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citation_author=Chirkova, Katia; citation_author=Chen, Yiya; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_journal_title=Journal of the International Phonetic Association; citation_volume=43; citation_firstpage=75; citation_lastpage=86; citation_doi=10.1017/S0025100312000242"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Xumi (part 1): Lower Xumi, the variety of the lower and middle reaches of the Shuiluo river; citation_author=Chirkova, Katia; citation_author=Chen, Yiya; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_journal_title=Journal of the International Phonetic Association; citation_volume=43; citation_firstpage=363; citation_lastpage=379; citation_doi=10.1017/S0025100313000157"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Zangyu fangyan gailun/Bod kyi yul skad rnamb shad/An introduction to Tibetan dialects; citation_author=Jumian, Gesang; citation_author=Yangjing, Gesang; citation_publication_date=2002"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Chirkova, Katia. In press. Phonological profile of Kami, the Tibetan dialect of Muli. In Sun, Jackson T.-S. (ed.), Lesser known dialects of Tibetan, special issue of Language and Linguistics."> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Principles of linguistic change: Internal factors; citation_author=Labov, William; citation_publication_date=1994"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=The origin of sound patterns in vocal tract constraints; citation_author=Ohala, John J; citation_author=MacNeilage, Peter F.; citation_publication_date=1983; citation_inbook=The production of speech; citation_firstpage=189; citation_lastpage=216"> <meta name="citation_abstract" content="This Illustration focuses on the variety of the Xumi language (旭米, /LPʂuketɕɜ/ or /EPʂu-hĩ ketɕɜ/) that is spoken in the upper reaches of the Shuiluo river (水洛河) in Shuiluo Township (水洛乡) (hereafter Upper Xumi). The township is located in Muli Tibetan Autonomous County (木里藏族自治县, smi li rang skyong rdzong in Written Tibetan, hereafter, WT), in the South-West of Sichuan Province (四川省) in the People's Republic of China."> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1017/S0025100313000169"> <link rel="alternate" href="/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/xumi-part-2-upper-xumi-the-variety-of-the-upper-reaches-of-the-shuiluo-river/66525EDEAC671BDDD718C653CAC7D826" hreflang="en" /> <link rel="icon" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link href='//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Noto+Sans:400,700,400italic,700italic' rel='stylesheet' type='text/css'>  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/css/app.css?version=v7.337.1-hotfix"/> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://usage.prod.aop.cambridge.org/v1/events"> <link 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data-v-3692cf84><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</span> </a></li><li class="page-breadcrumbs__item" data-v-3692cf84><span aria-hidden="true" class="breadcrumbs-wrapper__arrow" data-v-3692cf84>></span><a href="/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/issue/5F083F9141C393FB330492BC77ABB4DC" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-3692cf84><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Volume 43 Issue 3: Non-pulmonic sounds in European...</span> </a></li><li class="page-breadcrumbs__item" data-v-3692cf84><span aria-hidden="true" class="breadcrumbs-wrapper__arrow" data-v-3692cf84>></span><span data-v-3692cf84>Xumi (part 2): Upper Xumi, the variety of the upper...</span></li></ul></div></div> <div class="language" data-v-3692cf84><ul class="language-switch" data-v-6b1118dd data-v-3692cf84><li aria-label="English" data-v-6b1118dd><span class="language-option current divider" data-v-6b1118dd>English</span></li><li 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data-v-01274b1d><h2>Article contents</h2> <div id="toc-list-wrapper" class="table-of-content__wrapper"><ul id="toc-list" class="list"><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec0" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">Extract</span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#footnotes-list" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">Footnotes</span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#references-list" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">References</span></a></li></ul></div></div></div> <div class="column__main" data-v-01274b1d><div class="row" data-v-01274b1d><div class="column__main__left" data-v-01274b1d><div id="maincontent" class="col" data-v-862424e6 data-v-01274b1d> <hgroup data-v-862424e6><h1 data-v-862424e6>Xumi (part 2): Upper Xumi, the variety of the upper reaches of the Shuiluo river</h1> </hgroup>     <div class="row published-date" data-v-862424e6><p data-v-862424e6> Published online by Cambridge University Press: <strong data-v-862424e6>04 November 2013</strong></p></div>   <div class="contributors-details" data-v-99f6eb26 data-v-862424e6><div class="row contributors" data-v-99f6eb26><div class="col" data-v-99f6eb26><div class="row contributor-type" data-v-792406ce data-v-99f6eb26> <div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Katia%20Chirkova&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Katia Chirkova</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Yiya%20Chen&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Yiya Chen</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce> and</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Tanja%20Kocjan%C4%8Di%C4%8D%20Antol%C3%ADk&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Tanja Kocjančič Antolík</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce></span></div> </div> </div> <div class="col-2 collapse-link" data-v-99f6eb26><a href="#authors-details" data-toggle="collapse" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="authors-details" class="app-link collapsed app-link__text-icon app-link--secondary reverse" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-99f6eb26><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="" class="app-icon icon arrow-down" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Show author details </span> </a></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-99f6eb26> <dl id="authors-details" class="authors-details collapse" data-v-2edb8da6 data-v-99f6eb26><div data-test-author="Katia Chirkova" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Katia Chirkova</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Centre de Recherches Linguistiques sur l'Asie Orientale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, Francekatia.chirkova@gmail.com</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Yiya Chen" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Yiya Chen</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, the Netherlandsyiya.chen@hum.leidenuniv.nl</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Tanja Kocjančič Antolík" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Tanja Kocjančič Antolík</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Laboratoire de Phonétique et Phonologie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, Francetkocjancic@googlemail.com</span> </span></div></dd></div>  <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-2edb8da6></dl></div></div> <div id="app-tabs" class="tabs" data-v-1d90c6ce data-v-01274b1d><div id="app-tabs-wrapper" class="tabs__wrapper" data-v-1d90c6ce><div role="navigation" 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target="_blank" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?publisherName=CUP&publication=IPA&title=Xumi%20(part%202)%3A%20Upper%20Xumi%2C%20the%20variety%20of%20the%20upper%20reaches%20of%20the%20Shuiluo%20river&publicationDate=04%20November%202013&author=Katia%20Chirkova%2C%20Yiya%20Chen%2C%20Tanja%20Kocjan%C4%8Di%C4%8D%20Antol%C3%ADk©right=Copyright%20%C2%A9%20International%20Phonetic%20Association%202013%C2%A0&contentID=10.1017%2FS0025100313000169&startPage=381&endPage=396&orderBeanReset=True&volumeNum=43&issueNum=3&oa=" data-test-id="buttonRightLink" class="app-link rights-link d-print-none app-link__text-icon app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-92ee52a2 data-v-43a4d572><img src="/core/page-component/img/rights-icon.d4a677c.svg" alt="" class="app-icon icon rights" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Rights & Permissions </span> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a></div> <div class="share-modal-overlay" style="display:none;" data-v-43a4d572></div> <div data-spy="scroll" data-target="#toc" class="scrollspy-content" data-v-43a4d572> <div id="sec0" class="col article-abstract sec" data-v-2fa8b348 data-v-43a4d572><div class="abstract-text-container" data-v-2fa8b348><div lang="en"><h2>Extract</h2>  <div class="abstract-content"><div class="abstract" data-abstract-type="text-abstract"><p>This Illustration focuses on the variety of the Xumi language (旭米, /<span class="sup">LP</span>ʂ<span class="monospace">u</span><span class="monospace">ket</span>ɕɜ/ or /<span class="sup">EP</span>ʂ<span class="monospace">u</span>-<span class="monospace">h</span>ĩ <span class="monospace">ket</span>ɕɜ/) that is spoken in the upper reaches of the Shuiluo river (水洛河) in Shuiluo Township (水洛乡) (hereafter Upper Xumi). The township is located in Muli Tibetan Autonomous County (木里藏族自治县, <span class="italic">smi li rang skyong rdzong</span> in Written Tibetan, hereafter, WT), in the South-West of Sichuan Province (四川省) in the People's Republic of China.</p></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="abstract-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a></div></div>   </div>    <dl class="article-details" data-v-6e32a161 data-v-43a4d572><div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Type </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161>Illustrations of the IPA</dd></div> <div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Information </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161><div class="content__journal" data-v-6e32a161><a href="/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Journal of the International Phonetic Association </span> </a> <span data-v-6e32a161> , <a href="/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/volume/2BA8BFD50185A1C2D857A987FD25FCBA" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Volume 43 </span> </a></span> <span data-v-6e32a161> , <a href="/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/issue/5F083F9141C393FB330492BC77ABB4DC" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Issue 3: Non-pulmonic sounds in European languages </span> </a></span> <span data-v-6e32a161>, December 2013</span>  <span data-v-6e32a161>, pp. 381 - 396</span> </div> <div class="doi-data" data-v-6e32a161><div data-v-6e32a161>DOI: <a target="_blank" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100313000169" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100313000169 </span> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a></div> </div>  </dd></div>   <div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Copyright </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161><div data-v-6e32a161> Copyright © International Phonetic Association 2013 </div></dd></div></dl>  <div id="content-container" class="content-container" data-v-43a4d572><div class="content-box"><div class="article research-article JATS"><div class="body"><p class="p"> This Illustration focuses on the variety of the Xumi language (旭米, /<sup class="sup">LP</sup>ʂ<span class="monospace">u</span><span class="monospace">ket</span>ɕɜ/ or /<sup class="sup">EP</sup>ʂ<span class="monospace">u</span>-<span class="monospace">h</span>ĩ <span class="monospace">ket</span>ɕɜ/) that is spoken in the upper reaches of the Shuiluo river (水洛河) in Shuiluo Township (水洛乡) (hereafter Upper Xumi).<a class="xref fn" href="#fn1"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">1</sup></a> The township is located in Muli Tibetan Autonomous County (木里藏族自治县, <em class="italic">smi li rang skyong rdzong</em> in Written Tibetan, hereafter, WT), in the South-West of Sichuan Province (四川省) in the People's Republic of China.</p><p class="p"> Upper Xumi is one of the two dialects of the Xumi language, the other one being Lower Xumi. That dialect is spoken in the lower and middle reaches of the Shuiluo river, as we discussed in our phonetic and phonological sketch of Lower Xumi (Chirkova & Chen <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref3"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Chirkova and Chen</span>2013b</a>). The present overview of Upper Xumi complements our overview of Lower Xumi.</p><p class="p"> The two dialects of Xumi are closely related to each other, but they are distinctly different, due to their contact with different languages. Upper Xumi is essentially influenced by the local dialect of Tibetan (Gami Tibetan), as well as, to a lesser extent, by Pumi. By contrast, Lower Xumi is mostly influenced by the local dialects of the Pumi, Mosuo, and Naxi languages. The observed diversity is highly remarkable given: </p><ol class="list number nomark"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"><span class="label">(a)</span> the small geographical area occupied by the group (there is a mere 15.25 km beeline between the northernmost village of Lanman (兰满村) in the upper reaches of Shuiluo river and the southernmost village of Mianbang (免邦村) in the lower reaches of Shuiluo river);</p></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"><span class="label">(b)</span> the small number of speakers (less than 2,000 people);</p></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"><span class="label">(c)</span> the continuing contact and exchange between villages in the upper, middle, and lower reaches of Shuiluo river.</p></li></ol><p class="p"> The comparative data on the two varieties are of interest for studies on language change in progress, and they may provide insight into the mechanisms at work in the implementation of language change and the diffusion of linguistic innovations.</p><p class="p"> The present sketch provides an overview of Upper Xumi with an emphasis on those features that distinguish it from Lower Xumi. It also contains an instrumental study of the voiceless–voiced contrast in nasals and laterals (nasal and oral airflow and electroglottographic measures), made possible by the fact that we could work with our principal Upper Xumi language consultant in a phonetics laboratory.</p><p class="p"> The description is based on the first author's fieldwork. The word list and the recorded passage provided with this paper were recited by a fifty-nine year old male native speaker of Xumi, who was born and raised in Lanman village. To facilitate comparison with Lower Xumi, the present description uses (whenever available) cognates in both varieties as illustrative examples. (In the sound archive, sound files with Lower Xumi forms are marked with ‘LX’.)</p><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1" id="sec1"><h2 class="A"> </h2><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-1" id="sec1-1"><h3 class="B"> Consonants</h3><p class="p"> The consonant inventory of Upper Xumi comprises of 44 consonants, as listed below. (Low frequency phonemes are given in parentheses. See section ‘Prosodic organization’ for tonal variation on monosyllabic words.) The appendix provides the distributional patterns of consonants and vowels that include permissible sequences in syllables as attested in our corpus of <em class="italic">c</em>. 2,800 words. Upper Xumi is characterized by a reduced segmental inventory (44 consonants compared with 50 in Lower Xumi), different phonotactic constraints, and the presence of prenasalized clusters. </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="586" height="147" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU1.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-51979-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU1.jpg"></div></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="574" height="431" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU2.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-80753-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU2.jpg"></div></li></ul><p class="p continuation"><a class="xref fn" href="#fn2"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">2</sup></a><a class="xref fn" href="#fn3"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">3</sup></a></p><p class="p"> There is a general three-way contrast in stops and affricates: voiceless aspirated, voiceless unaspirated, and voiced. Velars and uvular stops are in near complementary distribution. Uvular stops are found before non-high vowels, and velar stops are found elsewhere. The two series contrast before /<span class="monospace">e</span> ɜ <span class="monospace">u</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/, e.g. /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">k</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">e</span>/ ‘tax’ (WT <em class="italic">khral</em>?) vs. /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">e</span>/ ‘lime’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">k</span><sup class="sup">h</sup>ɜ/ ‘foot’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup>ɜ/ ‘feces’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">ku</span>/ ‘to be able’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">qu</span>/ ‘hearth’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup>ɲɜ-<span class="monospace">k</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘to warm oneself’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘fate, life’. Unlike Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi does not have a voiced uvular stop. Words with the voiced uvular stop in Lower Xumi correspond to words with the cluster /Nɡ/ in Upper Xumi (see section on prenasalized clusters below).</p><p class="p"> Fricatives are pronounced at six different places of articulation: alveolar, retroflex, alveolopalatal, velar, uvular, and glottal. Voiceless velar and glottal fricatives are in complementary distribution, the former only occur with oral vowels, whereas the latter only occur with nasal vowels, e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">x</span>ɔ/ ‘cooked rice, food’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">h</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘to stretch’. /ɦ/ has the most restricted distribution of all fricatives. It co-occurs only with the nasal vowels /<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ and /<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/; examples include: /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɦ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘to dare’ (compare with /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ʔ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘self (first person subject)’), /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ɦ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘self (third person subject)’ (compare with /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ʔ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘sheep’). Also unlike Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi does not have a voiced velar fricative, but it has the voiceless uvular fricative /χ/ as an independent phoneme, which can occur word-initially, e.g. /<sup class="sup">LP</sup>χɜ-χɐ/ ‘to itch’ (compare Lower Xumi /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup>ɐ-χɐ/), /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>χɐ/ ‘difficulty’ (WT <em class="italic">dka</em>ˈ).</p><p class="p"> Xumi nasals and laterals contrast (i) alveolar and alveolopalatal places of articulation and (ii) voiced and voiceless counterparts.</p><p class="p"> Alveolar and alveolopalatal laterals and nasals are minimally distinguished before /<span class="monospace">u</span>/; in addition, alveolar and alveolopalatal nasals are also distinguished before /ɐ/. Examples include: /<sup class="sup">LP</sup>ɲ<span class="monospace">u</span>-ɲ<span class="monospace">u</span>/ ‘breast’ vs. /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">nu</span>-<span class="monospace">t</span>ʂ<sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">u</span>/ ‘bean curd’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">lu</span>/ ‘again’ vs. /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ʎ<span class="monospace">u</span>/ ‘come (<span class="sc">imp</span>)’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">n</span>ɐʁɐ/ ‘twenty’ vs. /<sup class="sup">LP</sup>ɲɐʁɔ/ ‘shadow’. For nasals, the contrast is not found before the vowels /<span class="monospace">i</span> ɛ ɜ/, and for laterals, before /ɛ/. In the above cases, we use the symbols for the alveolopalatal nasals and laterals, respectively. Example include: /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɲ<span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘you, thou’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɲ<span class="monospace">e</span>/ ‘snivel, snot’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɲɛ/ ‘milk’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɲɜ/ ‘to have a craving (for something), to be hungry’; /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ʎɛ/ ‘predestined affinity’.