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id="toc-Butrus_al-Bustani-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hayreddin_Pasha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hayreddin_Pasha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Hayreddin Pasha</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hayreddin_Pasha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Francis_Marrash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Francis_Marrash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Francis Marrash</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Francis_Marrash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_and_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Politics and society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Politics_and_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Politics and society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women's_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Women's rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Christians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shia_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shia_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Shia Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shia_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dissemination_of_ideas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissemination_of_ideas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Dissemination of ideas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dissemination_of_ideas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dissemination of ideas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dissemination_of_ideas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Newspapers_and_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newspapers_and_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Newspapers and journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newspapers_and_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Encyclopedias and dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_salons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_salons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Literary salons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_salons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nahda</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B6%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="النهضة العربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="النهضة العربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Нахда – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нахда" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nahda" title="Al-Nahda – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Al-Nahda" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nahda" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nahda" title="Al-Nahda – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Al-Nahda" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nahda" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nahda" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nahda" title="Al-Nahda – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Al-Nahda" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nahda" title="Al-Nahda – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Al-Nahda" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="رنسانس عربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رنسانس عربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nahda" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EB%82%98%ED%9D%90%EB%8B%A4" title="알나흐다 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알나흐다" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A4%D5%A1" title="Նահդա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նահդա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/An-Nahdah" title="An-Nahdah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="An-Nahdah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nahda" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%94%D7%93%D7%94" title="נהדה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נהדה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahdhah" title="Nahdhah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Nahdhah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AB%EF%BC%9D%E3%83%8A%E3%83%95%E3%83%80" title="アル＝ナフダ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アル＝ナフダ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nahda" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nahda" title="Al-Nahda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Al-Nahda" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rena%C8%99terea_arab%C4%83" title="Renașterea arabă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Renașterea arabă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Нахда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нахда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Нахда – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нахда" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1520921#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Nahda" rel="discussion" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Cultural movement in the Arab world</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Arab renaissance movement of the late 19th – early 20th century. For other uses, including contemporary political movements, see <a href="/wiki/Nahda_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Nahda (disambiguation)">Nahda (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Renaissance_(Moustafa_Farroukh).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Renaissance_%28Moustafa_Farroukh%29.png/220px-Renaissance_%28Moustafa_Farroukh%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Renaissance_%28Moustafa_Farroukh%29.png/330px-Renaissance_%28Moustafa_Farroukh%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Renaissance_%28Moustafa_Farroukh%29.png/440px-Renaissance_%28Moustafa_Farroukh%29.png 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="637" /></a><figcaption><i>Renaissance</i> by <a href="/wiki/Moustafa_Farroukh" title="Moustafa Farroukh">Moustafa Farroukh</a> (1945)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Nahda</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">النّهضة</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">an-nahḍa</i></span>, meaning "the Awakening"), also referred to as the <b>Arab Awakening</b> or <b>Enlightenment</b>, was a cultural movement that flourished in <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a>-populated regions of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, notably in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. </p><p>In traditional scholarship, the Nahda is seen as connected to the cultural shock brought on by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">invasion of Egypt</a> in 1798, and the reformist drive of subsequent rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali of Egypt</a>. However, more recent scholarship has shown the Nahda's cultural reform program to have been as "autogenetic" as it was Western-inspired, having been linked to the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a>—the period of political reform within the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> which brought <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">a constitutional order</a> to Ottoman politics and engendered a new political class—as well as the later <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a>, allowing proliferation of the press and other publications<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and internal changes in political economy and communal reformations in Egypt and Syria and Lebanon.