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id="toc-Definition_and_scope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Design</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Design subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Working_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Working_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Working pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Working_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Shape</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scaling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scaling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Scaling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scaling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scaling_of_stress_in_walls_of_vessel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scaling_of_stress_in_walls_of_vessel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Scaling of stress in walls of vessel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scaling_of_stress_in_walls_of_vessel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spherical_vessel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spherical_vessel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Spherical vessel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spherical_vessel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cylindrical_vessel_with_hemispherical_ends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cylindrical_vessel_with_hemispherical_ends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>Cylindrical vessel with hemispherical ends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cylindrical_vessel_with_hemispherical_ends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cylindrical_vessel_with_semi-elliptical_ends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cylindrical_vessel_with_semi-elliptical_ends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.4</span> <span>Cylindrical vessel with semi-elliptical ends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cylindrical_vessel_with_semi-elliptical_ends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas_storage_capacity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_storage_capacity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.5</span> <span>Gas storage capacity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_storage_capacity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress_in_thin-walled_pressure_vessels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress_in_thin-walled_pressure_vessels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Stress in thin-walled pressure vessels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress_in_thin-walled_pressure_vessels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shell_penetrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shell_penetrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Shell penetrations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shell_penetrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Penetration_thread" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penetration_thread"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Penetration thread</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penetration_thread-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pressure_vessel_closures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pressure_vessel_closures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.2</span> <span>Pressure vessel closures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pressure_vessel_closures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Construction materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturing_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturing_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Manufacturing processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manufacturing_processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Manufacturing processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Manufacturing_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Riveted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Riveted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Riveted</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Riveted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Welded" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Welded"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Welded</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Welded-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seamless" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seamless"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Seamless</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seamless-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Backward_extrusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Backward_extrusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Backward extrusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Backward_extrusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drawn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drawn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Drawn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drawn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spun_from_seamless_tube" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spun_from_seamless_tube"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Spun from seamless tube</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spun_from_seamless_tube-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Composite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Development_of_composite_vessels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_composite_vessels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Development of composite vessels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_composite_vessels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Winding_angle_of_composite_vessels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Winding_angle_of_composite_vessels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.2</span> <span>Winding angle of composite vessels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Winding_angle_of_composite_vessels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Safety-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Safety subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oveerpressure_relief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oveerpressure_relief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Oveerpressure relief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oveerpressure_relief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leak_before_burst" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leak_before_burst"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Leak before burst</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leak_before_burst-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Testing_and_inspection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testing_and_inspection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Testing and inspection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Testing_and_inspection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Operation standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>List of standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Alternatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pressure vessel</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" 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Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%B6%D8%BA%D8%B7" title="وعاء ضغط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وعاء ضغط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druckbeh%C3%A4lter" title="Druckbehälter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Druckbehälter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recipiente_bajo_presi%C3%B3n" title="Recipiente bajo presión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Recipiente bajo presión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premujo" title="Premujo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Premujo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%B2%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AA_%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="مخزن تحت فشار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مخزن تحت فشار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9servoir_sous_pression" title="Réservoir sous pression – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réservoir sous pression" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%95%EB%A0%A5_%ED%83%B1%ED%81%AC" title="압력 탱크 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="압력 탱크" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="दाब पात्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दाब पात्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recipiente_in_pressione" title="Recipiente in pressione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Recipiente in pressione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%9C_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%A5" title="מכל לחץ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מכל לחץ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sl%C4%97ginis_indas" title="Slėginis indas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Slėginis indas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tart%C3%A1ly" title="Tartály – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tartály" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebuk_tekanan" title="Kebuk tekanan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kebuk tekanan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drukvat" title="Drukvat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Drukvat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%A7%E5%8A%9B%E5%AE%B9%E5%99%A8" title="圧力容器 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="圧力容器" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trykktank" title="Trykktank – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Trykktank" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trykkammer" title="Trykkammer – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Trykkammer" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbiornik_ci%C5%9Bnieniowy" title="Zbiornik ciśnieniowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zbiornik ciśnieniowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaso_de_press%C3%A3o" title="Vaso de pressão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vaso de pressão" 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href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paineastia" title="Paineastia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paineastia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrofor" title="Hydrofor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hydrofor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas%C4%B1n%C3%A7l%C4%B1_kazan" title="Basınçlı kazan – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Basınçlı kazan" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83" title="Посудина високого тиску – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Посудина високого тиску" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%8B%E5%8A%9B%E5%AE%B9%E5%99%A8" title="压力容器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="压力容器" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q740460#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> 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searchaux" style="display:none">Vessel for pressurised gases or liquids</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Pressure chamber" redirects here. For chambers intended for human occupancy, see <a href="/wiki/Hypobaric_chamber" title="Hypobaric chamber">Hypobaric chamber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diving_chamber" title="Diving chamber">Diving chamber</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Modified_Hanson_steelwatertank.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Modified_Hanson_steelwatertank.jpg/310px-Modified_Hanson_steelwatertank.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Modified_Hanson_steelwatertank.jpg/465px-Modified_Hanson_steelwatertank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Modified_Hanson_steelwatertank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>A welded steel pressure vessel constructed as a horizontal cylinder with domed ends. An access cover can be seen at one end, and a drain valve at the bottom centre.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>pressure vessel</b> is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> substantially different from the <a href="/wiki/Ambient_pressure" title="Ambient pressure">ambient pressure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Construction methods and materials may be chosen to suit the pressure application, and will depend on the size of the vessel, the contents, working pressure, mass constraints, and the number of items required. </p><p>Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in the history of their development and operation. Consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering authorities backed by legislation. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies from country to country.