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<li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ancient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_and_Renaissance_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_and_Renaissance_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Medieval and Renaissance Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_and_Renaissance_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India_and_Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India_and_Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>India and Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India_and_Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques_of_artistic_enameling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques_of_artistic_enameling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Techniques of artistic enameling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Techniques_of_artistic_enameling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_enamel_application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_enamel_application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Industrial enamel application</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_enamel_application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Building_cladding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Building_cladding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Building cladding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Building_cladding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vitreous enamel</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B2%D8%AC%D8%AC" title="مينا مزجج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مينا مزجج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmalte" title="Esmalte – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Esmalte" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thn%CC%84g" title="Thn̄g – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thn̄g" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Эмаль – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эмаль" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB" title="Емайл – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Емайл" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emajl" title="Emajl – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Emajl" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmalt" title="Esmalt – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Esmalt" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalt" title="Smalt – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Smalt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emalje_(glasmateriale)" title="Emalje (glasmateriale) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Emalje (glasmateriale)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" title="Email – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Email" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" title="Email – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Email" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmalte" title="Esmalte – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Esmalte" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emajlo" title="Emajlo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Emajlo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmalte" title="Esmalte – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Esmalte" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="میناکاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میناکاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mail_(verre)" title="Émail (verre) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Émail (verre)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruan" title="Cruan – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cruan" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmalte_(revestimento)" title="Esmalte (revestimento) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Esmalte (revestimento)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%95%EB%9E%91" title="법랑 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="법랑" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%AE%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%AB" title="Արծնապակի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արծնապակի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="मीनाकारी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मीनाकारी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emajl" title="Emajl – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Emajl" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_(glasir)" title="Email (glasir) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Email (glasir)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalto" title="Smalto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Smalto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C_(%D7%98%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94)" title="אמייל (טכניקה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אמייל (טכניקה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%8E%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D" title="ಎನಾಮೆಲ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಎನಾಮೆಲ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ტიხრული მინანქარი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტიხრული მინანქარი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Эмаль – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эмаль" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Эмаль – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эмаль" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emalja" title="Emalja – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Emalja" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emalis" title="Emalis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Emalis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" title="Email – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Email" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%B1zzom%C3%A1nc" title="Tűzzománc – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tűzzománc" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BB" title="Емајл – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Емајл" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ကြွေရည်သုတ်ခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကြွေရည်သုတ်ခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_(glazuur)" title="Email (glazuur) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Email (glazuur)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%BA%E7%91%AF" title="琺瑯 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="琺瑯" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smardo" title="Smardo – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Smardo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emalje" title="Emalje – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Emalje" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emalje" title="Emalje – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Emalje" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmaut_(veire)" title="Esmaut (veire) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Esmaut (veire)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emal" title="Emal – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Emal" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emalia" title="Emalia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Emalia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmalte" title="Esmalte – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Esmalte" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" title="Email – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Email" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Эмаль – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эмаль" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enamel_(glass)" title="Enamel (glass) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Enamel (glass)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_(tvrd%C3%A9_materi%C3%A1ly)" title="Email (tvrdé materiály) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Email (tvrdé materiály)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo%C5%A1%C4%8D" title="Lošč – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Lošč" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emajl" title="Emajl – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Emajl" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emajl" title="Emajl – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Emajl" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emali" title="Emali – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Emali" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0_Reliquaire_grandmontain_-_MR_2648_-_Louvre_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/0_Reliquaire_grandmontain_-_MR_2648_-_Louvre_%281%29.JPG/220px-0_Reliquaire_grandmontain_-_MR_2648_-_Louvre_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/0_Reliquaire_grandmontain_-_MR_2648_-_Louvre_%281%29.JPG/330px-0_Reliquaire_grandmontain_-_MR_2648_-_Louvre_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/0_Reliquaire_grandmontain_-_MR_2648_-_Louvre_%281%29.JPG/440px-0_Reliquaire_grandmontain_-_MR_2648_-_Louvre_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a> <a href="/wiki/Chasse_(casket)" title="Chasse (casket)">châsse</a>; 1185–1200; champlevé enamel over copper gilded; height: 17.7 cm (7.0 in), width: 17.4 cm (6.9 in), depth: 10.1 cm (4.0 in)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Vitreous enamel</b>, also called <b>porcelain enamel</b>, is a material made by <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">fusing</a> powdered <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C (1,380 and 1,560 °F). The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable <a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">vitreous</a> coating. The word <i>vitreous</i> comes from the Latin <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vitreus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:vitreus">vitreus</a></i>, meaning "glassy". </p><p>Enamel can be used on <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enamelled_glass" title="Enamelled glass">glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Overglaze_decoration" title="Overglaze decoration">ceramics</a>, stone, or any material that will withstand the fusing temperature. In technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and another material (or more glass). The term "enamel" is most often restricted to work on metal, which is the subject of this article. Essentially the same technique used with other bases is known by different terms: on glass as <i><a href="/wiki/Enamelled_glass" title="Enamelled glass">enamelled glass</a></i>, or "painted glass", and on pottery it is called <i><a href="/wiki/Overglaze_decoration" title="Overglaze decoration">overglaze decoration</a></i>, "overglaze enamels" or "enamelling". The craft is called "<b>enamelling</b>", the artists "enamellers" and the objects produced can be called "enamels". </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%98%8E%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F_%E6%8E%90%E7%B5%B2%E7%90%BA%E7%91%AF%E8%8F%B1%E8%8A%B1%E5%8F%A3%E7%A2%9F-Dish_with_scalloped_rim_MET_DT7072_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/%E6%98%8E%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F_%E6%8E%90%E7%B5%B2%E7%90%BA%E7%91%AF%E8%8F%B1%E8%8A%B1%E5%8F%A3%E7%A2%9F-Dish_with_scalloped_rim_MET_DT7072_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-%E6%98%8E%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F_%E6%8E%90%E7%B5%B2%E7%90%BA%E7%91%AF%E8%8F%B1%E8%8A%B1%E5%8F%A3%E7%A2%9F-Dish_with_scalloped_rim_MET_DT7072_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/%E6%98%8E%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F_%E6%8E%90%E7%B5%B2%E7%90%BA%E7%91%AF%E8%8F%B1%E8%8A%B1%E5%8F%A3%E7%A2%9F-Dish_with_scalloped_rim_MET_DT7072_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-%E6%98%8E%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F_%E6%8E%90%E7%B5%B2%E7%90%BA%E7%91%AF%E8%8F%B1%E8%8A%B1%E5%8F%A3%E7%A2%9F-Dish_with_scalloped_rim_MET_DT7072_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/%E6%98%8E%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F_%E6%8E%90%E7%B5%B2%E7%90%BA%E7%91%AF%E8%8F%B1%E8%8A%B1%E5%8F%A3%E7%A2%9F-Dish_with_scalloped_rim_MET_DT7072_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-%E6%98%8E%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F_%E6%8E%90%E7%B5%B2%E7%90%BA%E7%91%AF%E8%8F%B1%E8%8A%B1%E5%8F%A3%E7%A2%9F-Dish_with_scalloped_rim_MET_DT7072_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2692" data-file-height="2681" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Chinese</a> dish with scalloped rim, from the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>; early 15th century; <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">cloisonné</a> enamel; height: 2.5 cm, diameter: 15.2 cm</figcaption></figure> <p>Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decorative_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Decorative art">decorative art</a>. Since the 18th century, enamels have also been applied to many metal consumer objects, such as some <a href="/wiki/Cast-iron_cookware#Enameled_cast_iron" title="Cast-iron cookware">cooking vessels</a>, steel sinks, and <a href="/wiki/Cast-iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast-iron">cast-iron</a> bathtubs. It has also been used on some <a href="/wiki/Major_appliance" title="Major appliance">appliances</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Dishwasher" title="Dishwasher">dishwashers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laundry_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Laundry machine">laundry machines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">refrigerators</a>, and on marker boards and <a href="/wiki/Enamel_sign" title="Enamel sign">signage</a>. </p><p>The term "enamel" has also sometimes been applied to industrial materials other than vitreous enamel, such as <a href="/wiki/Enamel_paint" title="Enamel paint">enamel paint</a> and the polymers coating <a href="/wiki/Enameled_wire" class="mw-redirect" title="Enameled wire">enameled wire</a>; these actually are very different in <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a> terms. </p><p>The word <i>enamel</i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> word <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">smelzan</i></span> (to <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelt</a>) via the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> <span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro">esmail</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or from a Latin word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">smaltum</i></span>, first found in a 9th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Pontificalis" title="Liber Pontificalis">Life of Leo IV</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Used as a noun, "an enamel" is usually a small decorative object coated with enamel. "Enamelled" and "enamelling" are the preferred spellings in <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a>, while "enameled" and "enameling" are preferred in <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan_(1284837406).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan_%281284837406%29.jpg/220px-Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan_%281284837406%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan_%281284837406%29.jpg/330px-Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan_%281284837406%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan_%281284837406%29.jpg/440px-Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan_%281284837406%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1146" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Staffordshire Moorlands Pan, 2nd-century <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest enamel all used the cloisonné technique, placing the enamel within small cells with gold walls. This had been used as a technique to hold pieces of stone and gems tightly in place since the 3rd millennium BC, for example in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and then Egypt. Enamel seems likely to have developed as a cheaper method of achieving similar results.