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheehi2004_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheehi2004-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The renaissance itself started simultaneously in both Egypt and <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">the Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to their differing backgrounds, the aspects that they focused on differed as well; with Egypt focused on the political aspects of the Islamic world while the Levant focused on the more cultural aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concepts were not exclusive by region however, and this distinction blurred as the renaissance progressed. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_figures">Early figures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early figures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rifa'a_al-Tahtawi"><span id="Rifa.27a_al-Tahtawi"></span>Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rifa'a al-Tahtawi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tahtawi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Tahtawi.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="216" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a> (1801–1873)</figcaption></figure> <p>Egyptian scholar Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873) is widely seen as the pioneering figure of the Nahda. He was sent to Paris in 1826 by Muhammad Ali's government to study Western sciences and educational methods, although originally to serve as <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a> for the Egyptian cadets training at the Paris military academy. He came to hold a very positive view of French society, although not without criticisms. Learning French, he began translating important scientific and cultural works into <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>. He also witnessed the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> of 1830, against <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a>, but was careful in commenting on the matter in his reports to Muhammad Ali.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His political views, originally influenced by the conservative Islamic teachings of <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Azhar">al-Azhar</a> university, changed on a number of matters, and he came to advocate <a href="/wiki/Parliamentarism" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentarism">parliamentarism</a> and women's education<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Read the first paragraph of the first chapter of the book of Jonathan A.C Brown titled "Hadith: Mohammed's Legacy in the Medieval and the Modern World". It has information contrary to what has been said. Here's a link to the book on Amazon: https://www.amazon.com/Hadith-Muhammads-Legacy-Medieval-Foundations/dp/1851686630 (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>After five years in France, he then returned to Egypt to implement the philosophy of reform he had developed there, summarizing his views in the book <i>Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz</i> (sometimes translated as <i>The Quintessence of Paris</i>), published in 1834. It is written in <a href="/wiki/Rhymed_prose" title="Rhymed prose">rhymed prose</a>, and describes France and Europe from an Egyptian Muslim viewpoint. Tahtawi's suggestion was that the Egypt and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> had much to learn from Europe, and he generally embraced Western society, but also held that reforms should be adapted to the values of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a>. This brand of self-confident but open-minded modernism came to be the defining creed of the Nahda. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ahmad_Faris_al-Shidyaq">Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Faris_al-Shidyaq" title="Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq">Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq.png/150px-Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq.png/225px-Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="244" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Faris_al-Shidyaq" title="Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq">Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq</a> (born 1805 or 1806; died 1887)</figcaption></figure> <p>Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq (born 1805 or 1806 as Faris ibn Yusuf al-Shidyaq; died 1887) grew up in present-day Lebanon. A Maronite Christian by birth, he later lived in major cities of the Arab world, where he had his career. He converted to Protestantism during the nearly two decades that he lived and worked in Cairo, present-day Egypt, from 1825 to 1848. He also spent time on the island of Malta. Participating in an Arabic translation of the Bible in Great Britain that was published in 1857, Faris lived and worked there for 7 years, becoming a British citizen. He next moved to Paris, France, for two years in the early 1850s, where he wrote and published some of his most important work. </p><p>Later in the 1850s Faris moved to Tunisia, where in 1860 he converted to Islam, taking the first name Ahmad. Moving to Istanbul later that year to work as a translator at the request of the Ottoman government, Faris also founded an Arabic-language newspaper. It was supported by the Ottomans, Egypt and Tunisia, publishing until the late 1880s. </p><p>Faris continued to promote Arabic language and culture, resisting the 19th-century "Turkization" pushed by the Ottomans based in present-day Turkey. Shidyaq is considered to be one of the founding fathers of modern Arabic literature; he wrote most of his fiction in his younger years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Butrus_al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Butrus al-Bustani"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Butrus_al-Bustani.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Butrus_al-Bustani.jpg/150px-Butrus_al-Bustani.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Butrus_al-Bustani.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a>, 1860</figcaption></figure> <p>Butrus al-Bustani (1819–1893) was born to a <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christian">Maronite Christian</a> family in the village of <a href="/wiki/Dibbiye" class="mw-redirect" title="Dibbiye">Dibbiye</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Chouf" class="mw-redirect" title="Chouf">Chouf</a> region, in January 1819. A polyglot, educator, and activist, Al-Bustani was a tour de force in the Nahda centered in mid-nineteenth century Beirut. Having been influenced by American missionaries, he converted to Protestantism, becoming a leader in the native Protestant church. Initially, he taught in the schools of the Protestant missionaries at <a href="/wiki/%27Abey" class="mw-redirect" title="'Abey">'Abey</a> and was a central figure in the missionaries' translation of the Bible into Arabic. Despite his close ties to the Americans, Al-Bustani increasingly became independent, eventually breaking away from them. </p><p>After the bloody <a href="/wiki/1860_Druze%E2%80%93Maronite_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="1860 Druze–Maronite conflict">1860 Druze–Maronite conflict</a> and the increasing entrenchment of <a href="/wiki/Confessionalism_(religion)" title="Confessionalism (religion)">confessionalism</a>, Al-Bustani founded the National School or Al-Madrasa Al-Wataniyya in 1863, on secular principles. This school employed the leading Nahda "pioneers" of Beirut and graduated a generation of Nahda thinkers. At the same time, he compiled and published several school textbooks and dictionaries; leading him to becoming known famously as the Master of the Arabic Renaissance.<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Elite"><a class="external autonumber" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda#endnote_Elite">[2]</a></sup> </p><p>In the social, national and political spheres, Al-Bustani founded associations with a view to forming a national elite and launched a series of appeals for unity in his magazine <i>Nafir Suriyya</i>.