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The design involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and temperature, <a href="/wiki/Safety_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety factor">safety factor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> allowance and minimum design temperature (for brittle fracture). Construction is tested using <a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">nondestructive testing</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonic_testing" title="Ultrasonic testing">ultrasonic testing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a>, and pressure tests. Hydrostatic pressure tests usually use water, but pneumatic tests use air or another gas. Hydrostatic testing is preferred, because it is a safer method, as much less energy is released if a fracture occurs during the test (water does not greatly increase its volume when rapid depressurisation occurs, unlike gases, which expand explosively). Mass or batch production products will often have a representative sample tested to destruction in controlled conditions for quality assurance. <a href="/wiki/Pressure_relief_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure relief device">Pressure relief devices</a> may be fitted if the overall safety of the system is sufficiently enhanced. </p><p>In most countries, vessels over a certain size and pressure must be built to a formal code. In the United States that code is the <a href="/wiki/ASME_Boiler_and_Pressure_Vessel_Code_(BPVC)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)">ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)</a>. In Europe the code is the <a href="/wiki/Pressure_Equipment_Directive_(EU)" title="Pressure Equipment Directive (EU)">Pressure Equipment Directive</a>. These vessels also require an authorised inspector to sign off on every new vessel constructed and each vessel has a nameplate with pertinent information about the vessel, such as maximum allowable working pressure, maximum temperature, <a href="/wiki/Minimum_design_metal_temperature" title="Minimum design metal temperature">minimum design metal temperature</a>, what company manufactured it, the date, its registration number (through the National Board), and <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers" title="American Society of Mechanical Engineers">American Society of Mechanical Engineers</a>'s official stamp for pressure vessels (U-stamp). The nameplate makes the vessel traceable and officially an ASME Code vessel. </p><p>A special application is <a href="/wiki/Pressure_vessel_for_human_occupancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure vessel for human occupancy">pressure vessels for human occupancy</a>, for which more stringent safety rules apply. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_scope">Definition and scope</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and scope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ASME definition of a pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> substantially different from the <a href="/wiki/Ambient_pressure" title="Ambient pressure">ambient pressure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Australian and New Zealand standard "AS/NZS 1200:2000 Pressure equipment" defines a pressure vessel as a vessel subject to internal or external pressure, including connected components and accessories up to the connection to external piping.<sup id="cite_ref-Assessor_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Assessor-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This article may include information on pressure vessels in the broad sense, and is not restricted to any single definition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Components">Components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.themarketintelligence.com/market-reports/hydrogen-pressure-vessels-market-1355">pressure vessel</a> comprises a shell, and usually one or more other components needed to pressurise, retain the pressure, depressurise, and provide access for maintenance and inspection. There may be other components and equipment provided to facilitate the intended use, and some of these may be considered parts of the pressure vessel, such as shell penetrations and their closures, and <a href="/wiki/Viewport" title="Viewport">viewports</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airlock" title="Airlock">airlocks</a> on a pressure vessel for human occupancy, as they affect the integrity and strength of the shell, are also part of the structure retaining the pressure. Pressure gauges and safety devices like pressure relief valves may also be deemed part of the pressure vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-Assessor_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Assessor-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There may also be structural components permanently attached to the vessel for lifting, moving, or mounting it, like a foot ring, skids, handles, lugs, or mounting brackets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_spray_dispenser" title="Aerosol spray dispenser">Aerosol spray dispenser</a> – Dispensing system of an aerosol mist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoclave" title="Autoclave">Autoclave</a> – Pressurised heating apparatus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">Boiler</a> – Closed vessel in which fluid is heated <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage cylinder">Gas storage cylinder</a> – Container for storing pressurised gas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage tube">Gas storage tube</a> – Large volume, high pressure gas storage cylinder</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_accumulator" title="Hydraulic accumulator">Hydraulic accumulator</a> – Reservoir to store and stabilise fluid pressure <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_tank" title="Expansion tank">Expansion tank</a> – Tank used in hot water systems</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrophore_(system)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hydrophore (system) (page does not exist)">Hydrophore (system)</a> – system used in tall buildings and marine environments to maintain water pressure.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_tank" title="Pressure tank">Pressure tank</a> – Tank used in a water system to maintain pressure</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigeration_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Refrigeration plant">Refrigeration plant</a> – Equipment to remove heat from the cooled area, and reject it to a higher temperature area</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_cooker" title="Pressure cooker">Pressure cooker</a> – Device for preparing food</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_piping&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pressure piping (page does not exist)">Pressure piping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline" title="Pipeline">Pipeline</a> – Pumping fluids or gas through pipes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis_plant" title="Reverse osmosis plant">Reverse osmosis plant</a> – Type of water purification plant</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_process_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical process reactor">Chemical process reactor</a> – Enclosed volume where interconversion of compounds takes place</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_truck" title="Vacuum truck">Vacuum truck</a> – Tank truck with a pump designed to load material through suction lines</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_Vessel_for_Human_Occupancy" title="Pressure Vessel for Human Occupancy">Pressure Vessel for Human Occupancy</a> – Container to be occupied by one or more people with an internal pressure different from outside} <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a> – Articulated pressure resistant anthropomorphic housing for an underwater diver</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crewed_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Crewed spacecraft">Crewed spacecraft</a> – Spacecraft with life-support systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_chamber" title="Diving chamber">Diving chamber</a> – Hyperbaric pressure vessel for human occupation used in diving operations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbaric chamber">Hyperbaric chamber</a> – Hyperbaric pressure vessel for human occupation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_stretcher" title="Hyperbaric stretcher">Hyperbaric stretcher</a> – Portable pressure vessel to transport a person under pressure.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypobaric_chamber" title="Hypobaric chamber">Hypobaric chamber</a> – Chamber for simulating high altitude</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurised_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurised aircraft">Pressurised aircraft</a> – Aircraft which maintains a cabin pressur above the anbient whe at high altitude</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pressure_hull" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarine pressure hull">Submarine pressure hull</a> – The structure that withstands the pressure load on a submarine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarine rescue chamber">Submarine rescue chamber</a> – Diving chamber for rescue of personnel of sunk submarines</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible" title="Submersible">Submersible pressure hull</a> – Small watercraft able to navigate under water</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dissolved_gas_storage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dissolved gas storage (page does not exist)">Dissolved gas storage</a></li> <li>Fired pressure vessels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquefied_gas" title="Liquefied gas">Liquefied gas</a> (vapour over liquid) storage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent gas">Permanent gas</a> storage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">Supercritical fluid</a> storage</li> <li>Internal pressure vs external</li> <li>Types by construction method</li> <li>Types by construction material</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0-4-0-engine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/0-4-0-engine.JPG/220px-0-4-0-engine.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/0-4-0-engine.JPG/330px-0-4-0-engine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/0-4-0-engine.JPG/440px-0-4-0-engine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2554" data-file-height="1616" /></a><figcaption>Preserved <a href="/wiki/H.K._Porter,_Inc." title="H.K. Porter, Inc.">H.K. Porter, Inc.</a> No. 3290 of 1923 powered by <a href="/wiki/Compressed_air" title="Compressed air">compressed air</a> stored in a horizontal <a href="/wiki/Rivet" title="Rivet">riveted</a> pressure vessel</figcaption></figure> <p>Pressure vessels are used in a variety of applications in both industry and the private sector. They appear in these sectors as industrial <a href="/wiki/Compressed_air" title="Compressed air">compressed air</a> receivers, <a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">boilers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domestic_hot_water_storage_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic hot water storage tank">domestic hot water storage tanks</a>. Other examples of pressure vessels are <a href="/wiki/Diving_cylinder" title="Diving cylinder">diving cylinders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Recompression chamber">recompression chambers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fractional_distillation" title="Fractional distillation">distillation towers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure_reactor" title="Pressure reactor">pressure reactors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autoclave" title="Autoclave">autoclaves</a>, and many other vessels in <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> operations, <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refineries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> plants, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> vessels, <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">space ship</a> habitats, <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suits" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric diving suits">atmospheric diving suits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatic">pneumatic</a> reservoirs, <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic">hydraulic</a> reservoirs under pressure, <a href="/wiki/Air_brake_(rail)" class="mw-redirect" title="Air brake (rail)">rail vehicle air brake reservoirs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_brake_(road_vehicle)" title="Air brake (road vehicle)">road vehicle air brake reservoirs</a>, and storage vessels for high pressure <a href="/wiki/Permanent_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent gas">permanent gases</a> and liquified gases such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liquified_petroleum_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquified petroleum gas">LPG</a> (<a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butane" title="Butane">butane</a>). </p><p>A pressure vessel may also support structural loads. The passenger cabin of an airliner's outer skin carries both the structural and maneuvering loads of the aircraft, and the <a href="/wiki/Cabin_pressurization" title="Cabin pressurization">cabin pressurization</a> loads. The pressure hull of a submarine also carries the hull structural and maneuvering loads. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylindrical-research-autoclave-illustration.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cylindrical research autoclave illustration"><img alt="Cylindrical research autoclave illustration" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cylindrical-research-autoclave-illustration.jpg/120px-Cylindrical-research-autoclave-illustration.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cylindrical-research-autoclave-illustration.jpg/180px-Cylindrical-research-autoclave-illustration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cylindrical-research-autoclave-illustration.jpg/240px-Cylindrical-research-autoclave-illustration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="258" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cylindrical research autoclave illustration</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="NASA decompression chamber"><img alt="NASA decompression chamber" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg/120px-Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg/180px-Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg/240px-Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">NASA decompression chamber</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_well_tank.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A pressure tank connected to a water well and domestic hot water system."><img alt="A pressure tank connected to a water well and domestic hot water system." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Water_well_tank.JPG/87px-Water_well_tank.JPG" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Water_well_tank.JPG/130px-Water_well_tank.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Water_well_tank.JPG/174px-Water_well_tank.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2352" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A pressure tank connected to a water well and domestic hot water system.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Propane_tanks_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A few pressure tanks, here used to hold propane."