<sup id="cite_ref-Osborne,_331_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osborne,_331-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest undisputed objects known to use enamel are a group of <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenaean</a> rings from <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, dated to the 13th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Osborne,_331_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osborne,_331-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Egyptian pieces, including jewellery from the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Tutankhamun" title="Tomb of Tutankhamun">Tomb of Tutankhamun</a> of c. 1325 BC, are frequently described as using "enamel", many scholars doubt the glass paste was sufficiently melted to be properly so described, and use terms such as "glass-paste". It seems possible that in Egyptian conditions the melting point of the glass and gold were too close to make enamel a viable technique. Nonetheless, there appear to be a few actual examples of enamel, perhaps from the <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period of Egypt</a> (beginning 1070 BC) on.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it remained rare in both Egypt and Greece. </p><p>The technique appears in the <a href="/wiki/Koban_culture" title="Koban culture">Koban</a> culture of the northern and central <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, and was perhaps carried by the <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a> to the ancient Celts.<sup id="cite_ref-Osborne,_331_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osborne,_331-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red enamel is used in 26 places on the <a href="/wiki/Battersea_Shield" title="Battersea Shield">Battersea Shield</a> (c.350–50 BC), probably as an imitation of the red Mediterranean <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, which is used on the <a href="/wiki/Witham_Shield" title="Witham Shield">Witham Shield</a> (400–300 BC). <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> mentions the Celts' use of the technique on metal, which the Romans in his day hardly knew. The <a href="/wiki/Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan" title="Staffordshire Moorlands Pan">Staffordshire Moorlands Pan</a> is a 2nd-century AD souvenir of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, made for the Roman military market, which has swirling enamel decoration in a Celtic style. In Britain, probably through preserved Celtic craft skills, enamel survived until the <a href="/wiki/Hanging_bowl" title="Hanging bowl">hanging bowls</a> of early <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Anglo-Saxon art</a>. </p><p>A problem that adds to the uncertainty over early enamel is artefacts (typically excavated) that appear to have been prepared for enamel, but have now lost whatever filled the cloisons or backing to a <a href="/wiki/Champlev%C3%A9" title="Champlevé">champlevé</a> piece.<sup id="cite_ref-Osborne,_331_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osborne,_331-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This occurs in several different regions, from ancient Egypt to Anglo-Saxon England. Once enamel becomes more common, as in medieval Europe after about 1000, the assumption that enamel was originally used becomes safer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_and_Renaissance_Europe">Medieval and Renaissance Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Medieval and Renaissance Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waddesdon_bequest_British_Museum_DSCF9814_05.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Waddesdon_bequest_British_Museum_DSCF9814_05.JPG/220px-Waddesdon_bequest_British_Museum_DSCF9814_05.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Waddesdon_bequest_British_Museum_DSCF9814_05.JPG/330px-Waddesdon_bequest_British_Museum_DSCF9814_05.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Waddesdon_bequest_British_Museum_DSCF9814_05.JPG/440px-Waddesdon_bequest_British_Museum_DSCF9814_05.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Detail of <a href="/wiki/Limoges_enamel#Renaissance_painted_enamel" title="Limoges enamel">painted Limoges enamel</a> dish, mid-16th century, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Court" title="Jean de Court">Jean de Court</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In European art history, enamel was at its most important in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, beginning with the Late Romans and then the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a>, who began to use <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">cloisonné</a> enamel in imitation of cloisonné inlays of precious stones. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_enamel" title="Byzantine enamel">Byzantine enamel</a> style was widely adopted by the peoples of <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> northern Europe. The Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images; this was also copied in Western Europe. In <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Kievan Rus</a> a <a href="/wiki/Finift_enamel" class="mw-redirect" title="Finift enamel">finift enamel</a> technique was developed.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mostovshchikova2020_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mostovshchikova2020-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Finift_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Finift_01.jpg/220px-Finift_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Finift_01.jpg/330px-Finift_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Finift_01.jpg/440px-Finift_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="336" /></a><figcaption>Examples of art made of finift enamel from <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Kievan Rus</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mosan_art#Metalwork" title="Mosan art">Mosan metalwork</a> often included enamel plaques of the highest quality in <a href="/wiki/Reliquaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliquaries">reliquaries</a> and other large works of <a href="/wiki/Goldsmithing" class="mw-redirect" title="Goldsmithing">goldsmithing</a>. <a href="/wiki/Limoges_enamel" title="Limoges enamel">Limoges enamel</a> was made in <a href="/wiki/Limoges" title="Limoges">Limoges</a>, France, the most famous centre of vitreous enamel production in Western Europe, though Spain also made a good deal. Limoges became famous for champlevé enamels from the 12th century onwards, producing on a large scale, and then (after a period of reduced production) from the 15th century retained its lead by switching to painted enamel on flat metal plaques. The <a href="/wiki/Champlev%C3%A9" title="Champlevé">champlevé</a> technique was considerably easier and very widely practiced in the <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a> period. In <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic art</a> the finest work is in <a href="/wiki/Basse-taille" title="Basse-taille">basse-taille</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronde-bosse" title="Ronde-bosse">ronde-bosse</a> techniques, but cheaper champlevé works continued to be produced in large numbers for a wider market. </p><p>Painted enamel remained in fashion for over a century, and in France developed into a sophisticated Renaissance and the <a href="/wiki/Mannerist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannerist">Mannerist</a> style, seen on objects such as large display dishes, ewers, <a href="/wiki/Inkwell" title="Inkwell">inkwells</a> and in small portraits. After it fell from fashion it continued as a medium for <a href="/wiki/Portrait_miniature" title="Portrait miniature">portrait miniatures</a>, spreading to England and other countries. This continued until the early 19th century. </p><p>A Russian school developed, which used the technique on other objects, as in the Renaissance, and for relatively cheap religious pieces such as crosses and small icons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_-_Wine_Pot_-_Walters_44569_-_Side_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chinese_-_Wine_Pot_-_Walters_44569_-_Side_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Chinese_-_Wine_Pot_-_Walters_44569_-_Side_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chinese_-_Wine_Pot_-_Walters_44569_-_Side_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Chinese_-_Wine_Pot_-_Walters_44569_-_Side_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chinese_-_Wine_Pot_-_Walters_44569_-_Side_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Chinese_-_Wine_Pot_-_Walters_44569_-_Side_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1401" data-file-height="1404" /></a><figcaption>Chinese <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">cloisonné</a> enamel bronze wine pot, 18th century</figcaption></figure> <p>From either Byzantium or the Islamic world, the cloisonné technique reached China in the 13–14th centuries. The first written reference to cloisonné is in a book from 1388, where it is called "Dashi ('Muslim') ware".<sup id="cite_ref-Sullivan_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sullivan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No Chinese pieces that are clearly from the 14th century are known; the earliest datable pieces are from the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Xuande_Emperor" title="Xuande Emperor">Xuande Emperor</a> (1425–1435), which, since they show a full use of Chinese styles, suggest considerable experience in the technique. </p><p>Cloisonné remained very popular in China until the 19th century and is still produced today. The most elaborate and most highly valued Chinese pieces are from the early <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, especially the reigns of the Xuande Emperor and <a href="/wiki/Jingtai_Emperor" title="Jingtai Emperor">Jingtai Emperor</a> (1450–1457), although 19th century or modern pieces are far more common.<sup id="cite_ref-Sullivan_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sullivan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Japanese_Meiji_Art_E83.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Khalili_Collection_Japanese_Meiji_Art_E83.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Japanese_Meiji_Art_E83.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Khalili_Collection_Japanese_Meiji_Art_E83.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Japanese_Meiji_Art_E83.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Khalili_Collection_Japanese_Meiji_Art_E83.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Japanese_Meiji_Art_E83.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1848" data-file-height="2184" /></a><figcaption>Imperial vases by <a href="/wiki/Ando_Jubei" title="Ando Jubei">Ando Jubei</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan" title="Imperial Seal of Japan">chrysanthemum crests of the Imperial family</a>, using <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">moriage</i></span> to slightly raise the design; <a href="/wiki/Khalili_Collection_of_Japanese_Art" title="Khalili Collection of Japanese Art">Khalili Collection of Japanese Art</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Japanese artists did not make three-dimensional enamelled objects until the 1830s but, once the technique took hold based on analysis of Chinese objects, it developed very rapidly, reaching a peak in the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_(era)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji (era)">Meiji</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Taishō">Taishō</a> eras (late 19th/early 20th century).<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enamel had been used as decoration for metalwork since about 1600,<sup id="cite_ref-earle_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-earle-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Japanese cloisonné was already exported to Europe before the start of the Meiji era in 1868.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cloisonné is known in Japan as <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">shippo</i></span>, literally "seven treasures".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This refers to richly coloured substances mentioned in Buddhist texts.<sup id="cite_ref-polished_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-polished-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was initially used for colourful objects imported from China. According to legend, in the 1830s <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaji_Tsunekichi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaji Tsunekichi (page does not exist)">Kaji Tsunekichi</a> broke open a Chinese enamel object to examine it, then trained many artists, starting off Japan's own enamel industry.<sup id="cite_ref-polished_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-polished-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-earle_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-earle-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early Japanese enamels were cloudy and opaque, with relatively clumsy shapes. This changed rapidly from 1870 onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nagoya cloisonné company (<span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Nagoya shippo kaisha</i></span> existed from 1871 to 1884, to sell the output of many small workshops and help them improve their work.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1874, the government created the <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Kiriu kosho kaisha</i></span> company to sponsor the creation of a wide range of decorative arts at international exhibitions. This was part of a programme to promote Japan as a modern, industrial nation.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wagener&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gottfried Wagener (page does not exist)">Gottfried Wagener</a> was a German scientist brought in by the government to advise Japanese industry and improve production processes. Along with <a href="/wiki/Namikawa_Yasuyuki" title="Namikawa Yasuyuki">Namikawa Yasuyuki</a> he developed a transparent black enamel which was used for backgrounds. Translucent enamels in various other colours followed during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsukamoto_Kaisuke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tsukamoto Kaisuke (page does not exist)">Tsukamoto Kaisuke</a>, Wagener transformed the firing processes used by Japanese workshops, improving the quality of finishes and extending the variety of colours.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kawade_Shibatar%C5%8D" title="Kawade Shibatarō">Kawade Shibatarō</a> introduced a variety of techniques, including <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">nagare-gusuri</i></span> (drip-glaze) which produces a rainbow-coloured glaze and <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">uchidashi</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9_and_chasing" title="Repoussé and chasing">repoussé</a>) technique, in which the metal foundation is hammered outwards to create a <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> effect.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together with <a href="/wiki/Hattori_Tadasabur%C5%8D" title="Hattori Tadasaburō">Hattori Tadasaburō</a> he developed the <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">moriage</i></span> ("piling up") technique which places layers of enamel upon each other to create a three-dimensional effect.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Namikawa_S%C5%8Dsuke" title="Namikawa Sōsuke">Namikawa Sōsuke</a> developed a pictorial style that imitated paintings. He is known for <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">shosen</i></span> (minimised wires) and <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">musen</i></span> (wireless cloisonné): techniques developed with Wagener in which the wire <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">cloisons</i></span> are minimised or burned away completely with acid.