<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Elite"><a class="external autonumber" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda#endnote_Elite">[3]</a></sup> </p><p>In the cultural/scientific fields, he published a fortnightly review and two daily newspapers. In addition, he began work, together with Drs. <a href="/wiki/Eli_Smith" title="Eli Smith">Eli Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Van_Dyck" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornelius Van Dyck">Cornelius Van Dyck</a> of the American Mission, on a translation of the Bible into Arabic known as the Smith-Van Dyke translation.<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Translation"><a class="external autonumber" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahda#endnote_Translation">[4]</a></sup> </p><p>His prolific output and groundbreaking work led to the creation of modern Arabic expository prose. While educated by Westerners, and a strong advocate of Western technology, he was a fierce secularist, playing a decisive role in formulating the principles of <a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalism</a> (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sheehi" title="Stephen Sheehi">Stephen Sheehi</a> states that Al-Bustani's "importance does not lie in his prognosis of Arab culture or his national pride. Nor is his advocacy of discriminatingly adopting Western knowledge and technology to "awaken" the Arabs' inherent ability for cultural success,(najah), unique among his generation. Rather, his contribution lies in the act of elocution. That is, his writing articulates a specific formula for native progress that expresses a synthetic vision of the matrix of modernity within Ottoman Syria."<sup id="cite_ref-Sheehi2011_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheehi2011-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bustani's son <a href="/wiki/Salim_Al_Bustani" title="Salim Al Bustani">Salim</a> was also part of the movement.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hayreddin_Pasha">Hayreddin Pasha</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hayreddin Pasha"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Pasha" title="Hayreddin Pasha">Hayreddin Pasha</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kheireddine_Pacha.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Kheireddine_Pacha.jpeg" decoding="async" width="149" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="149" data-file-height="189" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Pasha" title="Hayreddin Pasha">Hayreddin Pasha</a> (1820–1890)</figcaption></figure> <p>Hayreddin Pasha al-Tunsi (1820–1890) had made his way to Ottoman Tunisia as a slave, where he rose through the ranks of the government of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_I_ibn_Mustafa" title="Ahmad I ibn Mustafa">Ahmad Bey</a>, the modernizing ruler of Tunisia. He soon was made responsible for diplomatic missions to the Ottoman Empire and the countries of Europe, bringing him into contact with Western ideals, as well as with the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> reforms of the Ottoman Empire. He served as Prime Minister of Tunisia from 1859 until 1882. In this period, he was a major force of modernization in Tunisia. </p><p>In numerous writings, he envisioned a seamless blending of Islamic tradition with Western modernization. Basing his beliefs on European Enlightenment writings and Arabic political thought, his main concern was with preserving the autonomy of the Tunisian people in particular, and Muslim peoples in general. In this quest, he ended up bringing forth what amounted to the earliest example of Muslim constitutionalism.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His modernizing theories have had an enormous influence on Tunisian and Ottoman thought. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Francis_Marrash">Francis Marrash</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Francis Marrash"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francis_Marrash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Francis_Marrash.jpg/150px-Francis_Marrash.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Francis_Marrash.jpg/225px-Francis_Marrash.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Francis_Marrash.jpg/300px-Francis_Marrash.jpg 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a> (born between 1835 and 1837; died 1873 or 1874)</figcaption></figure> <p>Syrian scholar, publicist, writer, poet and physician <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a> (born between 1835 and 1837; died 1873 or 1874) had traveled throughout Western Asia and France in his youth. He expressed ideas of political and social reforms in <i>Ghabat al-haqq</i> (first published <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1865),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> highlighting the need of the Arabs for two things above all: modern schools and patriotism "free from religious considerations".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1870, when distinguishing the notion of fatherland from that of nation and applying the latter to the <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">region of Syria</a>, Marrash pointed to the role played by language, among other factors, in counterbalancing religious and sectarian differences, and thus, in defining national identity.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marrash has been considered the first truly cosmopolitan Arab intellectual and writer of modern times, having adhered to and defended the principles of the French Revolution in his own works, implicitly criticizing Ottoman rule in Western Asia and North Africa. </p><p>He also tried to introduce "a revolution in diction, themes, metaphor and imagery in modern Arabic poetry".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His use of conventional diction for new ideas is considered to have marked the rise of a new stage in Arabic poetry which was carried on by the <a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">Mahjaris</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreh_1976,_p._44_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreh_1976,_p._44-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics_and_society">Politics and society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Politics and society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proponents of the Nahda typically supported reforms. While al-Bustani and al-Shidyaq "advocated reform without revolution", the "trend of thought advocated by Francis Marrash [...] and <a href="/wiki/Adib_Ishaq" title="Adib Ishaq">Adib Ishaq</a>" (1856–1884) was "radical and revolutionary.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1876, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> promulgated a constitution, as the crowning accomplishment of the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> reforms (1839–1876) and inaugurating the Empire's <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">First Constitutional Era</a>. It was inspired by European methods of government and designed to bring the Empire back on level with the Western powers. The constitution was opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of the Ottoman Empire">Sultan</a>, whose powers it checked, but had vast symbolic and political importance. </p><p>The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Parliamentarism" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentarism">parliamentarism</a> also created a political class in the Ottoman-controlled provinces, from which later emerged a liberal nationalist elite that would spearhead the several nationalist movements, in particular <a href="/wiki/National_identity_of_Egyptians" class="mw-redirect" title="National identity of Egyptians">Egyptian nationalism</a>. Egyptian nationalism was non-Arab, emphasising ethnic Egyptian identity and history in response to European colonialism and the Turkish occupation of Egypt. This was paralleled by the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turks" title="Young Turks">Young Turks</a> in the central Ottoman provinces and