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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin_and_development_of_the_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_development_of_the_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Origin and development of the term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_development_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-External_and_internal_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_and_internal_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>External and internal factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_and_internal_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Primary production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Energy flow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decomposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decomposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Decomposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decomposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decomposition_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decomposition_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Decomposition rates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decomposition_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamics_and_resilience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamics_and_resilience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Dynamics and resilience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynamics_and_resilience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrient_cycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrient_cycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Nutrient cycling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrient_cycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function_and_biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function_and_biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Function and biodiversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function_and_biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Study approaches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Study_approaches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Study approaches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Study_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ecosystem ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Classifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_interactions_with_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_interactions_with_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Human interactions with ecosystems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_interactions_with_ecosystems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human interactions with ecosystems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_interactions_with_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_goods_and_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_goods_and_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ecosystem goods and services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_goods_and_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degradation_and_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degradation_and_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Degradation and decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degradation_and_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restoration_and_sustainable_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_and_sustainable_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Restoration and sustainable development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_and_sustainable_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Instances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 112 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-112" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">112 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekostelsel" title="Ekostelsel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ekostelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kosystem" title="Ökosystem – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ökosystem" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="نظام بيئي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام بيئي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema" title="Ecosistema – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ecosistema" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="পৰিৱেশ তন্ত্ৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পৰিৱেশ তন্ত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema" title="Ecosistema – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ecosistema" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="বাস্তুতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বাস্তুতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seng-th%C3%A0i-h%C4%93" title="Seng-thài-hē – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Seng-thài-hē" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Экасістэма – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Экасістэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Экасыстэма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Экасыстэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AE" title="इकोसिस्टम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इकोसिस्टम" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Екосистема – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Екосистема" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekoreizhiad" title="Ekoreizhiad – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ekoreizhiad" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema" title="Ecosistema – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ecosistema" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%82%C4%83%D0%BC" title="Экотытăм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Экотытăм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosyst%C3%A9m" title="Ekosystém – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ekosystém" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ecosystem" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98kosystem" title="Økosystem – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Økosystem" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kosystem" title="Ökosystem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ökosystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kos%C3%BCsteem" title="Ökosüsteem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ökosüsteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Οικοσύστημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οικοσύστημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema" title="Ecosistema – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ecosistema" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistemo" title="Ekosistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ekosistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistema" title="Ekosistema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ekosistema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85" title="اکوسیستم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اکوسیستم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cosyst%C3%A8me" title="Écosystème – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Écosystème" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosysteem" title="Ekosysteem – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ekosysteem" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89iceach%C3%B3ras" title="Éiceachóras – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Éiceachóras" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema" title="Ecosistema – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ecosistema" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%A8_%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="નિવસન તંત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="નિવસન તંત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%ED%83%9C%EA%B3%84" title="생태계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생태계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3" title="Էկոհամակարգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էկոհամակարգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="पारितंत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पारितंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosustav" title="Ekosustav – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ekosustav" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistemo" title="Ekosistemo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ekosistemo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistkerfi" title="Vistkerfi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vistkerfi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema" title="Ecosistema – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ecosistema" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מערכת אקולוגית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת אקולוגית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89kosistem" title="Ékosistem – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ékosistem" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B0_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B3%86" title="ಪರಿಸರ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಿಸರ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ეკოსისტემა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეკოსისტემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5" title="Экологиялық жүйе – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Экологиялық жүйе" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosist%C3%A8m" title="Ekosistèm – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ekosistèm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89kosyst%C3%A8m" title="Ékosystèm – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ékosystèm" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Экосистема – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Экосистема" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oecosystema" title="Oecosystema – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Oecosystema" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosist%C4%93ma" title="Ekosistēma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ekosistēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosystem" title="Ekosystem – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Ekosystem" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistema" title="Ekosistema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ekosistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecost%C3%A8lsel" title="Ecostèlsel – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Ecostèlsel" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kosziszt%C3%A9ma" title="Ökoszisztéma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ökoszisztéma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Екосистем – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Екосистем" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafi-tontolo_iainana" title="Rafi-tontolo iainana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rafi-tontolo iainana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5" title="ആവാസവ്യവസ്ഥ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആവാസവ്യവസ്ഥ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ეკოსისტემა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ეკოსისტემა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Экосистем – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Экосистем" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9F%E1%80%85%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ဂေဟစနစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂေဟစနစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosysteem" title="Ecosysteem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ecosysteem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="पारिस्थितिक प्रणाली – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पारिस्थितिक प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB" title="生態系 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生態系" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98kosystem" title="Økosystem – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Økosystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98kosystem" title="Økosystem – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Økosystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosist%C3%A8ma" title="Ecosistèma – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ecosistèma" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirnakkoo" title="Sirnakkoo – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Sirnakkoo" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekotizim" title="Ekotizim – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ekotizim" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9F%E1%80%85%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ဂေဟစနိစ် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဂေဟစနိစ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosystema_Natural" title="Ekosystema Natural – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Ekosystema Natural" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85" title="ایکوسیستم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ایکوسیستم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikosistim" title="Ikosistim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ikosistim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%96%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%92" title="និវេសនប្រព័ន្ធ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="និវេសនប្រព័ន្ធ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-sistema" title="Eco-sistema – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Eco-sistema" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kosystem" title="Ökosystem – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ökosystem" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosystem" title="Ekosystem – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ekosystem" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecossistema" title="Ecossistema – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ecossistema" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistema" title="Ekosistema – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ekosistema" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistem" title="Ecosistem – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ecosistem" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacha_llika" title="Pacha llika – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pacha llika" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Экосистема – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Экосистема" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Экосистема – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Экосистема" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE" title="पर्यावरणव्यवस्था – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="पर्यावरणव्यवस्था" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoseestem" title="Ecoseestem – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ecoseestem" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kosystem" title="Ökosystem – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Ökosystem" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistemi" title="Ekosistemi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ekosistemi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92" title="පරිසර පද්ධති – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිසර පද්ධති" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ecosystem" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%DA%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%D8%B3%D9%BD%D9%85" title="ايڪو سسٽم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ايڪو سسٽم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosyst%C3%A9m" title="Ekosystém – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ekosystém" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Екосистем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Екосистем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89kosistem" title="Ékosistem – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Ékosistem" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosysteemi" title="Ekosysteemi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ekosysteemi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosystem" title="Ekosystem – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ekosystem" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistema" title="Ekosistema – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ekosistema" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சூழல் மண்டலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சூழல் மண்டலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Экосистема – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Экосистема" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A3_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5" title="పర్యావరణ వ్యవస్థ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పర్యావరణ వ్యవస్థ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A8" title="ระบบนิเวศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบนิเวศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Экосистема – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Экосистема" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Екосистема – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Екосистема" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_sinh_th%C3%A1i" title="Hệ sinh thái – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ sinh thái" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekostelsl" title="Ekostelsl – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Ekostelsl" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistema" title="Ekosistema – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ekosistema" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="生态系统 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="生态系统" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="生態系統 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生態系統" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="生态系统 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="生态系统" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q37813#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/BioSystems" title="BioSystems"><i>BioSystems</i></a>.</span></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color:white"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:368px;max-width:368px;background-color:white"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Coral reefs are a highly productive marine ecosystem." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/180px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/270px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/360px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HohRiverTrail_7322.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/HohRiverTrail_7322.jpg/180px-HohRiverTrail_7322.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/HohRiverTrail_7322.jpg/270px-HohRiverTrail_7322.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/HohRiverTrail_7322.jpg/360px-HohRiverTrail_7322.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center;background-color:white">Left: <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a> ecosystems are highly <a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">productive</a> marine systems.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Right: <a href="/wiki/Temperate_rainforest" title="Temperate rainforest">Temperate rainforest</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial ecosystem</a>.</div></div></div></div> 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_simple.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/45px-DNA_simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/68px-DNA_simple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/90px-DNA_simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="114" data-file-height="270" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><b>Science of life</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="background:#ddddff;display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #e7f4e7;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree"> Phylogeny</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Properties of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)"> Domains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a> of life</b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">Animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">Plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Protists">Protists</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a 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unsolved problems in biology">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">Biomedical sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)"> Pharming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An <b>ecosystem</b> (or <b>ecological system</b>) is a system that <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environments</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> form through their interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011m-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 458">: 458 </span></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Biotic_material" title="Biotic material">biotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic components</a> are linked together through <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> flows. </p><p>Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal <a href="/wiki/Environmental_factor" title="Environmental factor">factors</a>. External factors such as <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent material</a> which forms the soil and <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>, control the overall structure of an ecosystem but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Internal factors are controlled, for example, by <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a>, root competition, shading, disturbance, succession, and the types of species present. While the <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">resource</a> inputs are generally controlled by external processes, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors. Therefore, internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them. </p><p>Ecosystems are <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dynamic" class="extiw" title="wikt:dynamic">dynamic</a> entities—they are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its <a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">resistance</a>. The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its <a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">ecological resilience</a>. Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation. <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a> are general classes or categories of ecosystems. However, there is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems. <a href="/wiki/Ecological_classification" title="Ecological classification">Ecosystem classifications</a> are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>: a biotic component, an <a href="/wiki/Abiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiotic">abiotic</a> complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy. Biotic factors of the ecosystem are living things; such as plants, animals, and bacteria, while abiotic are non-living components; such as water, soil and atmosphere. </p><p>Plants allow energy to enter the system through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, building up plant tissue. Animals play an important role in the movement of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> and energy through the system, by feeding on plants and on one another. They also influence the quantity of plant and <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbial</a> <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> present. By breaking down dead <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a> release <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> back to the atmosphere and facilitate <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient cycling">nutrient cycling</a> by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and microbes. </p><p>Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend, and may be part of. Ecosystem goods include the "tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal plant">medicinal plants</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a>, on the other hand, are generally "improvements in the condition or location of things of value". These include things like the maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">hydrological cycles</a>, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">soil loss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interbasin_transfer" title="Interbasin transfer">water diversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wildfire_suppression" title="Wildfire suppression">fire suppression</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introduced species</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>. These threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of <a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic</a> conditions of the ecosystem. Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_collapse" title="Ecosystem collapse">"collapsed</a>". <a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Ecosystem restoration</a> can contribute to achieving the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> <p>An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the abiotic pools (or physical environment) with which they interact.