<sup id="cite_ref-dma_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dma-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-earle_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-earle-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contrasts with the Chinese style which used thick metal <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">cloisons</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ando_Jubei" title="Ando Jubei">Ando Jubei</a> introduced the <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">shōtai-jippō</i></span> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Plique-%C3%A0-jour" title="Plique-à-jour">plique-à-jour</a></i></span>) technique which burns away the metal substrate to leave translucent enamel, producing an effect resembling <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ando_Cloisonn%C3%A9_Company" title="Ando Cloisonné Company">Ando Cloisonné Company</a> which he co-founded is one of the few makers from this era still active.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distinctively Japanese designs, in which flowers, birds and insects were used as themes, became popular. Designs also increasingly used areas of blank space.<sup id="cite_ref-earle_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-earle-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the greater subtlety these techniques allowed, Japanese enamels were regarded as unequalled in the world<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and won many awards at national and international exhibitions.<sup id="cite_ref-dma_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dma-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India_and_Islamic_world">India and Islamic world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: India and Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MeenaKaari2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/MeenaKaari2.jpg/220px-MeenaKaari2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/MeenaKaari2.jpg/330px-MeenaKaari2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/MeenaKaari2.jpg/440px-MeenaKaari2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2949" data-file-height="2746" /></a><figcaption>Meenakaari art from Iran</figcaption></figure> <p>Enamel was established in the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> by around 1600 for decorating gold and silver objects, and became a distinctive feature of Mughal jewellery. The Mughal court was known to employ <i>mīnākār</i> (enamelers).<sup id="cite_ref-enamelislamic_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelislamic-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These craftsmen reached a peak of during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> in the mid-17th century. Transparent enamels were popular during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelislamic_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelislamic-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both cloissoné and champlevé were produced in Mughal, with champlevé used for the finest pieces.<sup id="cite_ref-enamelislamic_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enamelislamic-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern industrial production began in <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a> in 1921, with the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Enamel_Works" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengal Enamel Works">Bengal Enamel Works</a> Limited. </p><p>Enamel was used in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> for colouring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colours that are decorated in an intricate design called <a href="/wiki/Meenakari" class="mw-redirect" title="Meenakari">Meenakari</a>. The French traveller <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Jean Chardin</a>, who toured Iran during the <a href="/wiki/Safavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid">Safavid</a> period, made a reference to an enamel work of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, which comprised a pattern of birds and animals on a floral background in light blue, green, yellow and red. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer and its lustre brings out the colours of the enamels. <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a>, a later introduction, is used for artifacts like boxes, bowls, spoons, and art pieces. <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> began to be used for handicraft products after the Gold Control Act, was enforced in India which compelled the Meenakars to look for an alternative material. Initially, the work of Meenakari often went unnoticed as this art was traditionally used on the back of pieces of <i>kundan</i> or gem-studded jewellery, allowing pieces to be reversible.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2008-08-17_grijs_gewolkt.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/2008-08-17_grijs_gewolkt.JPG/220px-2008-08-17_grijs_gewolkt.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/2008-08-17_grijs_gewolkt.JPG/330px-2008-08-17_grijs_gewolkt.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/2008-08-17_grijs_gewolkt.JPG/440px-2008-08-17_grijs_gewolkt.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2701" data-file-height="2001" /></a><figcaption><i>Grey clouds</i>, typical enamel cooking gear from the Dutch <a href="/wiki/DRU_Cultuurfabriek" class="mw-redirect" title="DRU Cultuurfabriek">DRU factory</a>, popular in the 1950s</figcaption></figure> <p>More recently, the bright, jewel-like colours have made enamel popular with jewellery designers, including the <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> jewellers, for designers of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bibelot" class="extiw" title="wikt:bibelot">bibelots</a> such as the eggs of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Carl_Faberg%C3%A9" title="Peter Carl Fabergé">Peter Carl Fabergé</a> and the enameled copper boxes of the Battersea enamellers,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for artists such as <a href="/wiki/George_Stubbs" title="George Stubbs">George Stubbs</a> and other painters of <a href="/wiki/Portrait_miniature" title="Portrait miniature">portrait miniatures</a>. </p><p>Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in Austria and Germany in about 1850.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> Industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased. The wet application process started with the discovery of the use of clay to suspend <a href="/wiki/Frit" title="Frit">frit</a> in water. Developments that followed during the 20th century include enamelling-grade steel, cleaned-only surface preparation, automation, and ongoing improvements in efficiency, performance, and quality.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> </p><p>Between the World Wars, <a href="/wiki/Cleveland,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland, Ohio">Cleveland</a> in the United States became a center for enamel art, led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kenneth_F._Bates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kenneth F. Bates (page does not exist)">Kenneth F. Bates</a>; <a href="/wiki/H._Edward_Winter" title="H. Edward Winter">H. Edward Winter</a> who had taught at the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_School_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland School of Art">Cleveland School of Art</a> wrote three books on the topic including <i>Enamel Art on Metals</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, abstract artist <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Hesling" title="Bernard Hesling">Bernard Hesling</a> brought the style into prominence with his variously sized steel plates, starting in 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A resurgence in enamel-based art took place near the end of the 20th century in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, led by artists like <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Maximov_(enamelist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexei Maximov (enamelist)">Alexei Maximov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Efros" title="Leonid Efros">Leonid Efros</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ground_vitreous_enamel_powder_in_different_colors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ground_vitreous_enamel_powder_in_different_colors.jpg/300px-Ground_vitreous_enamel_powder_in_different_colors.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ground_vitreous_enamel_powder_in_different_colors.jpg/450px-Ground_vitreous_enamel_powder_in_different_colors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ground_vitreous_enamel_powder_in_different_colors.jpg/600px-Ground_vitreous_enamel_powder_in_different_colors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7259" data-file-height="2198" /></a><figcaption>Glass vials with ground vitreous enamel powder in different colors</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mortar-agate_hg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mortar-agate_hg.jpg/300px-Mortar-agate_hg.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mortar-agate_hg.jpg/450px-Mortar-agate_hg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mortar-agate_hg.jpg/600px-Mortar-agate_hg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7650" data-file-height="6004" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Agate" title="Agate">agate</a> mortar and pestle is used to finely grind vitreous enamel powder, mixed with a volatile oil, such as <a href="/wiki/Lavender_oil" title="Lavender oil">lavender oil</a>, to produce enamel paints for artistic work.</figcaption></figure> <p>Vitreous enamel can be applied to most metals. Most modern industrial enamel is applied to steel in which the carbon content is controlled to prevent unwanted reactions at the firing temperatures. Enamel can also be applied to gold, silver, copper, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stainless steel,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vitreous enamel has many useful properties: it is smooth, hard, chemically resistant, durable, scratch resistant (5–6 on the <a href="/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs scale</a>), has long-lasting colour fastness, is easy to clean, and cannot burn. Enamel is glass, not paint, so it does not fade under <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A disadvantage of enamel is a tendency to crack or shatter when the substrate is stressed or bent, but modern enamels are relatively chip- and impact-resistant because of good thickness control and coefficients of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> well-matched to the metal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Buick automobile company was founded by <a href="/wiki/David_Dunbar_Buick" title="David Dunbar Buick">David Dunbar Buick</a> with wealth earned by his development of improved enamelling processes, c. 1887, for sheet steel and cast iron. Such enameled ferrous material had, and still has, many applications: early 20th century and some modern <a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a> signs, interior <a href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">oven</a> walls, <a href="/wiki/Cooking_pot" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooking pot">cooking pots</a>, housing and interior walls of major <a href="/wiki/Kitchen_appliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitchen appliance">kitchen appliances</a>, housing and drums of clothes washers and dryers, sinks and <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> <a href="/wiki/Bathtub" title="Bathtub">bathtubs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farm</a> <a href="/wiki/Storage_silo" class="mw-redirect" title="Storage silo">storage silos</a>, and processing equipment such as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reactor" title="Chemical reactor">chemical reactors</a> and pharmaceutical process tanks. Structures such as <a href="/wiki/Filling_station" title="Filling station">filling stations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bus_station" title="Bus station">bus stations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lustron_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Lustron House">Lustron Houses</a> had walls, ceilings and structural elements made of enamelled steel.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One of the most widespread modern uses of enamel is in the production of quality chalk-boards and marker-boards (typically called 'blackboards' or 'whiteboards') where the resistance of enamel to wear and chemicals ensures that 'ghosting', or unerasable marks, do not occur, as happens with polymer boards. Since standard enamelling steel is magnetically attractive, it may also be used for magnet boards. Some new developments in the last ten years include enamel/non-stick hybrid coatings, sol-gel functional top-coats for enamels, enamels with a metallic appearance, and easy-to-clean enamels.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The key ingredient of vitreous enamel is finely ground glass called <a href="/wiki/Frit" title="Frit">frit</a>. Frit for enamelling steel is typically an alkali borosilicate glass with a thermal expansion and glass temperature suitable for coating steel. Raw materials are smelted together between 2,100 and 2,650 °F (1,150 and 1,450 °C) into a liquid glass that is directed out of the furnace and thermal shocked with either water or steel rollers into frit.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colour in enamel is obtained by the addition of various minerals, often metal oxides <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">praseodymium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">neodymium</a>. The latter creates delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm grey. Enamel can be transparent, opaque or opalescent (translucent). Different enamel colours can be mixed to make a new colour, in the manner of paint. </p><p>There are various types of frit, which may be applied in sequence. A ground coat is applied first; it usually contains smelted-in transition metal oxides such as cobalt, nickel, copper, manganese, and iron that facilitate adhesion to the metal. Next, clear and semi-opaque frits that contain material for producing colours are applied. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anker1-comp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="View into a glass-lined chemical reactor"><img alt="View into a glass-lined chemical reactor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Anker1-comp.jpg/220px-Anker1-comp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Anker1-comp.jpg/330px-Anker1-comp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Anker1-comp.jpg/440px-Anker1-comp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1125" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">View into a glass-lined chemical reactor</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Turbor%C3%BChrer.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Turb-mixer in a glass-lined chemical reactor"><img alt="Turb-mixer in a glass-lined chemical reactor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Turbor%C3%BChrer.jpg/220px-Turbor%C3%BChrer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Turbor%C3%BChrer.jpg/330px-Turbor%C3%BChrer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Turbor%C3%BChrer.jpg/440px-Turbor%C3%BChrer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Turb-mixer in a glass-lined chemical reactor</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques_of_artistic_enameling">Techniques of artistic enameling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Techniques of artistic enameling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PlacaDormicion_MAN.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/PlacaDormicion_MAN.JPG/220px-PlacaDormicion_MAN.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/PlacaDormicion_MAN.JPG/330px-PlacaDormicion_MAN.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/PlacaDormicion_MAN.JPG/440px-PlacaDormicion_MAN.