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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trauma_and_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Trauma and stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trauma_and_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychiatric_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychiatric_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Psychiatric disorders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychiatric_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subtypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subtypes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Subtypes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subtypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cycloid_psychosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cycloid_psychosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Cycloid psychosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cycloid_psychosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postpartum_psychosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postpartum_psychosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Postpartum psychosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postpartum_psychosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Medical conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychoactive_drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychoactive_drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Psychoactive drugs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychoactive_drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alcohol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Alcohol </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cannabis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cannabis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Cannabis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cannabis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methamphetamine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methamphetamine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.3 Methamphetamine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methamphetamine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychedelics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychedelics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.4 Psychedelics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychedelics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Medication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathophysiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathophysiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pathophysiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pathophysiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neuroimaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuroimaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Neuroimaging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuroimaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hallucinations_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hallucinations_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Hallucinations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hallucinations_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delusions_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delusions_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Delusions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delusions_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_symptoms_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_symptoms_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Negative symptoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_symptoms_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurobiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurobiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Neurobiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurobiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Diagnosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Prevention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Treatment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Treatment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medication_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medication_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Medication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medication_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychotherapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychotherapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Psychotherapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychotherapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_intervention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_intervention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Early intervention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_intervention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systematic_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systematic_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Systematic reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systematic_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Etymology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Treatment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Disability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Psychosis</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 78 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" > 78 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ذهان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ذهان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicosis" title="Sicosis – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sicosis" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psixoz" title="Psixoz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Psixoz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="سایکوسیس – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سایکوسیس" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF" title="মনোব্যাধি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মনোব্যাধি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D1%96%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Псіхоз – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Псіхоз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Псыхоз – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Псыхоз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Психоза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Психоза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikosis" title="Psikosis – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Psikosis" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicosi" title="Psicosi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Psicosi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psych%C3%B3za" title="Psychóza – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Psychóza" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykose" title="Psykose – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Psykose" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychose" title="Psychose – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Psychose" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ps%C3%BChhoos" title="Psühhoos – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Psühhoos" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CF%8D%CF%87%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Ψύχωση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ψύχωση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicosis" title="Psicosis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Psicosis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikozo" title="Psikozo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Psikozo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikosi" title="Psikosi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Psikosi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="روان‌پریشی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روان‌پریشی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychose" title="Psychose – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Psychose" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADoc%C3%B3is" title="Síocóis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Síocóis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicose" title="Psicose – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Psicose" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EC%8B%A0%EC%A6%9D" title="정신증 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정신증" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%AD%D5%B8%D5%A6" title="Փսիխոզ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փսիխոզ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA" title="मनस्ताप – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मनस्ताप" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihoza" title="Psihoza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Psihoza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikoso" title="Psikoso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Psikoso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikosis" title="Psikosis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Psikosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C3%B0rof" title="Geðrof – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Geðrof" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicosi" title="Psicosi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Psicosi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%96%D7%94" title="פסיכוזה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פסיכוזה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kpa%C5%8B" title="Kpaŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kpaŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="ფსიქოზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფსიქოზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Психоз – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Психоз" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikoz" title="Sikoz – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sikoz" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ps%C3%AEkoz" title="Psîkoz – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Psîkoz" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihoze" title="Psihoze – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Psihoze" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psichoz%C4%97" title="Psichozė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Psichozė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pszich%C3%B3zis" title="Pszichózis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pszichózis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Психоза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Психоза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF" title="ചിത്തവിഭ്രാന്തി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചിത്തവിഭ്രാന്തി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B2" title="سيكوز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سيكوز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikosis" title="Psikosis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Psikosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicose" title="Psicose – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Psicose" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychose" title="Psychose – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Psychose" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8" title="पागलपन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पागलपन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA" title="मनस्ताप – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मनस्ताप" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E7%97%85" title="精神病 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="精神病" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykose" title="Psykose – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Psykose" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykose" title="Psykose – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Psykose" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B8" title="ସାଇକୋସିସ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସାଇକୋସିସ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psixoz" title="Psixoz – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Psixoz" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicosis" title="Psicosis – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Psicosis" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikoz" title="Psikoz – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Psikoz" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoza" title="Psychoza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Psychoza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicose" title="Psicose – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Psicose" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihoz%C4%83" title="Psihoză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Psihoză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Психоз – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Психоз" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikoza" title="Psikoza – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Psikoza" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="සයිකෝසියාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සයිකෝසියාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Psychosis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psych%C3%B3za" title="Psychóza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Psychóza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%86%D8%B3%D8%B2" title="سایکۆسز – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سایکۆسز" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Психоза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Психоза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihoza" title="Psihoza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Psihoza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykoosi" title="Psykoosi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Psykoosi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykos" title="Psykos – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Psykos" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikosis" title="Sikosis – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sikosis" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="సైకోసిస్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సైకోసిస్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95" title="โรคจิต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โรคจิต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikoz" title="Psikoz – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Psikoz" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Психоз – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Психоз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%DA%BE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ذھان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ذھان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo%E1%BA%A1n_th%E1%BA%A7n" title="Loạn thần – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Loạn thần" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E9%94%99%E4%B9%B1" title="精神错乱 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="精神错乱" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%96" title="פסיכאז – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פסיכאז" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E8%A6%BA%E5%A4%B1%E8%AA%BF" title="思覺失調 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="思覺失調" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E7%97%85_(%E7%97%87%E7%8A%B6)" title="精神病 (症状) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="精神病 (症状)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q170082#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Abnormal condition of the mind</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Psychosis_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Psychosis (disambiguation)">Psychosis (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Medical_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs more <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">reliable medical references</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a> or relies too heavily on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Primary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Primary sources">primary sources</a>. Please review the contents of the article and <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit">add the appropriate references</a> if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Psychosis%22">"Psychosis"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Psychosis%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Psychosis%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Psychosis%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Psychosis%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Psychosis%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (February 2021)</div></td><td class="mbox-imageright"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/52px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/77px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/103px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Psychosis</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Psychotic break (colloquial)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical psychology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">delusions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, incoherent speech and behavior<a href="#cite_note-NIH2018QA-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Self-harm" title="Self-harm">Self-harm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a><a href="#cite_note-NHS2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">Mental illness</a> (<a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>), <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">trauma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a>, some medical conditions, certain <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medications</a>, drugs (including <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>)<a href="#cite_note-NIH2018QA-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counselling" class="mw-redirect" title="Counselling">counselling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_support" title="Social support">social support</a><a href="#cite_note-NHS2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">Prognosis</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Depends on cause<a href="#cite_note-NHS2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">3% of people at some point in their life (US)<a href="#cite_note-NIH2018QA-1">[1]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Psychosis is a condition of the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a> that results in difficulties determining what is <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">real</a> and what is not real.<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-3">[3]</a> Symptoms may include <a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">delusions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, among other features.<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-3">[3]</a> Additional symptoms are disorganized thinking and <a href="/wiki/Thought_disorder" title="Thought disorder">incoherent speech</a> and behavior that is inappropriate for a given situation.<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-3">[3]</a> There may also be <a href="/wiki/Sleep_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleep problem">sleep problems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Social withdrawal">social withdrawal</a>, lack of motivation, and difficulties carrying out <a href="/wiki/Activities_of_daily_living" title="Activities of daily living">daily activities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-3">[3]</a> Psychosis can have serious adverse outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-3">[3]</a> Psychosis can have several different causes.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> These include <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">schizoaffective disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sensory_deprivation" title="Sensory deprivation">sensory deprivation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Textbook_of_Psychiatry-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome">Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome">cerebral beriberi</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and in rare cases <a href="/wiki/Major_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Major depression">major depression</a> (<a href="/wiki/Psychotic_depression" title="Psychotic depression">psychotic depression</a>). Other causes include: <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">trauma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a>, some medical conditions, certain <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medications</a>, and drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">hallucinogens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">stimulants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Griswold-7">[7]</a> One type, known as <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_psychosis" title="Postpartum psychosis">postpartum psychosis</a>, can occur after giving birth.<a href="#cite_note-:7-8">[8]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> is believed to play an important role.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Acute psychosis is termed primary if it results from a psychiatric condition and secondary if it is caused by another medical condition or drugs.<a href="#cite_note-Griswold-7">[7]</a> The diagnosis of a mental-health condition requires excluding other potential causes.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Testing may be done to check for <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> diseases, toxins, or other health problems as a cause.