title="Hazard analysis">Hazard analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_hazards_of_air_travel" title="Health hazards of air travel">Health hazards of air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IATA_Operational_Safety_Audit" title="IATA Operational Safety Audit">IATA Operational Safety Audit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incident_pit" title="Incident pit">Incident pit</a>, conceptual model from diving for explaining incident development and recovery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JACDEC" title="JACDEC">Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre</a> (JACDEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-air_collision" title="Mid-air collision">Mid-air collision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_error" title="Pilot error">Pilot error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_emergency_medical_services_flights" title="Safety of emergency medical services flights">Safety of emergency medical services flights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_illusions_in_aviation" title="Sensory illusions in aviation">Sensory illusions in aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixty_second_review" title="Sixty second review">Sixty second review</a>, a technique used by flight attendants to focus and prepare for a sudden emergency</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SKYbrary" title="SKYbrary">SKYbrary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_cheese_model" title="Swiss cheese model">Swiss cheese model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_accident" title="System accident">System accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombstone_mentality" title="Tombstone mentality">Tombstone mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel#Safety" title="Travel">Travel § Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontrolled_decompression" title="Uncontrolled decompression">Uncontrolled decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">Wind shear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonal_safety_analysis" title="Zonal safety analysis">Zonal safety analysis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">from 14+ passengers airliners hull losses</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The death per billion hours when skydiving assumes a 6-minute skydive (not accounting for the plane ascent). The death per billion journey when paragliding assumes an average flight of 15 minutes, so 4 flights per hour.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag relies on an unreliable source. (January 2024)">unreliable source</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The metric <i>person-miles</i> makes it possible to compare methods of transportation with different numbers of passengers. For example, 100 people flying in a plane for 1,000 miles counts as 100,000 person-miles, as does 1 person driving a car for 100,000 miles.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWragg1973" class="citation book cs1">Wragg, David W. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 2,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aviation+Week+%26+Space+Technology&rft.atitle=Opinion%3A+World+Needs+Seamless+Aviation+Certification+Standards&rft.date=2017-11-01&rft.au=Kent+Statler%2C+Rockwell+Collins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faviationweek.com%2Fcommercial-aviation%2Fopinion-world-needs-seamless-aviation-certification-standards%23comment-937861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAviation+safety" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040228114747/http://www.jdmag.wpafb.af.mil/bogus%20parts.pdf">Unapproved Aircraft Parts Investigation</a>." 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Go Wrong?"</a>. <i>Airways international</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170817163051/https://airwaysmag.com/best-of-airways/robot-co-pilot-go-wrong-click-go-wrong/">Archived</a> from the original on August 17, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Airways+international&rft.atitle=Robot+is+My+Co-Pilot%3A+What+could+go+wrong%3F%E2%80%94click%21+Go+Wrong%3F&rft.date=2016-05-10&rft.au=Eric+Auxier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fairwaysmag.com%2Fbest-of-airways%2Frobot-co-pilot-go-wrong-click-go-wrong%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAviation+safety" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/history/pastprojects/Active/index.html">"Active Home Page"</a>. <i>Past Research Projects</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aviation+Week+%26+Space+Technology&rft.atitle=Opinion%3A+How+To+Keep+Accidents+Low+As+Air+Traffic+Increases&rft.date=2017-11-20&rft.au=Jon+Beatty%2C+president+and+CEO+of+Flight+Safety+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faviationweek.com%2Fcommercial-aviation%2Fopinion-how-keep-accidents-low-air-traffic-increases&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAviation+safety" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aviation_safety&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aviation-safety.net/about/">Aviation safety network database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/aviation/crashes/10-airplane-crashes-that-changed-aviation#slide-1">10 Plane Crashes That Changed Aviation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Portal:Safety_Behaviours_-_Guide_for_Pilots">Safety Behaviours – a guide for pilots</a> (comprehensive human factors information)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/">NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aviation-safety.net/">Latest Aviation Safety Occurrences at the Aviation Safety Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gao.gov/atext/d0433.txt">Aviation Safety: Advancements Being Pursued to Improve Airliner Cabin Occupant Safety and Health, 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">Airlines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airline_codes" title="Airline codes">Airline codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airline_holding_companies" title="List of airline holding companies">Airline holding companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_airline" title="Cargo airline">Cargo airline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_charter_airlines" title="List of charter airlines">Charter airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_carrier" title="Flag carrier">Flag carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_low-cost_airlines" title="List of low-cost airlines">Low-cost airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-scheduled_airline" title="Non-scheduled airline">Non-scheduled airline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_passenger_airlines" title="List of passenger airlines">Passenger airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_airlines" title="List of regional