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1265" data-file-height="1159" /></a><figcaption>Medallion of the <a href="/wiki/Death_of_the_Virgin" title="Death of the Virgin">Death of the Virgin</a>, with basse-taille enamel, partly fallen away</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_-Dunstable_Swan_Jewel_-side_cropped_close.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/British_Museum_-Dunstable_Swan_Jewel_-side_cropped_close.jpg/220px-British_Museum_-Dunstable_Swan_Jewel_-side_cropped_close.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/British_Museum_-Dunstable_Swan_Jewel_-side_cropped_close.jpg/330px-British_Museum_-Dunstable_Swan_Jewel_-side_cropped_close.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/British_Museum_-Dunstable_Swan_Jewel_-side_cropped_close.jpg/440px-British_Museum_-Dunstable_Swan_Jewel_-side_cropped_close.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="1047" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Dunstable_Swan_Jewel" title="Dunstable Swan Jewel">Dunstable Swan Jewel</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Livery" title="Livery">livery</a> badge in <a href="/wiki/Ronde_bosse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronde bosse">ronde bosse</a> enamel, about 1400. British Museum</figcaption></figure> <p>The three main historical techniques for enamelling metal are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">Cloisonné</a>, French for "cell", where thin wires are applied to form raised barriers, which contain different areas of (subsequently applied) enamel. Widely practiced in Europe, the Middle East and East Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champlev%C3%A9" title="Champlevé">Champlevé</a>, French for "raised field", where the surface is carved out to form pits in which enamel is fired, leaving the original metal exposed; the Romanesque <a href="/wiki/Stavelot_Triptych" title="Stavelot Triptych">Stavelot Triptych</a> is an example.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Painted enamel, a design in enamel is painted onto a smooth metal surface. <a href="/wiki/Limoges_enamel" title="Limoges enamel">Limoges enamel</a> is the best known type of painted enamel, using this from the 16th century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most traditional painting on glass, and some on ceramics, uses what is technically enamel, but is often described by terms such as "painted in enamels", reserving "painted enamel" and "enamel" as a term for the whole object for works with a metal base.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Variants, and less common techniques are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basse-taille" title="Basse-taille">Basse-taille</a>, from the French word meaning "low-cut". The surface of the metal is decorated with a low relief design which can be seen through translucent and transparent enamels. The 14th century <a href="/wiki/Royal_Gold_Cup" title="Royal Gold Cup">Royal Gold Cup</a> is an outstanding example.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plique-%C3%A0-jour" title="Plique-à-jour">Plique-à-jour</a>, French for "open to daylight" where the enamel is applied in cells, similar to cloisonné, but with no backing, so light can shine through the transparent or translucent enamel. It has a stained-glass like appearance; the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rode_Cup" title="Mérode Cup">Mérode Cup</a> is the surviving medieval example.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronde_bosse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronde bosse">Ronde bosse</a>, French for "in the round", also known as "encrusted enamel". A 3D type of enamelling where a sculptural form or wire framework is completely or partly enamelled, as in the 15th century <a href="/wiki/Holy_Thorn_Reliquary" title="Holy Thorn Reliquary">Holy Thorn Reliquary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grisaille" title="Grisaille">Grisaille</a>, version of painted enamel, French term meaning "in grey", where a dark, often blue or black background is applied, then a palescent (translucent) enamel is painted on top, building up designs in a monochrome gradient, paler as the thickness of the layer of light colour increases.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucie-Smith,_83_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucie-Smith,_83-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/En_r%C3%A9sille" title="En résille">En résille</a> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Émail en résille sur verre</i></span>, French for 'enamel in a network on glass') where enamelled metal is suspended in glass. The technique was briefly popular in seventeenth-century France and was re-discovered by <a href="/wiki/Margret_Craver" title="Margret Craver">Margret Craver</a> in 1953. Craver spent 13 years re-creating the technique.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Other types: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enamelled_glass" title="Enamelled glass">Enamelled glass</a>, in which a glass surface is enamelled, and fired to fuse the glasses.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stencil" title="Stencil">Stenciling</a>, where a stencil is placed over the work and the powdered enamel is sifted over the top. The stencil is removed before firing, the enamel staying in a pattern, slightly raised.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sgraffito" title="Sgraffito">Sgraffito</a>, where an unfired layer of enamel is applied over a previously fired layer of enamel of a contrasting colour, and then partly removed with a tool to create the design.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serigraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Serigraph">Serigraph</a>, where a silkscreen is used with 60–70in grade mesh.</li> <li>Surrey enamel, a 17th-century type for brass objects such as candlesticks; effectively champlevé.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Counter-enamelling</b>, not strictly a technique, but a necessary step in many techniques, especially painted enamel on thin plaques; introduced in 15th-century Europe. Enamel is applied to the back of a piece as well – sandwiching the metal – to equalize the rates of expansion under heat, and so create less tension on the glass so it does not crack.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucie-Smith,_83_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucie-Smith,_83-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safed_chalwan" title="Safed chalwan">Safed chalwan</a>, where jewels are set in white enamel</li></ul> <p>See also <a href="/wiki/Ando_Cloisonn%C3%A9_Company#Types" title="Ando Cloisonné Company">Japanese shipōyaki techniques</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industrial_enamel_application">Industrial enamel application</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Industrial enamel application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lindenstra%C3%9Fe_alt.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Lindenstra%C3%9Fe_alt.JPG/330px-Lindenstra%C3%9Fe_alt.JPG" decoding="async" width="330" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Lindenstra%C3%9Fe_alt.JPG/495px-Lindenstra%C3%9Fe_alt.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Lindenstra%C3%9Fe_alt.JPG/660px-Lindenstra%C3%9Fe_alt.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1442" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>Old German enamel street sign</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_porcelain_enamel" title="Industrial porcelain enamel">Industrial porcelain enamel</a></div> <p>On sheet steel, a ground coat layer is applied to create adhesion. The only surface preparation required for modern ground coats is degreasing of the steel with a mildly alkaline solution. White and coloured second "cover" coats of enamel are applied over the fired ground coat. For electrostatic enamels, the coloured enamel powder can be applied directly over a thin unfired ground coat "base coat" layer that is co-fired with the cover coat in a very efficient two-coat/one-fire process. </p><p>The frit in the ground coat contains smelted-in cobalt and/or nickel oxide as well as other transition metal oxides to catalyse the enamel-steel bonding reactions. During firing of the enamel at between 760 and 895 °C (1,400 and 1,643 °F), iron oxide scale first forms on the steel. The molten enamel dissolves the iron oxide and precipitates cobalt and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>. The iron acts as the anode in an electrogalvanic reaction in which the iron is again oxidised, dissolved by the glass, and oxidised again with the available cobalt and nickel limiting the reaction. Finally, the surface becomes roughened with the glass anchored into the holes.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Building_cladding">Building cladding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Building cladding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Enamel coatings applied to steel panels offer protection to the core material whether cladding road tunnels, underground stations, building superstructures or other applications. It can also be specified as a curtain walling. Qualities of this structural material include:<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Durable</li> <li>Withstands extreme temperatures and is non-flammable</li> <li>Long lasting UV, climate and corrosion resistance</li> <li>Dirt-repellent and graffiti-proof</li> <li>Resistant to abrasion and chemicals</li> <li>Easy cleaning and maintenance</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Box_holy_oils_Louvre_OA6935.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Early 13th century Limoges chasse used to hold holy oils; most were reliquaries."><img alt="Early 13th century Limoges chasse used to hold holy oils; most were reliquaries." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Box_holy_oils_Louvre_OA6935.jpg/198px-Box_holy_oils_Louvre_OA6935.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Box_holy_oils_Louvre_OA6935.jpg/297px-Box_holy_oils_Louvre_OA6935.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Box_holy_oils_Louvre_OA6935.jpg/397px-Box_holy_oils_Louvre_OA6935.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="1786" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Early 13th century Limoges <a href="/wiki/Chasse_(casket)" title="Chasse (casket)">chasse</a> used to hold holy oils; most were <a href="/wiki/Reliquaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliquaries">reliquaries</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver,_silver_gilt_and_painted_enamel_beaker,_Burgundian_Netherlands,_c._1425-1450,_The_Cloisters.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Silver, silver gilt and painted enamel beaker, Burgundian Netherlands, c. 1425–1450, The Cloisters, nyc"><img alt="Silver, silver gilt and painted enamel beaker, Burgundian Netherlands, c. 1425–1450, The Cloisters, nyc" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Silver%2C_silver_gilt_and_painted_enamel_beaker%2C_Burgundian_Netherlands%2C_c._1425-1450%2C_The_Cloisters.JPG/113px-Silver%2C_silver_gilt_and_painted_enamel_beaker%2C_Burgundian_Netherlands%2C_c._1425-1450%2C_The_Cloisters.JPG" decoding="async" width="113" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Silver%2C_silver_gilt_and_painted_enamel_beaker%2C_Burgundian_Netherlands%2C_c._1425-1450%2C_The_Cloisters.JPG/169px-Silver%2C_silver_gilt_and_painted_enamel_beaker%2C_Burgundian_Netherlands%2C_c._1425-1450%2C_The_Cloisters.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Silver%2C_silver_gilt_and_painted_enamel_beaker%2C_Burgundian_Netherlands%2C_c._1425-1450%2C_The_Cloisters.JPG/225px-Silver%2C_silver_gilt_and_painted_enamel_beaker%2C_Burgundian_Netherlands%2C_c._1425-1450%2C_The_Cloisters.JPG 2x" data-file-width="494" data-file-height="876" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Silver, silver gilt and painted enamel beaker, <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a>, c. 1425–1450, <a href="/wiki/The_Cloisters" title="The Cloisters">The Cloisters</a>, nyc</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Royal_Gold_Cup.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Royal Gold Cup with basse-taille enamels; weight 1.935 kg, British Museum. Saint Agnes appears to her friends in a vision."><img alt="The Royal Gold Cup with basse-taille enamels; weight 1.935 kg, British Museum. Saint Agnes appears to her friends in a vision." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/British_Museum_Royal_Gold_Cup.jpg/143px-British_Museum_Royal_Gold_Cup.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/British_Museum_Royal_Gold_Cup.jpg/214px-British_Museum_Royal_Gold_Cup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/British_Museum_Royal_Gold_Cup.jpg/286px-British_Museum_Royal_Gold_Cup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="2284" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Gold_Cup" title="Royal Gold Cup">Royal Gold Cup</a> with <i>basse-taille</i> enamels; weight 1.935 kg, <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Saint_Agnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Agnes">Saint Agnes</a> appears to her friends in a vision.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Normandie_Manche_Avranches3_tango7174.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Limoges? grisaille painted Stations of the Cross, Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Avranches"><img alt="Limoges? grisaille painted Stations of the Cross, Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Avranches" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Normandie_Manche_Avranches3_tango7174.jpg/200px-Normandie_Manche_Avranches3_tango7174.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Normandie_Manche_Avranches3_tango7174.jpg/300px-Normandie_Manche_Avranches3_tango7174.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Normandie_Manche_Avranches3_tango7174.jpg/400px-Normandie_Manche_Avranches3_tango7174.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="845" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Limoges? grisaille painted <a href="/wiki/Stations_of_the_Cross" title="Stations of the Cross">Stations of the Cross</a>, Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Avranches</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_Ch%C3%A2lons-St_Gr%C3%A9goire_edit_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="St. Gregory the Great in painted Limoges enamel on a copper plaque, by Jacques I Laudin"><img alt="St. Gregory the Great in painted Limoges enamel on a copper plaque, by Jacques I Laudin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Mus%C3%A9e_Ch%C3%A2lons-St_Gr%C3%A9goire_edit_3.jpg/169px-Mus%C3%A9e_Ch%C3%A2lons-St_Gr%C3%A9goire_edit_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Mus%C3%A9e_Ch%C3%A2lons-St_Gr%C3%A9goire_edit_3.jpg/253px-Mus%C3%A9e_Ch%C3%A2lons-St_Gr%C3%A9goire_edit_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Mus%C3%A9e_Ch%C3%A2lons-St_Gr%C3%A9goire_edit_3.jpg/337px-Mus%C3%A9e_Ch%C3%A2lons-St_Gr%C3%A9goire_edit_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1654" data-file-height="1960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">St. <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory the Great">Gregory the Great</a> in painted Limoges enamel on a copper plaque, by Jacques I Laudin</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Enamel_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A freehand enameled painting by Einar Hakonarson. In the forest, 1989"><img alt="A freehand enameled painting by Einar Hakonarson. In the forest, 1989" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Enamel_2.jpg/150px-Enamel_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Enamel_2.jpg/226px-Enamel_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Enamel_2.jpg/301px-Enamel_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1211" data-file-height="1610" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A freehand enameled painting by <a href="/wiki/Einar_Hakonarson" class="mw-redirect" title="Einar Hakonarson">Einar Hakonarson</a>. <i>In the forest,</i> 1989</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis_George_Feuer-Emaille-Zifferblatt_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Louis George enamel watch dial"><img alt="Louis George enamel watch dial" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Louis_George_Feuer-Emaille-Zifferblatt_01.jpg/200px-Louis_George_Feuer-Emaille-Zifferblatt_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Louis_George_Feuer-Emaille-Zifferblatt_01.jpg/300px-Louis_George_Feuer-Emaille-Zifferblatt_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Louis_George_Feuer-Emaille-Zifferblatt_01.jpg/400px-Louis_George_Feuer-Emaille-Zifferblatt_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Louis_George" title="Louis George">Louis George</a></i> enamel watch dial</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Iranian_vitreous_enamel.