</p><p class="p"> Bilabial and alveolar nasals show a clear voiced vs. voiceless contrast as confirmed with our electroglottography (EGG) data (see <a class="xref fig" href="#fig1">Figures 1</a> and <a class="xref fig" href="#fig2">2</a>). Voiceless nasals are infrequent. They mostly occur in loanwords from Tibetan, but they are also attested in the native vocabulary, e.g. /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ<span class="monospace">ts</span>ũ/ [<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="monospace">j</span>æ<span class="monospace">ts</span>ũ] ‘tail’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘fur, animal hair’.<a class="xref fn" href="#fn4"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">4</sup></a> Upper Xumi has two voiceless nasals (/<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span> , <span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/), which is two voiceless nasals less than in Lower Xumi (/<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char5.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="10" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char5.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char6.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char6.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/). This is surprising, given that Upper Xumi is in closer contact with a local Tibetan dialect than Lower Xumi and that that local Tibetan dialect has four voiceless nasals (/<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char17.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="10" height="15" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char17.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char16.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="8" height="15" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char16.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span> /, Chirkova, in press). Moreover, /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="4" height="17" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>ɐ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="monospace">mu</span>/ (WT <em class="italic">lha rnga mo</em>), the word for ‘camel’, is distinct in Upper Xumi not only from the corresponding form in Lower Xumi (/<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char16.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="8" height="15" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char16.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span> ɑ<span class="monospace">m</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char10.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char10.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘camel’), but also from that in Gami Tibetan, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ŋ<span class="monospace">am</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ (WT <em class="italic">rnga mong</em>), suggesting distinct donor languages for this form. </p><section><div class="fig" data-magellan-destination="fig1" id="fig1"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig1g.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-75998-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig1g.jpg"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 1</span> Waveforms, spectrograms, EGG, NAF, and OAF for the pairs /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">mj</span>ɛ/ ‘bamboo’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘medicine’, /<sup class="sup">ʀᴘ</sup><span class="monospace">n</span>ɐʁɐ/ ‘twenty’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="10" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘incantation’, and /<sup class="sup">ʀ</sup><span class="monospace">n</span>ɔ/ ‘whole, complete’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʀ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘fur, animal hair’.</p></div></div></section><section><div class="fig" data-magellan-destination="fig2" id="fig2"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig2g.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-97144-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig2g.jpg"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 2</span> Waveforms, spectrograms, and EGG of the minimal pairs /<sup class="sup">ʀ</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɜ/ ‘stutterer’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʀ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="4" height="17" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>ɜ/ ‘soul, spirit’, and /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ʎɛ/ ‘correct; right’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char119.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="8" height="14" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char119.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>ɛ/ ‘flavourless’</p></div></div></section><p class="p"> <a class="xref table" href="#tab1">Table 1</a> provides the measured values of nasal airflow (NAF) and oral airflow (OAF) for the three (near) minimal pairs: /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">mj</span>ɛ/ ‘bamboo’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘medicine’ (WT <em class="italic">sman</em>), /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">n</span>ɐʁɐ/ ‘twenty’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>ɐ/ ‘incantation, curse’ (WT <em class="italic">sngags?</em>), and /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">n</span>ɔ/ ‘whole, complete’ vs. /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘fur, animal hair’. In the table, NAFmin = minimum NAF; NAFmax = maximum NAF; NAFmean = mean NAF value; the provided measures represent an average of two to three repetitions and are measured during the nasal closure only. <a class="xref fig" href="#fig1">Figure 1</a> provides waveforms, spectrograms, EGG, NAF, and OAF for the three pairs. </p><div class="table-wrap" data-magellan-destination="tab1" id="tab1"><div class="caption"><p class="p"><span class="label">Table 1</span> Measured values of nasal airflow (NAF) and oral airflow (OAF) (in liter/second) for the (near) minimal pairs /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">mj</span>ɛ/ ‘bamboo’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘medicine’ (WT <em class="italic">sman</em>), /<sup class="sup">ʀᴘ</sup><span class="monospace">n</span>ɐʁɐ/ ‘twenty’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>ɐ/ ‘incantation, curse’ (WT <em class="italic">sngags?</em>), and /<sup class="sup">ʀ</sup><span class="monospace">n</span>ɔ/ ‘whole, complete’ vs. /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="9" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘fur, animal hair’.</p></div><span><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="619" height="149" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_tab1.gif" data-zoomable="true" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-51016-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_tab1.jpg"></div></span></div><p class="p"> A surprising finding of this pilot investigation is that all values are greater during the articulation of voiceless nasals. More precisely, while in the articulation of voiceless nasals the air escapes both through the nasal and oral cavity, there is almost no airflow through either nasal or oral cavity for the voiced nasals. Piezoelectric data, recorded for the same corpus, confirms that in voiced nasals, there is resonance recorded in the nose but no nasal (and no oral) airflow. A more detailed study (in preparation) will hopefully provide a more accurate description of this potentially new kind of nasals.</p><p class="p"> All examples of the voiceless laterals include frication and an abrupt release of the front closure that occurs slightly before the onset of voicing for the vowel (see <a class="xref fig" href="#fig2">Figure 2</a>). The burst separates the segment into two parts with different spectral structure. The pre-burst part has the greatest energy centered around 3000 Hz and greater amplitude of frequencies above that peak. The post-burst part has the noise present more equally across the frequencies, with minor peaks at the frequencies corresponding to the formant peaks of the following vowel. In addition, the post-burst part resembles the spectral structure of the voiced lateral counterpart. The presence of the burst and the spectral structure of the post-burst part suggest that these segments have developed from clusters.</p><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-1-1" id="sec1-1-1"><h4 class="C"> Syllabic consonant</h4><p class="p"> As a syllabic consonant, /<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ may occur with a zero-initial (e.g. /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">k</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">u</span>-<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘to be in debt’), and after alveolar sibilants and retroflexes (attested in our corpus after /<span class="monospace">ts</span><span class="monospace">ts</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">dz</span><span class="monospace">s</span><span class="monospace">z</span><span class="monospace">t</span>ʂ<sup class="sup">h</sup> ʂ ʐ/). We take the position that this syllabic consonant is phonologically the same as the fricative vowel after alveolar sibilants and retroflexes (/<span class="monospace">s</span><span class="monospace">z</span><span class="monospace">ts</span><span class="monospace">ts</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">dz</span> ʃ ʒ <span class="monospace">t</span>ʃ<sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">t</span>ʂ<sup class="sup">h</sup>/). In the latter case, /<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ is realized as homorganic to the preceding consonant onset. Consider the following examples: /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">ts</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">ts</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘to use’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">ts</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">ts</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘to cut with scissors’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">dz</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">dz</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘wheat’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ɐ<span class="monospace">s</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ɐ<span class="monospace">s</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘tomorrow’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ɐ<span class="monospace">z</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ɐ<span class="monospace">s</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘cat’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">t</span>ʂ<sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">t</span>ʂ<sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="11" height="15" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘to sell’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ʂ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ʂ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="11" height="15" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘fishing net’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ʐ <span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ [<sup class="sup">R</sup>ʐ <span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="11" height="15" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>] ‘to sleep’. Similar to the distribution of the syllabic consonant /<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ in Lower Xumi, /<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ in Upper Xumi contrasts with the high vowels (/<span class="monospace">i</span><span class="monospace">u</span>/), as in /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">tsi</span>/ ‘lock’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">ts</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘to use’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">tsu</span>/ ‘to pluck (facial hair)’. We therefore analyse it as a separate phoneme in this language.</p></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-1-2" id="sec1-1-2"><h4 class="C"> Consonant clusters</h4><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-1-2-1" id="sec1-1-2-1"><h5 class="D"> <em class="italic">Clusters with /<span class="monospace">w</span>/</em></h5><p class="p"> The approximant /<span class="monospace">w</span>/ occurs in the second position in consonant clusters, where it may be realized as secondary labialization of the first position consonant. /<span class="monospace">w</span>/ occurs after alveolars, alveolopalatals, retroflexes, velars, uvulars, as well as after /ŋ/ and /ɹ/. It may be followed by /<span class="monospace">i</span><span class="monospace">e</span> ɛ ɜ ɐ <span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ as well as, marginally, also by /ĩ/. If preceded by an alveolopalatal onset or followed by the front vowels /<span class="monospace">i</span><span class="monospace">e</span> ɛ ĩ/, /<span class="monospace">w</span>/ is realized as [ɥ], e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɡ<span class="monospace">wi</span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɡɥ<span class="monospace">i</span>] ‘bundle wrapped in cloth’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">dwe</span>/ [<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ɥ<span class="monospace">e</span>] ‘to ask’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɛ/ [<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑɥɛ] ‘bird’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ [<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑɥɜ] ‘honey, sugar’, /<sup class="sup">EP</sup>ɡ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɛ-<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ [<sup class="sup">EP</sup>ɡɥɛ-<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ] ‘to hunt’, /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɐ-ɡ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ [<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɐ-ɡɥɜ] ‘to hide something’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ɹ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ ‘copper’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ɹ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɐ/ ‘heavy’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">qw</span>ɐ/ ‘to cry, to weep’.</p></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-1-2-2" id="sec1-1-2-2"><h5 class="D"> Prenasalized clusters</h5><p class="p"> Similar to its linguistic neighbour, Gami Tibetan (Chirkova, in press), Upper Xumi has prenasalized voiced stops and affricates clusters (/N<span class="monospace">b</span> N<span class="monospace">d</span> N<span class="monospace">dz</span> N<span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ N<span class="monospace">d</span>ʐ Nɡ/). The stop component of the cluster may only be voiced, and a sequence of a nasal and a stop must be homorganic.<a class="xref fn" href="#fn5"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">5</sup></a> Prenasalization in Upper Xumi is contrastive, as evidenced by the (near) minimal pairs below: </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="563" height="78" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU3.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-70633-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU3.jpg"></div></li></ul><p class="p continuation"><a class="xref fn" href="#fn6"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">6</sup></a> Prenasalized clusters mostly occur in Tibetan loanwords (corresponding Gami sound files have been provided whenever available), and they are likely to be borrowed due to widespread Xumi–Gami Tibetan bilingualism in the upper reaches of the Shuiluo river. Examples include: /<sup class="sup">RP</sup>N<span class="monospace">diwu</span>/ ‘bullet’ (WT <em class="italic">mde</em>ˈ<em class="italic">u</em>, Gami /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>N<span class="monospace">di</span>/), /<sup class="sup">R</sup>N<span class="monospace">d</span>ʐɔ-N<span class="monospace">d</span>ʐɔ/ ‘to be similar’ (WT ˈ<em class="italic">dra</em>, Gami /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>N<span class="monospace">d</span>ʐɔ/). (Compare the corresponding words in Lower Xumi: /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">diwu</span>/ ‘bullet’, /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʐ<span class="monospace">e</span>-<span class="monospace">h</span>ĩ/ ‘similar’, with the nominalizing marker /<span class="monospace">h</span>ĩ/.) Prenasalized clusters are also attested in Xumi native vocabulary. We note that such words (invariably with the cluster /Nɡ/) are cognates with Lower Xumi forms with the voiced uvular stop, as in ‘to stew’: Upper Xumi /<sup class="sup">R</sup>Nɡ<span class="monospace">u</span>/, Lower Xumi /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ɢ<span class="monospace">o</span>/. As suggested by the external reviewer of this paper, the presence of Tibetan loanwords containing the cluster /Nɡ/ has possibly paved the way for the reinterpretation of the voiced uvular stop as a /Nɡ/ cluster in Upper Xumi. We note that such a development would be consistent with the correlation between stops and voicing, as discussed in Ohala (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref6"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ohala and MacNeilage</span>1983</a>: 194–201). Given that the farther forward in the vocal tract a stop is articulated, the better able it is to accommodate voicing, /ɢ/ is the most difficult stop to voice. The prenasalized stop /Nɡ/ avoids the problems associated with maintaining voicing, while maintaining the original phonemic contrast between /ɡ/ and /ɢ/.</p></div></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-1-3" id="sec1-1-3"><h4 class="C"> Consonant lenition</h4><p class="p"> Similar to Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi has a set of productive lenition rules, which transform some intervocalic voiced and voiceless aspirated stops and affricates into spirants. However, compared to the lenition rules in Lower Xumi, those in Upper Xumi are reduced in number and solely yield independent full-fledged phonemes that can occur word-initially. The attested lenition rules are summarized as follows: </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="538" height="153" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU4.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-31607-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU4.jpg"></div></li></ul><p class="p continuation"> The noted changes are not only less numerous, but are also less regular than the lenition rules in Lower Xumi, and for some initials, also sporadic and marginal. This is the case for /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ ‘to have’, where the initial /<span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ/ irregularly lenites to /ʐ/, as in [<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">mu</span> = ʐ</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">] ‘not have’.