<sup id="cite_ref-Tansley-1935_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tansley-1935-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011m-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 458">: 458 </span></sup> The biotic and <a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic components</a> are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.<sup id="cite_ref-Odum-1971_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Odum-1971-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Ecosystem processes" are the transfers of energy and materials from one pool to another.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011m-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 458">: 458 </span></sup> Ecosystem processes are known to "take place at a wide range of scales". Therefore, the correct scale of study depends on the question asked.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_and_development_of_the_term">Origin and development of the term</h3></div> <p>The term "ecosystem" was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Tansley" title="Arthur Tansley">Arthur Tansley</a>. The term was coined by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Roy_Clapham" title="Arthur Roy Clapham">Arthur Roy Clapham</a>, who came up with the word at Tansley's request.<sup id="cite_ref-Willis-1997_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willis-1997-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup> He later refined the term, describing it as "The whole system, ... including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment".<sup id="cite_ref-Tansley-1935_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tansley-1935-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as "mental isolates".<sup id="cite_ref-Tansley-1935_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tansley-1935-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term "<a href="/wiki/Ecotope" title="Ecotope">ecotope</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Tansley-1939_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tansley-1939-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson" title="G. Evelyn Hutchinson">G. Evelyn Hutchinson</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Limnologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Limnologist">limnologist</a> who was a contemporary of Tansley's, combined <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sutherland_Elton" title="Charles Sutherland Elton">Charles Elton</a>'s ideas about <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic</a> ecology with those of Russian geochemist <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Vernadsky" title="Vladimir Vernadsky">Vladimir Vernadsky</a>. As a result, he suggested that mineral nutrient availability in a lake limited <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal production</a>. This would, in turn, limit the abundance of animals that feed on algae. <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Lindeman" title="Raymond Lindeman">Raymond Lindeman</a> took these ideas further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the primary driver of the ecosystem. Hutchinson's students, brothers <a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_P._Odum" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene P. Odum">Eugene P. Odum</a>, further developed a "systems approach" to the study of ecosystems. This allowed them to study the flow of energy and material through ecological systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processes">Processes</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif/220px-River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif/330px-River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif/440px-River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif 2x" data-file-width="691" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">Rainforest</a> ecosystems are rich in <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. This is the <a href="/wiki/Gambia_River" title="Gambia River">Gambia River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Niokolo-Koba_National_Park" title="Niokolo-Koba National Park">Niokolo-Koba National Park</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baja_California_Desert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Baja_California_Desert.jpg/220px-Baja_California_Desert.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Baja_California_Desert.jpg/330px-Baja_California_Desert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Baja_California_Desert.jpg/440px-Baja_California_Desert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1680" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baja_California_desert" title="Baja California desert">Baja California desert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catavi%C3%B1a" title="Cataviña">Cataviña</a> region, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_and_internal_factors">External and internal factors</h3></div> <p>Ecosystems are controlled by both external and internal factors. External factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. On broad geographic scales, <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> is the factor that "most strongly determines ecosystem processes and structure".<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> Climate determines the <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a> in which the ecosystem is embedded. Rainfall patterns and seasonal temperatures influence photosynthesis and thereby determine the amount of energy available to the ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011d_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011d-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 145">: 145 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">Parent material</a> determines the nature of the soil in an ecosystem, and influences the supply of mineral nutrients. <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">Topography</a> also controls ecosystem processes by affecting things like <a href="/wiki/Microclimate" title="Microclimate">microclimate</a>, soil development and the movement of water through a system. For example, ecosystems can be quite different if situated in a small depression on the landscape, versus one present on an adjacent steep hillside.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011b_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011b-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39">: 39 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011c_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011c-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66">: 66 </span></sup> </p><p>Other external factors that play an important role in ecosystem functioning include time and potential <a href="/wiki/Biota_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biota (ecology)">biota</a>, the organisms that are present in a region and could potentially occupy a particular site. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can end up doing things very differently simply because they have different pools of species present.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011j_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011j-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 321">: 321 </span></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introduction of non-native species</a> can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike external factors, internal factors in ecosystems not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16">: 16 </span></sup> While the <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">resource</a> inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other factors like disturbance, succession or the types of species present are also internal factors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_production">Primary production</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/400px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/600px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/800px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>Global oceanic and terrestrial phototroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. As an estimate of <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotroph</a> biomass, it is only a rough indicator of primary production potential and not an actual estimate of it.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></div> <p>Primary production is the production of <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> from inorganic carbon sources. This mainly occurs through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. The energy incorporated through this process supports life on earth, while the carbon makes up much of the organic matter in living and dead biomass, <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">soil carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>. It also drives the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>, which influences global <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>. </p><p>Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from light and use it to combine <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and water to produce <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP).<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011d_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011d-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 124">: 124 </span></sup> About half of the gross GPP is respired by plants in order to provide the energy that supports their growth and maintenance.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011e_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011e-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 157">: 157 </span></sup> The remainder, that portion of GPP that is not used up by respiration, is known as the <a href="/wiki/Net_primary_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Net primary production">net primary production</a> (NPP).<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011e_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011e-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 157">: 157 </span></sup> Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), the rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011d_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011d-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 155">: 155 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_flow">Energy flow</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow (ecology)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> enter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated into living tissue, transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and dead plant matter, and eventually released through respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011e_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011e-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 157">: 157 </span></sup> The carbon and energy incorporated into plant tissues (net primary production) is either consumed by animals while the plant is alive, or it remains uneaten when the plant tissue dies and becomes <a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">detritus</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial ecosystems</a>, the vast majority of the net primary production ends up being broken down by <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposers</a>. The remainder is consumed by animals while still alive and enters the plant-based trophic system. After plants and animals die, the organic matter contained in them enters the detritus-based trophic system.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011i_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011i-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_respiration" title="Ecosystem respiration">Ecosystem respiration</a> is the sum of <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">respiration</a> by all living organisms (plants, animals, and decomposers) in the ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Net_ecosystem_production" title="Net ecosystem production">Net ecosystem production</a> is the difference between <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">gross primary production</a> (GPP) and ecosystem respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-Lovett-2006_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lovett-2006-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem. </p><p>Energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfire</a> or transferred to other ecosystems (e.g., from a forest to a stream to a lake) by <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic systems</a>, the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> is much higher than in terrestrial systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011i_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011i-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In trophic systems, photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers. The organisms that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or <a href="/wiki/Secondary_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary production">secondary producers</a>—<a href="/wiki/Herbivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivores">herbivores</a>. Organisms which feed on <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>) are termed <a href="/wiki/Microbivore" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbivore">microbivores</a>. Animals that feed on primary consumers—<a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">carnivores</a>—are secondary consumers. Each of these constitutes a trophic level.