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Treatment may include <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipsychotic medication">antipsychotic medication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_support" title="Social support">social support</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2018QA-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-NHS2016-2">[2]</a> Early treatment appears to improve outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2018QA-1">[1]</a> Medications appear to have a moderate effect.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Outcomes depend on the underlying cause.<a href="#cite_note-NHS2016-2">[2]</a> In the United States about 3% of people develop psychosis at some point in their lives.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2018QA-1">[1]</a> The condition has been described since at least the 4th century BC by <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> and possibly as early as 1500 BC in the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers Papyrus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hallucinations">Hallucinations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hallucinations">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucination</a> is defined as sensory perception in the absence of external stimuli. Hallucinations are different from <a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">illusions</a> and perceptual distortions, which are the misperception of external stimuli. Hallucinations may occur in any of the senses and take on almost any form. They may consist of simple sensations (such as lights, colors, sounds, tastes, or smells) or more detailed experiences (such as seeing and interacting with animals and people, <a href="/wiki/Auditory_verbal_hallucinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory verbal hallucinations">hearing voices</a>, and having complex tactile sensations). Hallucinations are generally characterized as being vivid and uncontrollable.<a href="#cite_note-DSM-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Auditory_hallucination" title="Auditory hallucination">Auditory hallucinations</a>, particularly experiences of hearing voices, are the most common and often prominent feature of psychosis. Up to 15% of the general population may experience auditory hallucinations (though not all are due to psychosis). The prevalence of auditory hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia is generally put around 70%, but may go as high as 98%. Reported prevalence in bipolar disorder ranges between 11% and 68%.<a href="#cite_note-Toh-18">[18]</a> During the early 20th century, auditory hallucinations were second to <a href="/wiki/Visual_hallucinations_in_psychosis" title="Visual hallucinations in psychosis">visual hallucinations</a> in frequency, but they are now the most common manifestation of schizophrenia, although rates vary between cultures and regions. Auditory hallucinations are most commonly intelligible voices. When voices are present, the average number has been estimated at three. Content, like frequency, differs significantly, especially across cultures and demographics. People who experience auditory hallucinations can frequently identify the loudness, location of origin, and may settle on identities for voices. Western cultures are associated with auditory experiences concerning religious content, frequently related to sin. Hallucinations may command a person to do something potentially dangerous when combined with delusions.<a href="#cite_note-Sadock_Psychosis-19">[19]</a> So-called "minor hallucinations", such as extracampine hallucinations, or false perceptions of people or movement occurring outside of one's visual field, frequently occur in neurocognitive disorders, such as Parkinson's disease.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Visual hallucinations occur in roughly a third of people with schizophrenia, although rates as high as 55% are reported. The prevalence in bipolar disorder is around 15%. Content commonly involves animate objects, although perceptual abnormalities such as changes in lighting, shading, streaks, or lines may be seen. Visual abnormalities may conflict with <a href="/wiki/Proprioceptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Proprioceptive">proprioceptive</a> information, and visions may include experiences such as the ground tilting. <a href="/wiki/Lilliputian_hallucinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Lilliputian hallucinations">Lilliputian hallucinations</a> are less common in schizophrenia, and are more common in various types of <a href="/wiki/Encephalopathy" title="Encephalopathy">encephalopathy</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Peduncular_hallucinosis" title="Peduncular hallucinosis">peduncular hallucinosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sadock_Psychosis-19">[19]</a> A visceral hallucination, also called a cenesthetic hallucination, is characterized by visceral sensations in the absence of stimuli. Cenesthetic hallucinations may include sensations of burning, or re-arrangement of internal organs.<a href="#cite_note-Sadock_Psychosis-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delusions">Delusions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Delusions">edit</a>]</div> Psychosis may involve <a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">delusional</a> beliefs. A delusion is a fixed, false idiosyncratic belief, which does not change even when presented with incontrovertible evidence to the contrary. Delusions are context- and culture-dependent: a belief that inhibits critical functioning and is widely considered delusional in one population may be common (and even adaptive) in another, or in the same population at a later time.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Since <a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">normative</a> views may contradict available evidence, a belief need not contravene cultural standards in order to be considered delusional. Prevalence in schizophrenia is generally considered at least 90%, and around 50% in bipolar disorder. The DSM-5 characterizes certain delusions as "bizarre" if they are clearly implausible, or are incompatible with the surrounding cultural context. The concept of bizarre delusions has many criticisms, the most prominent being judging its presence is not highly reliable even among trained individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Sadock_Psychosis-19">[19]</a> A delusion may involve diverse thematic content. The most common type is a <a href="/wiki/Persecutory_delusion" title="Persecutory delusion">persecutory delusion</a>, in which a person believes that an entity seeks to harm them. Others include <a href="/wiki/Delusions_of_reference" class="mw-redirect" title="Delusions of reference">delusions of reference</a> (the belief that some element of one's experience represents a deliberate and specific act by or message from some other entity), <a href="/wiki/Delusions_of_grandeur" class="mw-redirect" title="Delusions of grandeur">delusions of grandeur</a> (the belief that one possesses special power or influence beyond one's actual limits), <a href="/wiki/Thought_broadcasting" title="Thought broadcasting">thought broadcasting</a> (the belief that one's thoughts are audible) and <a href="/wiki/Thought_insertion" title="Thought insertion">thought insertion</a> (the belief that one's thoughts are not one's own). A delusion may also involve <a href="/wiki/Delusional_misidentification_syndrome" title="Delusional misidentification syndrome">misidentification</a> of objects, persons, or environs that the afflicted should reasonably be able to recognize; such examples include <a href="/wiki/Cotard%27s_syndrome" title="Cotard's syndrome">Cotard's syndrome</a> (the belief that oneself is partly or wholly <a href="/wiki/Dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead">dead</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_lycanthropy" title="Clinical lycanthropy">clinical lycanthropy</a> (the belief that oneself is or has transformed into an animal). The subject matter of delusions seems to reflect the current culture in a particular time and location. For example, in the US, during the early 1900s syphilis was a common topic, during the Second World War Germany, during the Cold War communists, and in recent years, technology has been a focus.<a href="#cite_note-Cannon_Kramer_pp._323–327-23">[23]</a> Some psychologists, such as those who practice the <a href="/wiki/Open_Dialogue" title="Open Dialogue">Open Dialogue</a> method, believe that the content of psychosis represents an underlying thought process that may, in part, be responsible for psychosis,<a href="#cite_note-Seikkula,_Birgitta_Alakare,_Jukka_A_2001_pp._247–265-24">[24]</a> though the accepted medical position is that psychosis is due to a brain disorder.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Historically, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> classified psychotic delusions into primary and secondary types. Primary delusions are defined as arising suddenly and not being comprehensible in terms of normal mental processes, whereas secondary delusions are typically understood as being influenced by the person's background or current situation (e.g., ethnicity; also religious, superstitious, or political beliefs).<a href="#cite_note-Jaspers-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disorganization_of_speech/thought_or_behavior">Disorganization of speech/thought or behavior</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Disorganization of speech/thought or behavior">edit</a>]</div> Disorganization is split into disorganized speech (or thought), and grossly disorganized motor behavior. Disorganized speech or thought, also called formal <a href="/wiki/Thought_disorder" title="Thought disorder">thought disorder</a>, is disorganization of thinking that is inferred from speech. Characteristics of disorganized speech include rapidly switching topics, called derailment or loose association; switching to topics that are unrelated, called tangential thinking; incomprehensible speech, called <a href="/wiki/Word_salad" title="Word salad">word salad</a> or incoherence. Disorganized motor behavior includes repetitive, odd, or sometimes purposeless movement. Disorganized motor behavior rarely includes catatonia, and although it was a historically prominent symptom, it is rarely seen today. Whether this is due to historically used treatments or the lack thereof is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-Sadock_Psychosis-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Catatonia" title="Catatonia">Catatonia</a> describes a profoundly agitated state in which the experience of reality is generally considered impaired. There are two primary manifestations of catatonic behavior. The classic presentation is a person who does not move or interact with the world in any way while awake. This type of catatonia presents with <a href="/wiki/Waxy_flexibility" title="Waxy flexibility">waxy flexibility</a>. Waxy flexibility is when someone physically moves part of a catatonic person's body and the person stays in the position even if it is bizarre and otherwise nonfunctional (such as moving a person's arm straight up in the air and the arm staying there). The other type of catatonia is more of an outward presentation of the profoundly agitated state described above. It involves excessive and purposeless motor behaviour, as well as an extreme mental preoccupation that prevents an intact experience of reality. An example is someone walking very fast in circles to the exclusion of anything else with a level of mental preoccupation (meaning not focused on anything relevant to the situation) that was not typical of the person prior to the symptom onset. In both types of catatonia, there is generally no reaction to anything that happens outside of them. It is important to distinguish catatonic agitation from severe bipolar mania, although someone could have both. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_symptoms">Negative symptoms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Negative symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Clouding_of_consciousness" title="Clouding of consciousness">Clouding of consciousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression (mood)</a></div> Negative symptoms include <a href="/wiki/Reduced_affect_display" title="Reduced affect display">reduced emotional expression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avolition" title="Avolition">decreased motivation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Avolition" title="Avolition">avolition</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Alogia" title="Alogia">reduced spontaneous speech</a> (poverty of speech, <a href="/wiki/Alogia" title="Alogia">alogia</a>). Individuals with this condition lack interest and spontaneity, and have the <a href="/wiki/Anhedonia" title="Anhedonia">inability to feel pleasure</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anhedonia" title="Anhedonia">anhedonia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Altered Behavioral Inhibition System functioning could possibly cause reduced sustained attention in psychosis and overall contribute to more negative reactions.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychosis_in_adolescents">Psychosis in adolescents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Psychosis in adolescents">edit</a>]</div> Psychosis is rare in adolescents.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> Young people who have psychosis may have trouble connecting with the world around them and may experience hallucinations or delusions.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> Adolescents with psychosis may also have cognitive deficits that may make it harder for the youth to socialize and work.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> Potential impairments include reduced speed of mental processing, ability to focus without getting distracted (limited <a href="/wiki/Attention_span" title="Attention span">attention span</a>), and deficits in <a href="/wiki/Verbal_memory" title="Verbal memory">verbal memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> If an adolescent is experiencing psychosis, they most likely have comorbidity, meaning that they could have multiple mental illnesses.<a href="#cite_note-:11-29">[29]</a> Because of this, it may be difficult to determine whether it is psychosis or autism spectrum disorder, social or generalized anxiety disorder, or obsessive-compulsive disorder.<a href="#cite_note-:11-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> The symptoms of psychosis may be caused by serious <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric disorders">psychiatric disorders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, a number of medical illnesses, and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">trauma</a>. Psychosis may also be temporary or transient, and be caused by medications or <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorder</a> (<a href="/wiki/Substance-induced_psychosis" title="Substance-induced psychosis">substance-induced psychosis</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Normal_states">Normal states</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Normal states">edit</a>]</div> Brief hallucinations are not uncommon in those without any psychiatric disease, including healthy children. Causes or triggers include:<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a> <ul><li>Falling asleep and waking: <a href="/wiki/Hypnagogic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypnagogic">hypnagogic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypnopompic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypnopompic">hypnopompic</a> hallucinations<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement" class="mw-redirect" title="Bereavement">Bereavement</a>, in which hallucinations of a deceased loved one are common<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a></li> <li>Severe <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></li> <li>Extreme stress (see below)<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trauma_and_stress">Trauma and stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Trauma and stress">edit</a>]</div> Traumatic life events have been linked with an elevated risk of developing psychotic symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-:1-35">[35]</a> Childhood trauma has specifically been shown to be a predictor of adolescent and adult psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a> Individuals with psychotic symptoms are three times more likely to have experienced childhood trauma (e.g., physical or sexual abuse, physical or emotional neglect) than those in the general population.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a> Increased individual vulnerability toward psychosis may interact with traumatic experiences promoting an onset of future psychotic symptoms, particularly during sensitive developmental periods.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a> Importantly, the relationship between traumatic life events and psychotic symptoms appears to be dose-dependent in which multiple traumatic life events accumulate, compounding symptom expression and severity.<a href="#cite_note-:1-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a> However, acute, stressful events can also trigger brief psychotic episodes.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Trauma prevention and early intervention may be an important target for decreasing the incidence of psychotic disorders and ameliorating its effects.<a href="#cite_note-:1-35">[35]</a> A healthy person could become psychotic if he is placed in an empty room with no light and sound after 15 minutes, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Sensory_deprivation" title="Sensory deprivation">sensory deprivation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Textbook_of_Psychiatry-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neuroticism" title="Neuroticism">Neuroticism</a>, a personality trait associated with vulnerability to stressors, is an independent predictor of the development of psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-NeuroticismMA-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychiatric_disorders">Psychiatric disorders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Psychiatric disorders">edit</a>]</div> From a diagnostic standpoint, organic disorders were believed to be caused by physical illness affecting the brain (that is, psychiatric disorders secondary to other conditions) while functional disorders were considered disorders of the functioning of the mind in the absence of physical disorders (that is, primary psychological or psychiatric disorders). Subtle physical abnormalities have been found in illnesses traditionally considered functional, such as <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/DSM-IV-TR" class="mw-redirect" title="DSM-IV-TR">DSM-IV-TR</a> avoids the functional/organic distinction, and instead lists traditional psychotic illnesses, psychosis due to general medical conditions, and substance-induced psychosis. Primary psychiatric causes of psychosis include the following:<a href="#cite_note-ICD-10-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mood_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Mood disorders">mood disorders</a> including <a href="/wiki/Psychotic_depression" title="Psychotic depression">psychotic depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">manic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mixed_episode" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed episode">mixed episodes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_I_disorder" title="Bipolar I disorder">bipolar I disorder</a> and depressive episodes of both <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar I">bipolar I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar II">bipolar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">schizoaffective disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">delusional disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brief_psychotic_disorder" title="Brief psychotic disorder">brief psychotic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizophreniform_disorder" title="Schizophreniform disorder">schizophreniform disorder</a></li></ul> Psychotic symptoms may also be seen in:<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personality_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality disorders">Personality disorders</a> including <a href="/wiki/Schizotypal_personality_disorder" title="Schizotypal personality disorder">Schizotypal personality disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">Post-traumatic stress disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder" title="Dissociative identity disorder">dissociative identity disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subtypes">Subtypes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Subtypes">edit</a>]</div> Subtypes of psychosis include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_psychosis" title="Postpartum psychosis">Postpartum psychosis</a>, occurring shortly after <a href="/wiki/Giving_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Giving birth">giving birth</a>, primarily associated with maternal <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monothematic_delusion" title="Monothematic delusion">Monothematic delusions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxedematous_psychosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Myxedematous psychosis">Myxedematous psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis" title="Stimulant psychosis">Stimulant psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardive_psychosis" title="Tardive psychosis">Tardive psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_psychosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared psychosis">Shared psychosis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cycloid_psychosis">Cycloid psychosis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cycloid psychosis">edit</a>]</div> Cycloid psychosis is typically an acute, self-limiting form of psychosis with psychotic and mood symptoms that progress from normal to full-blown, usually between a few hours to days, and not related to drug intake or <a href="/wiki/Brain_injury" title="Brain injury">brain injury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-43">[43]</a> While proposed as a distinct entity, clinically separate from schizophrenia and affective disorders, cycloid psychosis is not formally acknowledged by current ICD or DSM criteria.