</p></div></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-2" id="sec1-2"><h3 class="B"> Vowels</h3><p class="p"> The Xumi vowel system comprises nine oral vowels and six nasal vowels (i.e. one oral vowel more than in Lower Xumi). Vowels exhibit a wide range of surface realizations (also among the language consultants that we worked with) with most vowels occurring in a rather narrow range of contexts. The number of hypothesized underlying vowels and the relation between the surface vowel realizations and the phonemic vowel categories have been established on the basis of cognates in both varieties. See also the vowel chart plotted on the relative F1/F2 formant values below. (F1 and F2 were measured at one quarter of the vowel duration (25%), at mid point (50%), and at three quarters of the vowel duration (75%); the mean formant value of a vowel was calculated by averaging over the three measurements). </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="470" height="460" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU5.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-53133-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU5.jpg"></div></li></ul><p class="p continuation"><a class="xref fn" href="#fn7"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">7</sup></a><a class="xref fn" href="#fn8"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">8</sup></a><a class="xref fn" href="#fn9"><span class="show-for-sr">Footnote </span><sup class="sup">9</sup></a> Upper Xumi nasal vowels include /ĩ </p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation"> ũ </p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="10" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/, as in /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">h</span>ĩ/ ‘man, person’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">h</span></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ ‘to cut, to slice (meat)’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">h</span>ũ/ ‘to blow’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">h</span></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ ‘vegetable’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɐ-<span class="monospace">h</span></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="10" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ ‘have disappeared’. Marginally, Upper Xumi also has the vowel /</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char15.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char15.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/, which is only attested in one word in our corpus, namely /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char15.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char15.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation"><span class="monospace">d</span>ɐ/ ‘on the roof, upstairs’ (compare /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ĩ<span class="monospace">d</span>ɐ/ ‘pitiful’).</p><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-2-1" id="sec1-2-1"><h4 class="C"> Vowel realization</h4><p class="p"> /<span class="monospace">i</span>/ and /<span class="monospace">e</span>/ overlap with some initials (see below for discussion).</p><p class="p"> Front mid vowels contrast two degrees of vowel height: /<span class="monospace">e</span>/ vs. /ɛ/, as in the following examples (where these vowels are also contrasted with /<span class="monospace">i</span>/): /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">ji</span>/ ‘to exist (of animate beings)’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">je</span>/ ‘to lick’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ/ ‘vegetable oil’; /<sup class="sup">RP</sup>ɐ<span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘alcohol, spirits’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="monospace">e</span>/ ‘happy’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑɛ/ ‘rich’.</p><p class="p"> The front vowel /ɛ/ seems to be limited to occur only with [<span class="monospace">j</span>], e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">bj</span>ɛ/ ‘hoof’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">dj</span>ɛ/ ‘fox’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ɡ<span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ/ ‘eggplant’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">mj</span>ɛ/ ‘bamboo’. The combination /<span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ/ is realized as [<span class="monospace">j</span>æ] for some speakers, e.g. /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">mj</span>ɛ-<span class="monospace">ts</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">u</span>/ [<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">mj</span>æ-<span class="monospace">ts</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">u</span>] ‘downstairs’.</p><p class="p"> /ʉ/ has a restricted distribution. It only occurs after bilabials (e.g. /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">b</span>ʉ/ ‘to rub (with hands), to twist’), and velars, where it is realized as [ɯ] (e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">k</span>ʉ/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">k</span>ɯ] ‘to bake, to roast, to toast’).</p><p class="p"> /<span class="monospace">o</span>/ has many different realizations, for it represents a change in progress, that is, raising to /<span class="monospace">u</span>/ (see below). After alveolars, it is realized as [<span class="monospace">o</span>] or [ɵ] (e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">t</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">o</span>/ ‘manner, way (to do things)’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">to</span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">t</span>ɵ] ‘to build’). After alveopalatals, it is realized as [əʊ] (e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">t</span>ɕ<sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">o</span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">t</span>ɕ<sup class="sup">h</sup>əʊ] ‘to insert, to stick in’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɕ<span class="monospace">o</span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɕəʊ] ‘meat’). Occasionally, it can also be realized as [ɤ] (e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">tso</span>/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">ts</span>ɤ] ‘crown of a head’).</p><p class="p"> /ɔ/ frequently appears in Tibetan loanwords (where it corresponds to WT <em class="italic">a</em>), e.g. /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">t</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">uw</span>ɔ/ ‘hammer’ (WT <em class="italic">tho ba</em>), /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">b</span>ɔ/ ‘mask’ (WT ˈ<em class="italic">ba</em>), /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʐɔ/ ‘enemy’ (WT <em class="italic">dgra</em>), /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɐ<span class="monospace">t</span>ɕ<sup class="sup">h</sup>ɔ/ ‘instrument, utensil’ (WT <em class="italic">lag cha</em>), /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ɐ<span class="monospace">z</span>ɔ/ ‘peacock’ (WT <em class="italic">rma bya</em>). In the native vocabulary, /ɔ/ contrasts with /ɐ/, e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span>ɔ/ ‘mountain range’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span>ɐ/ ‘to move’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ʁɔ/ ‘strength’ vs. /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">n</span>ɐʁɐ/ ‘twenty’.</p></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-2-2" id="sec1-2-2"><h4 class="C"> Comparison with Lower Xumi</h4><p class="p"> The main differences between the vowel systems of Lower and Upper Xumi can be summarized as follows. Compared to their counterparts in the vowel system of Lower Xumi, the vowels of Upper Xumi evidence a chain shift that consists of the raising of most vowels. The chain shift is possibly triggered by the addition to the system of the phoneme /ɔ/. Hence, Lower Xumi /<span class="monospace">e</span><span class="monospace">o</span> ɐ ɑ <span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char13.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char13.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char10.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char10.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="10" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ generally correspond to Upper Xumi /<span class="monospace">e</span><span class="monospace">u</span> ɜ ɔ ĩ ũ <span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/, respectively. For the oral mid vowels /<span class="monospace">e</span><span class="monospace">o</span>/, the change is in progress, yielding a number of intermediate forms (see above on the realization of these vowels) and resulting in near merger for some words, as discussed below.</p><p class="p"> The Lower Xumi /ʉ/ generally merges with /<span class="monospace">u</span>/ in Upper Xumi, except after bilabial and velar initials, where it continues to be contrastive with /<span class="monospace">u</span>/, e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">b</span>ʉ/ ‘bowels, intestines’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">bu</span>/ ‘Pumi people’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">b</span>ʉ/ ‘to rub (with hands), to twist’ vs. /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">bu</span>/ ‘crops’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">k</span>ʉ/ to bake, to roast, to toast’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">ku</span>/ ‘to be able’. In all other cases, we observe merger with /<span class="monospace">u</span>/. For example, the words ‘to count’ and ‘to wipe’, which are contrastive in Lower Xumi (/<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">su</span>/ and /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>sʉ/, respectively), are homophonous in Upper Xumi, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">su</span>/ ‘to count’ and /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">su</span>/ ‘to wipe’.</p><p class="p"> The clearest examples of vowel raising involve the (Lower Xumi) low vowels /ɐ ɑ </p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="10" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/, which rise into the empty mid vowel space. Thus, Lower Xumi /ɐ/ generally corresponds to Upper Xumi /ɜ/, Lower Xumi /ɑ/ generally corresponds to Upper Xumi /ɔ/, Lower Xumi /</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="10" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ generally corresponds to Upper Xumi /</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/, and Lower Xumi /</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ generally corresponds to Upper Xumi /</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/; this is illustrated by the following examples: </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU6.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="281" height="84" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU6.gif" data-zoomable="false"></div></li></ul><p class="p"> The situation is more complex for the (Lower Xumi) oral mid open vowels /<span class="monospace">e</span><span class="monospace">o</span>/, which by raising towards (Upper Xumi) /<span class="monospace">e</span><span class="monospace">u</span>/ cause the overcrowding of the high vowel space, leading in some cases to merger or near merger. The minimal pair ‘now’ and ‘cloth’ (Lower Xumi /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɹ<span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘now’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɹ<span class="monospace">e</span>/ ‘cloth’) is a case in point. A minimal pair test investigating speakers’ intuitions about their pronunciation of these words (see Labov <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref5"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Labov</span>1994</a>: 353–354) suggests complete merger for most Upper Xumi speakers that we consulted: they judged the two words to be homophonous (compare the realization of these words by the speaker DDTR, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɹ<span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘now’ and /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ɹ<span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘cloth’). A more careful pronunciation of these words, as in word elicitation and discussion with our principal consultant, yielded a distinction, which our main consultant claimed to be that of tone. He pronounces the word for ‘now’ with a continued fall after the abrupt f0 rise in the initial part of the syllable, which gives the perception of a falling tone (i.e. [ɹ<span class="monospace">i</span><sup class="sup">451</sup>] ‘now’). Conversely, he pronounces the word for ‘cloth’ with a high-level pitch contour after the abrupt rise, which gives the perception of a high level tone (i.e. [ɹ<span class="monospace">i</span>⁴⁵⁵] ‘cloth’). We note, however, that our principal language consultant was inconsistent in his judgements, and that this type of variation in the realization of the high tone is non-contrastive in this variety (see below on tone).</p><p class="p"> Consider another example, involving the back vowels /<span class="monospace">u</span>/ and /<span class="monospace">o</span>/, as in the minimal pair /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">u</span>/ ‘year’ and /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">o</span>/ ‘bowl’, Lower Xumi /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup>ʉ/ and /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">o</span>/, respectively. While our principal language consultant maintains a distinction, the difference is acoustically very minor. Video recording reveals a difference in the relative degree of lip rounding (see the video clips ‘Year’ and ‘Bowl’ in supplementary materials). Clearly, broader surveys and commutation tests (Labov <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref5"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Labov</span>1994</a>: 356–357) are needed to provide a complete account of this merger in progress.</p></div></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-3" id="sec1-3"><h3 class="B"> Syllable structure</h3><p class="p"> The canonical syllable of Upper Xumi may contain up to two optional elements in the following two types of linear structures: (i) (C1)(C2)V, and (ii) (C2)(C3)V, where C1 stands for nasal (before voiced stops and affricates), C2 can be any consonant, and C3 can only be -w-; V stands for vowel (or the syllable consonant /</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/), and parentheses indicate optional constituents. A non-phonemic glottal stop can be inserted at the left edge of a vowel-initial stressed syllable (e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ʔ</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">] ‘sheep’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ũ/ [<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup>ʔũ] ‘collar’), and at the left edge of a vowel-initial root (e.g. /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɐ-</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ [<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɐ-ʔ</p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">] ‘to be drunk’, /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">mj</span>ɛ-ũ/ [<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">mj</span>æ-ʔũ] ‘to swallow down’). </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="531" height="56" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU7.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-84641-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU7.jpg"></div></li></ul><p class="p continuation"> Xumi is phonologically monosyllabic with a strong tendency towards disyllabicity in its lexicon. Trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic words are mostly composite, e.g. /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">t</span><sup class="sup">h</sup></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">-<span class="monospace">s</span>ĩ<span class="monospace">p</span></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ ‘pine tree’ (WT <em class="italic">thang</em>) (from the word /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">s</span>ĩ<span class="monospace">p</span></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">/ ‘tree’), /<sup class="sup">RP</sup></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="4" height="17" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation">ɜ<span class="monospace">wu</span>-<span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ ‘peach’ (from the bound root /<span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ ‘fruit’, as in the word /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ-<span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ ‘fruit’), /<sup class="sup">LP</sup>ɲɜ<span class="monospace">mi</span><span class="monospace">buxu</span>/ ‘sunflower’ (from /<sup class="sup">LP</sup>ɲɜ<span class="monospace">mi</span>/ ‘sun’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">buxu</span>/ ‘flower’). At the same time, Upper Xumi also has a handful monomorphemic trisyllabic words (both native and loanwords), e.g. /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">b</span>ɜ<span class="monospace">z</span></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation"><span class="monospace">ki</span>/ ‘pillar’, /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">l</span></p><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><p class="p continuation"><span class="monospace">mut</span>ɕ<sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘elephant’ (WT <em class="italic">glang po che</em>).</p></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-4" id="sec1-4"><h3 class="B"> Prosodic organization</h3><p class="p"> Similar to Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi has a two-way tonal contrast on monosyllabic words and a three-way contrast of tonal melodies on polysyllabic words.</p><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-4-1" id="sec1-4-1"><h4 class="C"> Tone and tonal melodies on lexical words</h4><p class="p"> On monosyllabic roots, we observe a two-way tonal contrast: (i) rising (R) (e.g. /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">je</span>/ ‘to lick’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ/ ‘vegetable oil’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɐ/ ‘suspension bridge’, /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">w</span>ɐ/ ‘cow’), and (ii) high (H) (e.g. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">je</span>/ ‘tobaccoʼ, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ/ ‘to buyʼ, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">l</span>ɐ/ ‘tiger’, /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">w</span>ɐ/ ‘tooth’). The pitch contours of the two tones differ slightly from the corresponding tones in Lower Xumi, as in <a class="xref fig" href="#fig3">Figure 3</a>. Similar to Lower Xumi, non-contrastive variation abounds in the actual realization of the two lexical tones in Upper Xumi. In particular, the high tone may be realized as a falling tone. For example, the word /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">j</span>ɜ/ ‘tent’ may be realized as [<span class="monospace">j</span>ɜ⁴⁵⁵] or as [<span class="monospace">j</span>ɜ<sup class="sup">451</sup>]. </p><section><div class="fig" data-magellan-destination="fig3" id="fig3"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig3g.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-22867-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig3g.jpg"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 3</span> Pitch contours for the pairs /<sup class="sup">ʀ</sup><span class="monospace">je</span>/ ‘to lick’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">je</span>/ ‘tobaccoʼ, and /<sup class="sup">ʀ</sup><span class="monospace">w</span>ɐ/ ‘cow’ vs. /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">w</span>ɐ/ ‘tooth’ in Lower and Upper Xumi.</p></div></div></section><p class="p"> In polysyllabic monomorphemic words, we observe a three-way contrast of tonal melodies. Here, again, we adopt the prosodic system developed for Lizu (Chirkova & Chen <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref2"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Chirkova and Chen</span>2013a</a>) but it is important to note that just like Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi does not show a consistent correlation between duration and melody as observed in Lizu. Rather, the three patterns are more consistently signaled via their melodic difference. These tonal melodies are: </p><ol class="list number nomark"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"><span class="label">(i)</span> Equally-Prominent Contour (EP). There is no salient rise or fall over any of the syllables. Rather, it seems to be high-level pitch contours throughout the two syllables. This pattern is mostly attested in monomorphemic words and in loanwords, e.g. /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ɐ<span class="monospace">mi</span>/ ‘soldier’ (WT <em class="italic">dmag mi</em>), /<sup class="sup">EP</sup><span class="monospace">t</span>ɕɐ<span class="monospace">z</span>ɐ/ ‘airplane’ (WT <em class="italic">lchags bya</em>).