><img alt="A few pressure tanks, here used to hold propane." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Propane_tanks_large.jpg/111px-Propane_tanks_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Propane_tanks_large.jpg/167px-Propane_tanks_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Propane_tanks_large.jpg/223px-Propane_tanks_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1946" data-file-height="2097" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A few pressure tanks, here used to hold <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bergisch_Gladbach_-_Papierm%C3%BChle_Alte_Dombach_07_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A pressure vessel used as a kier."><img alt="A pressure vessel used as a kier." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bergisch_Gladbach_-_Papierm%C3%BChle_Alte_Dombach_07_ies.jpg/120px-Bergisch_Gladbach_-_Papierm%C3%BChle_Alte_Dombach_07_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bergisch_Gladbach_-_Papierm%C3%BChle_Alte_Dombach_07_ies.jpg/180px-Bergisch_Gladbach_-_Papierm%C3%BChle_Alte_Dombach_07_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bergisch_Gladbach_-_Papierm%C3%BChle_Alte_Dombach_07_ies.jpg/240px-Bergisch_Gladbach_-_Papierm%C3%BChle_Alte_Dombach_07_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A pressure vessel used as a <a href="/wiki/Kier_(industrial)" title="Kier (industrial)">kier</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CST-100_pressure_vessel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A pressure vessel used for The Boeing Company's CST-100 spacecraft."><img alt="A pressure vessel used for The Boeing Company's CST-100 spacecraft." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CST-100_pressure_vessel.jpg/120px-CST-100_pressure_vessel.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CST-100_pressure_vessel.jpg/180px-CST-100_pressure_vessel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CST-100_pressure_vessel.jpg/240px-CST-100_pressure_vessel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A pressure vessel used for The Boeing Company's CST-100 spacecraft.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Working_pressure">Working pressure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Working pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The working pressure, i.e. the pressure difference between the interior of the pressure vessel and the surroundings is the primary characteristic considered for design and construction. The concepts of high pressure and low pressure are somewhat flexible, and may be defined differently depending on context. There is also the matter of whether the internal pressure is greater or less than the external pressure, and its magnitude relative to normal atmospheric pressure. A vessel with internal pressure lower than atmospheric may also be called a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypobaric_vessel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hypobaric vessel (page does not exist)">hypobaric vessel</a> or a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vacuum_vessel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vacuum vessel (page does not exist)">vacuum vessel</a>. A pressure vessel with high internal pressure can easily be made to be structurally stable, and will usually fail in tension, but failure due to excessive external pressure is usually by <a href="/wiki/Buckling" title="Buckling">buckling</a> instability and collapse. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shape">Shape</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Shape"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres, cylinders, <a href="/wiki/Ellipsoid" title="Ellipsoid">ellipsoids</a> of revolution, and <a href="/wiki/Cone" title="Cone">cones</a> with circular sections are usually employed, though some other surfaces of revolution are also inherently stable. A common design is a cylinder with end caps called <a href="/wiki/Head_(vessel)" title="Head (vessel)">heads</a>. Head shapes are frequently either hemispherical or dished (<a href="/wiki/Torispherical" class="mw-redirect" title="Torispherical">torispherical</a>). More complicated shapes have historically been much harder to analyze for safe operation and are usually far more difficult to construct. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Biogasholder_and_flare.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Spherical gas container."><img alt="Spherical gas container." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Biogasholder_and_flare.JPG/120px-Biogasholder_and_flare.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Biogasholder_and_flare.JPG/180px-Biogasholder_and_flare.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Biogasholder_and_flare.JPG/240px-Biogasholder_and_flare.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1492" data-file-height="1023" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Spherical gas container.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_FP-LR-100.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Cylindrical pressure vessel."><img alt="Cylindrical pressure vessel." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_FP-LR-100.png/32px-%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_FP-LR-100.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_FP-LR-100.png/48px-%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_FP-LR-100.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_FP-LR-100.png/65px-%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_FP-LR-100.png 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="1505" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cylindrical pressure vessel.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diffuser_Head.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Picture of the bottom of an aerosol spray can."><img alt="Picture of the bottom of an aerosol spray can." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Diffuser_Head.jpg/120px-Diffuser_Head.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Diffuser_Head.jpg/180px-Diffuser_Head.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Diffuser_Head.jpg/240px-Diffuser_Head.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2120" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Picture of the bottom of an aerosol spray can.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ABC_Fire_Extinguisher.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fire Extinguisher with rounded rectangle pressure vessel"><img alt="Fire Extinguisher with rounded rectangle pressure vessel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/ABC_Fire_Extinguisher.jpg/61px-ABC_Fire_Extinguisher.jpg" decoding="async" width="61" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/ABC_Fire_Extinguisher.jpg/91px-ABC_Fire_Extinguisher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/ABC_Fire_Extinguisher.jpg/122px-ABC_Fire_Extinguisher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1289" data-file-height="2529" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fire Extinguisher with rounded rectangle pressure vessel</div> </li> </ul> <p>Theoretically, a spherical pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a cylindrical pressure vessel with the same wall thickness,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is the ideal shape to hold internal pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsen_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsen-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a spherical shape is difficult to manufacture, and therefore more expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical with 2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps on each end. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and two covers. For cylindrical vessels with a diameter up to 600 mm (NPS of 24 in), it is possible to use seamless pipe for the shell, thus avoiding many inspection and testing issues, mainly the nondestructive examination of radiography for the long seam if required. A disadvantage of these vessels is that greater diameters are more expensive, so that for example the most economic shape of a 1,000 litres (35 cu ft), 250 <a href="/wiki/Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">bars</a> (3,600 <a href="/wiki/Pound_per_square_inch" title="Pound per square inch">psi</a>) pressure vessel might be a diameter of 91.44 centimetres (36 in) and a length of 1.7018 metres (67 in) including the 2:1 semi-elliptical domed end caps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scaling">Scaling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Scaling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>No matter what shape it takes, the minimum mass of a pressure vessel scales with the pressure and volume it contains and is inversely proportional to the <a href="/wiki/Strength_to_weight_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Strength to weight ratio">strength to weight ratio</a> of the construction material (minimum mass decreases as strength increases<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scaling_of_stress_in_walls_of_vessel">Scaling of stress in walls of vessel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Scaling of stress in walls of vessel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pressure vessels are held together against the gas pressure due to tensile forces within the walls of the container. The normal (tensile) <a href="/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)" title="Stress (mechanics)">stress</a> in the walls of the container is proportional to the pressure and radius of the vessel and inversely proportional to the thickness of the walls.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, pressure vessels are designed to have a thickness proportional to the radius of tank and the pressure of the tank and inversely proportional to the maximum allowed normal stress of the particular material used in the walls of the container. </p><p>Because (for a given pressure) the thickness of the walls scales with the radius of the tank, the mass of a tank (which scales as the length times radius times thickness of the wall for a cylindrical tank) scales with the volume of the gas held (which scales as length times radius squared). The exact formula varies with the tank shape but depends on the density, ρ, and maximum allowable stress σ of the material in addition to the pressure P and volume V of the vessel. (See below for the exact equations for the stress in the walls.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spherical_vessel">Spherical vessel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Spherical vessel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For a <a href="/wiki/Sphere" title="Sphere">sphere</a>, the minimum mass of a pressure vessel is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M={3 \over 2}PV{\rho \over \sigma }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>3</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>P</mi> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>σ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M={3 \over 2}PV{\rho \over \sigma }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a40944ad556ecabea970abbfe4a0bfbe6652434f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:13.238ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M={3 \over 2}PV{\rho \over \sigma }}"></span>,</dd></dl> <p>where: </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> is mass, (kg)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P}"></span> is the pressure difference from ambient (the <a href="/wiki/Gauge_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge pressure">gauge pressure</a>), (Pa)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af0f6064540e84211d0ffe4dac72098adfa52845" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.787ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V}"></span> is volume,</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></span> is the density of the pressure vessel material, (kg/m<sup>3</sup>)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59f59b7c3e6fdb1d0365a494b81fb9a696138c36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma }"></span> is the maximum working <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stress</a> that material can tolerate. (Pa)<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Other shapes besides a sphere have constants larger than 3/2 (infinite cylinders take 2), although some tanks, such as non-spherical wound composite tanks can approach this. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cylindrical_vessel_with_hemispherical_ends">Cylindrical vessel with hemispherical ends<span class="anchor" id="Bullet"></span></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cylindrical vessel with hemispherical ends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is sometimes called a "bullet"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> for its shape, although in geometric terms it is a <a href="/wiki/Capsule_(geometry)" title="Capsule (geometry)">capsule</a>. </p><p>For a cylinder with hemispherical ends, </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M=2\pi R^{2}(R+W)P{\rho \over \sigma }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>R</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>W</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>σ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M=2\pi R^{2}(R+W)P{\rho \over \sigma }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4386567d4790d9347d8d5a448234a1ad0f7ab15e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:23.614ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M=2\pi R^{2}(R+W)P{\rho \over \sigma }}"></span>,</dd></dl> <p>where </p> <ul><li>R is the Radius (m)</li> <li>W is the middle cylinder width only, and the overall width is W + 2R (m)<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cylindrical_vessel_with_semi-elliptical_ends">Cylindrical vessel with semi-elliptical ends</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cylindrical vessel with semi-elliptical ends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a vessel with an <a href="/wiki/Aspect_ratio" title="Aspect ratio">aspect ratio</a> of middle cylinder width to radius of 2:1, </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M=6\pi R^{3}P{\rho \over \sigma }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>6</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>σ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M=6\pi R^{3}P{\rho \over \sigma }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68a30f4ee2df05ef6c09a430cfc46fac441e0ab8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:14.765ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M=6\pi R^{3}P{\rho \over \sigma }}"></span>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gas_storage_capacity">Gas storage capacity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gas storage capacity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In looking at the first equation, the factor PV, in SI units, is in units of (pressurization) energy. For a stored gas, PV is proportional to the mass of gas at a given temperature, thus </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M={3 \over 2}nRT{\rho \over \sigma }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>3</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>σ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M={3 \over 2}nRT{\rho \over \sigma }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3ca35094cbdd14913cced35eab68e66156a471ae" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:14.5ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M={3 \over 2}nRT{\rho \over \sigma }}"></span>. (see <a href="/wiki/Gas_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas law">gas law</a>)</dd></dl> <p>The other factors are constant for a given vessel shape and material. So we can see that there is no theoretical "efficiency of scale", in terms of the ratio of pressure vessel mass to pressurization energy, or of pressure vessel mass to stored gas mass. For storing gases, "tankage efficiency" is independent of pressure, at least for the same temperature. </p><p>So, for example, a typical design for a minimum mass tank to hold <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> (as a pressurant gas) on a rocket would use a spherical chamber for a minimum shape constant, carbon fiber for best possible <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho /\sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho /\sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/400a2b145d7141a6c0f257a1a97e68e21aa171d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.694ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho /\sigma }"></span>, and very cold helium for best possible <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M/{pV}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M/{pV}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c5ef859feb4d66685448f04f3863f4fba7ffa6a9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.561ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M/{pV}}"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress_in_thin-walled_pressure_vessels">Stress in thin-walled pressure vessels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Stress in thin-walled pressure vessels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress in a thin-walled pressure vessel in the shape of a sphere is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }=\sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {pr}{2t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">n</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }=\sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {pr}{2t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1c6ff93f9cff78ed0ab0dd7ee3c6d6233a88e850" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:16.157ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }=\sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {pr}{2t}}}"></span>,</dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a3d87ee9e0282f729ee2d8828c0dc8ce100b84cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.331ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }}"></span> is hoop stress, or stress in the circumferential direction, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{long}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{long}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51804d75efc89c2fbfa5e72f32d002e3b75459cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.623ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{long}}"></span> is stress in the longitudinal direction, <i>p</i> is internal gauge pressure, <i>r</i> is the inner radius of the sphere, and <i>t</i> is thickness of the sphere wall. A vessel can be considered "thin-walled" if the diameter is at least 10 times (sometimes cited as 20 times) greater than the wall thickness.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reservoir_cylindrique_sous_pression_contrainte.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Reservoir_cylindrique_sous_pression_contrainte.svg/300px-Reservoir_cylindrique_sous_pression_contrainte.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Reservoir_cylindrique_sous_pression_contrainte.svg/450px-Reservoir_cylindrique_sous_pression_contrainte.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Reservoir_cylindrique_sous_pression_contrainte.svg/600px-Reservoir_cylindrique_sous_pression_contrainte.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>Stress in the cylinder body of a pressure vessel.</figcaption></figure> <p>Stress in a thin-walled pressure vessel in the shape of a cylinder is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }={\frac {pr}{t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> <mi>t</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }={\frac {pr}{t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7448db5ae6e53bbebfd59923d319dfa0ec07ac9c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:8.483ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }={\frac {pr}{t}}}"></span>,</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {pr}{2t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">n</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {pr}{2t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bc21d776efa265db29e3fba3df0f9368324fac64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:10.728ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {pr}{2t}}}"></span>,</dd></dl> <p>where: </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a3d87ee9e0282f729ee2d8828c0dc8ce100b84cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.331ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }}"></span> is <a href="/wiki/Hoop_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoop stress">hoop stress</a>, or stress in the circumferential direction</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{long}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{long}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51804d75efc89c2fbfa5e72f32d002e3b75459cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.623ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{long}}"></span> is stress in the longitudinal direction</li> <li><i>p</i> is internal gauge pressure</li> <li><i>r</i> is the inner radius of the cylinder</li> <li><i>t</i> is thickness of the cylinder wall.</li></ul> <p>Almost all pressure vessel design standards contain variations of these two formulas with additional empirical terms to account for variation of stresses across thickness, quality control of <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welds</a> and in-service <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> allowances. All formulae mentioned above assume uniform distribution of membrane stresses across thickness of shell but in reality, that is not the case. Deeper analysis is given by <a href="/wiki/Lam%C3%A9%27s_theorem" title="Lamé's theorem">Lamé's theorem</a>, which gives the distribution of stress in the walls of a thick-walled cylinder of a homogeneous and isotropic material. The formulae of pressure vessel design standards are extension of Lamé's theorem by putting some limit on ratio of inner radius and thickness. </p><p>For example, the <a href="/wiki/ASME_Boiler_and_Pressure_Vessel_Code_(BPVC)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)">ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)</a> (UG-27) formulas are:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spherical shells: Thickness has to be less than 0.356 times inner radius </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }=\sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {p(r+0.2t)}{2tE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">n</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0.2</mn> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>t</mi> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }=\sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {p(r+0.2t)}{2tE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f4affc4f79651bdbf5570c041f09d5fa526f4c78" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:24.618ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }=\sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {p(r+0.2t)}{2tE}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Cylindrical shells: Thickness has to be less than 0.5 times inner radius </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }={\frac {p(r+0.6t)}{tE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0.6</mn> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }={\frac {p(r+0.6t)}{tE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/718414c16f3d2ec420631bb9bfab6515d5c13b4e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:16.944ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }={\frac {p(r+0.6t)}{tE}}}"></span></dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {p(r-0.4t)}{2tE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">n</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>0.4</mn> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>t</mi> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {p(r-0.4t)}{2tE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1fede4d9d48d3e59e9f09543726b5b6734299250" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:19.189ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {p(r-0.4t)}{2tE}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>E</i> is the joint efficiency, and all others variables as stated above. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Factor_of_safety" title="Factor of safety">factor of safety</a> is often included in these formulas as well, in the case of the ASME BPVC this term is included in the material stress value when solving for pressure or thickness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shell_penetrations">Shell penetrations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Shell penetrations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Also sometimes called hull penetrations, depending on context, shell penetrations are intentional breaks in the structural integrity of the shell, and are usually significant local stress-raisers, so they must be accounted for in the design so they do not become failure points. It is usually necessary to reinforce the shell in the immediate vicinity of such penetrations. Shell penetrations are necessary to provide a variety of functions, including passage of the contents from the outside to the inside and back out, and in special applications for transmission of electricity, light, and other services through the shell. The simplest case is gas cylinders, which need only a neck penetration threaded to fit a valve, while a submarine or spacecraft may have a large number of penetrations for a large number of functions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Penetration_thread">Penetration thread</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Penetration thread"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The screw thread used for high pressure vessel shell penetrations is subject to high loads and must not leak. High pressure cylinders are produced with conical (tapered) threads and parallel threads. Two sizes of tapered threads have dominated the full metal cylinders in industrial use from 0.2 to 50 litres (0.0071 to 1.7657 cu ft) in volume.<sup id="cite_ref-AIGA_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIGA-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For smaller fittings, taper thread standard 17E is used,<sup id="cite_ref-ISO_11116-1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO_11116-1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a 12% taper right hand thread, <a href="/wiki/British_Standard_Whitworth" title="British Standard Whitworth">standard Whitworth</a> 55° form with a pitch of 14 threads per inch (5.5 threads per cm) and pitch diameter at the top thread of the cylinder of 18.036 millimetres (0.71 in). These connections are sealed using thread tape and torqued to between 120 and 150 <a href="/wiki/Newton-metre" title="Newton-metre">newton-metres</a> (89 and 111 lbf⋅ft) on steel cylinders, and between 75 and 140 N⋅m (55 and 103 lbf⋅ft) on aluminium cylinders.<sup id="cite_ref-ISO13341_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO13341-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For larger fittings, taper thread standard 25E is used. To screw in the valve, a higher torque of typically about 200 N⋅m (150 lbf⋅ft) is necessary,<sup id="cite_ref-ISO_11363-1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO_11363-1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until around 1950, hemp was used as a sealant. Later, a thin sheet of lead pressed to a hat form which closely fitted the external threads, with a hole on top was used. The fitter would squeeze the soft lead shim to conform better with the grooves and ridges of the fitting before screwing it into the hole. The lead would deform to form a thin layer between the internal and external thread, and thereby fill the gaps to create the seal. Since 2005, <a href="/wiki/PTFE" class="mw-redirect" title="PTFE">PTFE</a>-tape has been used to avoid using lead.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A tapered thread provides simple assembly, but requires high torque for connecting and leads to high radial forces in the vessel neck, and has a limited number of times it can be used before it is excessively deformed. This could be extended a bit by always returning the same fitting to the same hole, and avoiding over-tightening. </p><p>All cylinders built for 300 bar (4,400 psi) working pressure, all diving cylinders,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and all composite cylinders use parallel threads.