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011i_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011i-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sequence of consumption—from plant to herbivore, to carnivore—forms a <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>. Real systems are much more complex than this—organisms will generally feed on more than one form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level. Carnivores may capture some prey that is part of a plant-based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus-based trophic system (a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume detritus). Real systems, with all these complexities, form <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a> rather than food chains which present a number of common, non random properties in the topology of their network.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decomposition">Decomposition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decomposition_stages.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Decomposition_stages.jpg/660px-Decomposition_stages.jpg" decoding="async" width="660" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Decomposition_stages.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="146" /></a><figcaption>Sequence of a decomposing pig carcass over time</figcaption></figure> <p>The carbon and nutrients in <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">dead organic matter</a> are broken down by a group of processes known as decomposition. This releases nutrients that can then be re-used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (or water) where it can be used for photosynthesis. In the absence of decomposition, the dead organic matter would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011f_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011f-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 183">: 183 </span></sup> </p><p>Decomposition processes can be separated into three categories—<a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">leaching</a>, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. As water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water-soluble components. These are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem (and are considered lost to it).<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 271–280">: 271–280 </span></sup> Newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water-soluble components and include <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> and mineral nutrients. Leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011c_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011c-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 69–77">: 69–77 </span></sup> </p><p>Fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. Freshly shed <a href="/wiki/Leaf_litter" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaf litter">leaf litter</a> may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of <a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">cuticle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bark_(botany)" title="Bark (botany)">bark</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protoplasm" title="Protoplasm">cell contents</a> are protected by a <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a>. Newly dead animals may be covered by an <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a>. Fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011f_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011f-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 184">: 184 </span></sup> Animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. <a href="/wiki/Freeze-thaw_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeze-thaw cycle">Freeze-thaw cycles</a> and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011f_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011f-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 186">: 186 </span></sup> </p><p>The chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. Fungal <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a> produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. They also produce enzymes that break down <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. Fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011f_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011f-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 186">: 186 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decomposition_rates">Decomposition rates</h4></div> <p>Decomposition rates vary among ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Ochoa-Hueso-2019_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ochoa-Hueso-2019-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors—the physical environment (temperature, moisture, and soil properties), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011f_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011f-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 194">: 194 </span></sup> Temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. Temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. Freeze-thaw cycles also affect decomposition—freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. This can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 280">: 280 </span></sup> </p><p>Decomposition rates are low under very wet or very dry conditions. Decomposition rates are highest in wet, moist conditions with adequate levels of oxygen. Wet soils tend to become deficient in oxygen (this is especially true in <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a>), which slows microbial growth. In dry soils, decomposition slows as well, but bacteria continue to grow (albeit at a slower rate) even after soils become too dry to support plant growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011f_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011f-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 200">: 200 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynamics_and_resilience">Dynamics and resilience</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance (ecology)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Ecological resilience</a></div> <p>Ecosystems are dynamic entities. They are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from past disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011k_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011k-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 347">: 347 </span></sup> When a <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perturbation (biology)">perturbation</a> occurs, an ecosystem responds by moving away from its initial state. The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its <a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">resistance</a>. The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its <a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">ecological resilience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resilience thinking also includes humanity as an integral part of the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> where we are dependent on <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> for our survival and must build and maintain their natural capacities to withstand shocks and disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Time plays a central role over a wide range, for example, in the slow development of soil from bare rock and the faster <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">recovery of a community from disturbance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011e_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011e-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a> also plays an important role in ecological processes. <a href="/wiki/F._Stuart_Chapin_III" title="F. Stuart Chapin III">F. Stuart Chapin</a> and coauthors define disturbance as "a relatively discrete event in time that removes plant biomass".<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011k_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011k-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 346">: 346 </span></sup> This can range from <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivore</a> outbreaks, treefalls, fires, hurricanes, floods, <a href="/wiki/Glacial_motion" title="Glacial motion">glacial advances</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">volcanic eruptions</a>. Such disturbances can cause large changes in plant, animal and microbe populations, as well as soil organic matter content. Disturbance is followed by succession, a "directional change in ecosystem structure and functioning resulting from biotically driven changes in resource supply."<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011m-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 470">: 470 </span></sup> </p><p>The frequency and severity of disturbance determine the way it affects ecosystem function. A major disturbance like a volcanic eruption or <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a> advance and retreat leave behind soils that lack plants, animals or organic matter. Ecosystems that experience such disturbances undergo <a href="/wiki/Primary_succession" title="Primary succession">primary succession</a>. A less severe disturbance like forest fires, hurricanes or cultivation result in <a href="/wiki/Secondary_succession" title="Secondary succession">secondary succession</a> and a faster recovery.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011k_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011k-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 348">: 348 </span></sup> More severe and more frequent disturbance result in longer recovery times. </p><p>From one year to another, ecosystems experience variation in their biotic and abiotic environments. A <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>, a colder than usual winter, and a pest outbreak all are short-term variability in environmental conditions. Animal populations vary from year to year, building up during resource-rich periods and crashing as they overshoot their food supply. Longer-term changes also shape ecosystem processes. For example, the forests of eastern North America still show legacies of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">cultivation</a> which ceased in 1850 when large areas were reverted to forests.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011k_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011k-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 340">: 340 </span></sup> Another example is the <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> production in eastern <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberian</a> lakes that is controlled by <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> which accumulated during the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panorama_presa_las_ni%C3%B1as_mogan_gran_canaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Panorama_presa_las_ni%C3%B1as_mogan_gran_canaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="800" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="175" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> lake in <a href="/wiki/Gran_Canaria" title="Gran Canaria">Gran Canaria</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">island</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>. Clear boundaries make lakes convenient to study using an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_approach" title="Ecosystem approach">ecosystem approach</a>.</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrient_cycling">Nutrient cycling</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg/400px-Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Biological nitrogen cycling</figcaption></figure> <p>Ecosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with the wider <a href="/wiki/Environment_(systems)" title="Environment (systems)">environment</a>. Mineral nutrients, on the other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals, microbes and the soil. Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>, is deposited through precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 266">: 266 </span></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrestrial ecosystems">terrestrial ecosystems</a> are nitrogen-limited in the short term making <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycling</a> an important control on ecosystem production.