<a href="#cite_note-:0-43">[43]</a> Its unclear place in psychiatric nosology has likely contributed to the limited scientific investigation and literature on the topic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Postpartum_psychosis">Postpartum psychosis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Postpartum psychosis">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_psychosis" title="Postpartum psychosis">Postpartum psychosis</a> is a rare yet serious and debilitating form of psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-:10-44">[44]</a> Symptoms range from fluctuating moods and insomnia to mood-incongruent delusions related to the individual or the infant.<a href="#cite_note-:10-44">[44]</a> Women experiencing postpartum psychosis are at increased risk for suicide or infanticide. Many women who experience first-time psychosis from postpartum often have bipolar disorder, meaning they could experience an increase of psychotic episodes even after postpartum.<a href="#cite_note-:10-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_conditions">Medical conditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Medical conditions">edit</a>]</div> A very large number of medical conditions can cause psychosis, sometimes called secondary psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a> Examples include: <ul><li>disorders causing <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a> (toxic psychosis), in which consciousness is disturbed</li> <li>neurodevelopmental disorders and chromosomal abnormalities, including <a href="/wiki/Velocardiofacial_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Velocardiofacial syndrome">velocardiofacial syndrome</a></li> <li>neurodegenerative disorders, such as <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dementia_with_Lewy_bodies" title="Dementia with Lewy bodies">dementia with Lewy bodies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li> <li>focal neurological disease, such as <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">brain tumors</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Brain_tumor-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-3">[3]</a> and some forms of <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a></li> <li>malignancy (typically via masses in the brain, <a href="/wiki/Paraneoplastic_syndrome" title="Paraneoplastic syndrome">paraneoplastic syndromes</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-3">[3]</a></li> <li>infectious and postinfectious syndromes, including infections causing <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viral_encephalitis" title="Viral encephalitis">viral encephalitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Munjal_681–712-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a><a href="#cite_note-Munjal_681–712-47">[47]</a></li> <li>endocrine disease, such as <a href="/wiki/Hypothyroidism" title="Hypothyroidism">hypothyroidism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperthyroidism" title="Hyperthyroidism">hyperthyroidism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cushing%27s_syndrome" title="Cushing's syndrome">Cushing's syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypoparathyroidism" title="Hypoparathyroidism">hypoparathyroidism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hyperparathyroidism" title="Hyperparathyroidism">hyperparathyroidism</a>;<a href="#cite_note-:6-49">[49]</a> sex hormones also affect psychotic symptoms and sometimes giving birth can provoke psychosis, termed <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_psychosis" title="Postpartum psychosis">postpartum psychosis</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-8">[8]</a></li> <li>inborn errors of metabolism, such as Wilson's disease, porphyria, and homocysteinemia.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li> <li>nutritional deficiency, such as <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12_deficiency" title="Vitamin B12 deficiency">vitamin B12 deficiency</a><a href="#cite_note-Griswold-7">[7]</a></li> <li>other acquired metabolic disorders, including <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> disturbances such as <a href="/wiki/Hypocalcemia" title="Hypocalcemia">hypocalcemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypernatremia" title="Hypernatremia">hypernatremia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyponatremia" title="Hyponatremia">hyponatremia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">hypokalemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypomagnesemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypomagnesemia">hypomagnesemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypermagnesemia" title="Hypermagnesemia">hypermagnesemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypercalcemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypercalcemia">hypercalcemia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hypophosphatemia" title="Hypophosphatemia">hypophosphatemia</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Hypoglycemia" title="Hypoglycemia">hypoglycemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a>, and failure of the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Griswold-7">[7]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoimmune" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune">autoimmune</a> and related disorders, such as <a href="/wiki/Systemic_lupus_erythematosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic lupus erythematosus">systemic lupus erythematosus</a> (lupus, SLE), <a href="/wiki/Sarcoidosis" title="Sarcoidosis">sarcoidosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hashimoto%27s_encephalopathy" title="Hashimoto's encephalopathy">Hashimoto's encephalopathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-NMDA-receptor_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis">anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Non-celiac_gluten_sensitivity" title="Non-celiac gluten sensitivity">non-celiac gluten sensitivity</a><a href="#cite_note-LosurdoPrincipi2018-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li> <li>poisoning by a range of plants, fungi, metals, organic compounds, and a few animal toxins<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a></li> <li>sleep disorders, such as in <a href="/wiki/Narcolepsy" title="Narcolepsy">narcolepsy</a> (in which <a href="/wiki/REM_sleep" class="mw-redirect" title="REM sleep">REM sleep</a> intrudes into wakefulness)<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a></li> <li>parasitic diseases, such as <a href="/wiki/Neurocysticercosis" title="Neurocysticercosis">neurocysticercosis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychoactive_drugs">Psychoactive drugs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Psychoactive drugs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Substance-induced_psychosis" title="Substance-induced psychosis">Substance-induced psychosis</a></div> Various <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_substances" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoactive substances">psychoactive substances</a> (both legal and illegal) have been implicated in causing, exacerbating, or precipitating psychotic states or disorders in users, with varying levels of evidence. This may be upon intoxication for a more prolonged period after use, or upon <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a> Individuals who experience substance-induced psychosis tend to have a greater awareness of their psychosis and tend to have higher levels of <a href="/wiki/Suicidal_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Suicidal thinking">suicidal thinking</a> compared to those who have a primary psychotic illness.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21728034-53">[53]</a> Drugs commonly alleged to induce psychotic symptoms include <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cathinone" title="Cathinone">cathinones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">psychedelic drugs</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">psilocybin</a>), <a href="/wiki/%CE%9A-opioid_receptor" title="Κ-opioid receptor">κ-opioid receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">agonists</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Enadoline" title="Enadoline">enadoline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salvinorin_A" title="Salvinorin A">salvinorin A</a>) and <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor_antagonist" title="NMDA receptor antagonist">NMDA receptor antagonists</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">phencyclidine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">ketamine</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> may worsen symptoms in those with schizophrenia and cause psychosis at very high doses in people without the condition.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Cannabis and other illicit recreational drugs are often associated with psychosis in adolescents and cannabis use before 15 years old may increase the risk of psychosis in adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alcohol">Alcohol</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Alcohol">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_alcohol_consumption#Mental_health_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of alcohol consumption">Long-term effects of alcohol consumption § Mental health effects</a></div> Approximately three percent of people with <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a> experience psychosis during acute intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol related psychosis may manifest itself through a <a href="/wiki/Kindling_(sedative-hypnotic_withdrawal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kindling (sedative-hypnotic withdrawal)">kindling mechanism</a>. The mechanism of alcohol-related psychosis is due to the <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_alcohol_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-term effects of alcohol consumption">long-term effects of alcohol consumption</a> resulting in distortions to neuronal membranes, <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">thiamine</a> deficiency. It is possible that hazardous alcohol use via a kindling mechanism can cause the development of a chronic substance-induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizophrenia. The effects of an alcohol-related psychosis include an increased risk of depression and suicide as well as causing psychosocial impairments.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Delirium_tremens" title="Delirium tremens">Delirium tremens</a>, a symptom of chronic alcoholism that can appear in the acute withdrawal phase, shares many symptoms with alcohol-related psychosis suggesting a common mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cannabis">Cannabis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cannabis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_schizophrenia#Cannabis" title="Causes of schizophrenia">Causes of schizophrenia § Cannabis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_cannabis#Chronic_psychosis_and_schizophrenia_spectrum_disorders" title="Long-term effects of cannabis">Long-term effects of cannabis § Chronic psychosis and schizophrenia spectrum disorders</a></div> According to current studies, cannabis use is associated with increased risk of psychotic disorders, and the more often cannabis is used the more likely a person is to develop a psychotic illness.<a href="#cite_note-:8-59">[59]</a> Furthermore, people with a history of cannabis use develop psychotic symptoms earlier than those who have never used cannabis.<a href="#cite_note-:8-59">[59]</a> Some debate exists regarding the causal relationship between cannabis use and psychosis with some studies suggesting that cannabis use hastens the onset of psychosis primarily in those with pre-existing vulnerability.<a href="#cite_note-:8-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Indeed, cannabis use plays an important role in the development of psychosis in vulnerable individuals, and cannabis use in adolescence should be discouraged.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Some studies indicate that the effects of two active compounds in cannabis, <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">tetrahydrocannabinol</a> (THC) and <a href="/wiki/Cannabidiol" title="Cannabidiol">cannabidiol</a> (CBD), have opposite effects with respect to psychosis. While THC can induce psychotic symptoms in healthy individuals, limited evidence suggests that CBD may have antipsychotic effects.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Methamphetamine">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis" title="Stimulant psychosis">Stimulant psychosis</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a> induces a psychosis in 26–46 percent of heavy users. Some of these people develop a long-lasting psychosis that can persist for longer than six months. Those who have had a short-lived psychosis from methamphetamine can have a relapse of the methamphetamine psychosis years later after a stressful event such as severe insomnia or a period of hazardous alcohol use despite not relapsing back to methamphetamine.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Individuals who have a long history of methamphetamine use and who have experienced psychosis in the past from methamphetamine use are highly likely to re-experience methamphetamine psychosis if drug use is recommenced. Methamphetamine-induced psychosis is likely gated by genetic vulnerability, which can produce long-term changes in brain neurochemistry following repetitive use.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Psychedelics">Psychedelics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Psychedelics">edit</a>]</div> A 2024 study found that <a href="/wiki/Psychedelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychedelic">psychedelic</a> use may potentially reduce, or have no effect on, psychotic symptoms in individuals with a personal or family history of psychotic disorders.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> A 2023 study found an interaction between lifetime psychedelic use and family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder on psychotic symptoms over the past two weeks. Psychotic symptoms were highest among individuals with both a family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder and lifetime psychedelic use, while they were lowest among those with lifetime psychedelic use but no family history of these disorders.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medication">Medication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Medication">edit</a>]</div> Administration, or sometimes withdrawal, of a large number of medications may provoke psychotic symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis-30">[30]</a> Drugs that can induce psychosis experimentally or in a significant proportion of people include: <ul><li>stimulants, such as <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sympathomimetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sympathomimetics">sympathomimetics</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> agonists,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">ketamine</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">corticosteroids</a> (often with mood changes in addition),</li> <li>and some anticonvulsants such as <a href="/wiki/Vigabatrin" title="Vigabatrin">vigabatrin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Neuroimaging">edit</a>]</div> The first brain image of an individual with psychosis was completed as far back as 1935 using a technique called <a href="/wiki/Pneumoencephalography" title="Pneumoencephalography">pneumoencephalography</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> (a painful and now obsolete procedure where <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> picture). Both <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic#First_episode_psychosis" title="Antipsychotic">first episode psychosis</a>, and high risk status is associated with reductions in grey matter volume (GMV). First episode psychotic and high risk populations are associated with similar but distinct abnormalities in GMV. Reductions in the right <a href="/wiki/Middle_temporal_gyrus" title="Middle temporal gyrus">middle temporal gyrus</a>, right <a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">superior temporal gyrus</a> (STG), right <a href="/wiki/Parahippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Parahippocampus">parahippocampus</a>, right <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, right <a href="/wiki/Middle_frontal_gyrus" title="Middle frontal gyrus">middle frontal gyrus</a>, and left <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a> (ACC) are observed in high risk populations. Reductions in first episode psychosis span a region from the right STG to the right insula, left insula, and cerebellum, and are more severe in the right ACC, right STG, insula and cerebellum.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Another meta analysis reported bilateral reductions in insula, operculum, STG, medial frontal cortex, and ACC, but also reported increased GMV in the right <a href="/wiki/Lingual_gyrus" title="Lingual gyrus">lingual gyrus</a> and left <a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">precentral gyrus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Radua-74">[74]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kraepelinian_dichotomy" title="Kraepelinian dichotomy">Kraepelinian dichotomy</a> is made questionable[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Non sequitur. Also, even the provided link doesn't clarify why GMV abnormalities would make the Kraepelinian dichotomy, which also separates schizophrenia from bipolar disorder, questionable. (November 2019)">clarification needed</a>] by grey matter abnormalities in bipolar and schizophrenia; schizophrenia is distinguishable from bipolar in that regions of grey matter reduction are generally larger in magnitude, although adjusting for gender differences reduces the difference to the left <a href="/wiki/Dorsomedial_prefrontal_cortex" title="Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex">dorsomedial prefrontal cortex</a>, and right <a href="/wiki/Dorsolateral_prefrontal_cortex" title="Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex">dorsolateral prefrontal cortex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> During attentional tasks, first episode psychosis is associated with hypoactivation in the right middle frontal gyrus, a region generally described as encompassing the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC).Altered Behavioral Inhibition System functioning could possibly cause reduced sustained attention in psychosis and overall contribute to more negative reactions.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> In congruence with studies on grey matter volume, hypoactivity in the right insula, and right inferior parietal lobe is also reported.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> During cognitive tasks, hypoactivities in the right insula, dACC, and the left precuneus, as well as reduced deactivations in the right <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, right <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>, right <a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">inferior frontal</a> and left precentral gyri are observed. These results are highly consistent and replicable possibly except the abnormalities of the right inferior frontal gyrus.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Decreased grey matter volume in conjunction with bilateral hypoactivity is observed in anterior insula, dorsal medial frontal cortex, and dorsal ACC. Decreased grey matter volume and bilateral hyperactivity is reported in posterior insula, ventral medial frontal cortex, and ventral ACC.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hallucinations_2">Hallucinations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hallucinations">edit</a>]</div> Studies during acute experiences of hallucinations demonstrate increased activity in primary or secondary sensory cortices. As auditory hallucinations are most common in psychosis, most robust evidence exists for increased activity in the left <a href="/wiki/Middle_temporal_gyrus" title="Middle temporal gyrus">middle temporal gyrus</a>, left <a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">superior temporal gyrus</a>, and left <a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">inferior frontal gyrus</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a>). Activity in the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral striatum">ventral striatum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, and ACC are related to the lucidity of hallucinations, and indicate that activation or involvement of emotional circuitry are key to the impact of abnormal activity in sensory cortices. Together, these findings indicate abnormal processing of internally generated sensory experiences, coupled with abnormal emotional processing, results in hallucinations. One proposed model involves a failure of feedforward networks from sensory cortices to the inferior frontal cortex, which normally cancel out sensory cortex activity during internally generated speech. The resulting disruption in expected and perceived speech is thought to produce lucid hallucinatory experiences.