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Parallel threads for cylinder necks and similar penetrations of pressure vessels are made to several standards: </p> <ul><li>M25x2 <a href="/wiki/ISO_metric_screw_thread" title="ISO metric screw thread">ISO parallel thread</a>, which is sealed by an O-ring and torqued to 100 to 130 N⋅m (74 to 96 lbf⋅ft) on steel, and 95 to 130 N⋅m (70 to 96 lbf⋅ft) on aluminium cylinders;<sup id="cite_ref-ISO13341_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO13341-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>M18x1.5 parallel thread, which is sealed by an O-ring, and torqued to 100 to 130 N⋅m (74 to 96 lbf⋅ft) on steel cylinders, and 85 to 100 N⋅m (63 to 74 lbf⋅ft) on aluminium cylinders;<sup id="cite_ref-ISO13341_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO13341-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>3/4"x14 <a href="/wiki/British_Standard_Pipe" title="British Standard Pipe">BSP</a> parallel thread,<sup id="cite_ref-BS2779_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BS2779-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has a 55° Whitworth thread form, a pitch diameter of 25.279 millimetres (0.9952 in) and a pitch of 14 threads per inch (1.814 mm);</li> <li>3/4"x14 <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Gas_Standard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Gas Standard (page does not exist)">NGS</a><sup id="cite_ref-Metal_Cutting_Tool_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metal_Cutting_Tool-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (NPSM) parallel thread, sealed by an O-ring, torqued to 40 to 50 N⋅m (30 to 37 lbf⋅ft) on aluminium cylinders,<sup id="cite_ref-Catalina_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catalina-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has a 60° thread form, a pitch diameter of 0.9820 to 0.9873 in (24.94 to 25.08 mm), and a pitch of 14 threads per inch (5.5 threads per cm);</li> <li>3/4"x16 <a href="/wiki/Unified_Thread_Standard#Designation" title="Unified Thread Standard">UNF</a>, sealed by an O-ring, torqued to 40 to 50 N⋅m (30 to 37 lbf⋅ft) on aluminium cylinders.<sup id="cite_ref-Catalina_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catalina-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>7/8"x14 UNF, sealed by an O-ring.<sup id="cite_ref-XS_Scuba_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XS_Scuba-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The 3/4"NGS and 3/4"BSP are very similar, having the same pitch and a pitch diameter that only differs by about 0.2 mm (0.008 in), but they are not compatible, as the thread forms are different. </p><p>All parallel thread valves are sealed using an <a href="/wiki/Elastomer" title="Elastomer">elastomer</a> O-ring at top of the neck thread which seals in a chamfer or step in the cylinder neck and against the flange of the valve. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pressure_vessel_closures">Pressure vessel closures</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pressure vessel closures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pressure vessel closures are pressure retaining structures designed to provide quick access to pipelines, pressure vessels, pig traps, filters and filtration systems. Typically pressure vessel closures allow access by maintenance personnel. </p><p>A commonly used maintenance access hole shape is elliptical, which allows the closure to be passed through the opening, and rotated into the working position, and is held in place by a bar on the outside, secured by a central bolt. The internal pressure prevents it from being inadvertently opened under load. </p><p>Placing the closure on the high pressure side of the opening uses the pressure difference to lock the closure when at service pressure. Where this is impracticable a safety interlock may be mandated. </p><p>An <b><a href="/wiki/Airlock" title="Airlock">airlock</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a room or compartment which permits passage between environments of differing atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> or composition, while minimizing the changing of pressure or composition between the differing environments. It consists of a chamber with two <a href="/wiki/Hermetic_seal" title="Hermetic seal">airtight</a> doors or hatches arranged in series, which are not opened simultaneously. Airlocks can be small or large enough for one or more people to pass through, which may take the form of an <a href="/wiki/Antechamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Antechamber">antechamber</a>. </p><p>An airlock may also be used underwater to allow passage between the air environment in a pressure vessel, such as a <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">diving bell</a>, and the water environment outside. In such cases the airlock can contain <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">air</a> or <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. This is called a floodable airlock or underwater airlock, and is used to prevent water from entering a <a href="/wiki/Submersible" title="Submersible">submersible</a> vessel or <a href="/wiki/Underwater_habitat" title="Underwater habitat">underwater habitat</a>. A similar arrangement is used on spacecraft to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">extravehicular activity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction_materials">Construction materials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Construction materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dawn_xenon_tank.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Dawn_xenon_tank.jpg/200px-Dawn_xenon_tank.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Dawn_xenon_tank.jpg/300px-Dawn_xenon_tank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Dawn_xenon_tank.jpg/400px-Dawn_xenon_tank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Composite overwrapped pressure vessel with titanium liner.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture a cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel, rolled and possibly forged parts would have to be welded together. Some mechanical properties of steel, achieved by rolling or forging, could be adversely affected by welding, unless special precautions are taken. In addition to adequate mechanical strength, current standards dictate the use of steel with a high impact resistance, especially for vessels used in low temperatures. In applications where carbon steel would suffer corrosion, special corrosion resistant material should also be used. </p><p>Some pressure vessels are made of <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite materials</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Filament_winding" title="Filament winding">filament wound composite</a> using <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fiber">carbon fibre</a> held in place with a polymer. Due to the very high tensile strength of carbon fibre these vessels can be very light, but are much more difficult to manufacture. The composite material may be wound around a metal liner, forming a <a href="/wiki/Composite_overwrapped_pressure_vessel" title="Composite overwrapped pressure vessel">composite overwrapped pressure vessel</a>. </p><p>Other very common materials include <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">PET</a> in carbonated beverage containers and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> in plumbing. </p><p>Pressure vessels may be lined with various metals, ceramics, or polymers to prevent leaking and protect the structure of the vessel from the contained medium. This liner may also carry a significant portion of the pressure load.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pressure Vessels may also be constructed from concrete (PCV) or other materials which are weak in tension. Cabling, wrapped around the vessel or within the wall or the vessel itself, provides the necessary tension to resist the internal pressure. A "leakproof steel thin membrane" lines the internal wall of the vessel. Such vessels can be assembled from modular pieces and so have "no inherent size limitations".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a high order of redundancy thanks to the large number of individual cables resisting the internal pressure. </p><p>The very small vessels used to make liquid butane fueled cigarette lighters are subjected to about 2 bar pressure, depending on ambient temperature. These vessels are often oval (1 x 2 cm ... 1.3 x 2.5 cm) in cross section but sometimes circular. The oval versions generally include one or two internal tension struts which appear to be baffles but which also provide additional cylinder strength. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturing_processes">Manufacturing processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Manufacturing processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gas_cylinder#Manufacturing_processes" title="Gas cylinder">Gas cylinder § Manufacturing processes</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Riveted">Riveted</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Riveted"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The standard method of construction for boilers, compressed air receivers and other pressure vessels of iron or steel before gas and electrical welding of reliable quality became widespread was <a href="/wiki/Rivet" title="Rivet">riveted</a> sheets which had been rolled and forged into shape, then riveted together, often using butt straps along the joints, and <a href="/wiki/Caulk" title="Caulk">caulked</a> along the riveted seams by deforming the edges of the overlap with a blunt chisel to create a continuous line of high contact pressure along the joint. Hot riveting caused the rivets to contract on cooling, forming a tighter joint.<sup id="cite_ref-Machinery's_19th_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machinery's_19th-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Welded">Welded</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Welded"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gas_cylinder#Welded_gas_cylinders" title="Gas cylinder">Gas cylinder § Welded gas cylinders</a></div> <p>Large and low pressure vessels are commonly manufactured from formed plates welded together. Weld quality is critical to safety in <a href="/wiki/Pressure_vessel_for_human_occupancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure vessel for human occupancy">pressure vessels for human occupancy</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seamless">Seamless</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Seamless"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gas_cylinder#Manufacturing_processes" title="Gas cylinder">Gas cylinder § Manufacturing processes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diving_cylinder#The_pressure_vessel" title="Diving cylinder">Diving cylinder § The pressure vessel</a></div> <p>The typical circular-cylindrical high pressure gas cylinders for permanent gases (that do not liquify at storing pressure, like air, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, argon, helium) have been manufactured by hot forging by pressing and rolling to get a seamless vessel of consistent material characteristics and minimised stress concentrations. </p><p>Working pressure of cylinders for use in industry, skilled craft, diving and medicine had a standardized working pressure (WP) of about 150 bars (2,200 psi) in Europe until about 1950. From about 1975, the standard pressure rose to about 200 bars (2,900 psi). Firemen need slim, lightweight cylinders to move in confined spaces; since about 1995 cylinders for 300 bars (4,400 psi) WP were used (first in pure steel).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A demand for reduced weight led to different generations of composite (fiber and matrix, over a liner) cylinders that are more vulnerable to impact damage. Composite cylinders for breathing gas are usually built for working pressure of 300 bars (4,400 psi). </p><p>Manufacturing methods for seamless metal pressure vessels are commonly used for relatively small diameter cylinders where large numbers will be produced, as the machinery and tooling require large capital outlay. The methods are well suited to high pressure gas transport and storage applications, and provide consistently high quality products. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Backward_extrusion">Backward extrusion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Backward extrusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Backward extrusion is a process by which the material is forced to flow back along the mandrel between the mandrel and die. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_with_billet.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Section of die with billet inserted"><img alt="Diagram showing a steel die in section with an aluminium billet inserted" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Die_with_billet.png/180px-Die_with_billet.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Die_with_billet.png/270px-Die_with_billet.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Die_with_billet.png/360px-Die_with_billet.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Section of die with billet inserted</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aluminium_cylinder_extrusion.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Backward extrusion process, showing the material flowing out of the die back along the mandrel"><img alt="Animation showing cold extrusion of the cylinder by pressing a rounded end cylindrical mandrel into the billet, with the aluminium extruding between the sides of the die and the mandrel to form a blind tube" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Aluminium_cylinder_extrusion.gif/180px-Aluminium_cylinder_extrusion.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Aluminium_cylinder_extrusion.gif/270px-Aluminium_cylinder_extrusion.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Aluminium_cylinder_extrusion.gif/360px-Aluminium_cylinder_extrusion.gif 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Backward extrusion process, showing the material flowing out of the die back along the mandrel</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_open.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Extrusion product before trimming"><img alt="The blind tube of the cylinder after removal from the die. It consists of the base and walls of the cylinder, but is still open at the top" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cylinder_open.png/180px-Cylinder_open.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cylinder_open.png/270px-Cylinder_open.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cylinder_open.png/360px-Cylinder_open.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Extrusion product before trimming</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_closed.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Section after closure of the top end"><img alt="The cylinder has been closed at the top by further cold forming, and the neck is still closed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Cylinder_closed.png/180px-Cylinder_closed.