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 289">: 289 </span></sup> Over the long term, phosphorus availability can also be critical.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Macronutrients which are required by all plants in large quantities include the primary nutrients (which are most limiting as they are used in largest amounts): Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011g_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011g-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 231">: 231 </span></sup> Secondary major nutrients (less often limiting) include: Calcium, magnesium, sulfur. <a href="/wiki/Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">Micronutrients</a> required by all plants in small quantities include boron, chloride, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc. Finally, there are also beneficial nutrients which may be required by certain plants or by plants under specific environmental conditions: aluminum, cobalt, iodine, nickel, selenium, silicon, sodium, vanadium.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011g_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011g-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 231">: 231 </span></sup> </p><p>Until modern times, nitrogen fixation was the major source of nitrogen for ecosystems. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria either live <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotically</a> with plants or live freely in the soil. The energetic cost is high for plants that support nitrogen-fixing symbionts—as much as 25% of gross primary production when measured in controlled conditions. Many members of the <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legume</a> plant family support nitrogen-fixing symbionts. Some <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> are also capable of nitrogen fixation. These are <a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">phototrophs</a>, which carry out photosynthesis. Like other nitrogen-fixing bacteria, they can either be free-living or have symbiotic relationships with plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011k_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011k-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 360">: 360 </span></sup> Other sources of nitrogen include <a href="/wiki/Acid_deposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid deposition">acid deposition</a> produced through the combustion of fossil fuels, <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> gas which evaporates from agricultural fields which have had fertilizers applied to them, and dust.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 270">: 270 </span></sup> Anthropogenic nitrogen inputs account for about 80% of all nitrogen fluxes in ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 270">: 270 </span></sup> </p><p>When plant tissues are shed or are eaten, the nitrogen in those tissues becomes available to animals and microbes. Microbial decomposition releases nitrogen compounds from dead organic matter in the soil, where plants, fungi, and bacteria compete for it. Some soil bacteria use organic nitrogen-containing compounds as a source of carbon, and release <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> ions into the soil. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Ammonification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonification">nitrogen mineralization</a>. Others convert ammonium to <a href="/wiki/Nitrite" title="Nitrite">nitrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> ions, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Nitrification" title="Nitrification">nitrification</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> are also produced during nitrification.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 277">: 277 </span></sup> Under nitrogen-rich and oxygen-poor conditions, nitrates and nitrites are converted to <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen gas</a>, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Denitrification" title="Denitrification">denitrification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 281">: 281 </span></sup> </p><p>Mycorrhizal fungi which are symbiotic with plant roots, use carbohydrates supplied by the plants and in return transfer phosphorus and nitrogen compounds back to the plant roots.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hestrin-2019_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hestrin-2019-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an important pathway of organic nitrogen transfer from dead organic matter to plants. This mechanism may contribute to more than 70 Tg of annually assimilated plant nitrogen, thereby playing a critical role in global nutrient cycling and ecosystem function.<sup id="cite_ref-Hestrin-2019_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hestrin-2019-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phosphorus enters ecosystems through <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a>. As ecosystems age this supply diminishes, making phosphorus-limitation more common in older landscapes (especially in the tropics).<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 287–290">: 287–290 </span></sup> Calcium and sulfur are also produced by weathering, but acid deposition is an important source of sulfur in many ecosystems. Although magnesium and manganese are produced by weathering, exchanges between soil organic matter and living cells account for a significant portion of ecosystem fluxes. Potassium is primarily cycled between living cells and soil organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011h_20-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011h-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 291">: 291 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Function_and_biodiversity">Function and biodiversity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_loch_lomond.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/View_of_loch_lomond.JPG/220px-View_of_loch_lomond.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/View_of_loch_lomond.JPG/330px-View_of_loch_lomond.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/View_of_loch_lomond.JPG/440px-View_of_loch_lomond.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Loch_Lomond" title="Loch Lomond">Loch Lomond</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> forms a relatively isolated ecosystem. The fish community of this lake has remained stable over a long period until a number of <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introductions</a> in the 1970s restructured its <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg/220px-Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg/330px-Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg/440px-Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Spiny forest at Ifaty, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, featuring various <i><a href="/wiki/Adansonia" title="Adansonia">Adansonia</a></i> (baobab) species, <i><a href="/wiki/Alluaudia_procera" title="Alluaudia procera">Alluaudia procera</a></i> (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a> plays an important role in ecosystem functioning.<sup id="cite_ref-Schulze-2005_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schulze-2005-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 449–453">: 449–453 </span></sup> Ecosystem processes are driven by the species in an ecosystem, the nature of the individual species, and the relative abundance of organisms among these species. Ecosystem processes are the net effect of the actions of individual organisms as they interact with their environment. <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Ecological theory</a> suggests that in order to coexist, species must have some level of <a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">limiting similarity</a>—they must be different from one another in some fundamental way, otherwise, one species would <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Competitive exclusion">competitively exclude</a> the other.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoener-2009_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoener-2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, the cumulative effect of additional species in an ecosystem is not linear: additional species may enhance nitrogen retention, for example. However, beyond some level of species richness,<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011j_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011j-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 331">: 331 </span></sup> additional species may have little additive effect unless they differ substantially from species already present.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011j_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011j-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 324">: 324 </span></sup> This is the case for example for <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">exotic species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011j_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011j-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 321">: 321 </span></sup> </p><p>The addition (or loss) of species that are ecologically similar to those already present in an ecosystem tends to only have a small effect on ecosystem function. Ecologically distinct species, on the other hand, have a much larger effect. Similarly, dominant species have a large effect on ecosystem function, while rare species tend to have a small effect. <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a> tend to have an effect on ecosystem function that is disproportionate to their abundance in an ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011j_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011j-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 324">: 324 </span></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">ecosystem engineer</a> is any <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> that creates, significantly modifies, maintains or destroys a <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Study_approaches">Study approaches</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecosystem_ecology">Ecosystem ecology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:East_Scotia_Ridge_-_Plos_Biol_04.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/East_Scotia_Ridge_-_Plos_Biol_04.tif/lossy-page1-220px-East_Scotia_Ridge_-_Plos_Biol_04.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/East_Scotia_Ridge_-_Plos_Biol_04.tif/lossy-page1-330px-East_Scotia_Ridge_-_Plos_Biol_04.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/East_Scotia_Ridge_-_Plos_Biol_04.tif/lossy-page1-440px-East_Scotia_Ridge_-_Plos_Biol_04.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2031" data-file-height="1447" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vent</a> is an ecosystem on the ocean floor. (The scale bar is 1 m.)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a> is the "study of the interactions between organisms and their environment as an integrated system".<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011m-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 458">: 458 </span></sup> The size of ecosystems can range up to ten <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">orders of magnitude</a>, from the surface layers of rocks to the surface of the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6">: 6 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hubbard_Brook_Ecosystem_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study">Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study</a> started in 1963 to study the <a href="/wiki/White_Mountains_(New_Hampshire)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Mountains (New Hampshire)">White Mountains in New Hampshire</a>. It was the first successful attempt to study an entire <a href="/wiki/Watershed_management" title="Watershed management">watershed</a> as an ecosystem. The study used stream <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> as a means of monitoring ecosystem properties, and developed a detailed <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">biogeochemical model</a> of the ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindenmayer-2010_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindenmayer-2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Long_Term_Ecological_Research_Network" title="Long Term Ecological Research Network">Long-term research</a> at the site led to the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a> in North America in 1972. Researchers documented the depletion of soil <a href="/wiki/Cations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cations">cations</a> (especially calcium) over the next several decades.