administration. The resentment towards <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Turkish</a> rule fused with protests against the Sultan's autocracy, and the largely secular concepts of <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> rose as a cultural response to the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> claims of religious legitimacy. Various Arab nationalist secret societies rose in the years prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Al-fatat" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-fatat">Al-fatat</a> and the military based al-Ahd. </p><p>This was complemented by the rise of other national movements, including <a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalism</a>, which like Egyptian nationalism was in some of its manifestations essentially non-Arabist and connected to the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">region of Syria</a>. The main other example of the late <i>al-Nahda</i> era is the emerging <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalism</a>, which was set apart from Syrian nationalism by <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> immigration to <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a> and the resulting sense of Palestinian particularism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women's_rights"><span id="Women.27s_rights"></span>Women's rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Women's rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Shidyaq defended <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Leg_Over_Leg" title="Leg Over Leg">Leg Over Leg</a></i>, which was published as early as 1855 in Paris. <a href="/wiki/Esther_Moyal" title="Esther Moyal">Esther Moyal</a>, a Lebanese Jewish author, wrote extensively on women's rights in her magazine <i>The Family</i> throughout the 1890s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Modernism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Modernism">Islamic Modernism</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sayyid_Dscham%C4%81l_ad-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Sayyid_Dscham%C4%81l_ad-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB.jpg/180px-Sayyid_Dscham%C4%81l_ad-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Sayyid_Dscham%C4%81l_ad-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB.jpg/270px-Sayyid_Dscham%C4%81l_ad-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Sayyid_Dscham%C4%81l_ad-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB.jpg/360px-Sayyid_Dscham%C4%81l_ad-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="743" /></a><figcaption>Sayyid <a href="/wiki/Jam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī">Jamal-al-Din Afghani</a> advocated Islamic unity in the face of an increasingly stronger Christian Europe.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the religious field, <a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Din_al-Afghani" title="Jamal al-Din al-Afghani">Jamal al-Din al-Afghani</a> (1839–1897) gave <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> a modernist reinterpretation and fused adherence to the faith with an anti-colonial doctrine that preached <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamic</a> solidarity in the face of European pressures. He also favored the replacement of <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> monarchies with representative rule, and denounced what he perceived as the dogmatism, stagnation and corruption of the Islam of his age. He claimed that tradition (<i><a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a></i>, تقليد) had stifled Islamic debate and repressed the correct practices of the faith. Al-Afghani's case for a redefinition of old interpretations of Islam, and his bold attacks on traditional religion, would become vastly influential with the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> in 1924. This created a void in the religious doctrine and social structure of Islamic communities which had been only temporarily reinstated by <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a> in an effort to bolster universal Muslim support, suddenly vanished. It forced Muslims to look for new interpretations of the faith, and to re-examine widely held dogma; exactly what al-Afghani had urged them to do decades earlier. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muhammad_Abduh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Muhammad_Abduh.jpg/180px-Muhammad_Abduh.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Muhammad_Abduh.jpg/270px-Muhammad_Abduh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Muhammad_Abduh.jpg/360px-Muhammad_Abduh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Al-Afghani influenced many, but greatest among his followers is undoubtedly his student <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a> (1849–1905), with whom he started a short-lived Islamic revolutionary journal, <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Urwah_al-Wuthqa" title="Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa">Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa</a></i>, and whose teachings would play a similarly important role in the reform of the practice of Islam. Like al-Afghani, Abduh accused traditionalist Islamic authorities of moral and intellectual corruption, and of imposing a doctrinaire form of Islam on the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">ummah</a>, that had hindered correct applications of the faith. He therefore advocated that Muslims should return to the "true" Islam practiced by the ancient Caliphs, which he held had been both rational and divinely inspired. Applying the original message of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_prophet" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic prophet">Islamic prophet</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> with no interference of tradition or the faulty interpretations of his followers, would automatically create the just society ordained by God in the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, and so empower the Muslim world to stand against colonization and injustices. </p><p>Among the students of Abduh were Syrian Islamic scholar and reformer <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Rida" title="Rashid Rida">Rashid Rida</a> (1865–1935), who continued his legacy, and expanded on the concept of just Islamic government. His theses on how an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic state</a> should be organized remain influential among modern-day <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamists</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christians">Christians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Christians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/220px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/330px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/440px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>A 1920 photograph of four prominent members of The Pen League (from left to right): <a href="/wiki/Nasib_Arida" title="Nasib Arida">Nasib Arida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Masih_Haddad" title="Abd al-Masih Haddad">Abd al-Masih Haddad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Naimy" title="Mikhail Naimy">Mikhail Naimy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a> played a crucial role in the Nahda movement.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their status as an educated minority enabled them to significantly influence and contribute to the fields of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">literature</a>, politics,<sup id="cite_ref-Pacini1998_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> business,<sup id="cite_ref-Pacini1998_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Philosophers">philosophy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> music, theatre and cinema,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHourani1983[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHourani1983[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> medicine,<sup id="cite_ref-Prioreschi2001_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prioreschi2001-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and science.