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delusions_2">Delusions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Delusions">edit</a>]</div> The two-factor model of delusions posits that dysfunction in both belief formation systems and belief evaluation systems are necessary for delusions. Dysfunction in evaluations systems localized to the right lateral prefrontal cortex, regardless of delusion content, is supported by neuroimaging studies and is congruent with its role in conflict monitoring in healthy persons. Abnormal activation and reduced volume is seen in people with delusions, as well as in disorders associated with delusions such as <a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">frontotemporal dementia</a>, psychosis and <a href="/wiki/Lewy_body_dementia" title="Lewy body dementia">Lewy body dementia</a>. Furthermore, lesions to this region are associated with "jumping to conclusions", damage to this region is associated with post-stroke delusions, and hypometabolism this region associated with caudate strokes presenting with delusions. The <a href="/wiki/Aberrant_salience" class="mw-redirect" title="Aberrant salience">aberrant salience model</a> suggests that delusions are a result of people assigning excessive importance to irrelevant stimuli. In support of this hypothesis, regions normally associated with the <a href="/wiki/Salience_network" title="Salience network">salience network</a> demonstrate reduced grey matter in people with delusions, and the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>, which is widely implicated in salience processing, is also widely implicated in psychotic disorders. Specific regions have been associated with specific types of delusions. The volume of the hippocampus and parahippocampus is related to paranoid delusions in <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, and has been reported to be abnormal post mortem in one person with delusions. <a href="/wiki/Capgras_delusion" title="Capgras delusion">Capgras delusions</a> have been associated with occipito-temporal damage, and may be related to failure to elicit normal emotions or memories in response to faces.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_symptoms_2">Negative symptoms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Negative symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details. (November 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Psychosis is associated with <a href="/wiki/Ventral_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral striatum">ventral striatal</a> (VS), which is the part of the brain that is involved with the desire to naturally satisfy the body's needs.<a href="#cite_note-:02-82">[82]</a> When high reports of <a href="/wiki/Symptom#Negative_symptoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">negative symptoms</a> were recorded, there were significant irregularities in the left VS. Anhedonia, the inability to feel pleasure, is a commonly reported symptom in psychosis; experiences are present in most people with schizophrenia.<a href="#cite_note-:12-83">[83]</a> Anhedonia arises as a result of the inability to feel motivation and drive towards both the desire to engage in as well as to complete tasks and goals. Previous research has indicated that a deficiency in the <a href="/wiki/Neural_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural representation">neural representation</a> in regards to goals and the motivation to achieve them, has demonstrated that when a reward is not present, a strong reaction is noted in the ventral striatum; reinforcement learning is intact when contingencies about stimulus-reward are implicit, but not when they require explicit neural processing; reward prediction errors are what the actual reward is versus what the reward was predicted to be.<a href="#cite_note-:22-84">[84]</a> In most cases positive prediction errors are considered an abnormal occurrence. A positive prediction error response occurs when there is an increased activation in a brain region, typically the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>, in response to unexpected rewards. A negative prediction error response occurs when there is a decreased activation in a region when predicted rewards do not occur. <a href="/wiki/Anterior_Cingulate_Cortex_(ACC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)">Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)</a> response, taken as an indicator of effort allocation, does not increase with reward or reward probability increase, and is associated with negative symptoms; deficits in <a href="/wiki/Dorsolateral_prefrontal_cortex" title="Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex">Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (dlPFC)</a> activity and failure to improve performance on cognitive tasks when offered monetary incentives are present; and dopamine mediated functions are abnormal. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Neurobiology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_hypothesis_of_schizophrenia" title="Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia">Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details. (November 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Psychosis has been traditionally linked to the overactivity of the <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>. In particular to its effect in the <a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_pathway" title="Mesolimbic pathway">mesolimbic pathway</a>. The two major sources of evidence given to support this theory are that <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D2" title="Dopamine receptor D2">dopamine receptor D2</a> blocking drugs (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">antipsychotics</a>) tend to reduce the intensity of psychotic symptoms, and that drugs that accentuate dopamine release, or inhibit its reuptake (such as <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>) can trigger psychosis in some people (see <a href="/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis" title="Stimulant psychosis">stimulant psychosis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Kapur-85">[85]</a> However, there is substantial evidence that dopaminergic overactivity does not fully explain psychosis, and that neurodegerative pathophysiology plays a significant role. This is evidenced by the fact that psychosis commonly occurs in neurodegenerative diseases of the dopaminergic nervous system, such as Parkinson's disease, which involved reduced, rather than increased, dopaminergic activity.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Endocannabinoid_system" title="Endocannabinoid system">endocannabinoid system</a> is also implicated in psychosis. This is evidenced by the propensity of <a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor_1" title="Cannabinoid receptor 1">CB1 receptor</a> agonists such as <a href="/wiki/THC" class="mw-redirect" title="THC">THC</a> to induce psychotic symptoms,<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> and the efficacy of <a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor_1" title="Cannabinoid receptor 1">CB1 receptor</a> antagonists such as <a href="/wiki/Cannabidiol" title="Cannabidiol">CBD</a> in ameliorating psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> NMDA receptor dysfunction has been proposed as a mechanism in psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> This theory is reinforced by the fact that <a href="/wiki/Dissociative" title="Dissociative">dissociative</a> <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor_antagonist" title="NMDA receptor antagonist">NMDA receptor antagonists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">ketamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">PCP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">dextromethorphan</a> (at large overdoses) induce a psychotic state. The symptoms of dissociative <a href="/wiki/Substance_intoxication" title="Substance intoxication">intoxication</a> are also considered to mirror the symptoms of schizophrenia, including <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia#Negative_symptoms" title="Schizophrenia">negative symptoms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> NMDA receptor antagonism, in addition to producing symptoms reminiscent of psychosis, mimics the neurophysiological aspects, such as reduction in the amplitude of <a href="/wiki/P50_(neuroscience)" title="P50 (neuroscience)">P50</a>, <a href="/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)" title="P300 (neuroscience)">P300</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mismatch_negativity" title="Mismatch negativity">MMN</a> <a href="/wiki/Evoked_potential" title="Evoked potential">evoked potentials</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Hierarchical Bayesian neurocomputational models of sensory feedback, in agreement with neuroimaging literature, link NMDA receptor hypofunction to delusional or hallucinatory symptoms via proposing a failure of NMDA mediated top down predictions to adequately cancel out enhanced bottom up AMPA mediated predictions errors.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Excessive prediction errors in response to stimuli that would normally not produce such a response is thought to root from conferring excessive salience to otherwise mundane events.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Dysfunction higher up in the hierarchy, where representation is more abstract, could result in delusions.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The common finding of reduced <a href="/wiki/GAD67" class="mw-redirect" title="GAD67">GAD67</a> expression in psychotic disorders may explain enhanced AMPA mediated signaling, caused by reduced GABAergic inhibition.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The connection between dopamine and psychosis is generally believed to be complex. While dopamine receptor D2 suppresses <a href="/wiki/Adenylate_cyclase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenylate cyclase">adenylate cyclase</a> activity, the <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D1" title="Dopamine receptor D1">D1</a> receptor increases it. If D2-blocking drugs are administered, the blocked dopamine spills over to the D1 receptors. The increased adenylate cyclase activity affects <a href="/wiki/Genetic_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic expression">genetic expression</a> in the nerve cell, which takes time. Hence antipsychotic drugs take a week or two to reduce the symptoms of psychosis. Moreover, newer and equally effective antipsychotic drugs actually block slightly less dopamine in the brain than older drugs whilst also blocking 5-HT2A receptors, suggesting the 'dopamine hypothesis' may be oversimplified.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Soyka and colleagues found no evidence of dopaminergic dysfunction in people with alcohol-induced psychosis<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> and Zoldan et al. reported moderately successful use of <a href="/wiki/Ondansetron" title="Ondansetron">ondansetron</a>, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Levodopa" title="Levodopa">levodopa</a> psychosis in <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a> patients.<a href="#cite_note-Zoldan_et_al_1995-99">[99]</a> A review found an association between a first-episode of psychosis and prediabetes.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Prolonged or high dose use of <a href="/wiki/Psychostimulants" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychostimulants">psychostimulants</a> can alter normal functioning, making it similar to the manic phase of bipolar disorder.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> NMDA antagonists replicate some of the so-called "negative" symptoms like <a href="/wiki/Thought_disorder" title="Thought disorder">thought disorder</a> in subanesthetic doses (doses insufficient to induce <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Catatonia" title="Catatonia">catatonia</a> in high doses. Psychostimulants, especially in one already prone to psychotic thinking, can cause some "positive" symptoms, such as delusional beliefs, particularly those persecutory in nature. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> Cross-cultural studies into schizophrenia have found that individual experiences of psychosis and 'hearing voices' vary across cultures.<a href="#cite_note-:5-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In countries such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> where there exists a predominantly biomedical understanding of the body, the mind and in turn, mental health, subjects were found to report their hallucinations as having 'violent content' and self-describing as 'crazy'.<a href="#cite_note-:5-102">[102]</a> This lived experience is at odds with the lived experience of subjects in <a href="/wiki/Accra,_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Accra, Ghana">Accra, Ghana</a>, who describe the voices they hear as having 'spiritual meaning' and are often reported as positive in nature; or subjects in <a href="/wiki/Chennai,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Chennai, India">Chennai, India</a>, who describe their hallucinations as kin, family members or close friends, and offering guidance.<a href="#cite_note-:5-102">[102]</a> These differences are attributed to 'social kindling' or how one's social context shapes how an individual interprets and experiences sensations such as hallucinations. This concept aligns with pre-existing cognitive theory such as reality modelling and is supported by recent research that demonstrates that individuals with psychosis can be taught to attend to their hallucinations differently, which in turn alters the hallucinations themselves.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Such research creates pathways for social or community-based treatment, such as reality monitoring, for individuals with schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, providing alternatives to, or supplementing traditional pharmacologic management. Cross-cultural studies explore the way in which psychosis varies in different cultures, countries and religions. The cultural differences are based on the individual or shared illness narratives surrounding cultural meanings of illness experience.<a href="#cite_note-Jenkins_J_2018-105">[105]</a> In countries such as <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> majority countries, they each share alternative epistemologies. These are known as knowledge systems that focus on the connections between mind, body, culture, nature, and society.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Cultural perceptions of mental disorders such as psychosis or schizophrenia are believed to be caused by <a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">jinn</a> (spirits) in Muslim majority countries.<a href="#cite_note-doi.org-107">[107]</a> Furthermore, those in <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a>-Muslim societies perceive those who act differently than the social norm as "crazy" or as abnormal behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-doi.org-107">[107]</a> This differs from the lived experience of individuals in India and how they attain their perspectives on mental health issues through a variety of spiritual and healing traditions.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In Cambodia, hallucinations are linked with spirit visitation, a term they call "cultural kindling".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> These examples of differences are attributed to culture and the way it shapes conceptions of mental disorders.<a href="#cite_note-doi.org-107">[107]</a> These cultural differences can be useful in bridging the gap of cultural understanding and psychiatric signs and symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Jenkins_J_2018-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> To make a diagnosis of a mental illness in someone with psychosis <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion" title="Diagnosis of exclusion">other potential causes must be excluded</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ol2012-110">[110]</a> An initial assessment includes a comprehensive history and physical examination by a health care provider. Tests may be done to exclude substance use, medication, toxins, surgical complications, or other medical illnesses. A person with psychosis is referred to as psychotic. <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">Delirium</a> should be ruled out, which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations, acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness, indicating other underlying factors, including medical illnesses.<a href="#cite_note-Med_News-111">[111]</a> Excluding medical illnesses associated with psychosis is performed by using blood tests to measure: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid-stimulating_hormone" title="Thyroid-stimulating hormone">thyroid-stimulating hormone</a> to exclude <a href="/wiki/Hypothyroidism" title="Hypothyroidism">hypo-</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hyperthyroidism" title="Hyperthyroidism">hyperthyroidism</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B12</a> serum and urinary <a href="/wiki/Methylmalonic_acid" title="Methylmalonic acid">MMA</a> to role out <a href="/wiki/Pernicious_anemia" title="Pernicious anemia">pernicious anemia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12_deficiency" title="Vitamin B12 deficiency">vitamin B12 deficiency</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_tests#Blood_chemistry_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood tests">basic electrolytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serum_calcium" class="mw-redirect" title="Serum calcium">serum calcium</a> to rule out a metabolic disturbance,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_blood_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Full blood count">full blood count</a> including <a href="/wiki/Erythrocyte_sedimentation_rate" title="Erythrocyte sedimentation rate">ESR</a> to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease, and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">serology</a> to exclude <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> or <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> infection.</li></ul> Other investigations include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EEG" class="mw-redirect" title="EEG">EEG</a> to exclude <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, and an</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> or <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> of the head to exclude brain lesions.</li></ul> Because psychosis may be precipitated or exacerbated by common classes of medications, medication-induced psychosis should be <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion" title="Diagnosis of exclusion">ruled out</a>, particularly for first-episode psychosis. Both substance- and medication-induced psychosis can be <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion" title="Diagnosis of exclusion">excluded</a> to a high level of certainty, using toxicology screening. Because some <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplements</a> may also induce psychosis or mania, but cannot be ruled out with laboratory tests, a psychotic individual's family, partner, or friends should be asked whether the patient is currently taking any dietary supplements.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Common mistakes made when diagnosing people who are psychotic include:<a href="#cite_note-Ol2012-110">[110]</a> <ul><li>Not properly excluding <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a>,</li> <li>Not appreciating medical abnormalities (e.g., vital signs),</li> <li>Not obtaining a medical history and family history,</li> <li>Indiscriminate screening without an organizing framework,</li> <li>Missing a toxic psychosis by not screening for substances and medications,</li> <li>Not asking their family or others about dietary supplements,</li> <li>Premature diagnostic closure, and</li> <li>Not revisiting or questioning the initial diagnostic impression of primary psychiatric disorder.</li></ul> Only after relevant and known causes of psychosis are excluded, a mental health clinician may make a psychiatric <a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">differential diagnosis</a> using a person's family history, incorporating information from the person with psychosis, and information from family, friends, or significant others. Types of psychosis in psychiatric disorders may be established by formal rating scales. The <a href="/wiki/Brief_Psychiatric_Rating_Scale" title="Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale">Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale</a> (BPRS)<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> assesses the level of 18 symptom constructs of psychosis such as <a href="/wiki/Hostility" title="Hostility">hostility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suspicion_(emotion)" title="Suspicion (emotion)">suspicion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grandiosity" title="Grandiosity">grandiosity</a>. It is based on the clinician's interview with the patient and observations of the patient's behavior over the previous 2–3 days. The patient's family can also answer questions on the behavior report. During the initial assessment and the follow-up, both positive and negative symptoms of psychosis can be assessed using the 30 item Positive and Negative Symptom Scale (<a href="/wiki/PANSS" class="mw-redirect" title="PANSS">PANSS</a>).<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a> characterizes disorders as psychotic or on the schizophrenia spectrum if they involve hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, grossly disorganized motor behavior, or negative symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-DSM-17">[17]</a> The DSM-5 does not include psychosis as a definition in the glossary, although it defines "psychotic features", as well as "psychoticism" with respect to personality disorder. The <a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">ICD-10</a> has no specific definition of psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-Gaebel-115">[115]</a> The PSQ (Psychosis Screening Questionnaire) is the most common tool in detecting psychotic symptoms and it includes five root questions that assess the presence of PLE (mania, thought insertion, paranoia, strange experiences and perceptual disturbances)<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The different tools used to assess symptom severity include the Revised Behavior and Symptom Identification Scale (BASIS-R), a 24-item self-report instrument with six scales: psychosis, depression/functioning, interpersonal problems, alcohol/drug use, self-harm, and emotional lability. The Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R), a 90-item self assessment tool that measures psychoticism and paranoid ideation in addition to seven other symptom scales. Finally, the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), a 53-item self-administered scale developed from the SCL-90-R. The BSI has good psychometric properties and is an acceptable brief alternative to the SCL-90-R.