airlines">Regional airlines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airline_alliance" title="Airline alliance">Alliances</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oneworld" title="Oneworld">Oneworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SkyTeam" title="SkyTeam">SkyTeam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Alliance" title="Star Alliance">Star Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_Alliance" title="Value Alliance">Value Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanilla_Alliance" title="Vanilla Alliance">Vanilla Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-FLY_Alliance" title="U-FLY Alliance">U-FLY Alliance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trade_association" title="Trade association">Trade groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>International <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Airline_Cooperative" title="The Airline Cooperative">ACO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Transport_Action_Group" title="Air Transport Action Group">ATAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association" title="International Air Transport Association">IATA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Travel_Agents_Network" title="International Association of Travel Agents Network">IATAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Air_Line_Pilots%27_Associations" title="International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations">IFALPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_of_Transport_Aircraft_Trading" title="International Society of Transport Aircraft Trading">ISTAT</a></li></ul></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airlines_for_America" title="Airlines for America">A4A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Airline_Association" title="Regional Airline Association">RAA</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airlines_for_Europe" title="Airlines for Europe">A4E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AeroSpace_and_Defence_Industries_Association_of_Europe" title="AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe">ASD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Cockpit_Association" title="European Cockpit Association">ECA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Business_Aviation_Association" title="European Business Aviation Association">EBAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Regions_Airline_Association" title="European Regions Airline Association">ERA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Transport_Workers%27_Federation" title="European Transport Workers' Federation">ETWF</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other regions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Air_Carriers%27_Organization" title="Arab Air Carriers' Organization">AACO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Asia_Pacific_Airlines" title="Association of Asia Pacific Airlines">AAPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Airlines_Association" title="African Airlines Association">AFRAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Aviation_Association_of_Australia" title="Regional Aviation Association of Australia">RAAA</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircrew" title="Aircrew">Aircrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_in_command" title="Pilot in command">Pilot in command (Captain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_officer_(aviation)" title="First officer (aviation)">First officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_officer_(aviation)" title="Second officer (aviation)">Second officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_officer_(aviation)" title="Third officer (aviation)">Third officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-flight_crew_relief" title="In-flight crew relief">Relief crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_attendant" title="Flight attendant">Flight attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_engineer" title="Flight engineer">Flight engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loadmaster" title="Loadmaster">Loadmaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Aircraft pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purser#Aircraft" title="Purser">Purser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_mileage" title="Dead mileage">Dead mileage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">Airliner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_class" title="Travel class">Travel class</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_class_(aviation)" title="First class (aviation)">First class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_class" title="Business class">Business class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premium_economy_class" title="Premium economy class">Premium economy class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_class" title="Economy class">Economy class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_economy_class" title="Basic economy class">Basic economy class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_cabin" title="Aircraft cabin">Aircraft cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_lavatory" title="Aircraft lavatory">Aircraft lavatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_seat_map" title="Aircraft seat map">Aircraft seat map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_meal" title="Airline meal">Airline meal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_seat" title="Airline seat">Airline seat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buy_on_board" title="Buy on board">Buy on board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crew_rest_compartment" title="Crew rest compartment">Crew rest compartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-flight_entertainment" title="In-flight entertainment">In-flight entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflight_smoking" title="Inflight smoking">Inflight smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley_(kitchen)" title="Galley (kitchen)">Galley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickness_bag" title="Sickness bag">Sickness bag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">Airport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerodrome" title="Aerodrome">Aerodrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_hub" title="Airline hub">Airline hub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_check-in" title="Airport check-in">Airport check-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_lounge" title="Airport lounge">Airport lounge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_rail_link" title="Airport rail link">Airport rail link</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_terminal" title="Airport terminal">Airport terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airside_pass" title="Airside