</p></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"><span class="label">(ii)</span> Left-Prominent Contour (LP). The high f0 peak is realized before the end of the first syllable, where the pitch starts to fall already and continues to fall in the second syllable, e.g. /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ɐɲ<span class="monospace">e</span>/ ‘fire tongs’, /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑɜɕ<span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘chopsticks’, /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">bemi</span>/ ‘axe’.</p></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"><span class="label">(iii)</span> Right-Prominent Contour (RP). The high f0 peak is realized over the last syllable of the word, e.g. /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">m</span>ɐɲ<span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘mani pile’ (WT <em class="italic">ma ni</em>, pile of stones with the Mani Mantra of Avalokiteshvara), /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">t</span>ɕɐ<span class="monospace">z</span>ɐ/ ‘weeding hoe’ (WT <em class="italic">lcags gzar</em>), /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑɜɕ<span class="monospace">i</span>/ ‘to stand’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">be</span>-<span class="monospace">mi</span>/ ‘sow’.</p></li></ol></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-4-2" id="sec1-4-2"><h4 class="C"> Tone patterns in compounds</h4><p class="p"> If the tone of the leftmost monosyllabic root is high, the resulting compound has the left-prominent pattern, as illustrated with the following sequence: </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">s</span>ĩ/ ‘wood, tree’ + /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">o</span>/ ‘bowl’ = /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">s</span>ĩ-χ<span class="monospace">o</span>/ ‘wooden bowl’</p></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">s</span>ĩ/ ‘wood, tree’ + /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">k</span><sup class="sup">h</sup>ʉ/ ‘root’ = /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">s</span>ĩ <span class="monospace">k</span><sup class="sup">h</sup>ʉ/ ‘root of a tree’</p></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">s</span>ĩ/ ‘wood’ + /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="monospace">h</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘house’ = /<sup class="sup">LP</sup><span class="monospace">s</span>ĩ <span class="monospace">d</span>ʑ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="monospace">h</span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘wooden house’</p></li></ul><p class="p continuation"> Conversely, if the tone of the leftmost monosyllabic root is rising, the resulting tonal melody is right prominent, as the following illustrate: </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ʂ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘iron’ + /<sup class="sup">ʜ</sup><span class="monospace">q</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">o</span>/ ‘bowl’ = /<sup class="sup">RP</sup>ʂ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>-χ<span class="monospace">o</span>/ ‘iron bowl’</p></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ɹ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘horse’ + /<sup class="sup">R</sup><span class="monospace">k</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ ‘shed’ = /<sup class="sup">RP</sup>ɹ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="monospace">k</span><sup class="sup">h</sup><span class="monospace">w</span>ɜ/ ‘stable, horse shed’</p></li><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> /<sup class="sup">R</sup>ɹ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ ‘horse’ + /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ<span class="monospace">ts</span>ũ/ ‘tail’ = /<sup class="sup">RP</sup>ɹ<span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="14" height="13" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span><span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ<span class="monospace">ts</span>ũ/ ‘horse tail’</p></li></ul></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-4-3" id="sec1-4-3"><h4 class="C"> Transcription of the recorded passage</h4><p class="p"> Our principal language consultant was recorded at the Laboratoire de Phonétique et Phonologie (LPP) of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS). The original recording (made with a Digidesign 003 Rack souncard, Sound Studio 3.6 software for iMac, and an AKG C520L microphone) has been made available to the <em class="italic">JIPA</em> along with this analysis. In the transcription, only lexical items are marked for tone, whereas function words are not. Xumi function words and discourse particles (e.g. the genitive particle /<span class="monospace">ji</span>/, the topic marker /ʐ <span class="private-char"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="6" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif" data-zoomable="false"></span>/ in the appended text) are never pronounced in isolation. Their surface tone realization depends on the tone of the preceding (host) lexical word (similar to tone sandhi in compounds).</p></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-4-4" id="sec1-4-4"><h4 class="C"> Semi-narrow phonetic transcription</h4><p class="p"> North Wind and the Sun</p><h2 class="A clr-fn-label"> </h2><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="622" height="250" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU8.gif" data-zoomable="true" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-51299-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU8.jpg"></div></li></ul></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec1-4-5" id="sec1-4-5"><h4 class="C"> Interlinear morphemic glossing</h4><p class="p"> Abbreviations used in the gloss below follow the Leipzig Glossing Rules (LGR, <a class="uri simple" href="http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php">http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php</a>). Non-standard abbreviations (those not included in the LGR) are: <span class="sc">agt</span> = agentive, <span class="sc">anm</span> = animate, <span class="sc">itsf</span> = intensifying. </p><ul class="list simple"><li class="list-item"><p class="p"> </p><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="562" height="1302" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU9.gif" data-zoomable="true" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-66406-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU9.jpg"></div></li></ul></div></div></div></div><div class="back"><div class="ack" data-magellan-destination="ack1" id="ack1"><h2 class="A"> Acknowledgements</h2><p class="p"> We would like to thank our principal language consultants, Mr. Lurong Duoding 鲁绒多丁, Mr. Mulian Lanbu 木联兰布, and Mr. Duoding Tshi'er 阿果多丁次尔, for their patience and assistance. We are grateful to Jonathan Evans and the anonymous reviewers of this journal for helpful comments and suggestions. Thanks are also due to the directors of the Laboratoire de Phonétique et Phonologie (LPP) of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Jacqueline Vaissière and Annie Rialland for making the phonetics laboratory of the LPP available to us through the project LabEx-EFL (Empirical Foundations of Linguistics); to Angélique Amelot (LPP, CNRS) for helping us with recordings; to Jos Pacilly (Leiden University) for helping us with Praat scripts; and to Wang Dehe 王德和 for helping us with videorecordings. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (France) as part of the research project ‘What defines Qiang-ness? Towards a phylogenetic assessment of the Southern Qiangic languages of Muli’ (ANR-07-JCJC-0063) to Katia Chirkova and Tanja Kocjančič Antolík. Yiya Chen is currently supported by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO-VIDI 016084338) and the European Research Council (ERC-Starting Independent Researcher Grant, 206198).</p></div><div class="app-group" data-magellan-destination="APP-GR" id="APP-GR"><div class="app" data-magellan-destination="sec2" id="sec2"><h2 class="A"><span class="label">Appendix.</span> C–V and CC–V combinations in Upper Xumi</h2><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec2-1" id="sec2-1"><h3 class="B"> C–V combinations</h3><p class="p"> The table is based on a vocabulary list of <em class="italic">c</em>. 2,800 words. Marginal phonemes are restricted to two or less occurrences. Chinese loanwords and place names (such as Lanman) are in grey. </p><div class="table-wrap"><span><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="562" height="850" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_tab2.gif" data-zoomable="true" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-09566-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_tab2.jpg"></div></span></div></div><div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec2-2" id="sec2-2"><h3 class="B"> CC–V combinations</h3><h2 class="A clr-fn-label"> </h2><div class="table-wrap"><span><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image graphic" width="290" height="476" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_tab3.gif" data-zoomable="false" data-optimised-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-53405-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_tab3.jpg"></div></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="list-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a> <div id="footnotes-list" class="circle-list"><h2>Footnotes</h2> <div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn1" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">1</sup></span> In transcriptions of Xumi words ‘-’ stands for morpheme boundary, and ‘ = ’ stands for clitic boundary. In WT etymologies ‘?’ stands for a morpheme whose meaning is unclear. When attached to a word, it signals that the etymon represented by this word is tentative. When standing on its own (between spaces), it indicates an uncertain origin of a morpheme in a disyllabic word. See section ‘Prosodic organisation’ for the adopted system of tone notation (the superscript letters and numbers in transcriptions).</p></div></div></div><div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn2" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">2</sup></span> In prefixes (which are prosodically unstressed), such as the directional prefix /<span class="monospace">bu</span>-/ ‘outward’, /<span class="monospace">u</span>/ is reduced to a schwa, e.g. /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">bu</span>-ɕ<span class="monospace">e</span>/ [<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">b</span>ə-ɕ<span class="monospace">e</span>] ‘to stick, to glue’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">bu</span>-ɡ<span class="monospace">e</span>/ [<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">b</span>ə-ɡ<span class="monospace">e</span>] ‘to pull outward’, /<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">bu</span>-ɲ<span class="private-char"><img data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false" /></span>/ [<sup class="sup">RP</sup><span class="monospace">b</span>ə-ɲ<span class="private-char"><img data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic" width="7" height="12" data-original-image="urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif" data-zoomable="false" /></span>] ‘to push (outward)’.</p></div></div></div><div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn3" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">3</sup></span> This is a traditional unit of length, equal to the distance between the thumb and out-stretched middle finger.</p></div></div></div><div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn4" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">4</sup></span> The combination /<span class="monospace">j</span>ɛ/ is realized as [<span class="monospace">j</span>æ] for some speakers, see also below, section on vowels.</p></div></div></div><div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn5" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">5</sup></span> Homorganic nasal-consonant onsets can be described as unit phonemes or as consonant clusters (clusters carrying secondary articulatory gestures). Our analysis of such segments as consonant clusters in Xumi follows that of similar segments in Kham Tibetan dialects (e.g. Gesang & Gesang <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref4"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Jumian and Yangjing</span>2002</a>), which, in most cases, appear to be the donors of words with homorganic nasal-consonant onsets in Upper Xumi.</p></div></div></div><div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn6" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">6</sup></span> This word is realized with a rising contour on the first syllable. This is an unusual pattern for disyllabic words, not further attested in other words in the corpus.</p></div></div></div><div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn7" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">7</sup></span> This word is likely to be a loan from Tibetan, WT <em class="italic">rna</em> ? ‘ear ?’.</p></div></div></div><div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn8" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">8</sup></span> This word is a loan from Tibetan, WT ˈ<em class="italic">ba</em> ‘mask’.</p></div></div></div><div data-type="fulltextNote" id="fn9" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><p class="p"><span class="label"><sup class="sup">9</sup></span> This word is a loan from Tibetan, WT <em class="italic">snag tsha</em> ‘ink’.</p></div></div></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="list-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a> <div id="references-list" class="circle-list"><h2>References</h2> <div id="manual_ref-1" aria-flowto="reference-1-content reference-1-button" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div aria-hidden="true" data-test-hidden="true" class="circle-list__item__number"> </div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div id="reference-1-content" class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><span class="name"><span class="surname">Chirkova</span>, <span class="given-names">Katia</span></span>. In press. Phonological profile of Kami, the Tibetan dialect of Muli. In <span class="string-name"><span class="surname">Sun</span>, <span class="given-names">Jackson T.-S.</span></span> (ed.), <em class="italic">Lesser known dialects of Tibetan</em>, special issue of <em class="italic">Language and Linguistics</em>.<a class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='Google Scholar link for Chirkova, Katia. In press. Phonological profile of Kami, the Tibetan dialect of Muli. In Sun, Jackson T.-S. 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(Illustrations of the IPA)</span>. <span class="source">Journal of the International Phonetic Association</span> <span class="volume">43</span> <span class="issue">(1)</span>, <span class="fpage">75</span>–<span class="lpage">86</span>.<a class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='CrossRef link for Lizu (Illustrations of the IPA)' href=https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0025100312000242>CrossRef</a><a class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='Google Scholar link for Lizu (Illustrations of the IPA)' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Lizu+(Illustrations+of+the+IPA)&author=Chirkova+Katia&author=Chen+Yiya&publication+year=2013&journal=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&volume=43&doi=10.1017%2FS0025100312000242&pages=75-86>Google Scholar</a></div></div></div><div id="manual_ref-3" aria-flowto="reference-3-content reference-3-button" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div aria-hidden="true" data-test-hidden="true" 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In <span class="string-name"><span class="surname">MacNeilage</span>, <span class="given-names">Peter F.</span></span> (ed.), <span class="source">The production of speech</span>, <span class="fpage">189</span>–<span class="lpage">216</span>. <span class="publisher-loc">New York</span>: <span class="publisher-name">Springer</span>.<a class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='CrossRef link for The production of speech' href=https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8202-7_9>CrossRef</a><a class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='Google Scholar link for The production of speech' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+production+of+speech&author=Ohala+John+J&author=MacNeilage+Peter+F.&publication+year=1983&pages=189-216>Google Scholar</a></div></div></div></div></div> </div></div>  <div id="figures-tab" class="figures tab-pane" data-v-241a4b23><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 0" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig1g.gif" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-75998-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig1g.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 1</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Waveforms, spectrograms, EGG, NAF, and OAF for the pairs /<span class="sup">ʜ</span><span class="monospace">mj</span>ɛ/ ‘bamboo’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʜ</span>/ ‘medicine’, /<span class="sup">ʀᴘ</span><span class="monospace">n</span>ɐʁɐ/ ‘twenty’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʜ</span>/ ‘incantation’, and /<span class="sup">ʀ</span><span class="monospace">n</span>ɔ/ ‘whole, complete’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʀ</span>/ ‘fur, animal hair’.</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 1" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig2g.gif" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-97144-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig2g.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 2</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Waveforms, spectrograms, and EGG of the minimal pairs /<span class="sup">ʀ</span><span class="monospace">l</span>ɜ/ ‘stutterer’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʀ</span>ɜ/ ‘soul, spirit’, and /<span class="sup">ʜ</span>ʎɛ/ ‘correct; right’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʜ</span>ɛ/ ‘flavourless’</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 2" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_tab1.gif" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-51016-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_tab1.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Table 1</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Measured values of nasal airflow (NAF) and oral airflow (OAF) (in liter/second) for the (near) minimal pairs /<span class="sup">ʜ</span><span class="monospace">mj</span>ɛ/ ‘bamboo’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʜ</span>/ ‘medicine’ (WT <span class="italic">sman</span>), /<span class="sup">ʀᴘ</span><span class="monospace">n</span>ɐʁɐ/ ‘twenty’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʜ</span>ɐ/ ‘incantation, curse’ (WT <span class="italic">sngags?</span>), and /<span class="sup">ʀ</span><span class="monospace">n</span>ɔ/ ‘whole, complete’ vs. /<span class="sup">R</span>/ ‘fur, animal hair’.</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 3" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig3g.gif" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-22867-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig3g.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 3</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Pitch contours for the pairs /<span class="sup">ʀ</span><span class="monospace">je</span>/ ‘to lick’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʜ</span><span class="monospace">je</span>/ ‘tobaccoʼ, and /<span class="sup">ʀ</span><span class="monospace">w</span>ɐ/ ‘cow’ vs. /<span class="sup">ʜ</span><span class="monospace">w</span>ɐ/ ‘tooth’ in Lower and Upper Xumi.