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> These seem to be the most accurate tools at the moment, but a research in 2007 that focused on quantifying self-reports of auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) in persons with psychosis, suggest that The Hamilton Program for Schizophrenia Voices Questionnaire (HPSVQ) is also potentially a reliable and useful measure for specifically quantifying AVHs in relation to psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a> of symptoms generally regarded as psychosis frequently yields a five factor solution, albeit five factors that are distinct from the five domains defined by the DSM-5 to encompass <a href="/wiki/Psychotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotic">psychotic</a> or schizophrenia spectrum disorders. The five factors are frequently labeled as hallucinations, delusions, disorganization, excitement, and emotional distress.<a href="#cite_note-Gaebel-115">[115]</a> The DSM-5 emphasizes a <a href="/wiki/Psychotic_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotic spectrum">psychotic spectrum</a>, wherein the low end is characterized by schizoid personality disorder, and the high end is characterized by schizophrenia.<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> The evidence for the effectiveness of early interventions to <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder#Prevention" title="Mental disorder">prevent</a> psychosis appeared inconclusive.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> But psychosis caused by drugs can be prevented.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Whilst early intervention in those with a psychotic episode might improve short-term outcomes, little benefit was seen from these measures after five years.<a href="#cite_note-Lancet09-121">[121]</a> However, there is evidence that <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">cognitive behavioral therapy</a> (CBT) may reduce the risk of becoming psychotic in those at high risk,<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> and in 2014 the UK <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence" title="National Institute for Health and Care Excellence">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)</a> recommended preventive CBT for people at risk of psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> The treatment of psychosis depends on the specific diagnosis (such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or substance intoxication). The first-line treatment for many psychotic disorders is antipsychotic medication, <a href="#cite_note-fn_72-125">[125]</a> which can reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis in about 7 to 14 days. For youth or adolescents, treatment options include medications, psychological interventions, and social interventions.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medication_2">Medication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Medication">edit</a>]</div> The choice of which <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">antipsychotic</a> to use is based on benefits, risks, and costs.<a href="#cite_note-Lancet09-121">[121]</a> It is debatable whether, as a class, <a href="/wiki/Typical_antipsychotic" title="Typical antipsychotic">typical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Atypical_antipsychotic" title="Atypical antipsychotic">atypical antipsychotics</a> are better.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Tentative evidence supports that <a href="/wiki/Amisulpride" title="Amisulpride">amisulpride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olanzapine" title="Olanzapine">olanzapine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Risperidone" title="Risperidone">risperidone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clozapine" title="Clozapine">clozapine</a> may be more effective for positive symptoms but result in more side effects.<a href="#cite_note-barry_2012-128">[128]</a> Typical antipsychotics have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages.<a href="#cite_note-AFP07-129">[129]</a> There is a good response in 40–50%, a partial response in 30–40%, and treatment resistance (failure of symptoms to respond satisfactorily after six weeks to two or three different antipsychotics) in 20% of people.<a href="#cite_note-AFP10-130">[130]</a> Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs ("treatment-resistant" or "refractory" schizophrenia),<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> but it has the potentially serious side effect of <a href="/wiki/Agranulocytosis" title="Agranulocytosis">agranulocytosis</a> (lowered <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cell</a> count) in less than 4% of people.<a href="#cite_note-Lancet09-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-BMJ07-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Most people on antipsychotics get side effects. People on typical antipsychotics tend to have a higher rate of <a href="/wiki/Extrapyramidal_side_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrapyramidal side effects">extrapyramidal side effects</a> while some atypicals are associated with considerable weight gain, diabetes and risk of <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_syndrome" title="Metabolic syndrome">metabolic syndrome</a>; this is most pronounced with olanzapine, while risperidone and <a href="/wiki/Quetiapine" title="Quetiapine">quetiapine</a> are also associated with weight gain.<a href="#cite_note-barry_2012-128">[128]</a> Risperidone has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol.<a href="#cite_note-barry_2012-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Psychotherapy">edit</a>]</div> Psychological treatments such as <a href="/wiki/Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy" title="Acceptance and commitment therapy">acceptance and commitment therapy</a> (ACT) are possibly useful in the treatment of psychosis, helping people to focus more on what they can do in terms of valued life directions despite challenging symptomology.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Metacognitive_training" title="Metacognitive training">Metacognitive training</a> (MCT) is associated with reduced <a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">delusions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Negative_symptoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative symptoms">negative symptoms</a> as well as improved <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a> and functioning in individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> There are many psychosocial interventions that seek to treat the symptoms of psychosis: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Need_adapted_treatment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Need adapted treatment (page does not exist)">need adapted treatment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_Dialogue" title="Open Dialogue">Open Dialogue</a>, psychoanalysis/psychodynamic psychotherapy, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Major_role_therapy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Major role therapy (page does not exist)">major role therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soteria_(psychiatric_treatment)" title="Soteria (psychiatric treatment)">soteria</a>, psychosocial outpatient and inpatient treatment, <a href="/wiki/Milieu_therapy" title="Milieu therapy">milieu therapy</a>, and cognitive behavioral therapy (<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">CBT</a>). In relation to the success of CBT for psychosis, a randomized controlled trial for a Web-based CBTp (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Psychosis) skills program named Coping With Voices (CWV) suggest that the program has promise for increasing access to CBTp. It also associated benefits in the management of distressing psychotic symptoms and improved social functioning. When CBT and the other psychosocial interventions<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> these are used without antipsychotic medications, they may be somewhat effective for some people, especially for CBT, need-adapted treatment, and soteria.<a href="#cite_note-Schizophrenia_Research_2019_p.-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_intervention">Early intervention</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Early intervention">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_intervention_in_psychosis" title="Early intervention in psychosis">Early intervention in psychosis</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Early_intervention_in_psychosis" title="Early intervention in psychosis">Early intervention in psychosis</a> is based on the observation that identifying and treating someone in the early stages of a psychosis can improve their longer term outcome.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> This approach advocates the use of an intensive multi-disciplinary approach during what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Critical_period" title="Critical period">critical period</a>, where intervention is the most effective, and prevents the long-term morbidity associated with chronic psychotic illness. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systematic_reform">Systematic reform</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Systematic reform">edit</a>]</div> Addressing systematic reform is essential to creating effective prevention as well as supporting treatments and recovery for those with psychosis. Waghorn et al.<a href="#cite_note-:4-139">[139]</a> suggest that education interventions can be a building block to support those with psychosis to successfully participate in society. In their study they analyse the relationship between successful education attainment and psychosis. Findings suggest proportionately more school aged persons with psychosis discontinued their education, compared to those without psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-:4-139">[139]</a> Waghorn et al.<a href="#cite_note-:4-139">[139]</a> finds that specialised supported education for those with psychotic disorders can help lead to successful education attainment. Additionally, future employment outcomes are relative to such education attainment. Established approaches to supported education in the US include three basic models, self-contained classrooms, onsite support model and the mobile support model. Each model includes the participation of mental health service staff or educational facility staff in the student's education arrangements.<a href="#cite_note-:4-139">[139]</a> Potential benefits of specialised supported education found from this study include coordination with other service providers (e.g. income support, housing, etc.) to prevent disrupting education, providing specialised career counselling, development of coping skills in the academic environment.<a href="#cite_note-:4-139">[139]</a> These examples provide beneficial ways for people with psychosis to finish studies successfully as well as counter future experiences of psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-:4-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The word psychosis was introduced to the psychiatric literature in 1841 by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Canstatt" title="Karl Friedrich Canstatt">Karl Friedrich Canstatt</a> in his work Handbuch der Medizinischen Klinik. He used it as a shorthand for 'psychic neurosis'. At that time neurosis meant any disease of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, and Canstatt was thus referring to what was considered a psychological manifestation of brain disease.<a href="#cite_note-Burgy-140">[140]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Feuchtersleben" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst von Feuchtersleben">Ernst von Feuchtersleben</a> is also widely credited as introducing the term in 1845,<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> as an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Insanity" title="Insanity">insanity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">mania</a>. The term stems from <a href="/wiki/Modern_Latin" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Latin">Modern Latin</a> psychosis, "a giving soul or life to, animating, quickening" and that from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> ψυχή (psyche), "soul" and the suffix -ωσις (-osis), in this case "abnormal condition".<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> In its adjective form "psychotic", references to psychosis can be found in both clinical and non-clinical discussions. However, in a non-clinical context, "psychotic" is a nonspecific colloquialism used to mean "insane". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> The word was also used to distinguish a condition considered a disorder of the mind, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Neurosis" title="Neurosis">neurosis</a>, which was considered a disorder of the nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The psychoses thus became the modern equivalent of the old notion of <a href="/wiki/Insanity" title="Insanity">madness</a>, and hence there was much debate on whether there was only one <a href="/wiki/Unitary_psychosis" title="Unitary psychosis">(unitary)</a> or many forms of the new disease.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> One type of broad usage would later be narrowed down by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Ludwig_August_Koch" title="Julius Ludwig August Koch">Koch</a> in 1891 to the 'psychopathic inferiorities'—later renamed abnormal personalities by <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Schneider" title="Kurt Schneider">Schneider</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Burgy-140">[140]</a> The division of the major psychoses into manic depressive illness (now called <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>) and dementia praecox (now called <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>) was made by <a href="/wiki/Emil_Kraepelin" title="Emil Kraepelin">Emil Kraepelin</a>, who attempted to create a synthesis of the various mental disorders identified by 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatrists</a>, by grouping diseases together based on classification of common symptoms. Kraepelin used the term 'manic depressive insanity' to describe the whole spectrum of <a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">mood disorders</a>, in a far wider sense than it is usually used today. In Kraepelin's classification this would include 'unipolar' <a href="/wiki/Clinical_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical depression">clinical depression</a>, as well as bipolar disorder and other mood disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Cyclothymia" title="Cyclothymia">cyclothymia</a>. These are characterised by problems with mood control and the psychotic episodes appear associated with disturbances in mood, and patients often have periods of normal functioning between psychotic episodes even without medication. <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a> is characterized by psychotic episodes that appear unrelated to disturbances in mood, and most non-medicated patients show signs of disturbance between psychotic episodes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment_2">Treatment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> Written record of supernatural causes and resultant treatments can be traced back to the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mark_5" title="Mark 5">Mark 5</a>:8–13 describes a man displaying what would today be described as psychotic symptoms. <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> cured this "<a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">demonic</a> madness" by casting out the demons and hurling them into a herd of swine. Exorcism is still utilized in some religious circles as a treatment for psychosis presumed to be demonic possession.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> A research study of out-patients in psychiatric clinics found that 30 percent of religious patients attributed the cause of their psychotic symptoms to evil spirits. Many of these patients underwent exorcistic healing rituals that, though largely regarded as positive experiences by the patients, had no effect on symptomology. Results did, however, show a significant worsening of psychotic symptoms associated with exclusion of medical treatment for coercive forms of exorcism.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hippocrates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hippocrates.jpg/220px-Hippocrates.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hippocrates.jpg/330px-Hippocrates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hippocrates.jpg/440px-Hippocrates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="710" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Hippocrates</figcaption></figure> The medical teachings of the fourth-century philosopher and physician <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates_of_Cos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippocrates of Cos">Hippocrates of Cos</a> proposed a natural, rather than supernatural, cause of human illness. In Hippocrates' work, the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_corpus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippocratic corpus">Hippocratic corpus</a>, a holistic explanation for health and disease was developed to include madness and other "diseases of the mind". Hippocrates writes: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Men ought to know that from the brain, and from the brain only, arise our pleasures, joys, laughter, and jests, as well as our sorrows, pains, griefs and tears. Through it, in particular, we think, see, hear, and distinguish the ugly from the beautiful, the bad from the good, the pleasant from the unpleasant.... It is the same thing which makes us mad or delirious, inspires us with dread and fear, whether by night or by day, brings sleeplessness, inopportune mistakes, aimless anxieties, absentmindedness, and acts that are contrary to habit.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></blockquote> Hippocrates espoused a theory of <a href="/wiki/Humoralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humoralism">humoralism</a> wherein disease is resultant of a shifting balance in bodily fluids including <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phlegm" title="Phlegm">phlegm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_bile" class="mw-redirect" title="Black bile">black bile</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yellow_bile" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow bile">yellow bile</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> According to humoralism, each fluid or "<a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">humour</a>" has temperamental or behavioral correlates. In the case of psychosis, symptoms are thought to be caused by an excess of both blood and yellow bile. Thus, the proposed surgical intervention for psychotic or manic behavior was <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> 18th-century physician, educator, and widely considered "founder of American psychiatry", <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a>, also prescribed bloodletting as a first-line treatment for psychosis. Although not a proponent of humoralism, Rush believed that active purging and bloodletting were efficacious corrections for disruptions in the circulatory system, a complication he believed was the primary cause of "insanity".<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Although Rush's treatment modalities are now considered antiquated and brutish, his contributions to psychiatry, namely the biological underpinnings of psychiatric phenomenon including psychosis, have been invaluable to the field. In honor of such contributions, Benjamin Rush's image is in the official seal of the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a>. Early 20th-century treatments for severe and persisting psychosis were characterized by an emphasis on shocking the nervous system. Such therapies include <a href="/wiki/Insulin_shock_therapy" title="Insulin shock therapy">insulin shock therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiazol" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiazol">cardiazol</a> shock therapy, and <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">electroconvulsive therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Despite considerable risk, shock therapy was considered highly efficacious in the treatment of psychosis including <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>. The acceptance of high-risk treatments led to more invasive medical interventions including <a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">psychosurgery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottlieb_Burckhardt_(1836-1907).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Gottlieb_Burckhardt_%281836-1907%29.jpg/220px-Gottlieb_Burckhardt_%281836-1907%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Gottlieb_Burckhardt_%281836-1907%29.jpg/330px-Gottlieb_Burckhardt_%281836-1907%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Gottlieb_Burckhardt_%281836-1907%29.jpg/440px-Gottlieb_Burckhardt_%281836-1907%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="987" /></a><figcaption>Gottlieb Burckhardt (1836–1907)</figcaption></figure> In 1888, Swiss psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Gottlieb_Burckhardt" title="Gottlieb Burckhardt">Gottlieb Burckhardt</a> performed the first medically sanctioned psychosurgery in which the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> was excised. Although some patients showed improvement of symptoms and became more subdued, one patient died and several developed <a href="/wiki/Aphasia" title="Aphasia">aphasia</a> or seizure disorders. Burckhardt would go on to publish his clinical outcomes in a scholarly paper. This procedure was met with criticism from the medical community and his academic and surgical endeavors were largely ignored.