<sup id="cite_ref-Likens-2004_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Likens-2004-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Carpenter-1998_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carpenter-1998-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies can be carried out at a variety of scales, ranging from whole-ecosystem studies to studying <a href="/wiki/Microcosm:_Model_/_experimental_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcosm: Model / experimental ecosystem">microcosms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mesocosm" title="Mesocosm">mesocosms</a> (simplified representations of ecosystems).<sup id="cite_ref-Schindler-1998_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schindler-1998-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American ecologist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_R._Carpenter" title="Stephen R. Carpenter">Stephen R. Carpenter</a> has argued that microcosm experiments can be "irrelevant and diversionary" if they are not carried out in conjunction with field studies done at the ecosystem scale. In such cases, microcosm experiments may fail to accurately predict ecosystem-level dynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-Carpenter-1996_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carpenter-1996-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classifications">Classifications</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem classification">Ecosystem classification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biogeoclimatic_ecosystem_classification" title="Biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification">Biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a> are general classes or categories of ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> However, there is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biomes are always defined at a very general level. Ecosystems can be described at levels that range from very general (in which case the names are sometimes the same as those of biomes) to very specific, such as "wet coastal needle-leafed forests". </p><p>Biomes vary due to global variations in <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>. Biomes are often defined by their structure: at a general level, for example, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">temperate grasslands</a>, and arctic <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> There can be any degree of subcategories among ecosystem types that comprise a biome, e.g., needle-leafed <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">boreal forests</a> or wet tropical forests. Although ecosystems are most commonly categorized by their structure and geography, there are also other ways to categorize and classify ecosystems such as by their level of human impact (see <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_biome" title="Anthropogenic biome">anthropogenic biome</a>), or by their integration with social processes or technological processes or their novelty (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Novel_ecosystem" title="Novel ecosystem">novel ecosystem</a>). Each of these <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">taxonomies</a> of ecosystems tends to emphasize different structural or functional properties.<sup id="cite_ref-IUCN-2020_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUCN-2020-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of these is the "best" classification. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ecological_classification" title="Ecological classification">Ecosystem classifications</a> are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>: a biotic component, an <a href="/wiki/Abiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiotic">abiotic</a> complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy.<sup id="cite_ref-IUCN-2020_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUCN-2020-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different approaches to ecological classifications have been developed in terrestrial, freshwater and marine disciplines, and a function-based typology has been proposed to leverage the strengths of these different approaches into a unified system.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_interactions_with_ecosystems">Human interactions with ecosystems</h2></div> <p>Human activities are important in almost all ecosystems. Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecosystem_goods_and_services">Ecosystem goods and services</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_Lake,_looking_south.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Avalanche_Lake%2C_looking_south.jpg/220px-Avalanche_Lake%2C_looking_south.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Avalanche_Lake%2C_looking_south.jpg/330px-Avalanche_Lake%2C_looking_south.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Avalanche_Lake%2C_looking_south.jpg/440px-Avalanche_Lake%2C_looking_south.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/High_Peaks_Wilderness_Area" title="High Peaks Wilderness Area">High Peaks Wilderness Area</a> in the 6,000,000-acre (2,400,000 ha) <a href="/wiki/Adirondack_Park" title="Adirondack Park">Adirondack Park</a> is an example of a diverse ecosystem.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecological_goods_and_services" title="Ecological goods and services">Ecological goods and services</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_valuation" title="Ecosystem valuation">Ecosystem valuation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></div> <p>Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend.<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen-1996_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen-1996-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ecosystem goods include the "tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal plant">medicinal plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brown-2007_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-2007-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also include less tangible items like <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a> and recreation, and genes from wild plants and animals that can be used to improve domestic species.<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen-1996_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen-1996-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a>, on the other hand, are generally "improvements in the condition or location of things of value".<sup id="cite_ref-Brown-2007_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-2007-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include things like the maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research.<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen-1996_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen-1996-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While material from the ecosystem had traditionally been recognized as being the basis for things of economic value, ecosystem services tend to be taken for granted.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown-2007_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-2007-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Ecosystem_Assessment" title="Millennium Ecosystem Assessment">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment</a></i> is an international synthesis by over 1000 of the world's leading biological scientists that analyzes the state of the Earth's ecosystems and provides summaries and guidelines for decision-makers. The report identified four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services.<sup id="cite_ref-Millennium_Ecosystem_Assessment-2005_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millennium_Ecosystem_Assessment-2005-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It concludes that human activity is having a significant and escalating impact on the biodiversity of the world ecosystems, reducing both their <a href="/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (ecology)">resilience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">biocapacity</a>. The report refers to natural systems as humanity's "life-support system", providing essential ecosystem services. The assessment measures 24 ecosystem services and concludes that only four have shown improvement over the last 50 years, 15 are in serious decline, and five are in a precarious condition.<sup id="cite_ref-Millennium_Ecosystem_Assessment-2005_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millennium_Ecosystem_Assessment-2005-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6–19">: 6–19 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Science-Policy_Platform_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services" title="Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a> (IPBES) is an intergovernmental organization established to improve the interface between science and policy on issues of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and ecosystem services.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is intended to serve a similar role to the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ecosystem services are limited and also threatened by human activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Ceccato-2014_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceccato-2014-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To help inform decision-makers, many ecosystem services are being assigned economic values, often based on the cost of replacement with anthropogenic alternatives. The ongoing challenge of prescribing economic value to nature, for example through <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_banking" title="Biodiversity banking">biodiversity banking</a>, is prompting transdisciplinary shifts in how we recognize and manage the environment, <a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">social responsibility</a>, business opportunities, and our future as a species.<sup id="cite_ref-Ceccato-2014_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceccato-2014-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degradation_and_decline">Degradation and decline</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_collapse" title="Ecosystem collapse">Ecosystem collapse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Effects of climate change on biomes</a></div> <p>As human population and per capita consumption grow, so do the resource demands imposed on ecosystems and the effects of the human <a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">ecological footprint</a>. Natural resources are vulnerable and limited. The environmental impacts of <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> actions are becoming more apparent. Problems for all ecosystems include: <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">environmental pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>. For terrestrial ecosystems further threats include <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">soil degradation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>. For <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic ecosystems">aquatic ecosystems</a> threats also include unsustainable exploitation of marine resources (for example <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>), <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a> pollution, the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">effects of climate change on oceans</a> (e.g. warming and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a>), and building on coastal areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander-1999_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander-1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">soil loss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interbasin_transfer" title="Interbasin transfer">water diversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wildfire_suppression" title="Wildfire suppression">fire suppression</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introduced species</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011l_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011l-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 437">: 437 </span></sup> </p><p>These threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of <a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic</a> conditions of the ecosystem. Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered <i><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_collapse" title="Ecosystem collapse">collapsed</a></i> (see also <a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List_of_Ecosystems" title="IUCN Red List of Ecosystems">IUCN Red List of Ecosystems</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Keith-2013_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keith-2013-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ecosystem collapse could be reversible and in this way differs from <a href="/wiki/Species_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Species extinction">species extinction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Boitani-2014_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boitani-2014-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quantitative assessments of the <a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List_of_Ecosystems" title="IUCN Red List of Ecosystems">risk of collapse</a> are used as measures of conservation status and trends. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Management">Management</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_management" title="Ecosystem management">Ecosystem management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_management" title="Ecosystem-based management">Ecosystem-based management</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_approach" title="Ecosystem approach">Ecosystem approach</a></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">natural resource management</a> is applied to whole ecosystems, rather than single species, it is termed <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_management" title="Ecosystem management">ecosystem management</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grumbine-1994_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grumbine-1994-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although definitions of ecosystem management abound, there is a common set of principles which underlie these definitions: A fundamental principle is the long-term <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> of the production of goods and services by the ecosystem;<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011l_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011l-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "intergenerational sustainability [is] a precondition for management, not an afterthought".<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen-1996_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen-1996-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While ecosystem management can be used as part of a plan for <a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">wilderness</a> conservation, it can also be used in intensively managed ecosystems<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen-1996_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen-1996-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see, for example, <a href="/wiki/Agroecosystem" title="Agroecosystem">agroecosystem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Close_to_nature_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Close to nature forestry">close to nature forestry</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restoration_and_sustainable_development">Restoration and sustainable development</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Conservation_and_Development_Project" title="Integrated Conservation and Development Project">Integrated conservation and development projects</a> (ICDPs) aim to address <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation</a> and human livelihood (<a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>) concerns in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> together, rather than separately as was often done in the past.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapin-2011l_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapin-2011l-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 445">: 445 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3></div> <p>The following articles are types of ecosystems for particular types of regions or zones: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">Freshwater ecosystem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a> (lentic ecosystem)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a> (lotic ecosystem)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_salt_pond_ecosystem" title="Tropical salt pond ecosystem">Tropical salt pond ecosystem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">Terrestrial ecosystem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boreal_ecosystem" title="Boreal ecosystem">Boreal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater-dependent_ecosystems" title="Groundwater-dependent ecosystems">Groundwater-dependent ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Montane ecosystem">Montane ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecosystem" title="Urban ecosystem">Urban ecosystem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Ecosystems grouped by condition</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecosystem" title="Agroecosystem">Agroecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed ecosystem">Closed ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depauperate_ecosystem" title="Depauperate ecosystem">Depauperate ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel_ecosystem" title="Novel ecosystem">Novel ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference_ecosystem" title="Reference ecosystem">Reference ecosystem</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instances">Instances <span class="anchor" id="List"></span></h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecosystem&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Ecosystems_by_region" title="Category:Ecosystems by region">Ecosystems by region</a></div> <p>Ecosystem instances in specific regions of the world: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Yellowstone_Ecosystem" title="Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem">Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leuser_Ecosystem" title="Leuser Ecosystem">Leuser Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longleaf_pine_Ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Longleaf pine Ecosystem">Longleaf pine Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarangire_Ecosystem" title="Tarangire Ecosystem">Tarangire Ecosystem</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHatcher1990" class="citation journal cs1">Hatcher, Bruce Gordon (1990). "Coral reef primary productivity. A hierarchy of pattern and process". <i>Trends in Ecology and Evolution</i>. <b>5</b> (5): 149–155. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0169-5347%2890%2990221-X">10.1016/0169-5347(90)90221-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21232343">21232343</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Coral+reef+primary+productivity.+A+hierarchy+of+pattern+and+process&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=149-155&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0169-5347%2890%2990221-X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21232343&rft.aulast=Hatcher&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapin-2011m-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011m_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapin2011" class="citation book cs1">Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Glossary". <i>Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology</i>. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9504-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9504-9"><bdi>978-1-4419-9504-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/755081405">755081405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Glossary&rft.btitle=Principles+of+terrestrial+ecosystem+ecology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F755081405&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-9504-9&rft.aulast=Chapin&rft.aufirst=F.+Stuart+III&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tansley-1935-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tansley-1935_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tansley-1935_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tansley-1935_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTansley1935" class="citation journal cs1">Tansley, A. G. (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161006125220/http://www.ecology150anniversary.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/tansley-1935.pdf">"The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ecology</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 284–307. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935Ecol...16..284T">1935Ecol...16..284T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1930070">10.2307/1930070</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1930070">1930070</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecology150anniversary.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/tansley-1935.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=The+Use+and+Abuse+of+Vegetational+Concepts+and+Terms&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=284-307&rft.date=1935&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1930070%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1930070&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1935Ecol...16..284T&rft.aulast=Tansley&rft.aufirst=A.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecology150anniversary.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F12%2Ftansley-1935.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapin-2011a-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011a_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapin2011" class="citation book cs1">Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 1: The Ecosystem Concept". <i>Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology</i>. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9504-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9504-9"><bdi>978-1-4419-9504-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/755081405">755081405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+The+Ecosystem+Concept&rft.btitle=Principles+of+terrestrial+ecosystem+ecology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F755081405&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-9504-9&rft.aulast=Chapin&rft.aufirst=F.+Stuart+III&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Odum-1971-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Odum-1971_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdum1971" class="citation book cs1">Odum, Eugene P (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofec0000odum"><i>Fundamentals of Ecology</i></a></span> (third ed.). New York: Saunders. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-42066-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-42066-6"><bdi>978-0-534-42066-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Ecology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Saunders&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-534-42066-6&rft.aulast=Odum&rft.aufirst=Eugene+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffundamentalsofec0000odum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Willis-1997-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Willis-1997_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis1997" class="citation journal cs1">Willis, A.J. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2435.1997.00081.x">"The Ecosystem: An Evolving Concept Viewed Historically"</a>. <i>Functional Ecology</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 268–271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2435.1997.00081.x">10.1111/j.1365-2435.1997.00081.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Functional+Ecology&rft.atitle=The+Ecosystem%3A+An+Evolving+Concept+Viewed+Historically&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=268-271&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2435.1997.00081.x&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1365-2435.1997.00081.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tansley-1939-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tansley-1939_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTansley1939" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Tansley" title="Arthur Tansley">Tansley, A.G.</a> (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1io8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1"><i>The British Islands and Their Vegetation</i></a>. 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Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 2: Earth's Climate System". <i>Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology</i>. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biology+LibreTexts&rft.atitle=46.1A%3A+Ecosystem+Dynamics&rft.date=2018-07-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbio.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FIntroductory_and_General_Biology%2FBook%253A_General_Biology_%28Boundless%29%2F46%253A_Ecosystems%2F46.1%253A__Ecology_of_Ecosystems%2F46.1A%253A_Ecosystem_Dynamics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CC_BY_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/50px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/75px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/100px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="88" data-file-height="31" /></a></span> Text was copied from this source, which is available under a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Archived</a> 2017-10-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapin-2011e-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011e_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011e_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011e_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapin-2011e_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapin2011" class="citation book cs1">Chapin, F. 