pass">Airside pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airstair" title="Airstair">Airstair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_(transport)" title="Boarding (transport)">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_airport" title="Domestic airport">Domestic airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_(airport)" title="Gate (airport)">Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_airport" title="International airport">International airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_bridge" title="Jet bridge">Jet bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-cost_carrier_terminal" title="Low-cost carrier terminal">Low-cost carrier terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runway" title="Runway">Runway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_hotel" title="Transit hotel">Transit hotel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">Customs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">Immigration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrival_card" title="Arrival card">Arrival card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_control" title="Border control">Border control</a> (<a href="/wiki/Internal_border_control" title="Internal border control">internal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departure_card" title="Departure card">Departure card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport" title="Passport">Passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timatic" title="Timatic">Timatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_document" title="Travel document">Travel document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_visa" title="Travel visa">Travel visa</a> <a href="/wiki/Electronic_visa" title="Electronic visa">(Electronic)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Environmental effects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypermobility_(travel)" title="Hypermobility (travel)">Hypermobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Environmental effects of aviation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_agreement" title="Air transport agreement">Air transport agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_route_authority_between_the_United_States_and_China" title="Air route authority between the United States and China">Air route authority between the United States and China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Agreement" title="Bermuda Agreement">Bermuda Agreement</a> (UK–US, 1946–1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_II_Agreement" title="Bermuda II Agreement">Bermuda II Agreement</a> (UK–US, 1978–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_charter" title="Cross-strait charter">Cross-strait charter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Convention" title="Beijing Convention">Beijing Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Treaty" title="Cape Town Treaty">Cape Town Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Convention_on_International_Civil_Aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation">Chicago Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Marking_of_Plastic_Explosives" title="Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives">Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Common_Aviation_Area" title="European Common Aviation Area">European Common Aviation Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_permit" title="Flight permit">Flight permit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedoms_of_the_air" title="Freedoms of the air">Freedoms of the air</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93US_Open_Skies_Agreement" title="EU–US Open Skies Agreement">EU–US Open Skies Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Hijacking_Convention" title="Hague Hijacking Convention">Hague Hijacking Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Protocol" title="Hague Protocol">Hague Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Convention" title="Montreal Convention">Montreal Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Convention_of_1919" title="Paris Convention of 1919">Paris Convention of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Convention_on_Damage_Caused_by_Foreign_Aircraft_to_Third_Parties_on_the_Surface" title="Rome Convention on Damage Caused by Foreign Aircraft to Third Parties on the Surface">Rome Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Suppression_of_Unlawful_Acts_against_the_Safety_of_Civil_Aviation" title="Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation">Sabotage Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Convention" title="Tokyo Convention">Tokyo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Convention" title="Warsaw Convention">Warsaw Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">Intergovernmental organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">ICAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_Aviation_Conference" title="European Civil Aviation Conference">ECAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocontrol" title="Eurocontrol">Eurocontrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Aviation_Safety_Agency" title="European Union Aviation Safety Agency">EASA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Network_of_Civil_Aviation_Safety_Investigation_Authorities" title="European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities">ENCASIA</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baggage" title="Baggage">Baggage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bag_tag" title="Bag tag">Bag tag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_allowance" title="Baggage allowance">Baggage allowance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_carousel" title="Baggage carousel">Baggage carousel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_cart" title="Baggage cart">Baggage cart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_reclaim" title="Baggage reclaim">Baggage reclaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_handler" title="Baggage handler">Baggage handler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_handling_system" title="Baggage handling system">Baggage handling system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_sizer" title="Baggage sizer">Baggage sizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checked_baggage" title="Checked baggage">Checked baggage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_luggage" title="Hand luggage">Hand luggage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_luggage" title="Lost luggage">Lost luggage</a> (<a href="/wiki/WorldTracer" title="WorldTracer">WorldTracer</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luggage_lock" title="Luggage lock">Luggage lock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aviation