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> were the main centers of the renaissance, which led to the establishment of schools, universities, theaters and printing presses there. This awakening led to the emergence of a politically active movement known as the "association" that was accompanied by the birth of <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> and the demand for reformation in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. This led to the calling of the establishment of modern states based on Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was during this stage that the first compound of the Arabic language was introduced along with the printing of it in letters, and later the movement influenced the fields of music, sculpture, history, humanities, economics and human rights. </p><p>This cultural renaissance during the late Ottoman rule was a quantum leap for Arabs in the post-industrial revolution, and is not limited to the individual fields of cultural renaissance in the nineteenth century, as the Nahda only extended to include the spectrum of society and the fields as a whole. Christian colleges (accepting of all faiths) like <a href="/wiki/Saint_Joseph_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Joseph University">Saint Joseph University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_University_of_Beirut" title="American University of Beirut">Syrian Protestant College</a> (which later became the American University of Beirut) and <a href="/wiki/Al-Hikma_University_(Baghdad)" title="Al-Hikma University (Baghdad)">Al-Hikma University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> amongst others played a prominent role in the development of Arab culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Lattouf_p._70_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lattouf_p._70-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is agreed amongst historians the importance the roles played by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a> in this renaissance, and their role in the prosperity through participation in the diaspora.<sup id="cite_ref-Teague2010_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teague2010-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pacini1998_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given this role in politics and culture, Ottoman ministers began to include them in their governments. In the economic sphere, a number of Christian families like the Greek Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Sursock_family" title="Sursock family">Sursock family</a> became prominent. Thus, the Nahda led the Muslims and Christians to a cultural renaissance and national general despotism. This solidified <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a> as one of the pillars of the region and not a minority on the fringes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">The Mahjar</a> (one of its more literal meanings being "the Arab diaspora") was a literary movement that preceded the Nahda movement. It was started by Christian Arabic-speaking writers who had emigrated to America from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine at the turn of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/The_Pen_League" class="mw-redirect" title="The Pen League">The Pen League</a> was the first Arabic-language <a href="/wiki/Literary_society" title="Literary society">literary society</a> in North America, formed initially by Syrians <a href="/wiki/Nasib_Arida" title="Nasib Arida">Nasib Arida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Masih_Haddad" title="Abd al-Masih Haddad">Abd al-Masih Haddad</a>. Members of the Pen League included: <a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elia_Abu_Madi" title="Elia Abu Madi">Elia Abu Madi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Naimy" title="Mikhail Naimy">Mikhail Naimy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eight out of the ten members were <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch">Greek Orthodox</a> and two were <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Church" title="Maronite Church">Maronite</a> Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoreh197685_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoreh197685-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 20th century, many prominent <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalists</a> were Christians, like the <a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">Syrian</a> intellectual <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Zureiq" title="Constantin Zureiq">Constantin Zureiq</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a> founder <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Jurji_Zaydan" title="Jurji Zaydan">Jurji Zaydan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who was reputed to be the first Arab nationalist. <a href="/wiki/Khalil_al-Sakakini" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalil al-Sakakini">Khalil al-Sakakini</a>, a prominent Palestinian <a href="/wiki/Jerusalemite" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerusalemite">Jerusalemite</a>, was Arab Orthodox, as was <a href="/wiki/George_Antonius" title="George Antonius">George Antonius</a>, Lebanese author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Arab_Awakening" title="The Arab Awakening">The Arab Awakening</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shia_Islam">Shia Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Shia Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Shi%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a">Shi'a</a> scholars also contributed to the renaissance movement, including the linguist <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Rida" title="Ahmad Rida">Ahmad Rida</a> and his son-in-law the historian <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Jaber_Al_Safa" title="Muhammad Jaber Al Safa">Muhammad Jaber Al Safa</a>. Important political reforms took place simultaneously also in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and Shi'a religious beliefs saw important developments with the systematization of a religious <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a>. A wave of political reform followed, with the constitutional movement in Iran to some extent paralleling the Egyptian Nahda reforms.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science">Science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many student missions from Egypt went to Europe in the early 19th century to study arts and sciences at European universities and acquire technical skills. </p><p>Arabic-language magazines began to publish articles of scientific vulgarization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_literature">Modern literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">Modern Arabic literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egyptian literature</a></div> <p>Through the 19th century and early 20th centuries, a number of new developments in Arabic literature started to emerge, initially sticking closely to the classical forms, but addressing modern themes and the challenges faced by the Arab world in the modern era. Francis Marrash was influential in introducing French romanticism in the Arab world, especially through his use of poetic prose and prose poetry, of which his writings were the first examples in modern Arabic literature, according to <a href="/wiki/Salma_Khadra_Jayyusi" title="Salma Khadra Jayyusi">Salma Khadra Jayyusi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Moreh" title="Shmuel Moreh">Shmuel Moreh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shawqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Shawqi">Ahmad Shawqi</a> (1868–1932), among others, began to explore the limits of the classical qasida, although he remained a clearly neo-classical poet. After him, others, including <a href="/wiki/Hafez_Ibrahim" title="Hafez Ibrahim">Hafez Ibrahim</a> (1871–1932) began to use poetry to explore themes of <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anticolonialism</a> as well as the classical concepts. In 1914, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Haykal" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Husayn Haykal">Muhammad Husayn Haykal</a> (1888–1956) published <i><a href="/wiki/Zaynab_(novel)" title="Zaynab (novel)">Zaynab</a></i>, often considered the first modern Egyptian novel. This novel started a movement of modernizing Arabic fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gibran_Khalil_Gibran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Gibran_Khalil_Gibran.jpg/180px-Gibran_Khalil_Gibran.