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> In the late 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Egas_Moniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Egas Moniz">Egas Moniz</a> conceived the <a href="/wiki/Leucotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Leucotomy">leucotomy</a> (AKA <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_lobotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefrontal lobotomy">prefrontal lobotomy</a>) in which the fibers connecting the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobes</a> to the rest of the brain were severed. Moniz's primary inspiration stemmed from a demonstration by neuroscientists John Fulton and Carlyle's 1935 experiment in which two chimpanzees were given leucotomies and pre- and post-surgical behavior was compared. Prior to the leucotomy, the chimps engaged in typical behavior including throwing feces and fighting. After the procedure, both chimps were pacified and less violent. During the Q&A, Moniz asked if such a procedure could be extended to human subjects, a question that Fulton admitted was quite startling.<a href="#cite_note-Pressman1998-155">[155]</a> Moniz would go on to extend the controversial practice to humans with various psychotic disorders, an endeavor for which he received a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Between the late 1930s and early 1970s, the leucotomy was a widely accepted practice, often performed in non-<a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterile</a> environments such as small <a href="/wiki/Outpatient" class="mw-redirect" title="Outpatient">outpatient</a> clinics and patient homes.<a href="#cite_note-Pressman1998-155">[155]</a> Psychosurgery remained standard practice until the discovery of antipsychotic pharmacology in the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> The first clinical trial of <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">antipsychotics</a> (also commonly known as neuroleptics) for the treatment of psychosis took place in 1952. <a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">Chlorpromazine</a> (brand name: Thorazine) passed clinical trials and became the first antipsychotic medication approved for the treatment of both acute and chronic psychosis. Although the mechanism of action was not discovered until 1963, the administration of chlorpromazine marked the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_antagonist" title="Dopamine antagonist">dopamine antagonist</a>, or first generation antipsychotic.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> While clinical trials showed a high response rate for both acute psychosis and disorders with psychotic features, the <a href="/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect">side effects</a> were particularly harsh, which included high rates of often irreversible Parkinsonian symptoms such as <a href="/wiki/Tardive_dyskinesia" title="Tardive dyskinesia">tardive dyskinesia</a>. With the advent of <a href="/wiki/Atypical_antipsychotic" title="Atypical antipsychotic">atypical antipsychotics</a> (also known as second generation antipsychotics) came a dopamine antagonist with a comparable response rate but a far different, though still extensive, side-effect profile that included a lower risk of Parkinsonian symptoms but a higher risk of cardiovascular disease.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Atypical antipsychotics remain the first-line treatment for psychosis associated with various psychiatric and <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorders</a> including schizophrenia, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depressive disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">autism spectrum</a> disorders.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Dopamine is now one of the primary neurotransmitters implicated in psychotic symptomology. Blocking dopamine receptors (namely, the dopamine D2 receptors) and decreasing dopaminergic activity continues to be an effective but highly unrefined effect of antipsychotics, which are commonly used to treat psychosis. Recent pharmacological research suggests that the decrease in dopaminergic activity does not eradicate psychotic <a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">delusions</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, but rather attenuates the reward mechanisms involved in the development of delusional thinking; that is, connecting or finding meaningful relationships between unrelated stimuli or ideas.<a href="#cite_note-Kapur-85">[85]</a> The author of this research paper acknowledges the importance of future investigation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The model presented here is based on incomplete knowledge related to dopamine, schizophrenia, and antipsychotics—and as such will need to evolve as more is known about these.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Shitij Kapur, From dopamine to salience to psychosis—linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis</cite></div></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Freud" class="mw-redirect" title="Freud">Freud</a>'s former student Wilhelm Reich explored independent insights into the physical effects of neurotic and traumatic upbringing, and published his holistic psychoanalytic treatment with a schizophrenic. With his incorporation of breathwork and insight with the patient, a young woman, she achieved sufficient self-management skills to end the therapy.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lacan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacan">Lacan</a> extended Freud's ideas to create a psychoanalytic model of psychosis based upon the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Foreclosure_(psychoanalysis)" title="Foreclosure (psychoanalysis)">foreclosure</a>", the rejection of the symbolic concept of the father. Psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/David_Healy_(psychiatrist)" title="David Healy (psychiatrist)">David Healy</a> has criticised pharmaceutical companies for promoting simplified biological theories of mental illness that seem to imply the primacy of pharmaceutical treatments while ignoring social and developmental factors that are known important influences in the etiology of psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disability">Disability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Disability">edit</a>]</div> The classification of psychosis as a <a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">social disability</a> is a common occurrence. Psychosis is considered to be among the top 10 causes of social disability among adult men and women in developed countries.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> And the traditional, negative narrative around disability has been shown to strongly and adversely influence the pathways through employment and education for people experiencing psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Social disability by way of social disconnection is a significant public health concern and is associated with a broad range of negative outcomes, including premature mortality. Social disconnection refers to the ongoing absence of family or social relationships with marginal participation in social activities. Research on psychosis found that reduced participation in social networks, not only negatively effects the individual on a physical and mental level, it has been shown that failure to be included in social networks influences the individual's ability to participate in the wider community through employment and education opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-Myers_2019-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Myers_2012-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21699009-167">[167]</a> Equal opportunity to participate in meaningful relationships with friends, family and partners, as well as engaging in social constructs such as employment, can provide significant physical and mental value to people's lives.<a href="#cite_note-Myers_2019-165">[165]</a> And how breaking the disability mindset around people experiencing psychosis is imperative for their overall, long-term health and well-being as well as the contributions they are able to make to their immediate social connections and the wider community.<a href="#cite_note-Myers_2012-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> Further research in the form of randomized controlled trials is needed to determine the effectiveness of treatment approaches for helping adolescents with psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> Through 10 randomized clinical trials, studies showed that Early Intervention Services (EIS) for patients with early-phase schizophrenia spectrum disorders have generated promising outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-:05-168">[168]</a> EIS are specifically intended to fulfill the needs of patients with early-phase psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-:05-168">[168]</a> In addition, one meta-analysis that consisted of four randomized clinical trials has examined and discovered the efficacy of EIS to Therapy as Usual (TAU) for early-phase psychosis, revealing that EIS techniques are superior to TAU.<a href="#cite_note-:05-168">[168]</a> A study suggests that combining cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with SlowMo, an app that helps notice their "unhelpful quick-thinking", might be more effective for treating paranoia in people with psychosis than CBT alone.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output 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CNS Spectrums. 23 (3): 187–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1092852918001013">10.1017/S1092852918001013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29954475">29954475</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49599226">49599226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNS+Spectrums&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+dopamine+hypothesis+of+schizophrenia+to+three+neural+networks+of+psychosis%3A+dopamine%2C+serotonin%2C+and+glutamate&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=187-191&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A49599226%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29954475&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1092852918001013&rft.aulast=Stahl&rft.aufirst=SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1092852918001013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrace2016" class="citation journal cs1">Grace AA (August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5166560">"Dysregulation of the dopamine system in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and depression"</a>. 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Social Cognition in Psychosis (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>, imprint of <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FC2017-0-03061-6">10.1016/C2017-0-03061-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-815315-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-815315-4"><bdi>978-0-12-815315-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239126550">239126550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Cognition+in+Psychosis&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Academic+Press%2C+imprint+of+Elsevier&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239126550%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FC2017-0-03061-6&rft.isbn=978-0-12-815315-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSempleSmyth2019" class="citation book cs1">Semple D, Smyth R (2019). "Schizophrenia and related psychoses". In Semple D, Smyth R (eds.). Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 179–240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780198795551.003.0005">10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879555-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879555-1"><bdi>978-0-19-879555-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Schizophrenia+and+related+psychoses&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+of+Psychiatry&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=179-240&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780198795551.003.0005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-879555-1&rft.aulast=Semple&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Smyth%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTammingavan_OsReininghausIvleva2020" class="citation book cs1">Tamminga CA, van Os J, Reininghaus U, Ivleva E, eds. (2020). Psychotic Disorders: Comprehensive Conceptualization and Treatments (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780190653279.001.0001">10.1093/med/9780190653279.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-065327-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-065327-9"><bdi>978-0-19-065327-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychotic+Disorders%3A+Comprehensive+Conceptualization+and+Treatments&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780190653279.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-065327-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompsonBroome2020" class="citation book cs1">Thompson AD, Broome MR, eds. (2020). Risk Factors for Psychosis: Paradigms, Mechanisms, and Prevention (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>, imprint of <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-813201-2.00001-6">10.1016/B978-0-12-813201-2.00001-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-813201-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-813201-2"><bdi>978-0-12-813201-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213499429">213499429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Risk+Factors+for+Psychosis%3A+Paradigms%2C+Mechanisms%2C+and+Prevention&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Academic+Press%2C+imprint+of+Elsevier&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213499429%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-813201-2.00001-6&rft.isbn=978-0-12-813201-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProgram_for_Risk_Evaluation_and_Prevention_(PREP)_Early_Psychosis_Clinic2021" class="citation news cs1">Program for Risk Evaluation and Prevention (PREP) Early Psychosis Clinic (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medicine.umich.edu/dept/psychiatry/michigan-psychiatry-resources-covid-19/specific-mental-health-conditions/psychosis-spectrum-disorders-managing-stress-during-covid-19-pandemic">"Psychosis Spectrum Disorders & Managing Stress during the COVID-19 Pandemic"</a>. Psychiatry. <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Michigan Medicine">Michigan Medicine</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210203193215/https://medicine.umich.edu/dept/psychiatry/michigan-psychiatry-resources-covid-19/specific-mental-health-conditions/psychosis-spectrum-disorders-managing-stress-during-covid-19-pandemic">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Psychosis+Spectrum+Disorders+%26+Managing+Stress+during+the+COVID-19+Pandemic&rft.date=2021&rft.au=Program+for+Risk+Evaluation+and+Prevention+%28PREP%29+Early+Psychosis+Clinic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedicine.umich.edu%2Fdept%2Fpsychiatry%2Fmichigan-psychiatry-resources-covid-19%2Fspecific-mental-health-conditions%2Fpsychosis-spectrum-disorders-managing-stress-during-covid-19-pandemic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSims2002" class="citation book cs1">Sims A (2002). Symptoms in the mind: An introduction to descriptive psychopathology (3rd ed.). Edinburgh: Elsevier Science Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-2627-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-2627-0"><bdi>978-0-7020-2627-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symptoms+in+the+mind%3A+An+introduction+to+descriptive+psychopathology&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Elsevier+Science+Ltd.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-2627-0&rft.aulast=Sims&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurrayButtnerPrice2012" class="citation book cs1">Murray ED, Buttner N, Price BH (April 2012). "Depression and Psychosis in Neurological Practice". In Bradley WG, Daroff RB, Fenichel GM, Jankovic J (eds.). Neurology in Clinical Practice (6th ed.). Butterworth Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4377-0434-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4377-0434-1"><bdi>978-1-4377-0434-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Depression+and+Psychosis+in+Neurological+Practice&rft.btitle=Neurology+in+Clinical+Practice&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Butterworth+Heinemann&rft.date=2012-04&rft.isbn=978-1-4377-0434-1&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=ED&rft.au=Buttner%2C+N&rft.au=Price%2C+BH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2012" class="citation book cs1">Williams P (2012). Rethinking Madness: Towards a Paradigm Shift In Our Understanding and Treatment of Psychosis. Sky's Edge Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9849867-0-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9849867-0-5"><bdi>978-0-9849867-0-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Madness%3A+Towards+a+Paradigm+Shift+In+Our+Understanding+and+Treatment+of+Psychosis&rft.pub=Sky%27s+Edge+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-9849867-0-5&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Personal accounts</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDick1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_K._Dick" title="Philip K. Dick">Dick PK</a> (1981). <a href="/wiki/VALIS" class="mw-redirect" title="VALIS">VALIS</a>. London: Gollancz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-73446-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-73446-8"><bdi>978-0-679-73446-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=VALIS&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Gollancz&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-679-73446-8&rft.aulast=Dick&rft.aufirst=PK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"> [Semi-autobiographical]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamison1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kay_Redfield_Jamison" title="Kay Redfield Jamison">Jamison KR</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unquietmindmemoi00jami">An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness</a>. London: Picador. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76330-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76330-7"><bdi>978-0-679-76330-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Unquiet+Mind%3A+A+Memoir+of+Moods+and+Madness&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Picador&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76330-7&rft.aulast=Jamison&rft.aufirst=KR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funquietmindmemoi00jami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchreber2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Paul_Schreber" title="Daniel Paul Schreber">Schreber DP</a> (2000). Memoirs of My Nervous Illness. New York: New York Review of Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940322-20-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940322-20-2"><bdi>978-0-940322-20-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+My+Nervous+Illness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books.&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-940322-20-2&rft.aulast=Schreber&rft.aufirst=DP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinshaw2002" class="citation book cs1">Hinshaw SP (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/yearsofsilencear00step">The Years of Silence are Past: My Father's Life with Bipolar Disorder</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521817806" title="Special:BookSources/9780521817806"><bdi>9780521817806</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Years+of+Silence+are+Past%3A+My+Father%27s+Life+with+Bipolar+Disorder&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780521817806&rft.aulast=Hinshaw&rft.aufirst=SP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyearsofsilencear00step&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLean2003" class="citation book cs1">McLean R (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recoverednotcure00mcle_0">Recovered Not Cured: A Journey Through Schizophrenia</a>. Australia: Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86508-974-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86508-974-4"><bdi>978-1-86508-974-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recovered+Not+Cured%3A+A+Journey+Through+Schizophrenia&rft.place=Australia&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-86508-974-4&rft.aulast=McLean&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecoverednotcure00mcle_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaks2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elyn_Saks" title="Elyn Saks">Saks ER</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centercannothold00saks_0">The Center Cannot Hold – My Journey Through Madness</a>. New York: Hyperion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4013-0138-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4013-0138-5"><bdi>978-1-4013-0138-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Center+Cannot+Hold+%E2%80%93+My+Journey+Through+Madness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hyperion&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4013-0138-5&rft.aulast=Saks&rft.aufirst=ER&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcentercannothold00saks_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychosis" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychosis&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170082" class="extiw" title="d:Q170082">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">11</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#521257551">6A25.0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#1893759206">6A25.1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#405565289%2Funspecified">6A2Z</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F20">F20</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F29">F29</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=290">290</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=299">299</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Online_Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" title="Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man">OMIM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omim.org/entry/603342">603342</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001553.htm">001553</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Psychiatry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Psychiatry" title="Template:Psychiatry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychiatry" title="Template