</span></span></p></div> </div></div> </div></div> <div id="supplementary-materials-tab" class="supplementary-materials tab-pane"><div class="materials-table"><div class="materials-table__item"><div class="materials-table__row"><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="Supplementary material: File" class="app-icon materials-table__row__left-elem file" data-v-d2c09870> <div class="materials-table__row__main-elem"><h3 class="materials-table__row__title">Chirkova, Chen and Antolík sound files</h3> <div class="materials-table__row__description"><p>Sound files zip. 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{layout:"default",data:[{article:{id:"66525EDEAC671BDDD718C653CAC7D826",metadata:{title:j,htmlTitle:j,subtitle:d,authorsGroup:{authors:{contributors:[{givenNames:"Katia",surname:"Chirkova",nameStyle:k,affiliations:[{text:"Centre de Recherches Linguistiques sur l'Asie Orientale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, Francekatia.chirkova@gmail.com",email:"katia.chirkova@gmail.com"}],isCorresponding:a,notes:d,isAnonymous:a,fullName:"Katia Chirkova",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Katia%20Chirkova&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:e},{givenNames:"Yiya",surname:"Chen",nameStyle:k,affiliations:[{text:"Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, the Netherlandsyiya.chen@hum.leidenuniv.nl",email:"yiya.chen@hum.leidenuniv.nl"}],isCorresponding:a,notes:d,isAnonymous:a,fullName:"Yiya Chen",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Yiya%20Chen&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:e},{givenNames:"Tanja Kocjančič",surname:"Antolík",nameStyle:k,affiliations:[{text:"Laboratoire de Phonétique et Phonologie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, Francetkocjancic@googlemail.com",email:"tkocjancic@googlemail.com"}],isCorresponding:a,notes:d,isAnonymous:a,fullName:"Tanja Kocjančič Antolík",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Tanja%20Kocjan%C4%8Di%C4%8D%20Antol%C3%ADk&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:e}]},translators:{contributors:[],label:"Translated by"}},collections:[],publishedDate:"04 November 2013",keywords:[],openPracticeBadges:[],doi:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1017\u002FS0025100313000169",value:"10.1017\u002FS0025100313000169"},copyright:{statement:["Copyright © International Phonetic Association 2013 "],holder:["International Phonetic Association"],year:[2013]},creativeCommons:e,acceptedManuscript:a,type:"research-article",pageRange:{range:"381 - 396",firstPage:"381",lastPage:"396"},typeDescription:"Illustrations of the IPA",resultTypes:[],commentsCount:p,topicsAndSubtopics:e},journal:{id:q,title:f,titleSlug:r,mnemonic:"IPA",titleHistory:[],isFirstView:a,journalSlug:r,isCompanion:a,parentCompanionJournalName:f,associatedParentCollection:e,paymentInfo:{prices:{"£":{price:21,sku:i,skuNew:h,currency:"£"},"€":{price:24,sku:i,skuNew:h,currency:"€"},US$:{price:26,sku:i,skuNew:h,currency:"US$"},AU$:{price:41,sku:i,skuNew:h,currency:"AU$"}}},url:s,firstViewUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fjournal-of-the-international-phonetic-association\u002Ffirstview",coverUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fcovers\u002FIPA_0_0_0\u002Fjournal-of-the-international-phonetic-association.jpg",submitMaterialsUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fjournal-of-the-international-phonetic-association\u002Finformation\u002Fauthor-instructions\u002Fsubmitting-your-materials",hasHistory:a,latestTitle:f,latestId:q,hasPastTitle:a,issue:{id:"5F083F9141C393FB330492BC77ABB4DC",number:t,title:"Issue 3: Non-pulmonic sounds in European languages",publishedDate:"December 2013",printPublishTimestamp:1385856000000,url:u},volume:{id:"2BA8BFD50185A1C2D857A987FD25FCBA",number:l,title:"Volume 43",publishedDate:"April 2013",printPublishTimestamp:1364774400000,url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fjournal-of-the-international-phonetic-association\u002Fvolume\u002F2BA8BFD50185A1C2D857A987FD25FCBA"}},abstract:{textAbstracts:[{title:"Extract",content:"\u003Cdiv class=\"abstract\" data-abstract-type=\"text-abstract\"\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThis Illustration focuses on the variety of the Xumi language (旭米, \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʂ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eket\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕɜ\u002F or \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʂ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ \u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eket\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕɜ\u002F) that is spoken in the upper reaches of the Shuiluo river (水洛河) in Shuiluo Township (水洛乡) (hereafter Upper Xumi). The township is located in Muli Tibetan Autonomous County (木里藏族自治县, \u003Cspan class=\"italic\"\u003Esmi li rang skyong rdzong\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E in Written Tibetan, hereafter, WT), in the South-West of Sichuan Province (四川省) in the People's Republic of China.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",lang:v}]},content:{html:"\u003Cdiv class=\"article research-article JATS\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"body\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E This Illustration focuses on the variety of the Xumi language (旭米, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʂ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eket\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕɜ\u002F or \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʂ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ \u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eket\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕɜ\u002F) that is spoken in the upper reaches of the Shuiluo river (水洛河) in Shuiluo Township (水洛乡) (hereafter Upper Xumi).\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn1\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E The township is located in Muli Tibetan Autonomous County (木里藏族自治县, \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Esmi li rang skyong rdzong\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in Written Tibetan, hereafter, WT), in the South-West of Sichuan Province (四川省) in the People's Republic of China.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Upper Xumi is one of the two dialects of the Xumi language, the other one being Lower Xumi. That dialect is spoken in the lower and middle reaches of the Shuiluo river, as we discussed in our phonetic and phonological sketch of Lower Xumi (Chirkova & Chen \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref3\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Chirkova and Chen\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The present overview of Upper Xumi complements our overview of Lower Xumi.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The two dialects of Xumi are closely related to each other, but they are distinctly different, due to their contact with different languages. Upper Xumi is essentially influenced by the local dialect of Tibetan (Gami Tibetan), as well as, to a lesser extent, by Pumi. By contrast, Lower Xumi is mostly influenced by the local dialects of the Pumi, Mosuo, and Naxi languages. The observed diversity is highly remarkable given:\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Col class=\"list number nomark\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E(a)\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E the small geographical area occupied by the group (there is a mere 15.25 km beeline between the northernmost village of Lanman (兰满村) in the upper reaches of Shuiluo river and the southernmost village of Mianbang (免邦村) in the lower reaches of Shuiluo river);\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E(b)\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E the small number of speakers (less than 2,000 people);\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E(c)\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E the continuing contact and exchange between villages in the upper, middle, and lower reaches of Shuiluo river.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The comparative data on the two varieties are of interest for studies on language change in progress, and they may provide insight into the mechanisms at work in the implementation of language change and the diffusion of linguistic innovations.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The present sketch provides an overview of Upper Xumi with an emphasis on those features that distinguish it from Lower Xumi. It also contains an instrumental study of the voiceless–voiced contrast in nasals and laterals (nasal and oral airflow and electroglottographic measures), made possible by the fact that we could work with our principal Upper Xumi language consultant in a phonetics laboratory.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The description is based on the first author's fieldwork. The word list and the recorded passage provided with this paper were recited by a fifty-nine year old male native speaker of Xumi, who was born and raised in Lanman village. To facilitate comparison with Lower Xumi, the present description uses (whenever available) cognates in both varieties as illustrative examples. (In the sound archive, sound files with Lower Xumi forms are marked with ‘LX’.)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1\" id=\"sec1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-1\" id=\"sec1-1\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Consonants\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The consonant inventory of Upper Xumi comprises of 44 consonants, as listed below. (Low frequency phonemes are given in parentheses. See section ‘Prosodic organization’ for tonal variation on monosyllabic words.) The appendix provides the distributional patterns of consonants and vowels that include permissible sequences in syllables as attested in our corpus of \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. 2,800 words. Upper Xumi is characterized by a reduced segmental inventory (44 consonants compared with 50 in Lower Xumi), different phonotactic constraints, and the presence of prenasalized clusters.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"586\" height=\"147\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-51979-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU1.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"574\" height=\"431\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-80753-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU2.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn2\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn3\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E There is a general three-way contrast in stops and affricates: voiceless aspirated, voiceless unaspirated, and voiced. Velars and uvular stops are in near complementary distribution. Uvular stops are found before non-high vowels, and velar stops are found elsewhere. The two series contrast before \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E ɜ \u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘tax’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ekhral\u003C\u002Fem\u003E?) vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘lime’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘foot’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘feces’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eku\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to be able’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Equ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘hearth’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲɜ-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to warm oneself’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘fate, life’. Unlike Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi does not have a voiced uvular stop. Words with the voiced uvular stop in Lower Xumi correspond to words with the cluster \u002FNɡ\u002F in Upper Xumi (see section on prenasalized clusters below).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Fricatives are pronounced at six different places of articulation: alveolar, retroflex, alveolopalatal, velar, uvular, and glottal. Voiceless velar and glottal fricatives are in complementary distribution, the former only occur with oral vowels, whereas the latter only occur with nasal vowels, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ex\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘cooked rice, food’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to stretch’. \u002Fɦ\u002F has the most restricted distribution of all fricatives. It co-occurs only with the nasal vowels \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F and \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F; examples include: \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɦ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to dare’ (compare with \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʔ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘self (first person subject)’), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɦ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘self (third person subject)’ (compare with \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʔ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘sheep’). Also unlike Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi does not have a voiced velar fricative, but it has the voiceless uvular fricative \u002Fχ\u002F as an independent phoneme, which can occur word-initially, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eχɜ-χɐ\u002F ‘to itch’ (compare Lower Xumi \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɐ-χɐ\u002F), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eχɐ\u002F ‘difficulty’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Edka\u003C\u002Fem\u003Eˈ).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Xumi nasals and laterals contrast (i) alveolar and alveolopalatal places of articulation and (ii) voiced and voiceless counterparts.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Alveolar and alveolopalatal laterals and nasals are minimally distinguished before \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F; in addition, alveolar and alveolopalatal nasals are also distinguished before \u002Fɐ\u002F. Examples include: \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-ɲ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘breast’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Enu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʂ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘bean curd’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Elu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘again’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʎ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘come (\u003Cspan class=\"sc\"\u003Eimp\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E)’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐʁɐ\u002F ‘twenty’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲɐʁɔ\u002F ‘shadow’. For nasals, the contrast is not found before the vowels \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E ɛ ɜ\u002F, and for laterals, before \u002Fɛ\u002F. In the above cases, we use the symbols for the alveolopalatal nasals and laterals, respectively. Example include: \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘you, thou’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘snivel, snot’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲɛ\u002F ‘milk’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲɜ\u002F ‘to have a craving (for something), to be hungry’; \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʎɛ\u002F ‘predestined affinity’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Bilabial and alveolar nasals show a clear voiced vs. voiceless contrast as confirmed with our electroglottography (EGG) data (see \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig1\"\u003EFigures 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig2\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Voiceless nasals are infrequent. They mostly occur in loanwords from Tibetan, but they are also attested in the native vocabulary, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eũ\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eæ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eũ] ‘tail’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘fur, animal hair’.\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn4\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E Upper Xumi has two voiceless nasals (\u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E , \u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F), which is two voiceless nasals less than in Lower Xumi (\u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char5.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"10\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char5.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char6.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char6.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F). This is surprising, given that Upper Xumi is in closer contact with a local Tibetan dialect than Lower Xumi and that that local Tibetan dialect has four voiceless nasals (\u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char17.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"10\" height=\"15\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char17.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char16.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"8\" height=\"15\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char16.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E \u002F, Chirkova, in press). Moreover, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"4\" height=\"17\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Elha rnga mo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), the word for ‘camel’, is distinct in Upper Xumi not only from the corresponding form in Lower Xumi (\u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char16.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"8\" height=\"15\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char16.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E ɑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char10.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char10.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘camel’), but also from that in Gami Tibetan, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eŋ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eam\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ernga mong\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), suggesting distinct donor languages for this form.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig1\" id=\"fig1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig1g.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-75998-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig1g.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Waveforms, spectrograms, EGG, NAF, and OAF for the pairs \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘bamboo’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘medicine’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀᴘ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐʁɐ\u002F ‘twenty’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"10\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘incantation’, and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘whole, complete’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘fur, animal hair’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig2\" id=\"fig2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig2g.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-97144-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig2g.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Waveforms, spectrograms, and EGG of the minimal pairs \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘stutterer’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"4\" height=\"17\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘soul, spirit’, and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʎɛ\u002F ‘correct; right’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char119.