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(2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123193233/http://faculty.jsd.claremont.edu/emorhardt/159/pdfs/2007/Walter%20et%20al.%202006.pdf">"Methane bubbling from Siberian thaw lakes as a positive feedback to climate warming"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>443</b> (7107): 71–75. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.443...71W">2006Natur.443...71W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05040">10.1038/nature05040</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16957728">16957728</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4415304">4415304</a></span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.jsd.claremont.edu/emorhardt/159/pdfs/2007/Walter%20et%20al.%202006.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on Nov 23, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Methane+bubbling+from+Siberian+thaw+lakes+as+a+positive+feedback+to+climate+warming&rft.volume=443&rft.issue=7107&rft.pages=71-75&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4415304%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.443...71W&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature05040&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16957728&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=K.+M.&rft.au=Zimov%2C+S.+A.&rft.au=Chanton%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Verbyla%2C+D.&rft.au=Chapin%2C+F.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.jsd.claremont.edu%2Femorhardt%2F159%2Fpdfs%2F2007%2FWalter%2520et%2520al.%25202006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVitousekPorder2010" class="citation journal cs1">Vitousek, P.; Porder, S. 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New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9504-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9504-9"><bdi>978-1-4419-9504-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/755081405">755081405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15%3A+Managing+and+Sustaining+Ecosystems&rft.btitle=Principles+of+terrestrial+ecosystem+ecology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F755081405&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-9504-9&rft.aulast=Chapin&rft.aufirst=F.+Stuart+III&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keith-2013-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Keith-2013_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeithRodríguezRodríguez-ClarkAapala2013" class="citation journal cs1">Keith, DA; Rodríguez, J.P.; Rodríguez-Clark, K.M.; Aapala, K.; Alonso, A.; Asmussen, M.; Bachman, S.; Bassett, A.; Barrow, E.G.; Benson, J.S.; Bishop, M.J.; Bonifacio, R.; Brooks, T.M.; Burgman, M.A.; Comer, P.; Comín, F.A.; Essl, F.; Faber-Langendoen, D.; Fairweather, P.G.; Holdaway, R.J.; Jennings, M.; Kingsford, R.T.; Lester, R.E.; Mac Nally, R.; McCarthy, M.A.; Moat, J.; Nicholson, E.; Oliveira-Miranda, M.A.; Pisanu, P.; Poulin, B.; Riecken, U.; Spalding, M.D.; Zambrano-Martínez, S. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-01-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Letters&rft.atitle=Challenging+the+Scientific+Foundations+for+an+IUCN+Red+List+of+Ecosystems&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=125-131&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11573%2F624610&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62790495%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fconl.12111&rft.aulast=Boitani&rft.aufirst=Luigi&rft.au=Mace%2C+Georgina+M.&rft.au=Rondinini%2C+Carlo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2F1443166%2F1%2Fconl12111.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grumbine-1994-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grumbine-1994_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrumbine1994" class="citation journal cs1">Grumbine, R. Edward (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130502051519/http://www.pelagicos.net/MARS6920_spring2010/readings/Grumbine_1994.pdf">"What is ecosystem management?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Conservation Biology</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 27–38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ConBi...8...27G">1994ConBi...8...27G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1994.08010027.x">10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010027.x</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pelagicos.net/MARS6920_spring2010/readings/Grumbine_1994.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-05-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Biology&rft.atitle=What+is+ecosystem+management%3F&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-38&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1994.08010027.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994ConBi...8...27G&rft.aulast=Grumbine&rft.aufirst=R.+Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pelagicos.net%2FMARS6920_spring2010%2Freadings%2FGrumbine_1994.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" 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aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this 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href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hierarchy_of_life" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biological_organisation" title="Template:Biological organisation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biological_organisation" title="Template talk:Biological organisation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biological_organisation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biological organisation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hierarchy_of_life" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a> > <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Biocoenosis</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Macromolecular_assembly" title="Macromolecular assembly">Biomolecular complex</a> > <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">Macromolecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">Biomolecule</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Earth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earth" title="Template:Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earth" title="Template talk:Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Earth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth" title="Outline of Earth">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_atmosphere" title="Prebiotic atmosphere">Prebiotic atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">Troposphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">Stratosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesosphere" title="Mesosphere">Mesosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosphere" title="Thermosphere">Thermosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosphere" title="Exosphere">Exosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Energy balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">Culture and society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">List of sovereign states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">dependent territories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">In culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Day" title="Earth Day">Earth Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Earth" title="Flag of Earth">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_symbol" title="Earth symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">World economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth#Etymology" title="Earth">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World" title="World">World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_globe" title="Virtual globe">Virtual globe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_imaging" title="Geophysical imaging">Tomography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Age of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremes_on_Earth" title="Extremes on Earth">Extremes on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">The Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Evolution of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_solar_terrestrial_planets" title="Geology of solar terrestrial planets">Geology of solar terrestrial planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location_of_Earth" title="Location of Earth">Location in the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Earth" title="Category:Earth">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Elements_of_nature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature" title="Template:Nature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature" title="Template talk:Nature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_of_nature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">geological</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere <span style="font-size:85%;">(Earth)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin <span style="font-size:85%;">(abiogenesis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nature" title="Category:Nature">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Systems_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Systems_science" title="Template:Systems science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Systems_science" title="Template talk:Systems science"><abbr title="Discuss this 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selflink">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recommender_system" title="Recommender system">Recommender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">Social</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doubling_time" title="Doubling time">Doubling time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_leverage_points" title="Twelve leverage points">Leverage points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">Limiting factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">Negative feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">Positive feedback</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_systems" title="Living systems">Living systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_pharmacology" title="Systems pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_philosophy" title="Systems philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_scientists" title="List of systems scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Aladjev" title="Victor Aladjev">Victor Aladjev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_H._B%C3%A1n%C3%A1thy" title="Béla H. Bánáthy">Béla H. Bánáthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Stafford_Beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard E. Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bowen" title="Murray Bowen">Murray Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._West_Churchman" title="C. West Churchman">C. West Churchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Emery" title="Fred Emery">Fred Emery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Forrest" title="Stephanie Forrest">Stephanie Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Grosz" title="Barbara J. Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._S._Hall" title="Charles A. S. Hall">Charles A. S. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Jackson_(systems_scientist)" title="Mike Jackson (systems scientist)">Mike Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Kavraki" title="Lydia Kavraki">Lydia Kavraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_J._Kay" title="James J. Kay">James J. Kay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faina_Mihajlovna_Kirillova" class="mw-redirect" title="Faina Mihajlovna Kirillova">Faina M. Kirillova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihajlo_D._Mesarovic" title="Mihajlo D. Mesarovic">Mihajlo D. Mesarovic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Seddon" title="John Seddon">John Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Trist" title="Eric Trist">Eric Trist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">Systems theory in archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_political_science" title="Systems theory in political science">Systems theory in political science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_sciences_organizations" title="List of systems sciences organizations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Cybernetica" title="Principia Cybernetica">Principia Cybernetica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" 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