talk:Psychiatry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychiatry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychiatry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Psychiatry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subspecialties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_and_adolescent_psychiatry" title="Child and adolescent psychiatry">Child and adolescent psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuropsychiatry" title="Cognitive neuropsychiatry">Cognitive neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychiatry" title="Cross-cultural psychiatry">Cross-cultural psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">Developmental disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_psychiatry" title="Descriptive psychiatry">Descriptive psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">Eating disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_psychiatry" title="Emergency psychiatry">Emergency psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychiatry" title="Forensic psychiatry">Forensic psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatric_psychiatry" title="Geriatric psychiatry">Geriatric psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immuno-psychiatry" title="Immuno-psychiatry">Immuno-psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaison_psychiatry" title="Liaison psychiatry">Liaison psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychiatry" title="Military psychiatry">Military psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_psychiatry" title="Nutritional psychiatry">Nutritional psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Palliative medicine">Palliative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telepsychiatry" title="Telepsychiatry">Telepsychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Child_and_Adolescent_Psychiatry" title="American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry">American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Board_of_Psychiatry_and_Neurology" title="American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology">American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Neuropsychiatric_Association" title="American Neuropsychiatric Association">American Neuropsychiatric Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_Against_Psychiatric_Abuse" title="Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse">Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Society_of_Psychiatry" title="Chinese Society of Psychiatry">Chinese Society of Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Psychiatry" title="Democratic Psychiatry">Democratic Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Psychiatric_Association" title="European Psychiatric Association">European Psychiatric Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Initiative_on_Psychiatry" title="Global Initiative on Psychiatry">Global Initiative on Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_College_of_Psychiatrists" title="Hong Kong College of Psychiatrists">Hong Kong College of Psychiatrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Psychiatric_Association_of_Russia" title="Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia">Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Psychiatric_Society" title="Indian Psychiatric Society">Indian Psychiatric Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Mental_Health" title="National Institute of Mental Health">National Institute of Mental Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Association" title="Philadelphia Association">Philadelphia Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_and_New_Zealand_College_of_Psychiatrists" title="Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists">Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Psychiatrists" title="Royal College of Psychiatrists">Royal College of Psychiatrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Society_of_Child_and_Adolescent_Psychiatry" title="Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry">Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Commission_to_Investigate_the_Use_of_Psychiatry_for_Political_Purposes" title="Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes">Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Psychiatric_Association" title="World Psychiatric Association">World Psychiatric Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_medicine" title="Behavioral medicine">Behavioral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_about_psychiatry" title="Controversies about psychiatry">Controversies about psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">Anti-psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy" title="Biopsychiatry controversy">Biopsychiatry controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">Electroconvulsive therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin_shock_therapy" title="Insulin shock therapy">Insulin shock therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Psychiatric survivors movement">Psychiatric survivors movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentylenetetrazol" title="Pentylenetetrazol">Pentylenetetrazol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychiatry" title="Philosophy of psychiatry">Philosophy of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_epidemiology" title="Psychiatric epidemiology">Psychiatric epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_genetics" title="Psychiatric genetics">Psychiatric genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital" title="Psychiatric hospital">Psychiatric hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatrist" title="Psychiatrist">Psychiatrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycho-oncology" title="Psycho-oncology">Psycho-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopharmacology" title="Psychopharmacology">Psychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosomatic_medicine" title="Psychosomatic medicine">Psychosomatic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">Psychosurgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_counseling_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of counseling topics">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neurological_conditions_and_disorders" title="List of neurological conditions and disorders">Neurological conditions and disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_medications" title="List of psychiatric medications">Psychiatric medications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_medications_by_condition_treated" title="List of psychiatric medications by condition treated">by condition treated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement">Psychiatric survivors movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychiatrists" title="List of psychiatrists">Psychiatrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychiatry" title="Portal:Psychiatry">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychiatry" title="Outline of psychiatry">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mood_disorder" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mood_disorders" title="Template:Mood disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mood_disorders" title="Template talk:Mood disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mood_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mood disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mood_disorder" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">Mood disorder</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Affective_spectrum" title="Affective spectrum">Spectrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar disorder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_I_disorder" title="Bipolar I disorder">Bipolar I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_II_disorder" title="Bipolar II disorder">Bipolar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclothymia" title="Cyclothymia">Cyclothymia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified">Bipolar NOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder_in_children" title="Bipolar disorder in children">Childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypomania" title="Hypomania">Hypomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">Mania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_affective_state" title="Mixed affective state">Mixed affective state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapid cycling">Rapid cycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysthymia" title="Dysthymia">Dysthymia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_affective_disorder" title="Seasonal affective disorder">Seasonal affective disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atypical_depression" title="Atypical depression">Atypical depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melancholic_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Melancholic depression">Melancholic depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_episode" title="Major depressive episode">Major depressive episode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_in_childhood_and_adolescence" title="Depression in childhood and adolescence">Depression in childhood and adolescence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Comorbidities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">Schizoaffective disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">Symptoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">Delusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(differential_diagnoses)" class="mw-redirect" title="Depression (differential diagnoses)">Depression (differential diagnoses)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation" title="Emotional dysregulation">Emotional dysregulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anhedonia" title="Anhedonia">Anhedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysphoria" title="Dysphoria">Dysphoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidal_ideation" title="Suicidal ideation">Suicidal ideation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mood_swing" title="Mood swing">Mood swing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_disorder" title="Sleep disorder">Sleep disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersomnia" title="Hypersomnia">Hypersomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">Insomnia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotic_depression" title="Psychotic depression">Psychotic depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racing_thoughts" title="Racing thoughts">Racing thoughts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_affect_display" title="Reduced affect display">Reduced affect display</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_diagnostic_classification_and_rating_scales_used_in_psychiatry" title="List of diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry">Diagnosis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_Spectrum_Diagnostic_Scale" title="Bipolar Spectrum Diagnostic Scale">Bipolar Spectrum Diagnostic Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Mania_Rating_Scale" title="Child Mania Rating Scale">Child Mania Rating Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Behavior_Inventory" title="General Behavior Inventory">General Behavior Inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypomania_Checklist" title="Hypomania Checklist">Hypomania Checklist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mood_Disorder_Questionnaire" title="Mood Disorder Questionnaire">Mood Disorder Questionnaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rating_scales_for_depression" title="Rating scales for depression">Rating scales for depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Mania_Rating_Scale" title="Young Mania Rating Scale">Young Mania Rating Scale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_bipolar_disorder" title="Treatment of bipolar disorder">Treatment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">Anticonvulsants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">Carbamazepine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxcarbazepine" title="Oxcarbazepine">Oxcarbazepine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valproate" title="Valproate">Valproate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_valproate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium valproate">Sodium valproate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valproate_semisodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Valproate semisodium">Valproate semisodium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sympathomimetic_drug" title="Sympathomimetic drug">Sympathomimetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor">SSRIs</a> and similar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bupropion" title="Bupropion">Bupropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextroamphetamine" title="Dextroamphetamine">Dextroamphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escitalopram" title="Escitalopram">Escitalopram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">Fluoxetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sertraline" title="Sertraline">Sertraline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Mood_stabilizer" title="Mood stabilizer">mood stabilizers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atypical_antipsychotic" title="Atypical antipsychotic">Atypical antipsychotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_(medication)" title="Lithium (medication)">Lithium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_carbonate" title="Lithium carbonate">Lithium carbonate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_citrate" title="Lithium citrate">Lithium citrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_sulfate" title="Lithium sulfate">Lithium sulfate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_toxicity" title="Lithium toxicity">Lithium toxicity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-pharmaceutical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_behavior_therapy" title="Dialectical behavior therapy">Dialectical behavior therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">Electroconvulsive therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_commitment" title="Involuntary commitment">Involuntary commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_therapy" title="Light therapy">Light therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">Transcranial magnetic stimulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_bipolar_disorder" title="History of bipolar disorder">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Kraepelin" title="Emil Kraepelin">Emil Kraepelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_K._Goodwin" title="Frederick K. Goodwin">Frederick K. Goodwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cade" title="John Cade">John Cade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard" title="Karl Leonhard">Karl Leonhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Redfield_Jamison" title="Kay Redfield Jamison">Kay Redfield Jamison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogens_Schou" title="Mogens Schou">Mogens Schou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mental_disorders_(Classification)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_disorders" title="Template:Mental disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mental_disorders" title="Template talk:Mental disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mental_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mental disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mental_disorders_(Classification)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">Mental disorders</a> (<a href="/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disorders" title="Classification of mental disorders">Classification</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Adult_personality_and_behavior" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Adult personality and behavior</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sexual</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ego-dystonic_sexual_orientation" title="Ego-dystonic sexual orientation">Ego-dystonic sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphilia" title="Paraphilia">Paraphilia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fetishism" title="Sexual fetishism">Fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">Voyeurism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_anhedonia" title="Sexual anhedonia">Sexual anhedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_anorexia" title="Sexual anorexia">Sexual anorexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_maturation_disorder" title="Sexual maturation disorder">Sexual maturation disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_relationship_disorder" title="Sexual relationship disorder">Sexual relationship disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factitious_disorder" title="Factitious disorder">Factitious disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factitious_disorder_imposed_on_self" title="Factitious disorder imposed on self">Munchausen syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_intimacy" title="Fear of intimacy">Fear of intimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_dysphoria" title="Gender dysphoria">Gender dysphoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermittent_explosive_disorder" title="Intermittent explosive disorder">Intermittent explosive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excoriation_disorder" title="Excoriation disorder">Dermatillomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptomania" title="Kleptomania">Kleptomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyromania" title="Pyromania">Pyromania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichotillomania" title="Trichotillomania">Trichotillomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">Personality disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Childhood_and_learning" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_diagnosed_in_childhood" title="Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood">Childhood and learning</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional and behavioral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">ADHD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">Conduct disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">ODD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional and behavioral disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_anxiety_disorder" title="Separation anxiety disorder">Separation anxiety disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement disorders">Movement disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypic_movement_disorder" title="Stereotypic movement disorder">Stereotypic</a></li></ul></li> <li>Social functioning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinhibited_attachment_disorder" title="Disinhibited attachment disorder">DAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactive_attachment_disorder" title="Reactive attachment disorder">RAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_mutism" title="Selective mutism">Selective mutism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_disorder" title="Speech disorder">Speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluttering" title="Cluttering">Cluttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuttering" title="Stuttering">Stuttering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tic_disorder" title="Tic disorder">Tic disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourette_syndrome" title="Tourette syndrome">Tourette syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">Intellectual disability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-linked_intellectual_disability" title="X-linked intellectual disability">X-linked intellectual disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lujan%E2%80%93Fryns_syndrome" title="Lujan–Fryns syndrome">Lujan–Fryns syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Psychological development (<a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">developmental disabilities</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder" title="Pervasive developmental disorder">Pervasive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_developmental_disorder" title="Specific developmental disorder">Specific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mood_(affective)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">Mood</a> (affective)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_I_disorder" title="Bipolar I disorder">Bipolar I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_II_disorder" title="Bipolar II disorder">Bipolar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified">Bipolar NOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclothymia" title="Cyclothymia">Cyclothymia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atypical_depression" title="Atypical depression">Atypical depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysthymia" title="Dysthymia">Dysthymia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melancholic_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Melancholic depression">Melancholic depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_affective_disorder" title="Seasonal affective disorder">Seasonal affective disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">Mania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neurological_and_symptomatic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Neurological and symptomatic</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">Autism spectrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-functioning_autism" title="High-functioning autism">High-functioning autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">PDD-NOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savant_syndrome" title="Savant syndrome">Savant syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_neurocognitive_disorder" title="HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder">AIDS dementia complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">Frontotemporal