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"8\" height=\"14\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char119.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘flavourless’\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tab1\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E provides the measured values of nasal airflow (NAF) and oral airflow (OAF) for the three (near) minimal pairs: \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘bamboo’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘medicine’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Esman\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐʁɐ\u002F ‘twenty’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘incantation, curse’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Esngags?\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘whole, complete’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘fur, animal hair’. In the table, NAFmin = minimum NAF; NAFmax = maximum NAF; NAFmean = mean NAF value; the provided measures represent an average of two to three repetitions and are measured during the nasal closure only. \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig1\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E provides waveforms, spectrograms, EGG, NAF, and OAF for the three pairs.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" data-magellan-destination=\"tab1\" id=\"tab1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Measured values of nasal airflow (NAF) and oral airflow (OAF) (in liter\u002Fsecond) for the (near) minimal pairs \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘bamboo’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘medicine’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Esman\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀᴘ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐʁɐ\u002F ‘twenty’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘incantation, curse’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Esngags?\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘whole, complete’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"9\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘fur, animal hair’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"619\" height=\"149\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_tab1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"true\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-51016-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_tab1.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E A surprising finding of this pilot investigation is that all values are greater during the articulation of voiceless nasals. More precisely, while in the articulation of voiceless nasals the air escapes both through the nasal and oral cavity, there is almost no airflow through either nasal or oral cavity for the voiced nasals. Piezoelectric data, recorded for the same corpus, confirms that in voiced nasals, there is resonance recorded in the nose but no nasal (and no oral) airflow. A more detailed study (in preparation) will hopefully provide a more accurate description of this potentially new kind of nasals.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E All examples of the voiceless laterals include frication and an abrupt release of the front closure that occurs slightly before the onset of voicing for the vowel (see \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig2\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The burst separates the segment into two parts with different spectral structure. The pre-burst part has the greatest energy centered around 3000 Hz and greater amplitude of frequencies above that peak. The post-burst part has the noise present more equally across the frequencies, with minor peaks at the frequencies corresponding to the formant peaks of the following vowel. In addition, the post-burst part resembles the spectral structure of the voiced lateral counterpart. The presence of the burst and the spectral structure of the post-burst part suggest that these segments have developed from clusters.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-1-1\" id=\"sec1-1-1\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Syllabic consonant\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E As a syllabic consonant, \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F may occur with a zero-initial (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to be in debt’), and after alveolar sibilants and retroflexes (attested in our corpus after \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Edz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʂ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E ʂ ʐ\u002F). We take the position that this syllabic consonant is phonologically the same as the fricative vowel after alveolar sibilants and retroflexes (\u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Edz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E ʃ ʒ \u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʃ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʂ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u002F). In the latter case, \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F is realized as homorganic to the preceding consonant onset. Consider the following examples: \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘to use’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘to cut with scissors’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Edz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Edz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘wheat’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘tomorrow’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char12.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘cat’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʂ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʂ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"11\" height=\"15\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘to sell’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʂ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʂ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"11\" height=\"15\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘fishing net’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʐ \u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʐ \u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"11\" height=\"15\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char114.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘to sleep’. Similar to the distribution of the syllabic consonant \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F in Lower Xumi, \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F in Upper Xumi contrasts with the high vowels (\u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F), as in \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Etsi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘lock’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to use’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Etsu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to pluck (facial hair)’. We therefore analyse it as a separate phoneme in this language.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-1-2\" id=\"sec1-1-2\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Consonant clusters\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-1-2-1\" id=\"sec1-1-2-1\"\u003E\u003Ch5 class=\"D\"\u003E \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EClusters with \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh5\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The approximant \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F occurs in the second position in consonant clusters, where it may be realized as secondary labialization of the first position consonant. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F occurs after alveolars, alveolopalatals, retroflexes, velars, uvulars, as well as after \u002Fŋ\u002F and \u002Fɹ\u002F. It may be followed by \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E ɛ ɜ ɐ \u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F as well as, marginally, also by \u002Fĩ\u002F. If preceded by an alveolopalatal onset or followed by the front vowels \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E ɛ ĩ\u002F, \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F is realized as [ɥ], e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɡ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ewi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɡɥ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘bundle wrapped in cloth’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Edwe\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɥ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘to ask’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑɥɛ] ‘bird’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑɥɜ] ‘honey, sugar’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɡ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɡɥɛ-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ] ‘to hunt’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ-ɡ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ-ɡɥɜ] ‘to hide something’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘copper’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘heavy’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eqw\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘to cry, to weep’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-1-2-2\" id=\"sec1-1-2-2\"\u003E\u003Ch5 class=\"D\"\u003E Prenasalized clusters\u003C\u002Fh5\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Similar to its linguistic neighbour, Gami Tibetan (Chirkova, in press), Upper Xumi has prenasalized voiced stops and affricates clusters (\u002FN\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E N\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E N\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Edz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E N\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ N\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʐ Nɡ\u002F). The stop component of the cluster may only be voiced, and a sequence of a nasal and a stop must be homorganic.\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn5\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E Prenasalization in Upper Xumi is contrastive, as evidenced by the (near) minimal pairs below:\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"563\" height=\"78\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-70633-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU3.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn6\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\nPrenasalized clusters mostly occur in Tibetan loanwords (corresponding Gami sound files have been provided whenever available), and they are likely to be borrowed due to widespread Xumi–Gami Tibetan bilingualism in the upper reaches of the Shuiluo river. Examples include: \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EN\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ediwu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘bullet’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Emde\u003C\u002Fem\u003Eˈ\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, Gami \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EN\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Edi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EN\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʐɔ-N\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʐɔ\u002F ‘to be similar’ (WT ˈ\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Edra\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, Gami \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EN\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʐɔ\u002F). (Compare the corresponding words in Lower Xumi: \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ediwu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘bullet’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u002F ‘similar’, with the nominalizing marker \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u002F.) Prenasalized clusters are also attested in Xumi native vocabulary. We note that such words (invariably with the cluster \u002FNɡ\u002F) are cognates with Lower Xumi forms with the voiced uvular stop, as in ‘to stew’: Upper Xumi \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003ENɡ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, Lower Xumi \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɢ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F. As suggested by the external reviewer of this paper, the presence of Tibetan loanwords containing the cluster \u002FNɡ\u002F has possibly paved the way for the reinterpretation of the voiced uvular stop as a \u002FNɡ\u002F cluster in Upper Xumi. We note that such a development would be consistent with the correlation between stops and voicing, as discussed in Ohala (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref6\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ohala and MacNeilage\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1983\u003C\u002Fa\u003E: 194–201). Given that the farther forward in the vocal tract a stop is articulated, the better able it is to accommodate voicing, \u002Fɢ\u002F is the most difficult stop to voice. The prenasalized stop \u002FNɡ\u002F avoids the problems associated with maintaining voicing, while maintaining the original phonemic contrast between \u002Fɡ\u002F and \u002Fɢ\u002F.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-1-3\" id=\"sec1-1-3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Consonant lenition\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Similar to Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi has a set of productive lenition rules, which transform some intervocalic voiced and voiceless aspirated stops and affricates into spirants. However, compared to the lenition rules in Lower Xumi, those in Upper Xumi are reduced in number and solely yield independent full-fledged phonemes that can occur word-initially. The attested lenition rules are summarized as follows:\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"538\" height=\"153\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU4.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-31607-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU4.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\nThe noted changes are not only less numerous, but are also less regular than the lenition rules in Lower Xumi, and for some initials, also sporadic and marginal. This is the case for \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F ‘to have’, where the initial \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u002F irregularly lenites to \u002Fʐ\u002F, as in [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E = ʐ\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E] ‘not have’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-2\" id=\"sec1-2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Vowels\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The Xumi vowel system comprises nine oral vowels and six nasal vowels (i.e. one oral vowel more than in Lower Xumi). Vowels exhibit a wide range of surface realizations (also among the language consultants that we worked with) with most vowels occurring in a rather narrow range of contexts. The number of hypothesized underlying vowels and the relation between the surface vowel realizations and the phonemic vowel categories have been established on the basis of cognates in both varieties. See also the vowel chart plotted on the relative F1\u002FF2 formant values below. (F1 and F2 were measured at one quarter of the vowel duration (25%), at mid point (50%), and at three quarters of the vowel duration (75%); the mean formant value of a vowel was calculated by averaging over the three measurements).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"470\" height=\"460\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU5.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-53133-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU5.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ca class=\"xref fn\" href=\"#fn9\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EFootnote \u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\nUpper Xumi nasal vowels include \u002Fĩ \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E ũ \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"10\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F, as in \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u002F ‘man, person’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F ‘to cut, to slice (meat)’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eũ\u002F ‘to blow’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F ‘vegetable’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"10\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F ‘have disappeared’. Marginally, Upper Xumi also has the vowel \u002F\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char15.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char15.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F, which is only attested in one word in our corpus, namely \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char15.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char15.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘on the roof, upstairs’ (compare \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘pitiful’).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-2-1\" id=\"sec1-2-1\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Vowel realization\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F and \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F overlap with some initials (see below for discussion).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Front mid vowels contrast two degrees of vowel height: \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F vs. \u002Fɛ\u002F, as in the following examples (where these vowels are also contrasted with \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F): \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eji\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to exist (of animate beings)’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eje\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to lick’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘vegetable oil’; \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘alcohol, spirits’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘happy’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑɛ\u002F ‘rich’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The front vowel \u002Fɛ\u002F seems to be limited to occur only with [\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E], e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘hoof’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Edj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘fox’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɡ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘eggplant’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘bamboo’. The combination \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F is realized as [\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eæ] for some speakers, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eæ-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘downstairs’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002Fʉ\u002F has a restricted distribution. It only occurs after bilabials (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʉ\u002F ‘to rub (with hands), to twist’), and velars, where it is realized as [ɯ] (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʉ\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɯ] ‘to bake, to roast, to toast’).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F has many different realizations, for it represents a change in progress, that is, raising to \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F (see below). After alveolars, it is realized as [\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] or [ɵ] (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘manner, way (to do things)’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eto\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɵ] ‘to build’). After alveopalatals, it is realized as [əʊ] (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eəʊ] ‘to insert, to stick in’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɕ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɕəʊ] ‘meat’). Occasionally, it can also be realized as [ɤ] (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Etso\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɤ] ‘crown of a head’).