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Cylinder_closed.png/270px-Cylinder_closed.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Cylinder_closed.png/360px-Cylinder_closed.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Section after closure of the top end</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_machined_with_neck_detail.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Section showing machined areas of the neck in detail"><img alt="The cylinder neck has been machined, and the threaded hole for the cylinder valve is shown" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cylinder_machined_with_neck_detail.png/180px-Cylinder_machined_with_neck_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cylinder_machined_with_neck_detail.png/270px-Cylinder_machined_with_neck_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cylinder_machined_with_neck_detail.png/360px-Cylinder_machined_with_neck_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Section showing machined areas of the neck in detail</div> </li> </ul> <p>Cold extrusion (aluminium): </p><p>Seamless aluminium cylinders may be manufactured by cold backward extrusion of aluminium billets in a process which first presses the walls and base, then trims the top edge of the cylinder walls, followed by press forming the shoulder and neck.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxfer_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxfer-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hot extrusion (steel): </p><p>In the hot extrusion process a billet of steel is cut to size, induction heated to the correct temperature for the alloy, descaled and placed in the die. The metal is backward extruded by forcing the mandrel into it, causing it to flow through the annular gap until a deep cup is formed. This cup is further drawn to diameter and wall thickness reduced and the bottom formed. After inspection and trimming of the open end, the cylinder is hot spun to close the end and form the neck.<sup id="cite_ref-Vitkovice_Az_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vitkovice_Az-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drawn">Drawn</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Drawn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pressed_steel_cylinder_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pressed_steel_cylinder_animation.gif/220px-Pressed_steel_cylinder_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pressed_steel_cylinder_animation.gif/330px-Pressed_steel_cylinder_animation.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pressed_steel_cylinder_animation.gif/440px-Pressed_steel_cylinder_animation.gif 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="1095" /></a><figcaption>Animation showing two stages of deep drawing of a steel plate to a cup, and a similar cup to a diving cylinder blank with domed bottom</figcaption></figure> <p>Seamless cylinders may also be <a href="/wiki/Cold_drawn" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold drawn">cold drawn</a> from steel plate discs to a cylindrical cup form, in two to four stages, depending on the final ratio of diameter to cylinder length. After forming the base and side walls, the top of the cylinder is trimmed to length, heated and <a href="/wiki/Metal_spinning" title="Metal spinning">hot spun</a> to form the shoulder and close the neck. The spinning process thickens the material of the shoulder. The cylinder is <a href="/wiki/Heat-treated" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat-treated">heat-treated</a> by quenching and tempering to provide the best strength and toughness.<sup id="cite_ref-Worthington_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worthington-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spun_from_seamless_tube">Spun from seamless tube</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Spun from seamless tube"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A seamless steel cylinder can also be formed by hot spinning a closure at both ends. The base is first closed completely, and trimmed to form a smooth internal surface before the shoulder and neck are formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Technology_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Technology-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrostatic_test.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The cylinder undergoes hydrostatic testing for quality control" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hydrostatic_test.png/220px-Hydrostatic_test.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hydrostatic_test.png/330px-Hydrostatic_test.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Hydrostatic_test.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Hydrostatic test of structurally complete cylinder</figcaption></figure> <p>Regardless of the method used to form the cylinder, it will be machined to finish the neck and cut the neck threads, heat treated, cleaned, and surface finished, stamp marked, tested, and inspected for quality assurance.<sup id="cite_ref-Worthington_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worthington-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vitkovice_Az_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vitkovice_Az-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Luxfer_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxfer-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Technology_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Technology-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composite">Composite</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Composite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic" title="Fibre-reinforced plastic">Fibre-reinforced plastic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Filament_winding" title="Filament winding">Filament winding</a></div> <p>Composite pressure vessels are generally laid up from filament wound rovings in a thermosetting polymer matrix. The mandrel may be removable after cure, or may remain a part of the finished product, often providing a more reliable gas or liquid-tight liner, or better chemical resistance to the intended contents than the resin matrix. Metallic inserts may be provided for attaching threaded accessories, such as valves and pipes.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development_of_composite_vessels">Development of composite vessels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Development of composite vessels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To classify the different structural principles of gas storage cylinders, 4 types are defined.<sup id="cite_ref-Technology_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Technology-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Type 1 – Full metal: Cylinder is made entirely from metal.</li> <li>Type 2 – Hoop wrap: Metal cylinder, reinforced by a belt-like hoop wrap with fibre-reinforced resin.</li> <li>Type 3 – Fully wrapped, over metal liner: Diagonally wrapped fibres form the load bearing shell on the cylindrical section and at the bottom and shoulder around the metal neck. The metal liner is thin and provides the gas tight barrier.</li> <li>Type 4 – Fully wrapped, over non-metal liner: A lightweight thermoplastic liner provides the gas tight barrier, and the mandrel to wrap fibres and resin matrix around. Only the neck which carries the neck thread and its anchor to the liner is made of metal.</li></ul> <p>Type 2 and 3 cylinders have been in production since around 1995. Type 4 cylinders are commercially available at least since 2016.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Winding_angle_of_composite_vessels">Winding angle of composite vessels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Winding angle of composite vessels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wound infinite cylindrical shapes optimally take a winding angle of 54.7 degrees to the cylindrical axis, as this gives the necessary twice the strength in the circumferential direction to the longitudinal.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hoop wound fibre reinforcement is wound at an angle of nearly 90° to the cylinder axis. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oveerpressure_relief">Oveerpressure relief</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Oveerpressure relief"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the pressure vessel is designed to a pressure, there is typically a <a href="/wiki/Safety_valve" title="Safety valve">safety valve</a> or <a href="/wiki/Relief_valve" title="Relief valve">relief valve</a> to ensure that this pressure is not exceeded in operation. </p><p>There may be a <a href="/wiki/Rupture_disc" title="Rupture disc">rupture disc</a> fitted to the vessel or the cylinder valve or a <a href="/wiki/Fusible_plug" title="Fusible plug">fusible plug</a> to protect in case of overheating. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Leak_before_burst">Leak before burst</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Leak before burst"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leak before burst describes a pressure vessel designed such that a crack in the vessel will grow through the wall, allowing the contained fluid to escape and reducing the pressure, prior to growing so large as to cause catastrophic <a href="/wiki/Fracture" title="Fracture">fracture</a> at the operating pressure. </p><p>Many pressure vessel standards, including the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the AIAA metallic pressure vessel standard, either require pressure vessel designs to be leak before burst, or require pressure vessels to meet more stringent requirements for <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigue</a> and fracture if they are not shown to be leak before burst.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testing_and_inspection">Testing and inspection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Testing and inspection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_test" title="Hydrostatic test">Hydrostatic test</a> (filled with water) pressure is usually 1.5 times working pressure, but DOT test pressure for scuba cylinders is 5/3 (1.66) times working pressure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_standards">Operation standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Operation standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pressure vessels are designed to operate safely at a specific pressure and temperature, technically referred to as the "Design Pressure" and "Design Temperature". A vessel that is inadequately designed to handle a high pressure constitutes a very significant safety hazard. Because of that, the design and certification of pressure vessels is governed by design codes such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers#ASME_Boiler_and_Pressure_Vessel_Code_(BPVC)" title="American Society of Mechanical Engineers">ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code</a> in North America, the <a href="/wiki/Pressure_Equipment_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure Equipment Directive">Pressure Equipment Directive</a> of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> (PED), <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Industrial_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Industrial Standard">Japanese Industrial Standard</a> (JIS), <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Standards_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Standards Association">CSA</a> B51 in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Standards">Australian Standards</a> in Australia and other <a href="/wiki/International_standard" title="International standard">international standards</a> like <a href="/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Register" title="Lloyd's Register">Lloyd's</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanischer_Lloyd" title="Germanischer Lloyd">Germanischer Lloyd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Det_Norske_Veritas" class="mw-redirect" title="Det Norske Veritas">Det Norske Veritas</a>, Société Générale de Surveillance (SGS S.A.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lr.org/nl/energy/stoomwezen/">Lloyd's Register Energy Nederland (formerly known as Stoomwezen)</a> etc. </p><p>Note that where the pressure-volume product is part of a safety standard, any incompressible liquid in the vessel can be excluded as it does not contribute to the potential energy stored in the vessel, so only the volume of the compressible part such as gas is used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_standards">List of standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: List of standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EN_13445" title="EN 13445">EN 13445</a>: The current European Standard, harmonized with the <a href="/wiki/Pressure_Equipment_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure Equipment Directive">Pressure Equipment Directive</a> (Originally "97/23/EC", since 2014 "2014/68/EU"). Extensively used in Europe.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASME_Boiler_and_Pressure_Vessel_Code_(BPVC)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)">ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code</a> Section VIII: Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BS_5500" class="mw-redirect" title="BS 5500">BS 5500</a>: Former British Standard, replaced in the UK by <a href="/wiki/EN_13445" title="EN 13445">BS EN 13445</a> but retained under the name <a href="/wiki/PD_5500" title="PD 5500">PD 5500</a> for the design and construction of export equipment.</li> <li>AD Merkblätter: German standard, harmonized with the <a href="/wiki/Pressure_Equipment_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure Equipment Directive">Pressure Equipment Directive</a>.</li> <li>EN 286 (Parts 1 to 4): European standard for simple pressure vessels (air tanks), harmonized with Council Directive 87/404/EEC.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BS_4994" title="BS 4994">BS 4994</a>: Specification for design and construction of vessels and tanks in <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced plastics">reinforced plastics</a>.</li> <li>ASME PVHO: US standard for <a href="/wiki/Pressure_Vessels_for_Human_Occupancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure Vessels for Human Occupancy">Pressure Vessels for Human Occupancy</a>.</li> <li>CODAP: French Code for Construction of Unfired Pressure Vessel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AS/NZS_1200" title="AS/NZS 1200">AS/NZS 1200</a>: Australian and New Zealand Standard for the requirements of Pressure equipment including Pressure Vessels, boilers and pressure piping.