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Iranian enamel"><img alt="Iranian enamel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Iranian_vitreous_enamel.JPG/200px-Iranian_vitreous_enamel.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Iranian_vitreous_enamel.JPG/300px-Iranian_vitreous_enamel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Iranian_vitreous_enamel.JPG/400px-Iranian_vitreous_enamel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4152" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Iranian enamel</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Uhl_Ball" title="Fred Uhl Ball">Fred Uhl Ball</a> (1945–1985) – American enamellist who created the largest known enamel mural</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_Schindler" title="Oskar Schindler">Oskar Schindler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostov,_Yaroslavl_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast">Rostov</a> in Russia, with Moscow a centre of the Russian industry</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Enamel"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Enamel">"Enamel" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enamel&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osborne,_331-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Osborne,_331_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osborne,_331_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osborne,_331_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osborne,_331_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Osborne, 331</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ogden, 166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFНаумов2019" class="citation cs2">Наумов, Олег (2019-01-01), "ХУДОЖНЯ ЕМАЛЬ У ХРОНОТОПІ УКРАЇНСЬКОГО МИСТЕЦТВА. Альманах", <i>Культура і Сучасність</i>, vol. 2019, no. 2, pp. <span class="nowrap">192–</span>197</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0+%D1%96+%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C&rft.atitle=%D0%A5%D0%A3%D0%94%D0%9E%D0%96%D0%9D%D0%AF+%D0%95%D0%9C%D0%90%D0%9B%D0%AC+%D0%A3+%D0%A5%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%9D%D0%9E%D0%A2%D0%9E%D0%9F%D0%86+%D0%A3%D0%9A%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%87%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%AC%D0%9A%D0%9E%D0%93%D0%9E+%D0%9C%D0%98%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%95%D0%A6%D0%A2%D0%92%D0%90.+%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85&rft.volume=2019&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E192-%3C%2Fspan%3E197&rft.date=2019-01-01&rft.aulast=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mostovshchikova2020-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mostovshchikova2020_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFМостовщикова2020" class="citation cs2">Мостовщикова, Дар'я Олегівна (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elibrary.kubg.edu.ua/id/eprint/32111/">"Traditions of painted hot enamel of Europe and the East of the XVIIIth century in contemporary enamel art of Ukraine"</a>, <i>Актуальнi питання гуманiтарних наук: Мiжвузiвський збiрник наукових праць молодих вчених Дрогобицького державного педагогiчного унiверситету iменi Iвана Франка</i>, <b>1</b> (30): <span class="nowrap">173–</span>180, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24919%2F2308-4863.1%2F30.212240">10.24919/2308-4863.1/30.212240</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BDi+%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F+%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BDi%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%3A+%D0%9Ci%D0%B6%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B7i%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B7%D0%B1i%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8C+%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%B2%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%94%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B3i%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D1%83%D0%BDi%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%83+i%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BDi+I%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&rft.atitle=Traditions+of+painted+hot+enamel+of+Europe+and+the+East+of+the+XVIIIth+century+in+contemporary+enamel+art+of+Ukraine&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E173-%3C%2Fspan%3E180&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24919%2F2308-4863.1%2F30.212240&rft.aulast=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.aufirst=%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%80%27%D1%8F+%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felibrary.kubg.edu.ua%2Fid%2Feprint%2F32111%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sullivan-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sullivan, Michael, <i>The arts of China</i>, 4th edn, p. 239, University of California Press, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21877-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21877-9">0-520-21877-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21877-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21877-2">978-0-520-21877-2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sn0CyBCJKz8C&pg=PA239">Google books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-enamelinjapan-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelinjapan_8-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImpeyFairley2009" class="citation book cs1">Impey, Oliver; Fairley, Malcolm (2009). "Enamel in Japan". In Williams, Haydn (ed.). <i>Enamels of the world, 1700-2000: the Khalili collections</i>. London: Khalili Family Trust. pp. <span class="nowrap">149–</span>156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-874780-17-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-874780-17-5"><bdi>978-1-874780-17-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enamel+in+Japan&rft.btitle=Enamels+of+the+world%2C+1700-2000%3A+the+Khalili+collections&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E149-%3C%2Fspan%3E156&rft.pub=Khalili+Family+Trust&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-874780-17-5&rft.aulast=Impey&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.au=Fairley%2C+Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-earle-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-earle_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-earle_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-earle_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-earle_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarle1999" class="citation book cs1">Earle, Joe (1999). <i>Splendors of Meiji : treasures of imperial Japan : masterpieces from the Khalili Collection</i>. St. Petersburg, Fla.: Broughton International Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">252–</span>254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1874780137" title="Special:BookSources/1874780137"><bdi>1874780137</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42476594">42476594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Splendors+of+Meiji+%3A+treasures+of+imperial+Japan+%3A+masterpieces+from+the+Khalili+Collection&rft.place=St.+Petersburg%2C+Fla.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E252-%3C%2Fspan%3E254&rft.pub=Broughton+International+Inc&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42476594&rft.isbn=1874780137&rft.aulast=Earle&rft.aufirst=Joe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarada1911" class="citation journal cs1">Harada, Jiro (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studiointernatio53lond/page/270/mode/2up">"Japanese Art & Artists of To-day VI. Cloisonné Enamels"</a>. <i>The Studio</i>. <b>53</b>: 271 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Studio&rft.atitle=Japanese+Art+%26+Artists+of+To-day+VI.+Cloisonn%C3%A9+Enamels&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=271&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Harada&rft.aufirst=Jiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudiointernatio53lond%2Fpage%2F270%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-polished-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-polished_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-polished_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asianartnewspaper.com/polished-to-perfection/">"Polished to Perfection"</a>. <i>Asian Art Newspaper</i>. 5 November 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-1372">1475-1372</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Asian+Art+Newspaper&rft.atitle=Polished+to+Perfection&rft.date=2017-11-05&rft.issn=1475-1372&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasianartnewspaper.com%2Fpolished-to-perfection%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/60501">"Kawade Shibatarō | Imperial Presentation Vase with Maple Branches and Imperial Chrysanthemum Crest (one of a pair)"</a>. <i>www.metmuseum.org</i>. Metropolitan Museum of Art<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.metmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Kawade+Shibatar%C5%8D+%7C+Imperial+Presentation+Vase+with+Maple+Branches+and+Imperial+Chrysanthemum+Crest+%28one+of+a+pair%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fsearch%2F60501&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrvine2013" class="citation book cs1">Irvine, Gregory (2013). <i>Japonisme and the rise of the modern art movement : the arts of the Meiji period : the Khalili collection</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-23913-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-23913-1"><bdi>978-0-500-23913-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/853452453">853452453</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japonisme+and+the+rise+of+the+modern+art+movement+%3A+the+arts+of+the+Meiji+period+%3A+the+Khalili+collection&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F853452453&rft.isbn=978-0-500-23913-1&rft.aulast=Irvine&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dma-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dma_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dma_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard2012" class="citation web cs1">Leonard, Loryn (2012-06-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.dma.org/2012/06/26/how-its-made-japanese-cloisonne/">"How It's Made: Japanese Cloisonné"</a>. <i>Dallas Museum of Art Uncrated</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dallas+Museum+of+Art+Uncrated&rft.atitle=How+It%27s+Made%3A+Japanese+Cloisonn%C3%A9&rft.date=2012-06-26&rft.aulast=Leonard&rft.aufirst=Loryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.dma.org%2F2012%2F06%2F26%2Fhow-its-made-japanese-cloisonne%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jameelcentre.ashmolean.org/collection/7/10227/10247/all/per_page/25/offset/25/sort_by/date/object/12153">"Ashmolean − Eastern Art Online, Yousef Jameel Centre for Islamic and Asian Art"</a>. <i>jameelcentre.ashmolean.org</i>. Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jameelcentre.ashmolean.org&rft.atitle=Ashmolean+%E2%88%92+Eastern+Art+Online%2C+Yousef+Jameel+Centre+for+Islamic+and+Asian+Art&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjameelcentre.ashmolean.org%2Fcollection%2F7%2F10227%2F10247%2Fall%2Fper_page%2F25%2Foffset%2F25%2Fsort_by%2Fdate%2Fobject%2F12153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Japanese Art Enamels". <i>The Decorator and Furnisher</i>. <b>21</b> (5): 170. 1893. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2150-6256">2150-6256</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25582341">25582341</a>. <q>We doubt if any form of the enameller's art can equal the work executed in Japan, which is distinguished by great freedom of design, and the most exquisite gradations of color.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Decorator+and+Furnisher&rft.atitle=Japanese+Art+Enamels&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=170&rft.date=1893&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25582341%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=2150-6256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toyoro Hida, Gregory Irvine, Kana Ooki, Tomoko Hana and Yukari Muro. <i>Namikawa Yasuyuki and Japanese Cloisonné The Allure of Meiji Cloisonné: The Aesthetic of Translucent Black</i>, pp.182-188, <a href="/wiki/Mainichi_Shimbun" title="Mainichi Shimbun">The Mainichi Newspapers Co, Ltd</a>, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-enamelislamic-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-enamelislamic_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelislamic_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-enamelislamic_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoura_Carvalho2009" class="citation book cs1">Moura Carvalho, Pedro (2009). "Enamel in the Islamic Lands". In Williams, Haydn (ed.). <i>Enamels of the world, 1700-2000: the Khalili collections</i>. London: Khalili Family Trust. pp. <span class="nowrap">187–</span>196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-874780-17-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-874780-17-5"><bdi>978-1-874780-17-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enamel+in+the+Islamic+Lands&rft.btitle=Enamels+of+the+world%2C+1700-2000%3A+the+Khalili+collections&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E196&rft.pub=Khalili+Family+Trust&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-874780-17-5&rft.aulast=Moura+Carvalho&rft.aufirst=Pedro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranreview.org/content/Documents/The_Art_of_Minakari_2.htm">"The Art of Minakari"</a>. <i>iranreview.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iranreview.org&rft.atitle=The+Art+of+Minakari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranreview.org%2Fcontent%2FDocuments%2FThe_Art_of_Minakari_2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vea.org.uk/what-is-enamel/">"What is Vitreous Enamel?"</a>. <i>vea.org.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=vea.org.uk&rft.atitle=What+is+Vitreous+Enamel%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vea.org.uk%2Fwhat-is-enamel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrews-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews1961" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, Andrew Irving (1961). <i>Porcelain Enamels : the preparation, application, and properties of enamels</i>. Champaign, IL: The Garrard Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">321–</span>2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Porcelain+Enamels+%3A+the+preparation%2C+application%2C+and+properties+of+enamels&rft.place=Champaign%2C+IL&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E321-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pub=The+Garrard+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Irving&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_N._JazzarHarold_B._Nelson2016" class="citation web cs1">Bernard N. Jazzar; Harold B. Nelson (October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.themagazineantiques.com/article/painting-with-fire/">"Painting With Fire (From our Archives)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Antiques_(magazine)" title="Antiques (magazine)">The Magazine Antiques</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Magazine+Antiques&rft.atitle=Painting+With+Fire+%28From+our+Archives%29&rft.date=2016-10&rft.au=Bernard+N.+Jazzar&rft.au=Harold+B.