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002Fɔ\u002F frequently appears in Tibetan loanwords (where it corresponds to WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Euw\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘hammer’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Etho ba\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘mask’ (WT ˈ\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eba\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʐɔ\u002F ‘enemy’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Edgra\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘instrument, utensil’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Elag cha\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘peacock’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Erma bya\u003C\u002Fem\u003E). In the native vocabulary, \u002Fɔ\u002F contrasts with \u002Fɐ\u002F, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘mountain range’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘to move’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʁɔ\u002F ‘strength’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐʁɐ\u002F ‘twenty’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-2-2\" id=\"sec1-2-2\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Comparison with Lower Xumi\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The main differences between the vowel systems of Lower and Upper Xumi can be summarized as follows. Compared to their counterparts in the vowel system of Lower Xumi, the vowels of Upper Xumi evidence a chain shift that consists of the raising of most vowels. The chain shift is possibly triggered by the addition to the system of the phoneme \u002Fɔ\u002F. Hence, Lower Xumi \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E ɐ ɑ \u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char13.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char13.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char10.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char10.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"10\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F generally correspond to Upper Xumi \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E ɜ ɔ ĩ ũ \u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, respectively. For the oral mid vowels \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, the change is in progress, yielding a number of intermediate forms (see above on the realization of these vowels) and resulting in near merger for some words, as discussed below.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The Lower Xumi \u002Fʉ\u002F generally merges with \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F in Upper Xumi, except after bilabial and velar initials, where it continues to be contrastive with \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʉ\u002F ‘bowels, intestines’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘Pumi people’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʉ\u002F ‘to rub (with hands), to twist’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘crops’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʉ\u002F to bake, to roast, to toast’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eku\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to be able’. In all other cases, we observe merger with \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F. For example, the words ‘to count’ and ‘to wipe’, which are contrastive in Lower Xumi (\u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Esu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Esʉ\u002F, respectively), are homophonous in Upper Xumi, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Esu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to count’ and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Esu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to wipe’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The clearest examples of vowel raising involve the (Lower Xumi) low vowels \u002Fɐ ɑ \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"10\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F, which rise into the empty mid vowel space. Thus, Lower Xumi \u002Fɐ\u002F generally corresponds to Upper Xumi \u002Fɜ\u002F, Lower Xumi \u002Fɑ\u002F generally corresponds to Upper Xumi \u002Fɔ\u002F, Lower Xumi \u002F\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"10\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char11.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F generally corresponds to Upper Xumi \u002F\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F, and Lower Xumi \u002F\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char116.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F generally corresponds to Upper Xumi \u002F\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F; this is illustrated by the following examples:\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU6.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"281\" height=\"84\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU6.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The situation is more complex for the (Lower Xumi) oral mid open vowels \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, which by raising towards (Upper Xumi) \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F cause the overcrowding of the high vowel space, leading in some cases to merger or near merger. The minimal pair ‘now’ and ‘cloth’ (Lower Xumi \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘now’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘cloth’) is a case in point. A minimal pair test investigating speakers’ intuitions about their pronunciation of these words (see Labov \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref5\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Labov\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1994\u003C\u002Fa\u003E: 353–354) suggests complete merger for most Upper Xumi speakers that we consulted: they judged the two words to be homophonous (compare the realization of these words by the speaker DDTR, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘now’ and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘cloth’). A more careful pronunciation of these words, as in word elicitation and discussion with our principal consultant, yielded a distinction, which our main consultant claimed to be that of tone. He pronounces the word for ‘now’ with a continued fall after the abrupt f0 rise in the initial part of the syllable, which gives the perception of a falling tone (i.e. [ɹ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E451\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E] ‘now’). Conversely, he pronounces the word for ‘cloth’ with a high-level pitch contour after the abrupt rise, which gives the perception of a high level tone (i.e. [ɹ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E⁴⁵⁵] ‘cloth’). We note, however, that our principal language consultant was inconsistent in his judgements, and that this type of variation in the realization of the high tone is non-contrastive in this variety (see below on tone).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Consider another example, involving the back vowels \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F and \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, as in the minimal pair \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘year’ and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘bowl’, Lower Xumi \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʉ\u002F and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, respectively. While our principal language consultant maintains a distinction, the difference is acoustically very minor. Video recording reveals a difference in the relative degree of lip rounding (see the video clips ‘Year’ and ‘Bowl’ in supplementary materials). Clearly, broader surveys and commutation tests (Labov \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref5\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Labov\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1994\u003C\u002Fa\u003E: 356–357) are needed to provide a complete account of this merger in progress.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-3\" id=\"sec1-3\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Syllable structure\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The canonical syllable of Upper Xumi may contain up to two optional elements in the following two types of linear structures: (i) (C1)(C2)V, and (ii) (C2)(C3)V, where C1 stands for nasal (before voiced stops and affricates), C2 can be any consonant, and C3 can only be -w-; V stands for vowel (or the syllable consonant \u002F\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F), and parentheses indicate optional constituents. A non-phonemic glottal stop can be inserted at the left edge of a vowel-initial stressed syllable (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʔ\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E] ‘sheep’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eũ\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʔũ] ‘collar’), and at the left edge of a vowel-initial root (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ-\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ-ʔ\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E] ‘to be drunk’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ-ũ\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eæ-ʔũ] ‘to swallow down’).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"531\" height=\"56\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU7.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-84641-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU7.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\nXumi is phonologically monosyllabic with a strong tendency towards disyllabicity in its lexicon. Trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic words are mostly composite, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F ‘pine tree’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ethang\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) (from the word \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u002F ‘tree’), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"4\" height=\"17\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char7.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003Eɜ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ewu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘peach’ (from the bound root \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘fruit’, as in the word \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘fruit’), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲɜ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebuxu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘sunflower’ (from \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɲɜ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘sun’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebuxu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘flower’). At the same time, Upper Xumi also has a handful monomorphemic trisyllabic words (both native and loanwords), e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eki\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘pillar’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emut\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘elephant’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eglang po che\u003C\u002Fem\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-4\" id=\"sec1-4\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Prosodic organization\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Similar to Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi has a two-way tonal contrast on monosyllabic words and a three-way contrast of tonal melodies on polysyllabic words.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-4-1\" id=\"sec1-4-1\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Tone and tonal melodies on lexical words\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E On monosyllabic roots, we observe a two-way tonal contrast: (i) rising (R) (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eje\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to lick’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘vegetable oil’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘suspension bridge’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘cow’), and (ii) high (H) (e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eje\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘tobaccoʼ, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘to buyʼ, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘tiger’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘tooth’). The pitch contours of the two tones differ slightly from the corresponding tones in Lower Xumi, as in \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig3\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Similar to Lower Xumi, non-contrastive variation abounds in the actual realization of the two lexical tones in Upper Xumi. In particular, the high tone may be realized as a falling tone. For example, the word \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘tent’ may be realized as [\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ⁴⁵⁵] or as [\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E451\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E].\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig3\" id=\"fig3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig3g.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-22867-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig3g.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Pitch contours for the pairs \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eje\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to lick’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eje\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘tobaccoʼ, and \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘cow’ vs. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘tooth’ in Lower and Upper Xumi.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E In polysyllabic monomorphemic words, we observe a three-way contrast of tonal melodies. Here, again, we adopt the prosodic system developed for Lizu (Chirkova & Chen \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref2\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Chirkova and Chen\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) but it is important to note that just like Lower Xumi, Upper Xumi does not show a consistent correlation between duration and melody as observed in Lizu. Rather, the three patterns are more consistently signaled via their melodic difference. These tonal melodies are:\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Col class=\"list number nomark\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E(i)\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Equally-Prominent Contour (EP). There is no salient rise or fall over any of the syllables. Rather, it seems to be high-level pitch contours throughout the two syllables. This pattern is mostly attested in monomorphemic words and in loanwords, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘soldier’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Edmag mi\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003EEP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘airplane’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Elchags bya\u003C\u002Fem\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E(ii)\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Left-Prominent Contour (LP). The high f0 peak is realized before the end of the first syllable, where the pitch starts to fall already and continues to fall in the second syllable, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐɲ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘fire tongs’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑɜɕ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘chopsticks’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebemi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘axe’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E(iii)\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Right-Prominent Contour (RP). The high f0 peak is realized over the last syllable of the word, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐɲ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘mani pile’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ema ni\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, pile of stones with the Mani Mantra of Avalokiteshvara), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɕɐ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘weeding hoe’ (WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Elcags gzar\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑɜɕ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to stand’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebe\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘sow’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-4-2\" id=\"sec1-4-2\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Tone patterns in compounds\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E If the tone of the leftmost monosyllabic root is high, the resulting compound has the left-prominent pattern, as illustrated with the following sequence:\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u002F ‘wood, tree’ + \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘bowl’ = \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ-χ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘wooden bowl’\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u002F ‘wood, tree’ + \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʉ\u002F ‘root’ = \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ \u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʉ\u002F ‘root of a tree’\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ\u002F ‘wood’ + \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘house’ = \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ELP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eĩ \u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʑ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘wooden house’\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p continuation\"\u003E\nConversely, if the tone of the leftmost monosyllabic root is rising, the resulting tonal melody is right prominent, as the following illustrate:\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʂ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘iron’ + \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘bowl’ = \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eʂ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-χ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘iron bowl’\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘horse’ + \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘shed’ = \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ek\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘stable, horse shed’\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘horse’ + \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eũ\u002F ‘tail’ = \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eɹ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"14\" height=\"13\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ets\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eũ\u002F ‘horse tail’\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-4-3\" id=\"sec1-4-3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Transcription of the recorded passage\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Our principal language consultant was recorded at the Laboratoire de Phonétique et Phonologie (LPP) of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS). The original recording (made with a Digidesign 003 Rack souncard, Sound Studio 3.6 software for iMac, and an AKG C520L microphone) has been made available to the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EJIPA\u003C\u002Fem\u003E along with this analysis. In the transcription, only lexical items are marked for tone, whereas function words are not. Xumi function words and discourse particles (e.g. the genitive particle \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eji\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F, the topic marker \u002Fʐ \u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"6\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F in the appended text) are never pronounced in isolation. Their surface tone realization depends on the tone of the preceding (host) lexical word (similar to tone sandhi in compounds).