dementia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild_cognitive_impairment" title="Mild cognitive impairment">Mild cognitive impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pick%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pick's disease">Pick's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundowning" title="Sundowning">Sundowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_dementia" title="Vascular dementia">Vascular dementia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wandering_(dementia)" title="Wandering (dementia)">Wandering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">Delirium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_brain_syndrome" title="Organic brain syndrome">Organic brain syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-concussion_syndrome" title="Post-concussion syndrome">Post-concussion syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neurotic,_stress-related_and_somatoform" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neurosis" title="Neurosis">Neurotic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>-related and <a href="/wiki/Somatic_symptom_disorder" title="Somatic symptom disorder">somatoform</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjustment_disorder" title="Adjustment disorder">Adjustment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjustment_disorder" title="Adjustment disorder">Adjustment disorder</a> with depressed mood</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">Anxiety</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">Phobia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agoraphobia" title="Agoraphobia">Agoraphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_phobia" title="Childhood phobia">Childhood phobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety" title="Social anxiety">Social anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">Social phobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropophobia">Anthropophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_social_phobia" title="Specific social phobia">Specific social phobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_phobia" title="Specific phobia">Specific phobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claustrophobia" title="Claustrophobia">Claustrophobia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">Generalized anxiety disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">OCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">Panic attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">Panic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress" title="Psychological stress">Stress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction" title="Acute stress reaction">Acute stress reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">PTSD</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissociative disorder">Dissociative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depersonalization-derealization_disorder" title="Depersonalization-derealization disorder">Depersonalization-derealization disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder" title="Dissociative identity disorder">Dissociative identity disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">Dissociative amnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_fugue" title="Dissociative fugue">Dissociative fugue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified">Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_specified_dissociative_disorder" title="Other specified dissociative disorder">Other specified dissociative disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatic_symptom_disorder" title="Somatic symptom disorder">Somatic symptom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder" title="Body dysmorphic disorder">Body dysmorphic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_disorder" title="Conversion disorder">Conversion disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganser_syndrome" title="Ganser syndrome">Ganser syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globus_pharyngis" title="Globus pharyngis">Globus pharyngis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_non-epileptic_seizure" title="Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure">Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_pregnancy" title="False pregnancy">False pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochondriasis" title="Hypochondriasis">Hypochondriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness" title="Mass psychogenic illness">Mass psychogenic illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nosophobia" title="Nosophobia">Nosophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_pain" title="Psychogenic pain">Psychogenic pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatization_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatization disorder">Somatization disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physiological_and_physical_behavior" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physiological and physical behavior</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">Eating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa" title="Anorexia nervosa">Anorexia nervosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa" title="Bulimia nervosa">Bulimia nervosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumination_syndrome" title="Rumination syndrome">Rumination syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_specified_feeding_or_eating_disorder" title="Other specified feeding or eating disorder">Other specified feeding or eating disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nonorganic <a href="/wiki/Sleep_disorder" title="Sleep disorder">sleep</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersomnia" title="Hypersomnia">Hypersomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">Insomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasomnia" title="Parasomnia">Parasomnia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Night_terror" title="Night terror">Night terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightmare" title="Nightmare">Nightmare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep_behavior_disorder" title="Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder">REM sleep behavior disorder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Postnatal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">Postpartum depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_psychosis" title="Postpartum psychosis">Postpartum psychosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction#Sexual_desire_disorders" title="Sexual dysfunction">Sexual desire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersexuality" title="Hypersexuality">Hypersexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoactive_sexual_desire_disorder" title="Hypoactive sexual desire disorder">Hypoactive sexual desire disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Psychoactive_substances,_substance_abuse_and_substance-related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">Psychoactive</a> substances, <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a> and substance-related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Drug overdose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_intoxication" title="Substance intoxication">Intoxication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">Physical dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebound_effect" title="Rebound effect">Rebound effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis" title="Stimulant psychosis">Stimulant psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">Substance dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">Withdrawal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Schizophrenia,_schizotypal_and_delusional" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizotypal_personality_disorder" title="Schizotypal personality disorder">schizotypal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">delusional</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delusional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">Delusional disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folie_%C3%A0_deux" title="Folie à deux">Folie à deux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Psychosis</a> and schizophrenia-like</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brief_reactive_psychosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Brief reactive psychosis">Brief reactive psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">Schizoaffective disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizophreniform_disorder" title="Schizophreniform disorder">Schizophreniform disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schizophrenia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia" title="Childhood schizophrenia">Childhood schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disorganized_schizophrenia" title="Disorganized schizophrenia">Disorganized (hebephrenic) schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoneurotic_schizophrenia" title="Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia">Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple-type_schizophrenia" title="Simple-type schizophrenia">Simple-type schizophrenia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catatonia" title="Catatonia">Catatonia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Symptoms_and_uncategorized" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Symptoms and uncategorized</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impulse-control_disorder" title="Impulse-control disorder">Impulse-control disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kl%C3%BCver%E2%80%93Bucy_syndrome" title="Klüver–Bucy syndrome">Klüver–Bucy syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">Psychomotor agitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypy" title="Stereotypy">Stereotypy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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Template:Medical_resources"," 5.83% 109.025 10 Template:Cite_web"," 5.71% 106.686 2 Template:Harvnb"," 5.54% 103.543 2 Template:Hlist"," 4.83% 90.384 2 Template:Lang"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.314","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":30791701,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdamsStephanBrownFrith2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkbarianHuang2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlasmari2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmerican_Psychiatric_Association2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArciniegas2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshinoffSingletaryBakerHorga2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadcockPaulik2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarryGaughanHunter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeauchampAmaducciCook2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennet2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergeronCoyle2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerrios1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerrios1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerriosBeer1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirchwoodToddJackson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlajeski2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoraFornitoYücelPantelis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownThompson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBürgy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCannonKramer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardinalBullmore2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardinalBullmoreET2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastillo-CarnigliaKeyesHasinCerdá2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChesneyOliverMcGuire2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChesneyOliverMcGuire2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooperLaxhmanCrellinMoncrieff2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorlettFrithFletcher2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorlettHoneyKrystalFletcher2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorlettTaylorWangFletcher2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorrellGallingPawarKrivko2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCosgraveWulffGehrman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrossleyConstanteMcGuirePower2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurranByrappaMcBride2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;Souza2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDattaDaruvalaKumar2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDel_CasaleKotzalidisRapinesiSorice2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDick1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEgertonFusar-PoliStone2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-MallakhFurdek2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEssaliAl-Haj_HaasanLiRathbone2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFood_Drug_Administration2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoster2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreudenreich2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFusar-PoliRaduaMcGuireBorgwardt2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFénelonAlves2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaebelZielasek2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaretyWardEmsleyGreenwood2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGelderGathMayou1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGermansKring2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbs2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibsonAlloyEllman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiddens2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrace2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrantLeVanWellsLi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenHoranLeeMcCleery2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreeningNotarasChenXu2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriswoldDel_RegnoBerger2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrossSchäfer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuadalupePáramo2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaddadCorrell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamiltonMonaghan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartlingAbou-SettaDursunMousavi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasanvon_KellerFriemelHall2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealy2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinshaw2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHintonReisde_Jong2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHonkStenforsGoldbergHendricks2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamison1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaspers1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJennervan_de_WilligeWiersma1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJensenMcIntoshCrawleyMikulis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeronimusKotovRieseOrmel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesPilowsky2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordaanEmsley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJosephSiddiqui2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoyce2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalkmanLoetscher2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaneCorrell2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKapurMizrahiLi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaramehMurariSchweizerMunoz2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKayFiszbeinOpler1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebsJohansen_PØ2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLenkaPagonabarragaPalBejr-Kasem2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeuchtLeuchtHuhnChaimani2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewandowskiMoustafa2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisEscalonaKeith2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLisanbyKohlerSwansonGur1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLosurdoPrincipiIannoneAmoruso2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuhrmannMarrow2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuhrmannPadmavatiTharoorOsei2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyneO\u0026#039;DonoghueRocheRenwick2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaherMaglioneBagleySuttorp2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshallRathbone2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMashourWalkerMartuza2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLean2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMisiakKrefftBielawskiMoustafa2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMooreNathanElliottLaubach1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunjalFerrandoFreyberg2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurrayButtnerPrice2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNHS2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaasan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNajjarSteinerNajjarBechter2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Collaborating_Centre_for_Mental_Health2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNevinCroft2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNordqvist2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrtiz-MedinaPereaToralesVentriglio2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsborneZhangGuptaFarrens2023\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOst2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOverallGorham1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalaniyappanBalainLiddle2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenneySauvéMendelsonThibaudeau_É2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerryMcIntoshWeichSingh2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfeifer1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPicchioniMurray2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPressman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProgram_for_Risk_Evaluation_and_Prevention_(PREP)_Early_Psychosis_Clinic2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPruessnerCullenAasWalker2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaduaBorgwardtCresciniMataix-Cols2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaduaRamella-CravaroIoannidisReichenberg2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaghavanBrownHorneKamal2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenardHuntjensLysakerMoskowitz2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRush1830\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaks2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchreber2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchultz2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchultzNorthShields2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeeman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeikkulaAlakareAaltonen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSempleSmyth2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShinDangTranTran2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShorter1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimonssonGoldbergChambersOsika2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSims2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkikicArriola2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithWestonLieberman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoykaZetzscheDreselTatsch2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpringWeinsteinLemonHaskell1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaffordJacksonMayo-WilsonMorrison2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStahl2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStip2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTammingavan_OsReininghausIvleva2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorDuncan-McConnell2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompsonBroome2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThunganaZingelaWykKim2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTohThomasRossell2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurkelWongRandolph2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValaitėBerniūnas2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanderKruikBarreixChouAllen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVlachosBeratisHartocollis1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaghornStillChantWhiteford2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWardCitrome2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatersBlomDang-VuCheyne2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatersChiuAtkinsonBlom2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZoldanFriedbergLivnehMelamed1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_OsKapur2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_SteurBatallaBossong2020\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bipolar disorder\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 36,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 127,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 10,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Federal Register\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 2,\n [\"ICD10\"] = 2,\n [\"ICD11\"] = 3,\n [\"ICD9\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox medical condition (new)\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Medical resources\"] = 1,\n [\"Mental and behavioral disorders\"] = 1,\n [\"More medical citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"OMIM2\"] = 3,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Psychiatry\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Technical\"] = 2,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","21.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","11.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","10.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","120","8.7"],["type","60","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","4.3"],["gsplit 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