+Nelson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.themagazineantiques.com%2Farticle%2Fpainting-with-fire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdatabase_and_e-research_tool_for_art_and_design_researchers" class="citation web cs1">database and e-research tool for art and design researchers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.daao.org.au/bio/bernard-hesling/biography/">"Bernard Hesling :: biography at :: at Design and Art Australia Online"</a>. Daao.org.au<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bernard+Hesling+%3A%3A+biography+at+%3A%3A+at+Design+and+Art+Australia+Online&rft.pub=Daao.org.au&rft.au=database+and+e-research+tool+for+art+and+design+researchers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.daao.org.au%2Fbio%2Fbernard-hesling%2Fbiography%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/w/winter-harold-edward">"WINTER, HAROLD EDWARD | Encyclopedia of Cleveland History | Case Western Reserve University"</a>. <i>case.edu</i>. 12 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=case.edu&rft.atitle=WINTER%2C+HAROLD+EDWARD+%7C+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History+%7C+Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2018-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fw%2Fwinter-harold-edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Judd, Donald, “Porcelain Enameling Aluminum: An Overview,” Proceedings of the 59th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 45-51 (1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sullivan, J.D. and Nelson, F.W., "Stainless Steel Requires Special Enameling Procedures", Proceedings of the Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum," 150–155 (1970).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pew, Steve, "The Who, What, Why, Where, and When of Cast Iron Enameling," Advances in Porcelain Enamel Technology, 177–186, (2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fedak, David and Baldwin, Charles, "A Comparison of Enameled and Stainless Steel Surfaces," Proceedings of the 67th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 45-54 (2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gavlenski, Jim and Baldwin, Charles, "Advanced Porcelain Enamel Coatings with Novel Properties," Proceedings of the 69th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 53-58, (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, 6, 10-17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, 7, 17-32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/term_details.aspx?scopeType=Terms&scopeId=17395">British Museum</a> collection database, "Scope note" for the term "enamelled"; other sources use different categories.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, 7, 33-41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, 38-42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, 7, 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucie-Smith,_83-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lucie-Smith,_83_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucie-Smith,_83_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucie-Smith, 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090713051944/http://www.americanart.si.edu/luce/object.cfm?key=338&artistmedia=0&subkey=330">"Craft: Jewelry: Brooch"</a>. <i>Luce Foundation Center for American Art</i>. Smithsonian American Art Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanart.si.edu/luce/object.cfm?key=338&artistmedia=0&subkey=330">the original</a> on 13 July 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Luce+Foundation+Center+for+American+Art&rft.atitle=Craft%3A+Jewelry%3A+Brooch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanart.si.edu%2Fluce%2Fobject.cfm%3Fkey%3D338%26artistmedia%3D0%26subkey%3D330&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucie-Smith, 84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feldman, Sid and Baldwin, Charles, "Surface Tension and Fusion Properties of Porcelain Enamels," Proceedings of the 69th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 1-10 (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Vitreous and porcelain enamels — Characteristics of enamel coatings applied to steel panels intended for architecture</i>. Standards Policy and Strategy Committee. 2008. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-580-72284-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-580-72284-4"><bdi>978-0-580-72284-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vitreous+and+porcelain+enamels+%E2%80%94+Characteristics+of+enamel+coatings+applied+to+steel+panels+intended+for+architecture&rft.pub=Standards+Policy+and+Strategy+Committee&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-580-72284-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Campbell, Marian. <i>An Introduction to Medieval Enamels</i>, 1983, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Public_Sector_Information" title="Office of Public Sector Information">HMSO</a> for <a href="/wiki/V%26A_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="V&A Museum">V&A Museum</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-11-290385-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-11-290385-1">0-11-290385-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lucie-Smith" title="Edward Lucie-Smith">Lucie-Smith, Edward</a>, <i>The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Art Terms</i>, 2003 (2nd edn), Thames & Hudson, World of Art series, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0500203652" title="Special:BookSources/0500203652">0500203652</a></li> <li>Ogden, Jack, "Metal", in <i>Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology</i>, eds. Paul T. Nicholson, Ian Shaw, 2000, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521452570" title="Special:BookSources/0521452570">0521452570</a>, 9780521452571, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj7A9jJrZP0C&pg=PA166">google books</a></li> <li>Osborne, Harold (ed), <i>The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts</i>, 1975, OUP, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198661134" title="Special:BookSources/0198661134">0198661134</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"Collection Highlights: Art in the Islamic World". Beaker. Smithsonian Institution: 2013.</li> <li>Dimand, M. S. "An Enameled-Glass Bottle of the Mamluk Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaryon1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Maryon" title="Herbert Maryon">Maryon, Herbert</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bpCgM8e7afMC&pg=PA169">"Enamelling"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/metalworkenamell00mary"><i>Metalwork and Enamelling</i></a> (5th ed.). New York: Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-22702-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-22702-2"><bdi>0-486-22702-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enamelling&rft.btitle=Metalwork+and+Enamelling&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-486-22702-2&rft.aulast=Maryon&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbpCgM8e7afMC%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitreous+enamel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Papadopoulous, Kiko. "Venetian Eastern Trade: 11th to 14th Centuries" 20 January 2012.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitreous_enamel&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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title="commons:Category:Enamel">Enamel</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.langantiques.com/university/index.php/Enamels_on_jewelry#Email_brun">Enamels on jewelry</a> – historical</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/directory/library/subject/7">Enameling Articles and Tutorials at The Ganoksin Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cidae.com/">CIDAE Center of Information and Difusion of the Art of Enamelling (ES)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enamellers.nl/index.php?l=uk">Society of Dutch Enamellers (NL)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enamelistsociety.org/">The Enamelist Society (US)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guildofenamellers.org/">Guild of Enamellers, UK</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a> science topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">Glass transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AgInSbTe" title="AgInSbTe">AgInSbTe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioglass">Bioglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borophosphosilicate_glass" title="Borophosphosilicate glass">Borophosphosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">Ceramic glaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">Chalcogenide glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_glass" title="Cobalt glass">Cobalt glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Cranberry glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_glass_(optics)" title="Crown glass (optics)">Crown glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint_glass" title="Flint glass">Flint glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorosilicate_glass" title="Fluorosilicate glass">Fluorosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GeSbTe" title="GeSbTe">GeSbTe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Gold ruby glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_glass" title="Milk glass">Milk glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphosilicate_glass" title="Phosphosilicate glass">Phosphosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic lens glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass#Silicate_glass" title="Glass">Silicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda–lime glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hexametaphosphate" title="Sodium hexametaphosphate">Sodium hexametaphosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_silicate" title="Sodium silicate">Soluble glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellurite_glass" title="Tellurite glass">Tellurite glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoriated_glass" title="Thoriated glass">Thoriated glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_low_expansion_glass" title="Ultra low expansion glass">Ultra low expansion glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_glass" title="Uranium glass">Uranium glass</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vitreous enamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood%27s_glass" title="Wood's glass">Wood's glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZBLAN" title="ZBLAN">ZBLAN</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">Glass-ceramics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioactive_glass" title="Bioactive glass">Bioactive glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CorningWare" title="CorningWare">CorningWare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic-to-metal_seals" title="Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals">Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macor" title="Macor">Macor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zerodur" title="Zerodur">Zerodur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">Annealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">Chemical vapor deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_batch_calculation" title="Glass batch calculation">Glass batch calculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Hot_end" title="Glass production">Glass melting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculation_of_glass_properties" title="Calculation of glass properties">Glass modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">Ion implantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquidus">Liquidus temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol%E2%80%93gel_process" title="Sol–gel process">sol–gel technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viscosity#Viscosity_of_amorphous_materials" title="Viscosity">Viscosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatic_lens" title="Achromatic lens">Achromat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradient-index_optics" title="Gradient-index optics">Gradient-index optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darkening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">Optical amplifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_lens_design" title="Optical lens design">Optical lens design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosensitive_glass" title="Photosensitive glass">Photosensitive glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">Transparent materials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface<br />modification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">Anti-reflective coating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemically_strengthened_glass" title="Chemically strengthened glass">Chemically strengthened glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion#Corrosion_of_glasses" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dealkalization" title="Dealkalization">Dealkalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darkening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">Insulated glazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cleaning_glass" title="Self-cleaning glass">Self-cleaning glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol%E2%80%93gel_process" title="Sol–gel process">sol–gel technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempered_glass" title="Tempered glass">Tempered glass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diverse<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_glass_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of glass objects">Conservation and restoration of glass objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-coated_wire" title="Glass-coated wire">Glass-coated wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">Safety glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_databases" title="Glass databases">Glass databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_electrode" title="Glass electrode">Glass electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber_reinforced_concrete" title="Glass fiber reinforced concrete">Glass fiber reinforced concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement" title="Glass ionomer cement">Glass ionomer cement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_microsphere" title="Glass microsphere">Glass microspheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">Glass-reinforced plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cloth" title="Glass cloth">Glass cloth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-to-metal_seal" title="Glass-to-metal seal">Glass-to-metal seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-preg" title="Pre-preg">Pre-preg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_drop" title="Prince Rupert's drop">Prince Rupert's drops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Vitrification" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste vitrification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windshield" title="Windshield">Windshield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass fiber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glass_production_techniques148" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse 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href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass production</a> techniques</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial<br />techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">Float glass process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritted_glass" title="Fritted glass">Fritted glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Forming_process" title="Glass production">Blowing and pressing (containers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_(fiber)#Fiber_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass (fiber)">Extrusion / Drawing (glass fibers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">Glass wool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber#Manufacturing" title="Optical fiber">Drawing (optical fibers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_glass_moulding" title="Precision glass moulding">Precision glass moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_downdraw_method" title="Overflow downdraw method">Overflow downdraw method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressed_glass" title="Pressed glass">Pressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_casting" title="Glass casting">Casting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flame_polishing" title="Flame polishing">Flame polishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etching_(microfabrication)" title="Etching (microfabrication)">Chemical polishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_turning" title="Diamond turning">Diamond turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolled_plate_glass" title="Rolled plate glass">Rolling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artistic and<br />historic techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80ina-k%C4%81ri" class="mw-redirect" title="Āina-kāri">Āina-kāri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_glass" title="Art glass">Art glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_art" title="Glass art">Glass art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_beadmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass beadmaking">Beadmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Blowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blown_plate_glass" title="Blown plate glass">Blown plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_sheet_glass" title="Broad sheet glass">Broad sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caneworking" title="Caneworking">Caneworking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cased_glass" title="Cased glass">Cased glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_glass_(window)" title="Crown glass (window)">Crown glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_glass" title="Cut glass">Cut glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cylinder_blown_sheet_glass" title="Cylinder blown sheet glass">Cylinder blown sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engraved_glass" title="Engraved glass">Engraving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_etching" title="Glass etching">Etching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enamelled_glass" title="Enamelled glass">Enamelled glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashed_glass" title="Flashed glass">Flashed glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_glass" title="Forest glass">Forest glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourcault_process" title="Fourcault process">Fourcault process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fusing" title="Glass fusing">Fusing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_mosaic" title="Glass mosaic">Glass mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glassware" title="List of glassware">Glassware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampworking" title="Lampworking">Lampworking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_drawn_cylinder_sheet_glass" title="Machine drawn cylinder sheet glass">Machine drawn cylinder sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millefiori" title="Millefiori">Millefiori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polished_plate_glass" title="Polished plate glass">Polished plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rippled_glass" title="Rippled glass">Rippled glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Kiriko_cut_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Satsuma Kiriko cut glass">Satsuma Kiriko cut glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slumping" title="Slumping">Slumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">Stained glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Studio_glass" title="Studio glass">Studio glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempered_glass" title="Tempered glass">Tempered glass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Glass_in_nature" title="Category:Glass in nature">Natural processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glass_with_embedded_metal_and_sulfides" title="Glass with embedded metal and sulfides">Radiative processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opal" title="Opal">Opal formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_glass" title="Sea glass">Sea glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_metamorphism" title="Shock metamorphism">Shock metamorphic glass</a>/<a href="/wiki/Impactite" title="Impactite">Impactite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrified_sand" title="Vitrified sand">Vitrified sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_glass" title="Volcanic glass">Volcanic glass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_glass_art_terms" title="Glossary of glass art terms">Glossary of glass art terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_recycling" title="Glass recycling">Glass recycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glass_makers_and_brands101" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_makers_and_brands" title="Template:Glass makers and brands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glass_makers_and_brands" title="Template talk:Glass makers and brands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Glass_makers_and_brands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Glass makers and brands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glass_makers_and_brands101" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Glass makers and brands</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current<br /> companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor_Hocking" title="Anchor Hocking">Anchor Hocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arc_Holdings" title="Arc Holdings">Arc Holdings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardagh_Group" title="Ardagh Group">Ardagh Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asahi_Glass_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Asahi Glass Co.">Asahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_Glass_Foundry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora Glass Foundry">Aurora Glass Foundry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baccarat_(company)" title="Baccarat (company)">Baccarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barovier_%26_Toso" title="Barovier & Toso">Barovier & Toso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berengo_Studio" title="Berengo Studio">Berengo Studio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blenko_Glass_Company" title="Blenko Glass Company">Blenko Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodum" title="Bodum">Bodum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bormioli_Rocco" title="Bormioli Rocco">Bormioli Rocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borosil" title="Borosil">Borosil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caithness_Glass" title="Caithness Glass">Caithness Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corning_Inc." title="Corning Inc.">Corning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystalex" title="Crystalex">Crystalex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dartington_Crystal" title="Dartington Crystal">Dartington Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daum_(studio)" title="Daum (studio)">Daum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duralex" title="Duralex">Duralex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanavid" title="Fanavid">Fanavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenton_Art_Glass_Company" title="Fenton Art Glass Company">Fenton Art Glass Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firozabad#Industry" title="Firozabad">Firozabad glass industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Mayer_%26_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Mayer & Co.">Franz Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuyao_Group" title="Fuyao Group">Fuyao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glava" title="Glava">Glava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaverbel" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaverbel">Glaverbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Industries" title="Guardian Industries">Guardian Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadeland_Glassverk" title="Hadeland Glassverk">Hadeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardman_%26_Co." title="Hardman & Co.">Hardman & Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmegaard_Glass_Factory" title="Holmegaard Glass Factory">Holmegaard Glassworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holophane" title="Holophane">Holophane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoya_Corporation" title="Hoya Corporation">Hoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Crystal" title="Kingdom of Crystal">Kingdom of Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokomo_Opalescent_Glass_Works" title="Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works">Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosta_Boda" title="Kosta Boda">Kosta Boda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libbey_Incorporated" title="Libbey Incorporated">Libbey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liuli_Gongfang" title="Liuli Gongfang">Liuli Gongfang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iittala" title="Iittala">Iittala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_Glass" title="Luoyang Glass">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johns_Manville" title="Johns Manville">Johns Manville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannok" title="Mannok">Mannok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mats_Jonasson" title="Mats Jonasson">Mats Jonasson Målerås</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moser_(glass_company)" title="Moser (glass company)">Moser Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosser_Glass" title="Mosser Glass">Mosser Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nippon_Sheet_Glass" title="Nippon Sheet Glass">Nippon Sheet Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%BEbor_glassworks" title="Nižbor glassworks">Nižbor glassworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-I_Glass" title="O-I Glass">O-I Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohara_Corporation" title="Ohara Corporation">Ohara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orrefors_glassworks" class="mw-redirect" title="Orrefors glassworks">Orrefors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osram" title="Osram">Osram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owens_Corning" title="Owens Corning">Owens Corning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauly_%26_C._%E2%80%93_Compagnia_Venezia_Murano" title="Pauly & C. – Compagnia Venezia Murano">Pauly & C. - Compagnia Venezia Murano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phu_Phong_Glass_Joint_Stock_Company" title="Phu Phong Glass Joint Stock Company">Phu Phong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilkington" title="Pilkington">Pilkington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PPG_Industries" title="PPG Industries">PPG Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preciosa_(corporation)" title="Preciosa (corporation)">Preciosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riedel_(glass_manufacturer)" title="Riedel (glass manufacturer)">Riedel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rona_glassworks" title="Rona glassworks">Rona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Brierley" title="Royal Brierley">Royal Brierley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Gobain" title="Saint-Gobain">Saint-Gobain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Louis_(glass_manufacturer)" title="Saint-Louis (glass manufacturer)">Saint-Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seguso" title="Seguso">Seguso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schott_AG" title="Schott AG">Schott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterlite_Technologies" title="Sterlite Technologies">Sterlite Optical Technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steuben_Glass_Works" title="Steuben Glass Works">Steuben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarovski" title="Swarovski">Swarovski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Saint_Lambert" title="Val Saint Lambert">Val Saint Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vall%C3%A9rysthal" title="Vallérysthal">Vallérysthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterford_Crystal" title="Waterford Crystal">Waterford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watts_%26_Co." title="Watts & Co.">Watts & Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Kitchen" class="mw-redirect" title="World Kitchen">World Kitchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinyi_Glass" title="Xinyi Glass">Xinyi Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwiesel_Kristallglas" title="Zwiesel Kristallglas">Zwiesel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct<br /> companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_defunct_glassmaking_companies" title="List of defunct glassmaking companies">List of defunct glassmaking companies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glassmakers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(glassmaker)" title="John Adams (glassmaker)">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Atwater" title="Richard M. Atwater">Richard M. Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Carder" title="Frederick Carder">Frederick Carder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Wightman_Colburn" title="Irving Wightman Colburn">Irving Wightman Colburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crimmel" title="Henry Crimmel">Henry Crimmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_family" title="Friedrich family">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._H._Heisey" title="A. H. Heisey">A. H. Heisey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deming_Jarves" title="Deming Jarves">Deming Jarves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Libbey" title="Edward Libbey">Edward D. Libbey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Marioni" title="Dante Marioni">Dante Marioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Neri" title="Antonio Neri">Antonio Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Joseph_Owens" title="Michael Joseph Owens">Michael Joseph Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alastair_Pilkington" title="Alastair Pilkington">Alastair Pilkington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavio_Poli" title="Flavio Poli">Flavio Poli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salviati_(glassmakers)" title="Salviati (glassmakers)">Salviati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Schott" title="Otto Schott">Otto Schott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_William_Stiegel" title="Henry William Stiegel">Henry William Stiegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S._Donald_Stookey" title="S. Donald Stookey">S. Donald Stookey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lino_Tagliapietra" title="Lino Tagliapietra">Lino Tagliapietra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._S._Turner" title="W. E. S. Turner">W. E. S. Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Urbanowicz" title="Tomasz Urbanowicz">Tomasz Urbanowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Venini" title="Paolo Venini">Paolo Venini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Whitall" title="John M. Whitall">John M. Whitall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_Wistar_(glassmaker)" title="Caspar Wistar (glassmaker)">Caspar Wistar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trademarks<br /> and brands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-cleaning_glass" title="Self-cleaning glass">Activ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_glass" title="Bohemian glass">Bohemian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Bomex/Duran/Endural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_glass" title="Burmese glass">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_bead" title="Chevron bead">Chevron bead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corelle" title="Corelle">Corelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CorningWare" title="CorningWare">CorningWare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Cranberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristallo" title="Cristallo">Cristallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragontrail" title="Dragontrail">Dragontrail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favrile_glass" title="Favrile glass">Favrile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-King" title="Fire-King">Fire-King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_glass" title="Forest glass">Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla_Glass" title="Gorilla Glass">Gorilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macor" title="Macor">Macor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millefiori" title="Millefiori">Millefiori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murano_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Murano glass">Murano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opaline_glass" title="Opaline glass">Opaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_glass" title="Peking glass">Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrex" title="Pyrex">Pyrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rona_glassworks" title="Rona glassworks">Rona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenhead_Glass" title="Ravenhead Glass">Ravenhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Kiriko_cut_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Satsuma Kiriko cut glass">Satsuma Kiriko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiffany_glass" title="Tiffany glass">Tiffany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visions_(cookware)" title="Visions (cookware)">Visions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrite" title="Vitrite">Vitrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrolite" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitrolite">Vitrolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vycor" title="Vycor">Vycor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterford_Crystal" title="Waterford Crystal">Waterford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood%27s_glass" title="Wood's glass">Wood's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zerodur" title="Zerodur">Zerodur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewellery187" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewellery" title="Template:Jewellery"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewellery" title="Template talk:Jewellery"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewellery" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewellery"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewellery187" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">Jewellery</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_jewellery_types" title="List of jewellery types">Forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anklet" title="Anklet">Anklet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_clip" title="Hair clip">Barrette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belly_chain" title="Belly chain">Belly chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_buckle" title="Belt buckle">Belt buckle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bindi_(decoration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bindi (decoration)">Bindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolo_tie" title="Bolo tie">Bolo tie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bracelet" title="Bracelet">Bracelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooch" title="Brooch">Brooch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery_chain" title="Jewellery chain">Chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatelaine_(chain)" title="Chatelaine (chain)">Chatelaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collar_pin" title="Collar pin">Collar pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown" title="Crown">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cufflink" title="Cufflink">Cufflink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earring" title="Earring">Earring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferronni%C3%A8re" title="Ferronnière">Ferronnière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_jewellery" class="mw-redirect" title="Genital jewellery">Genital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapel_pin" title="Lapel pin">Lapel pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necklace" title="Necklace">Necklace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_ring" title="Neck ring">Neck ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pectoral_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Pectoral (Ancient Egypt)">Pectoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendant" title="Pendant">Pendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_(jewellery)" title="Ring (jewellery)">Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiara" title="Tiara">Tiara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tie_chain" title="Tie chain">Tie chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tie_clip" title="Tie clip">Tie clip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tie_pin" title="Tie pin">Tie pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toe_ring" title="Toe ring">Toe ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch" title="Watch">Watch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_watch" title="Pocket watch">pocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch_strap" title="Watch strap">strap</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Making</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bench_jeweler" title="Bench jeweler">Bench jeweler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clockmaker" title="Clockmaker">Clockmaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldsmith" title="Goldsmith">Goldsmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery_design" title="Jewellery design">Jewellery designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapidary" title="Lapidary">Lapidarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silversmith" title="Silversmith">Silversmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker" title="Watchmaker">Watchmaker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">Carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_casting" title="Metal casting">Casting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_casting_(silversmithing)" title="Centrifugal casting (silversmithing)">centrifugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_casting" title="Metal casting">vacuum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Enameling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engraved_gem" title="Engraved gem">Engraving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filigree" title="Filigree">Filigree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewelry_model" title="Jewelry model">Jewelry model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_clay" title="Metal clay">Metal clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plating" title="Plating">Plating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polishing_(metalworking)" title="Polishing (metalworking)">Polishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9_and_chasing" title="Repoussé and chasing">Repoussé and chasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldering" title="Soldering">Soldering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonesetting" title="Stonesetting">Stonesetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire_sculpture" title="Wire sculpture">Wire sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire_wrapped_jewelry" title="Wire wrapped jewelry">Wire wrapped jewelry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draw_plate" title="Draw plate">Draw plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_(tool)" title="File (tool)">File</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">Hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandrel" title="Mandrel">Mandrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliers" title="Pliers">Pliers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">Precious metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rhodium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precious metal <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Britannia_silver" title="Britannia silver">Britannia silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_gold" title="Colored gold">Colored gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_gold" title="Crown gold">Crown gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrum" title="Electrum">Electrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakud%C5%8D" title="Shakudō">Shakudō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibuichi" title="Shibuichi">Shibuichi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterling_silver" title="Sterling silver">Sterling silver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentium_sterling_silver" title="Argentium sterling silver">Argentium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbaga" title="Tumbaga">Tumbaga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Base_metal" title="Base metal">Base metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">Brass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokume-gane" title="Mokume-gane">Mokume-gane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_silver" title="Nickel silver">Nickel silver (alpacca)</a>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Niobium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">Pewter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinchbeck_(alloy)" title="Pinchbeck (alloy)">Pinchbeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">Tungsten</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mineral <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agate" title="Agate">Agate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazonite" title="Amazonite">Amazonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amethyst" title="Amethyst">Amethyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aventurine" title="Aventurine">Aventurine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beryl" title="Beryl">Beryl</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_beryl" title="Red beryl">red</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">Carnelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysoberyl" title="Chrysoberyl">Chrysoberyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysocolla" title="Chrysocolla">Chrysocolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrine_(quartz)" title="Citrine (quartz)">Citrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diopside" title="Diopside">Diopside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerald" title="Emerald">Emerald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorite" title="Fluorite">Fluorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garnet" title="Garnet">Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howlite" title="Howlite">Howlite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">Jade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasper" title="Jasper">Jasper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyanite" title="Kyanite">Kyanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labradorite" title="Labradorite">Labradorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">Lapis lazuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larimar" title="Larimar">Larimar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malachite" title="Malachite">Malachite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcasite_jewellery" title="Marcasite jewellery">Marcasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonstone_(gemstone)" title="Moonstone (gemstone)">Moonstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onyx" title="Onyx">Onyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opal" title="Opal">Opal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peridot" title="Peridot">Peridot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prasiolite" title="Prasiolite">Prasiolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">Quartz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Smoky_quartz" title="Smoky quartz">smoky</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby" title="Ruby">Ruby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">Sapphire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodalite" title="Sodalite">Sodalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinel" title="Spinel">Spinel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunstone" title="Sunstone">Sunstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanite" title="Tanzanite">Tanzanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger%27s_eye" title="Tiger's eye">Tiger's eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topaz" title="Topaz">Topaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourmaline" title="Tourmaline">Tourmaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turquoise" title="Turquoise">Turquoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variscite" title="Variscite">Variscite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">Zircon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organic gemstones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abalone" title="Abalone">Abalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">Amber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammolite" title="Ammolite">Ammolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copal" title="Copal">Copal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Coral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_coral" title="Black coral">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_coral" title="Precious coral">Precious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_(gemstone)" title="Jet (gemstone)">Jet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nacre" title="Nacre">Nacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operculum_(gastropod)" title="Operculum (gastropod)">Operculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl" title="Pearl">Pearl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tortoiseshell" title="Tortoiseshell">Tortoiseshell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other natural objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bezoar" title="Bezoar">Bezoar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bog-wood" title="Bog-wood">Bog-wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebonite" title="Ebonite">Ebonite (vulcanite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutta-percha" title="Gutta-percha">Gutta-percha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_jewellery" class="mw-redirect" title="Hair jewellery">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_jewelry" title="Shell jewelry">Shell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spondylus" title="Spondylus">Spondylus shell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toadstone" title="Toadstone">Toadstone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_jewelry" title="Art jewelry">Art jewelry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carat_(mass)" title="Carat (mass)">Carat</a> (mass)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fineness#Carat" title="Fineness">Carat</a> (purity)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finding_(jewelcrafting)" title="Finding (jewelcrafting)">Finding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fineness" title="Fineness">Fineness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt>Related topics</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Body_piercing" title="Body piercing">Body piercing</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gemology" title="Gemology">Gemology</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">Metalworking</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wearable_art" title="Wearable art">Wearable art</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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