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-4-4\" id=\"sec1-4-4\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Semi-narrow phonetic transcription\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E North Wind and the Sun\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A clr-fn-label\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"622\" height=\"250\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU8.gif\" data-zoomable=\"true\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-51299-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU8.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1-4-5\" id=\"sec1-4-5\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Interlinear morphemic glossing\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Abbreviations used in the gloss below follow the Leipzig Glossing Rules (LGR, \u003Ca class=\"uri simple\" href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.eva.mpg.de\u002Flingua\u002Fresources\u002Fglossing-rules.php\"\u003Ehttp:\u002F\u002Fwww.eva.mpg.de\u002Flingua\u002Fresources\u002Fglossing-rules.php\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Non-standard abbreviations (those not included in the LGR) are: \u003Cspan class=\"sc\"\u003Eagt\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E = agentive, \u003Cspan class=\"sc\"\u003Eanm\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E = animate, \u003Cspan class=\"sc\"\u003Eitsf\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E = intensifying.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul class=\"list simple\"\u003E\u003Cli class=\"list-item\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"562\" height=\"1302\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_eqnU9.gif\" data-zoomable=\"true\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-66406-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_eqnU9.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"back\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"ack\" data-magellan-destination=\"ack1\" id=\"ack1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Acknowledgements\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We would like to thank our principal language consultants, Mr. Lurong Duoding 鲁绒多丁, Mr. Mulian Lanbu 木联兰布, and Mr. Duoding Tshi'er 阿果多丁次尔, for their patience and assistance. We are grateful to Jonathan Evans and the anonymous reviewers of this journal for helpful comments and suggestions. Thanks are also due to the directors of the Laboratoire de Phonétique et Phonologie (LPP) of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Jacqueline Vaissière and Annie Rialland for making the phonetics laboratory of the LPP available to us through the project LabEx-EFL (Empirical Foundations of Linguistics); to Angélique Amelot (LPP, CNRS) for helping us with recordings; to Jos Pacilly (Leiden University) for helping us with Praat scripts; and to Wang Dehe 王德和 for helping us with videorecordings. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (France) as part of the research project ‘What defines Qiang-ness? Towards a phylogenetic assessment of the Southern Qiangic languages of Muli’ (ANR-07-JCJC-0063) to Katia Chirkova and Tanja Kocjančič Antolík. Yiya Chen is currently supported by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO-VIDI 016084338) and the European Research Council (ERC-Starting Independent Researcher Grant, 206198).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"app-group\" data-magellan-destination=\"APP-GR\" id=\"APP-GR\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"app\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec2\" id=\"sec2\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EAppendix.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E C–V and CC–V combinations in Upper Xumi\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec2-1\" id=\"sec2-1\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E C–V combinations\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The table is based on a vocabulary list of \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. 2,800 words. Marginal phonemes are restricted to two or less occurrences. Chinese loanwords and place names (such as Lanman) are in grey.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\"\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"562\" height=\"850\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_tab2.gif\" data-zoomable=\"true\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-09566-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_tab2.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec2-2\" id=\"sec2-2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E CC–V combinations\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A clr-fn-label\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\"\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002F?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image graphic\" width=\"290\" height=\"476\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_tab3.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" data-optimised-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-53405-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_tab3.jpg\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",tableOfContent:[],footnotes:[],fulltextNotes:[{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E In transcriptions of Xumi words ‘-’ stands for morpheme boundary, and ‘ = ’ stands for clitic boundary. In WT etymologies ‘?’ stands for a morpheme whose meaning is unclear. When attached to a word, it signals that the etymon represented by this word is tentative. When standing on its own (between spaces), it indicates an uncertain origin of a morpheme in a disyllabic word. See section ‘Prosodic organisation’ for the adopted system of tone notation (the superscript letters and numbers in transcriptions).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn1",displayNumber:"1"},{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E In prefixes (which are prosodically unstressed), such as the directional prefix \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-\u002F ‘outward’, \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F is reduced to a schwa, e.g. \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-ɕ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eə-ɕ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘to stick, to glue’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-ɡ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eə-ɡ\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘to pull outward’, \u002F\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ebu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E-ɲ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F [\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003ERP\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eə-ɲ\u003Cspan class=\"private-char\"\u003E\u003Cimg data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image inline-graphic\" width=\"7\" height=\"12\" data-original-image=\"urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_char1.gif\" data-zoomable=\"false\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E] ‘to push (outward)’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn2",displayNumber:"2"},{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E This is a traditional unit of length, equal to the distance between the thumb and out-stretched middle finger.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn3",displayNumber:t},{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E The combination \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F is realized as [\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eæ] for some speakers, see also below, section on vowels.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn4",displayNumber:"4"},{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Homorganic nasal-consonant onsets can be described as unit phonemes or as consonant clusters (clusters carrying secondary articulatory gestures). Our analysis of such segments as consonant clusters in Xumi follows that of similar segments in Kham Tibetan dialects (e.g. Gesang & Gesang \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref4\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Jumian and Yangjing\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2002\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which, in most cases, appear to be the donors of words with homorganic nasal-consonant onsets in Upper Xumi.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn5",displayNumber:"5"},{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E This word is realized with a rising contour on the first syllable. This is an unusual pattern for disyllabic words, not further attested in other words in the corpus.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn6",displayNumber:"6"},{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E This word is likely to be a loan from Tibetan, WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Erna\u003C\u002Fem\u003E ? ‘ear ?’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn7",displayNumber:"7"},{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E This word is a loan from Tibetan, WT ˈ\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eba\u003C\u002Fem\u003E ‘mask’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn8",displayNumber:"8"},{content:"\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E This word is a loan from Tibetan, WT \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Esnag tsha\u003C\u002Fem\u003E ‘ink’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",targetId:"fn9",displayNumber:"9"}],references:[{id:"manual_ref-1",displayNumber:d,existInContent:a,content:"\u003Cspan class=\"name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EChirkova\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EKatia\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. In press. Phonological profile of Kami, the Tibetan dialect of Muli. In \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003ESun\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EJackson T.-S.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E (ed.), \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003ELesser known dialects of Tibetan\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, special issue of \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003ELanguage and Linguistics\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003Ca class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='Google Scholar link for Chirkova, Katia. In press. Phonological profile of Kami, the Tibetan dialect of Muli. In Sun, Jackson T.-S. 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(ed.), Lesser known dialects of Tibetan, special issue of Language and Linguistics.",doi:d,crossRefLink:d,pubMedLink:d}]},{id:"manual_ref-2",displayNumber:d,existInContent:a,content:"\u003Cspan class=\"name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EChirkova\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EKatia\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E & \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EChen\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EYiya\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\"year\"\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Ea. \u003Cspan class=\"article-title\"\u003ELizu (Illustrations of the IPA)\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\"source\"\u003EJournal of the International Phonetic Association\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E \u003Cspan class=\"volume\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E \u003Cspan class=\"issue\"\u003E(1)\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan 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In \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EMacNeilage\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EPeter F.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E (ed.), \u003Cspan class=\"source\"\u003EThe production of speech\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"fpage\"\u003E189\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E–\u003Cspan class=\"lpage\"\u003E216\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\"publisher-loc\"\u003ENew York\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\"publisher-name\"\u003ESpringer\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E.\u003Ca class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='CrossRef link for The production of speech' href=https:\u002F\u002Fdx.doi.org\u002F10.1007\u002F978-1-4613-8202-7_9\u003ECrossRef\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ca class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='Google Scholar link for The production of speech' href=https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?title=The+production+of+speech&author=Ohala+John+J&author=MacNeilage+Peter+F.&publication+year=1983&pages=189-216\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E",item:[{googleScholarLink:"https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?title=The+production+of+speech&author=Ohala+John+J&author=MacNeilage+Peter+F.&publication+year=1983&pages=189-216",openUrlParams:{genre:"chapter",btitle:o,title:o,atitle:"The origin of sound patterns in vocal tract constraints",aulast:d,aufirst:d,au:d,pub:"Springer",date:"1983",spage:"189",epage:"216",doi:D,sid:g},innerRefId:"ref6",title:o,doi:D,crossRefLink:"https:\u002F\u002Fdx.doi.org\u002F10.1007\u002F978-1-4613-8202-7_9",pubMedLink:d}]}],figures:[{contentId:"fig1",label:"Figure 1",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EWaveforms, spectrograms, EGG, NAF, and OAF for the pairs \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘bamboo’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘medicine’, \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀᴘ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐʁɐ\u002F ‘twenty’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘incantation’, and \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘whole, complete’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘fur, animal hair’.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig1g.gif",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-75998-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig1g.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig2",label:"Figure 2",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EWaveforms, spectrograms, and EGG of the minimal pairs \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘stutterer’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɜ\u002F ‘soul, spirit’, and \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eʎɛ\u002F ‘correct; right’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘flavourless’\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig2g.gif",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-97144-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig2g.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"tab1",label:"Table 1",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EMeasured values of nasal airflow (NAF) and oral airflow (OAF) (in liter\u002Fsecond) for the (near) minimal pairs \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Emj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɛ\u002F ‘bamboo’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘medicine’ (WT \u003Cspan class=\"italic\"\u003Esman\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E), \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀᴘ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐʁɐ\u002F ‘twenty’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘incantation, curse’ (WT \u003Cspan class=\"italic\"\u003Esngags?\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E), and \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɔ\u002F ‘whole, complete’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘fur, animal hair’.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_tab1.gif",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-51016-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_tab1.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig3",label:"Figure 3",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EPitch contours for the pairs \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eje\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘to lick’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Eje\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u002F ‘tobaccoʼ, and \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʀ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘cow’ vs. \u002F\u003Cspan class=\"sup\"\u003Eʜ\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"monospace\"\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fspan\u003Eɐ\u002F ‘tooth’ in Lower and Upper Xumi.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20160310111926811-0622:S0025100313000169_fig3g.gif",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20160713105459-22867-optimisedImage-S0025100313000169_fig3g.jpg",attrib:[]}]},pdf:{standardResolution:{fileUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fservices\u002Faop-cambridge-core\u002Fcontent\u002Fview\u002F66525EDEAC671BDDD718C653CAC7D826\u002FS0025100313000169a.pdf\u002Fxumi-part-2-upper-xumi-the-variety-of-the-upper-reaches-of-the-shuiluo-river.pdf",fileSizeInMb:1,articleTitle:j,slugTitle:"xumi-part-2-upper-xumi-the-variety-of-the-upper-reaches-of-the-shuiluo-river"},highResolution:e,media:e},classification:[],supplementaryMaterials:[{title:"Chirkova, Chen and Antolík sound files",description:"\u003Cp\u003ESound files zip. These audio files are licensed to the IPA by their authors and accompany the phonetic descriptions published in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association. The audio files may be downloaded for personal use but may not be incorporated in another product without the permission of Cambridge University Press\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",contentType:6,objectType:"application\u002Fzip",alternatives:[],downloadUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fcontent\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:article:S0025100313000169\u002Fresource\u002Fname\u002FS0025100313000169sup001.zip",size:"20.3 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1-.69-.28.983.983 0 0 1 0-1.385l3.352-3.328-3.352-3.33a.983.983 0 0 1 0-1.384 1 1 0 0 1 1.395 0l3.352 3.329 3.352-3.329a1 1 0 0 1 1.394 0 .983.983 0 0 1 0 1.385l-3.352 3.329 3.352 3.328z" fill="#436FCC"/> </g> </svg> </span> </a> </div> <p id="info-comment-conflict-tip" class="text-left">Please list any fees and grants from, employment by, consultancy for, shared ownership in or any close relationship with, at any time over the preceding 36 months, any organisation whose interests may be affected by the publication of the response. 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fill="#0072CF" d="M20.4 25.3V15.2h-4.9v2.2h1.1v7.9h-1.1v2.2h6v-2.2h-1.1zm-1.9-11.4c1 0 1.9-1 1.9-2.2 0-1.2-.8-2.2-1.9-2.2s-1.9 1-1.9 2.2c0 1.2.9 2.2 1.9 2.2z"/> </svg> </a> </span> <div id="comment-email-tip_--x--" data-dropdown-content role="dialog" aria-modal="true" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1" class="f-dropdown content medium" data-remove-focus="true" aria-label="Email information"> <div class="close-container"> <a href="#" class="button small transparent-no-border radius tooltip-close-btn" id="tooltip-close-link-comment-email-tip_--x--"> <span class="custom-tooltip-button-remove"> <span class="sr-only">Close Email help</span> <svg width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <defs> <path d="M9.986 0C4.479 0 0 4.434 0 9.916c0 5.469 4.465 9.916 9.986 9.916 5.507 0 9.986-4.433 9.986-9.916C19.958 4.434 15.493 0 9.986 0z" id="a-comment-email-tip_--x--"/> <mask 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