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Gibran_Khalil_Gibran.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="268" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a> (born Gibran Khalil Gibran), a prominent figure of the <a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">Mahjar</a> in North America</figcaption></figure><p>A group of young writers formed <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Madrasa_al-%E1%B8%A4ad%C4%ABtha" title="Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha">Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha</a></i> ('The New School'), and in 1925 began publishing the weekly literary journal <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Fajr_(literary_magazine)" title="Al-Fajr (literary magazine)">Al-Fajr</a></i> (<i>The Dawn</i>), which would have a great impact on Arabic literature. The group was especially influenced by 19th-century Russian writers such as <a href="/wiki/Dostoyevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Dostoyevsky">Dostoyevsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tolstoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gogol" class="mw-redirect" title="Gogol">Gogol</a>. At about the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">Mahjari</a> poets further contributed from America to the development of the forms available to Arab poets.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most famous of these, <a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a> (1883–1931), challenged political and religious institutions with his writing,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and was an active member of the <a href="/wiki/Pen_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen League">Pen League</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> from 1920 until his death. Some of the Mahjaris later returned to <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Naimy" title="Mikhail Naimy">Mikhail Naimy</a> (1898–1989). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jurji_Zaydan" title="Jurji Zaydan">Jurji Zaydan</a> (1861–1914) developed the genre of the Arabic historical novel. <a href="/wiki/May_Ziadeh" title="May Ziadeh">May Ziadeh</a> (1886–1941) was also a key figure in the early 20th century Arabic literary scene. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qestaki_al-Homsi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Qestaki_al-Homsi.jpg/180px-Qestaki_al-Homsi.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Qestaki_al-Homsi.jpg/270px-Qestaki_al-Homsi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Qestaki_al-Homsi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Qustaki_al-Himsi" title="Qustaki al-Himsi">Qustaki al-Himsi</a>, the founder of modern Arabic literary criticism</figcaption></figure> <p>Aleppine writer <a href="/wiki/Qustaki_al-Himsi" title="Qustaki al-Himsi">Qustaki al-Himsi</a> (1858–1941) is credited with having founded modern Arabic <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a>, with one of his works, <i>The researcher's source in the science of criticism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of modern poetry in classical Arabic style with themes of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a> is the work of <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Pasha_Abaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Aziz Pasha Abaza">Aziz Pasha Abaza</a>. He came from <a href="/wiki/Abaza_family" title="Abaza family">Abaza family</a> which produced notable Arabic literary figures including <a href="/wiki/Fekry_Pasha_Abaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Fekry Pasha Abaza">Fekry Pasha Abaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tharwat_Abaza" title="Tharwat Abaza">Tharwat Abaza</a>, and Desouky Bek Abaza, among others.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.albawaba.net/ar/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8-%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9/%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%85-10-%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA-%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9-1462416">[5]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://sqawoa.com/archives/47555">[6]</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dissemination_of_ideas">Dissemination of ideas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Dissemination of ideas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newspapers_and_journals">Newspapers and journals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Newspapers and journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern newspapers">History of Middle Eastern newspapers</a></div> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> in the Middle East was in the <a href="/wiki/Monastery_of_Qozhaya" title="Monastery of Qozhaya">Monastery of Saint Anthony of Qozhaya</a> in Lebanon and dates back to 1610. It printed books in <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garshuni" title="Garshuni">Garshuni</a> (Arabic using the Syriac alphabet). The first printing press with Arabic letters was built in St John's monastery in Khinshara, Lebanon by "Al-Shamas Abdullah Zakher" in 1734. The printing press operated from 1734 till 1899.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1821, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali of Egypt</a> brought the first printing press to Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern printing techniques spread rapidly and gave birth to a modern Egyptian press, which brought the reformist trends of the Nahda into contact with the emerging Egyptian middle class of clerks and tradesmen. </p><p>In 1855, <a href="/wiki/Rizqallah_Hassun" class="mw-redirect" title="Rizqallah Hassun">Rizqallah Hassun</a> (1825–1880) founded the first newspaper written solely in Arabic, <i>Mir'at al-ahwal</i>. The Egyptian newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Ahram" title="Al-Ahram">Al-Ahram</a></i> founded by <a href="/wiki/Saleem_Takla" title="Saleem Takla">Saleem Takla</a> dates from 1875, and between 1870 and 1900, Beirut alone saw the founding of about 40 new periodicals and 15 newspapers. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D9%89.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D9%89.png/220px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D9%89.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D9%89.png/330px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D9%89.