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>AS 1210: Australian Standard for the design and construction of Pressure Vessels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AS/NZS_3788:2006" class="mw-redirect" title="AS/NZS 3788:2006">AS/NZS 3788</a>: Australian and New Zealand Standard for the inspection of pressure vessels <sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>API 510.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>ISO 11439: <a href="/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas" title="Compressed natural gas">Compressed natural gas</a> (CNG) cylinders<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>IS 2825–1969 (RE1977)_code_unfired_Pressure_vessels.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FRP_tanks_and_vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="FRP tanks and vessels">FRP tanks and vessels</a>.</li> <li>AIAA S-080-1998: AIAA Standard for Space Systems – Metallic Pressure Vessels, Pressurized Structures, and Pressure Components.</li> <li>AIAA S-081A-2006: AIAA Standard for Space Systems – <a href="/wiki/Composite_Overwrapped_Pressure_Vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels">Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels</a> (COPVs).</li> <li>ECSS-E-ST-32-02C Rev.1: Space engineering – Structural design and verification of pressurized hardware</li> <li>B51-09 Canadian Boiler, pressure vessel, and pressure piping code.</li> <li>HSE guidelines for pressure systems.</li> <li>Stoomwezen: Former pressure vessels code in the Netherlands, also known as RToD: Regels voor Toestellen onder Druk (Dutch Rules for Pressure Vessels).</li> <li>SANS 10019:2021 South African National Standard: Transportable pressure receptacles for compressed, dissolved and liquefied gases - Basic design, manufacture, use and maintenance.</li> <li>SANS 1825:2010 Edition 3: South African National Standard: Gas cylinder test stations ― General requirements for periodic inspection and testing of transportable refillable gas pressure receptacles. ISBN 978-0-626-23561-1</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Popular_Science_Jan_1919_p27_-_10,000psi_wrapped_fuel_tank.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Popular_Science_Jan_1919_p27_-_10%2C000psi_wrapped_fuel_tank.JPG" decoding="async" width="199" height="98" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="199" data-file-height="98" /></a><figcaption>A 10,000 psi (69 MPa) pressure vessel from 1919, wrapped with high tensile steel banding and steel rods to secure the end caps.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest documented design of pressure vessels was described in 1495 in the book by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Madrid_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Codex Madrid I">Codex Madrid I</a>, in which containers of pressurized air were theorized to lift heavy weights underwater.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsen_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsen-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, vessels resembling those used today did not come about until the 1800s, when steam was generated in boilers' helping to spur the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsen_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsen-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, with poor material quality and manufacturing techniques along with improper knowledge of design, operation and maintenance there was a large number of damaging and often deadly explosions associated with these boilers and pressure vessels, with a death occurring on a nearly daily basis in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsen_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsen-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Local provinces and states in the US began enacting rules for constructing these vessels after some particularly devastating vessel failures occurred killing dozens of people at a time, which made it difficult for manufacturers to keep up with the varied rules from one location to another. The first pressure vessel code was developed starting in 1911 and released in 1914, starting the <a href="/wiki/ASME_Boiler_and_Pressure_Vessel_Code_(BPVC)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)">ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsen_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsen-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an early effort to design a tank capable of withstanding pressures up to 10,000 psi (69 MPa), a 6-inch (150 mm) diameter tank was developed in 1919 that was spirally-wound with two layers of high tensile strength steel wire to prevent sidewall rupture, and the end caps longitudinally reinforced with lengthwise high-tensile rods.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The need for high pressure and temperature vessels for petroleum refineries and chemical plants gave rise to vessels joined with welding instead of rivets (which were unsuitable for the pressures and temperatures required) and in the 1920s and 1930s the BPVC included welding as an acceptable means of construction; welding is the main means of joining metal vessels today.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsen_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsen-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There have been many advancements in the field of pressure vessel engineering such as advanced non-destructive examination, <a href="/wiki/Phased_array_ultrasonic_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Phased array ultrasonic testing">phased array ultrasonic testing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a>, new material grades with increased corrosion resistance and stronger materials, and new ways to join materials such as <a href="/wiki/Explosion_welding" title="Explosion welding">explosion welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friction_stir_welding" title="Friction stir welding">friction stir welding</a>, advanced theories and means of more accurately assessing the stresses encountered in vessels such as with the use of <a href="/wiki/Finite_Element_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite Element Analysis">Finite Element Analysis</a>, allowing the vessels to be built safer and more efficiently. Pressure vessels in the USA require BPVC stamping, but the BPVC is not just a domestic code, many other countries have adopted the BPVC as their official code.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There are, however, other official codes in some countries, such as Japan, Australia, Canada, Britain, and other countries in the European Union. Nearly all recognize the inherent potential hazards of pressure vessels and the need for standards and codes regulating their design and construction.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gasf%C3%BCllventil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Gasf%C3%BCllventil.jpg/220px-Gasf%C3%BCllventil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Gasf%C3%BCllventil.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="216" /></a><figcaption>Example of a gas filling valve.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_Becool_BC-LR-10,0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_Becool_BC-LR-10%2C0.png/220px-%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_Becool_BC-LR-10%2C0.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="448" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_Becool_BC-LR-10%2C0.png/330px-%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_Becool_BC-LR-10%2C0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_Becool_BC-LR-10%2C0.png/440px-%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_Becool_BC-LR-10%2C0.png 2x" data-file-width="1161" data-file-height="2365" /></a><figcaption>Ресивер хладагента Becool BC-LR-10,0</figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blasensp.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Blasensp.pdf/page1-220px-Blasensp.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Blasensp.pdf/page1-330px-Blasensp.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Blasensp.pdf/page1-440px-Blasensp.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="1752" /></a><figcaption>Bladder accumulator</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Alternatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_storage" title="Natural gas storage">Natural gas storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_holder" title="Gas holder">Gas holder</a></li></ul> <p>Depending on the application and local circumstances, alternatives to pressure vessels exist. Examples can be seen in domestic water collection systems, where the following may be used: </p> <ul><li>Gravity-controlled systems<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which typically consist of an unpressurized <a href="/wiki/Water_tank" title="Water tank">water tank</a> at an elevation higher than the point of use. Pressure at the point of use is the result of the hydrostatic pressure caused by the elevation difference. Gravity systems produce 0.43 pounds per square inch (3.0 kPa) per foot of water head (elevation difference). A municipal water supply or pumped water is typically around 90 pounds per square inch (620 kPa).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inline_pump_controller&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inline pump controller (page does not exist)">Inline pump controllers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pressure_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure sensor">pressure-sensitive</a> pumps.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In nuclear reactors, pressure vessels are primarily used to keep the coolant (water) liquid at high temperatures to increase <a href="/wiki/Carnot_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnot efficiency">Carnot efficiency</a>. Other coolants can be kept at high temperatures with much less pressure, explaining the interest in <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">molten salt reactors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead_cooled_fast_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead cooled fast reactor">lead cooled fast reactors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gas_cooled_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas cooled reactor">gas cooled reactors</a>. However, the benefits of not needing a pressure vessel or one of less pressure are in part compensated by drawbacks unique to each alternative approach.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers" title="American Society of Mechanical Engineers">American Society of Mechanical Engineers</a> (<abbr>ASME</abbr>) – Mechanical engineering professional society</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASME_Boiler_and_Pressure_Vessel_Code" title="ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code">ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code</a> – Technical standard</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottled_gas" title="Bottled gas">Bottled gas</a> – Gas compressed and stored in cylinders</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composite_overwrapped_pressure_vessel" title="Composite overwrapped pressure vessel">Composite overwrapped pressure vessel</a> – Pressure vessel with a non-structural liner wrapped with a structural fiber composite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed-air_energy_storage" title="Compressed-air energy storage">Compressed-air energy storage</a> – Method for matching variable production with demand</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas" title="Compressed natural gas">Compressed natural gas</a> – Fuel gas mainly composed of methane</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demister_(vapor)" title="Demister (vapor)">Demister</a> – Removal of liquid droplets entrained in a vapor stream</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-tube_boiler" title="Fire-tube boiler">Fire-tube boiler</a> – Type of boiler</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_cylinder" title="Gas cylinder">Gas cylinder</a> – Cylindrical container for storing pressurised gas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasket" title="Gasket">Gasket</a> – Type of mechanical seal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_(vessel)" title="Head (vessel)">Head (vessel)</a> – End cap on a cylindrically shaped pressure vessel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_design_metal_temperature" title="Minimum design metal temperature">Minimum design metal temperature</a> (<abbr>MDMT</abbr>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powerlet" class="mw-redirect" title="Powerlet">Powerlet</a> – A small, inexpensive, disposable metal gas cylinder for providing pneumatic power - a small, inexpensive, disposable metal gas cylinder for providing pneumatic power</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">Rainwater harvesting</a> – Accumulation of rainwater for reuse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_valve" title="Relief valve">Relief valve</a> – Safety valve used to control or limit the pressure in a system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_valve" title="Safety valve">Safety valve</a> – Device for releasing excess pressure in a system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholander_pressure_bomb" title="Scholander pressure bomb">Scholander pressure bomb</a> – Instrument for measuring water potential of plant tissue – a device for measuring leaf <a href="/wiki/Water_potential" title="Water potential">water potentials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell-and-tube_heat_exchanger" title="Shell-and-tube heat exchanger">Shell-and-tube heat exchanger</a> – Class of heat exchanger designs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tube_tool" title="Tube tool">Tube tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_separator" title="Vapor–liquid separator">Vapor–liquid separator</a> – Device for separating a liquid-vapor mixture into its component phases or Knock-out drum</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortex_breaker" title="Vortex breaker">Vortex breaker</a> – Device to prevent formation of a vortex at an outlet from a container</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-tube_boiler" title="Water-tube boiler">Water-tube boiler</a> – Type of furnace generating steam</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">Water well</a> – Excavation or structure to provide access to groundwater</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Airlock" is sometimes written as air-lock or air lock, or abbreviated to just lock.