safety</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rage" title="Air rage">Air rage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">Air traffic control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_service" title="Air traffic service">Air traffic service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_safety_card" title="Aircraft safety card">Aircraft safety card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_authority" title="Airport authority">Airport authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_crash_tender" title="Airport crash tender">Airport crash tender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_police" title="Airport police">Airport police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_security" title="Airport security">Airport security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airspace_class" title="Airspace class">Airspace class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_control_center" title="Area control center">Area control center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brace_position" title="Brace position">Brace position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_authority" title="Civil aviation authority">Civil aviation authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_area_(aviation)" title="Control area (aviation)">Control area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_zone" title="Control zone">Control zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_airspace" title="Controlled airspace">Controlled airspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_slide" title="Evacuation slide">Evacuation slide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_information_region" title="Flight information region">Flight information region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_information_service" title="Flight information service">Flight information service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_recorder" title="Flight recorder">Flight recorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrument_flight_rules" title="Instrument flight rules">Instrument flight rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwing_exits" title="Overwing exits">Overwing exits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-flight_safety_demonstration" title="Pre-flight safety demonstration">Pre-flight safety demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sky_marshal" title="Sky marshal">Sky marshal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_use_airspace" title="Special use airspace">Special use airspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visual_flight_rules" title="Special visual flight rules">Special visual flight rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_control_area" title="Terminal control area">Terminal control area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_control_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal control center">Terminal control center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontrolled_airspace" title="Uncontrolled airspace">Uncontrolled airspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_information_region" title="Upper information region">Upper information region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_flight_rules" title="Visual flight rules">Visual flight rules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airline_ticket" title="Airline ticket">Airline tickets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airline_booking_ploys" title="Airline booking ploys">Airline booking ploys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_reservations_system" title="Airline reservations system">Airline reservations system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_ticket" title="Airline ticket">Airline ticket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_timetable" title="Airline timetable">Airline timetable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_flight" title="Bereavement flight">Bereavement flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_pass" title="Boarding pass">Boarding pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codeshare_agreement" title="Codeshare agreement">Codeshare agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continent_pass" title="Continent pass">Continent pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_ticket" title="Electronic ticket">Electronic ticket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fare_basis_code" title="Fare basis code">Fare basis code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_cancellation_and_delay" title="Flight cancellation and delay">Flight cancellation and delay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequent-flyer_program" title="Frequent-flyer program">Frequent-flyer program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_contract_flight" title="Government contract flight">Government contract flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-way_travel" title="One-way travel">One-way travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-jaw_ticket" title="Open-jaw ticket">Open-jaw ticket</a></li> <li>Overbooking (<a href="/wiki/Overselling" title="Overselling">Overselling</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_name_record" title="Passenger name record">Passenger name record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-eye_flight" title="Red-eye flight">Red-eye flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round-the-world_ticket" title="Round-the-world ticket">Round-the-world ticket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standby_(air_travel)" title="Standby (air travel)">Standby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_tracking" title="Flight tracking">Tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_agency" title="Travel agency">Travel agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_website" title="Travel website">Travel website</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_crew" title="Ground crew">Ground crew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_maintenance_technician" title="Aircraft maintenance technician">Aircraft maintenance technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_ground_handling" title="Aircraft ground handling">Aircraft ground handling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_handler" title="Baggage handler">Baggage handler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_dispatcher" title="Flight dispatcher">Flight dispatcher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_cargo" title="Air cargo">Air cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_taxation_and_subsidies" title="Aviation taxation and subsidies">Aviation taxation and subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mile_high_club" title="Mile high club">Mile high club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style 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