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D9%89.png/440px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D9%89.png 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="544" /></a><figcaption>Despite colonial authorities' banning of <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Urwah_al-Wuthqa" title="Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa">Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa</a></i>, it circulated widely in the Islamic world, from Morocco to India, disseminated through an elaborate network including Arab businessmen in <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Bombay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī">Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī</a>'s weekly <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">pan-Islamic</a> anti-colonial revolutionary literary magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Urwah_al-Wuthqa" title="Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa">Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa</a></i> (<i>The Firmest Bond</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—though it only ran from March to October 1884 and was banned by British authorities in <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a><sup id="cite_ref-:03_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—was circulated widely from Morocco to India and it's considered one of the first and most important publications of the Nahda.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries">Encyclopedias and dictionaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Encyclopedias and dictionaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The efforts at translating <a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">European and American literature</a> led to the modernization of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a>. Many scientific and academic terms, as well as words for modern inventions, were incorporated in modern Arabic vocabulary, and new words were coined in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Triliteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Triliteral">Arabic root system</a> to cover for others. The development of a modern press ensured that <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> ceased to be used and was replaced entirely by <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>, which is used still today all over the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>. </p><p>In the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a> created the first modern Arabic encyclopedia, drawing both on medieval Arab scholars and Western methods of <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Rida" title="Ahmad Rida">Ahmad Rida</a> (1872–1953) created the first modern dictionary of Arabic, <i><a href="/wiki/Matn_al-Lugha" title="Matn al-Lugha">Matn al-Lugha</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_salons">Literary salons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Literary salons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_literary_salons_and_societies_in_the_Arab_world" title="Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world">Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world</a></div> <p>Different salons appeared. <a href="/wiki/Maryana_Marrash" title="Maryana Marrash">Maryana Marrash</a> was the first Arab woman in the nineteenth century to revive the tradition of the literary <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salon</a> in the Arab world, with the salon she ran in her family home in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first salon in Cairo was <a href="/wiki/Princess_Nazli_Fadil" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Nazli Fadil">Princess Nazli Fadil</a>'s.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">Mahjar</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, he called for the introduction of representative democracy with <a href="/wiki/Equal_suffrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal suffrage">equal suffrage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality before the law</a>, the development of infrastructure, support for trade and commerce, state funds for inventors, and the regular maintenance of buildings and public space.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adnan A. Musallam, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm">Arab Press, Society and Politics at the End of The Ottoman Era</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719151528/http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm">Archived</a> 19 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sheehi2004-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sheehi2004_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sheehi" title="Stephen Sheehi">Stephen Sheehi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Modern_Arab_Identity" title="Foundations of Modern Arab Identity">Foundations of Modern Arab Identity</a>. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://florida.theorangegrove.org/og/file/079a66de-df27-a87d-4946-095679fb5de4/1/Sheehi,9781616101343.pdf">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAnsari2010" class="citation book cs1">Ansari, Abdul Latif (2010). <i>Thoughts and Ideologies of Mikhail Nu'aima, the Mahjar Poet in the development of Modern Arabic Poetry; A critical study</i>. Shodhganja. Chapter 1. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10603%2F116505">10603/116505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thoughts+and+Ideologies+of+Mikhail+Nu%27aima%2C+the+Mahjar+Poet+in+the+development+of+Modern+Arabic+Poetry%3B+A+critical+study&rft.pages=Chapter+1&rft.pub=Shodhganja&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10603%2F116505&rft.aulast=Ansari&rft.aufirst=Abdul+Latif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laits.utexas.edu/modern_me/egypt/1/nahda">"Histories of the Modern Middle East"</a>. College of Liberal Arts, <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Texas_at_Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Texas at Austin">The University of Texas at Austin</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Histories+of+the+Modern+Middle+East&rft.pub=College+of+Liberal+Arts%2C+The+University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaits.utexas.edu%2Fmodern_me%2Fegypt%2F1%2Fnahda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Gran, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/568/cu1.htm">Tahtawi in Paris</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060119200537/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/568/cu1.htm">Archived</a> 19 January 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>," Al-Ahram Weekly Online, Issue No.568, 10–16 January 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sheehi2011-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sheehi2011_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sheehi" title="Stephen Sheehi">Stephen Sheehi</a>, "Butrus al-Bustani: Syria's Ideologue of the Age," in "The Origins of Syrian Nationhood: Histories, Pioneers, and Identity", Adel Bishara (ed.). London: Routledge, 2011, pp. 57–78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_Sheehi2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sheehi" title="Stephen Sheehi">Stephen Sheehi</a> (May 2007). "A Social History of Early Arab Photography or a Prolegomenon to an Archaeology of the Lebanese Imago". <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>39</b> (2): 186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743807070067">10.1017/S0020743807070067</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30069572">30069572</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232248436">232248436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=A+Social+History+of+Early+Arab+Photography+or+a+Prolegomenon+to+an+Archaeology+of+the+Lebanese+Imago&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=186&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232248436%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30069572%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743807070067&rft.au=Stephen+Sheehi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0FLoBgAAQBAJ"><i>Order and Compromise: Government Practices in Turkey from the Late Ottoman Empire to the Early 21st Century</i></a>. BRILL. 