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.redriver.team/asmes-definition-of-a-pressure-vessel/">"ASME's Definition of a Pressure Vessel"</a>. <i>www.redriver.team</i>. 9 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.redriver.team&rft.atitle=ASME%27s+Definition+of+a+Pressure+Vessel&rft.date=2023-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.redriver.team%2Fasmes-definition-of-a-pressure-vessel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.redriver.team/asmes-definition-of-a-pressure-vessel/">"ASME's Definition of a Pressure Vessel"</a>. <i>www.redriver.team</i>. 9 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.redriver.team&rft.atitle=ASME%27s+Definition+of+a+Pressure+Vessel&rft.date=2023-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.redriver.team%2Fasmes-definition-of-a-pressure-vessel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Assessor-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Assessor_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Assessor_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.assessor.com.au/resources/news-articles/pressure-vessels">"Pressure vessels hazards and safety"</a>. <i>www.assessor.com.au</i>. June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.assessor.com.au&rft.atitle=Pressure+vessels+hazards+and+safety&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.assessor.com.au%2Fresources%2Fnews-articles%2Fpressure-vessels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHearn1997" class="citation book cs1">Hearn, E.J. (1997). "Chapter 9". <i>Mechanics of Materials 1. An Introduction to the Mechanics of Elastic and Plastic Deformation of Solids and Structural Materials</i> (Third ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. <span class="nowrap">199–</span>203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7506-3265-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7506-3265-8"><bdi>0-7506-3265-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9&rft.btitle=Mechanics+of+Materials+1.+An+Introduction+to+the+Mechanics+of+Elastic+and+Plastic+Deformation+of+Solids+and+Structural+Materials&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E203&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7506-3265-8&rft.aulast=Hearn&rft.aufirst=E.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nilsen-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nilsen_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nilsen_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nilsen_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nilsen_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nilsen_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nilsen_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nilsen, Kyle. (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/10057/3997">"Development of low pressure filter testing vessel and analysis of electrospun nanofiber membranes for water treatment"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuskarich2009" class="citation web cs1">Puskarich, Paul (2009-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120315184643/http://www.gmic.org/Student%20Contest%20Entries/2007%20Contest%20Entries/26-Paul%20Puskarich%20-%20Glass%20for%20Pipeline%20Systems.pdf">"Strengthened Glass for Pipeline Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Glass Manufacturing Industry Council</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gmic.org/Student%20Contest%20Entries/2007%20Contest%20Entries/26-Paul%20Puskarich%20-%20Glass%20for%20Pipeline%20Systems.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-03-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Glass+Manufacturing+Industry+Council&rft.atitle=Strengthened+Glass+for+Pipeline+Systems&rft.date=2009-05-01&rft.aulast=Puskarich&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmic.org%2FStudent%2520Contest%2520Entries%2F2007%2520Contest%2520Entries%2F26-Paul%2520Puskarich%2520-%2520Glass%2520for%2520Pipeline%2520Systems.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeerJohnstonDeWolf2002" class="citation book cs1">Beer, Ferdinand P.; Johnston, E. Russel Jr.; DeWolf, John T. (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mechanicsofmater00ferd/page/463">"7.9"</a></span>. <i>Mechanics of Materials</i> (fourth ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mechanicsofmater00ferd/page/463">463</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-365935-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-365935-0"><bdi>978-0-07-365935-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7.9&rft.btitle=Mechanics+of+Materials&rft.pages=463&rft.edition=fourth&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-07-365935-0&rft.aulast=Beer&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand+P.&rft.au=Johnston%2C+E.+Russel+Jr.&rft.au=DeWolf%2C+John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmechanicsofmater00ferd%2Fpage%2F463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a sphere the thickness d = rP/2σ, where r is the radius of the tank. The volume of the spherical surface then is 4πr<sup>2</sup>d = 4πr<sup>3</sup>P/2σ. The mass is determined by multiplying by the density of the material that makes up the walls of the spherical vessel. Further the volume of the gas is (4πr<sup>3</sup>)/3. Combining these equations give the above results. The equations for the other geometries are derived in a similar manner</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fxsolver.com/browse/formulas/Mass+of+pressure+Cylindrical+vessel+with+hemispherical+ends(+capsule)">"Mass of pressure Cylindrical vessel with hemispherical ends( capsule) – calculator – fxSolver"</a>. <i>www.fxsolver.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fxsolver.com&rft.atitle=Mass+of+pressure+Cylindrical+vessel+with+hemispherical+ends%28+capsule%29+%E2%80%93+calculator+%E2%80%93+fxSolver&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fxsolver.com%2Fbrowse%2Fformulas%2FMass%2Bof%2Bpressure%2BCylindrical%2Bvessel%2Bwith%2Bhemispherical%2Bends%28%2Bcapsule%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Budynas, J. Nisbett, Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th ed., New York:McGraw-Hill, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-312193-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-312193-2">978-0-07-312193-2</a>, pg 108</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asme.org/kb/standards/bpvc-resources"><i>An International Code 2007 ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code</i></a>. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+International+Code+2007+ASME+Boiler+%26+Pressure+Vessel+Code&rft.pub=The+American+Society+of+Mechanical+Engineers&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asme.org%2Fkb%2Fstandards%2Fbpvc-resources&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIGA-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AIGA_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asiaiga.org/uploaded_docs/en_Position_Paper_PP_03-Tapered_and_Parallel_Threads_in_Al_Alloy_Cylinders.pdf">Position Paper PP- 03 - 2022: Use of tapered and parallel (straight) threads in aluminum alloy cylinders</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Singapore: Asia Industrial Gases Association. 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Position+Paper+PP-+03+-+2022%3A+Use+of+tapered+and+parallel+%28straight%29+threads+in+aluminum+alloy+cylinders&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=Asia+Industrial+Gases+Association&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asiaiga.org%2Fuploaded_docs%2Fen_Position_Paper_PP_03-Tapered_and_Parallel_Threads_in_Al_Alloy_Cylinders.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISO_11116-1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ISO_11116-1_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTechnical_Committee_58_Gas_cylinders1999" class="citation book cs1">Technical Committee 58 Gas cylinders (25 March 1999). <i>ISO 11116-1: Gas cylinders – 17E taper thread for connection of valves to gas cylinders</i> (First ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: International Standards Organization.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO+11116-1%3A+Gas+cylinders+%E2%80%93+17E+taper+thread+for+connection+of+valves+to+gas+cylinders&rft.place=Geneva%2C+Switzerland&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=International+Standards+Organization&rft.date=1999-03-25&rft.au=Technical+Committee+58+Gas+cylinders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISO13341-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ISO13341_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISO13341_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISO13341_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTechnical_Committee_ISO/TC_58,_Gas_cylinders1997" class="citation book cs1">Technical Committee ISO/TC 58, Gas cylinders (15 October 1997). <i>ISO 13341:1997 Transportable gas cylinders – Fitting of valves to gas cylinders</i> (1st ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: International Standards Organisation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO+13341%3A1997+Transportable+gas+cylinders+%E2%80%93+Fitting+of+valves+to+gas+cylinders&rft.place=Geneva%2C+Switzerland&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=International+Standards+Organisation&rft.date=1997-10-15&rft.au=Technical+Committee+ISO%2FTC+58%2C+Gas+cylinders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISO_11363-1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ISO_11363-1_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>ISO 11363-1:2010 Gas cylinders — 17E and 25E taper threads for connection of valves to gas cylinders — Part 1: Specifications</i>. Geneva, Switzerland: International Standards Organisation. May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO+11363-1%3A2010+Gas+cylinders+%E2%80%94+17E+and+25E+taper+threads+for+connection+of+valves+to+gas+cylinders+%E2%80%94+Part+1%3A+Specifications&rft.place=Geneva%2C+Switzerland&rft.pub=International+Standards+Organisation&rft.date=2010-05&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BS2779-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BS2779_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommittee_MCE/181986" class="citation book cs1">Committee MCE/18 (1986). <i>Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings where pressure-tight joints are not made on the threads (metric dimensions)</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Domestic+water+collection+systems+also+sometimes+able+to+function+on+gravity&rft.pub=Harvesth2o.com&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Pushard&rft.aufirst=Doug&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvesth2o.com%2Ffaq.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrapo2021" class="citation book cs1">Crapo, William F. (20 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Fire_Protection_Hydraulics_and_Water_Sup/tvJMEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=water+tank+higher+gravity+pressure&pg=PA213&printsec=frontcover"><i>Fire Protection Hydraulics and Water Supply, Revised Third Edition</i></a>. Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-284-25605-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-284-25605-5"><bdi>978-1-284-25605-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+Protection+Hydraulics+and+Water+Supply%2C+Revised+Third+Edition&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2021-10-20&rft.isbn=978-1-284-25605-5&rft.aulast=Crapo&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FFire_Protection_Hydraulics_and_Water_Sup%2FtvJMEAAAQBAJ%3Fhl%3Den%26gbpv%3D1%26dq%3Dwater%2Btank%2Bhigher%2Bgravity%2Bpressure%26pg%3DPA213%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPushard" class="citation web cs1">Pushard, Doug. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvesth2o.com/pumps_or_tanks.shtml">"Alternatives to pressure vessels in domestic water systems"</a>. Harvesth2o.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alternatives+to+pressure+vessels+in+domestic+water+systems&rft.pub=Harvesth2o.com&rft.aulast=Pushard&rft.aufirst=Doug&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvesth2o.com%2Fpumps_or_tanks.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APressure+vessel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>A.C. Ugural, S.K. Fenster, Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity, 4th ed.</li> <li>E.P. Popov, Engineering Mechanics of Solids, 1st ed.</li> <li>Megyesy, Eugene F. "Pressure Vessel Handbook, 14th Edition." PV Publishing, Inc. Oklahoma City, OK</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Megyesy, Eugene F. (2008, 14th ed.) <i>Pressure Vessel Handbook.</i> PV Publishing, Inc.: Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, US. www.pressurevesselhandbook.com Design handbook for pressure vessels based on the ASME code.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pressure_vessel&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/pressure vessel">pressure vessel</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Pressure_vessel" class="extiw" title="commons:Pressure vessel"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Pressure vessel</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811212330/http://articles.compressionjobs.com/articles/oilfield-101/5130-storage-tanks-vessels-gas-liquids?start=6">Use of pressure vessels in oil and gas industry</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/thin-walled-pressure-vessels">Basic formulas for thin walled pressure vessels, with examples</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pveng.com/ASME/DesignTools/DesignTools.php">Educational Excel spreadsheets for ASME head, shell and nozzle designs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100410191808/http://www.asme.org/codes/International_Boiler_Pressure.cfm">ASME boiler and pressure vessel website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asmedl.org/PressureVesselTech">Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121015162452/http://www.asmedl.org/PressureVesselTech">Archived</a> 2012-10-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070913004940/http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/pressure_equipment/ped/index_en.html">EU Pressure Equipment Directive website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060623135144/http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/pressure_equipment/sector_pressure/spv_sector/index.htm">EU Simple 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