26 February 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004289857" title="Special:BookSources/9789004289857"><bdi>9789004289857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Order+and+Compromise%3A+Government+Practices+in+Turkey+from+the+Late+Ottoman+Empire+to+the+Early+21st+Century&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015-02-26&rft.isbn=9789004289857&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0FLoBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWielandt1992">Wielandt 1992</a>, pp. 129–130, 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoreh1988">Moreh 1988</a>, p. 95; <a href="#CITEREFHourani1983">Hourani 1983</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuleiman2003">Suleiman 2003</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoreh1976">Moreh 1976</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moreh_1976,_p._44-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moreh_1976,_p._44_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoreh1976">Moreh 1976</a>, p. 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dRAVAQAAIAAJ"><i>Zeitschrift für internationale Freimaurerforschung</i></a>. 2006. p. 62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+internationale+Freimaurerforschung&rft.pages=62&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdRAVAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGran2002" class="citation journal cs1">Gran, Peter (January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030624173715/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/568/cu1.htm">"Tahtawi in Paris"</a>. <i>Al-Ahram Weekly Online</i> (568). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/568/cu1.htm">the original</a> on 24 June 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Ahram+Weekly+Online&rft.atitle=Tahtawi+in+Paris&rft.issue=568&rft.date=2002-01&rft.aulast=Gran&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweekly.ahram.org.eg%2F2002%2F568%2Fcu1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pacini1998-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pacini1998_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pacini1998_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pacini1998_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacini1998" class="citation book cs1">Pacini, Andrea (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ"><i>Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future</i></a>. Clarendon Press. pp. 38, 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829388-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829388-0"><bdi>978-0-19-829388-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310101859/https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Communities+in+the+Arab+Middle+East%3A+The+Challenge+of+the+Future&rft.pages=38%2C+55&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-829388-0&rft.aulast=Pacini&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKMfYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Ellis2004" class="citation book cs1">C. Ellis, Kail (2004). <i>Nostra Aetate, Non-Christian Religions, and Interfaith Relations</i>. Springer Nature. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-54008-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-54008-1"><bdi>978-3-030-54008-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nostra+Aetate%2C+Non-Christian+Religions%2C+and+Interfaith+Relations&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-030-54008-1&rft.aulast=C.+Ellis&rft.aufirst=Kail&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHourani1983[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHourani1983[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHourani1983">Hourani 1983</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prioreschi2001-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prioreschi2001_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrioreschi2001" class="citation book cs1">Prioreschi, Plinio (1 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q0IIpnov0BsC&pg=PA223"><i>A History of Medicine: Byzantine and Islamic medicine</i></a>. Horatius Press. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-888456-04-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-888456-04-2"><bdi>978-1-888456-04-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200106165336/https://books.google.com/books?id=q0IIpnov0BsC&pg=PA223">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medicine%3A+Byzantine+and+Islamic+medicine&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=Horatius+Press&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-888456-04-2&rft.aulast=Prioreschi&rft.aufirst=Plinio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq0IIpnov0BsC%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ira M. Lapidus, <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>, (Cambridge University Press, 2012), 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoueiz_Kanaan" class="citation book cs1">Boueiz Kanaan, Claude. <i>Lebanon 1860–1960: A Century of Myth and Politics</i>. la University of Michigan. p. 127.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebanon+1860%E2%80%931960%3A+A+Century+of+Myth+and+Politics&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=la+University+of+Michigan&rft.aulast=Boueiz+Kanaan&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lattouf_p._70-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lattouf_p._70_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lattouf, 2004, p. 70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teague2010-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Teague2010_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeague2010" class="citation journal cs1">Teague, Michael (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aljadid.com/content/new-christian-question">"The New Christian Question"</a>. <i>Al Jadid Magazine</i>. <b>16</b> (62). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227122331/https://www.aljadid.com/content/new-christian-question">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jadid+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+New+Christian+Question&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=62&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Teague&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljadid.com%2Fcontent%2Fnew-christian-question&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">محطات مارونية من تاريخ لبنان، مرجع سابق، ص.185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFahrenthold2014" class="citation book cs1">Fahrenthold, Stacy (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1IcCrgEACAAJ&q=the+mahjar"><i>Making Nations, in the Mahjar: Syrian and Lebanese Long-distance Nationalisms in New York City, São Paulo, and Buenos Aires, 1913–1929</i></a>. Northeastern University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210508174031/https://books.google.com/books?id=1IcCrgEACAAJ&q=the+mahjar">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Nations%2C+in+the+Mahjar%3A+Syrian+and+Lebanese+Long-distance+Nationalisms+in+New+York+City%2C+S%C3%A3o+Paulo%2C+and+Buenos+Aires%2C+1913%E2%80%931929&rft.pub=Northeastern+University&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Fahrenthold&rft.aufirst=Stacy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1IcCrgEACAAJ%26q%3Dthe%2Bmahjar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBensonKayal2002" class="citation book cs1">Benson, Kathleen; Kayal, Philip M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communityofmanyw00bens"><i>A community of many worlds : Arab Americans in New York City</i></a>. Internet Archive. New York : Museum of the City of New York; Syracuse : Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-0739-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-0739-7"><bdi>978-0-8156-0739-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+community+of+many+worlds+%3A+Arab+Americans+in+New+York+City&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Museum+of+the+City+of+New+York%3B+Syracuse+%3A+Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-0739-7&rft.aulast=Benson&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft.au=Kayal%2C+Philip+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommunityofmanyw00bens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoreh197685-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoreh197685_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoreh1976">Moreh 1976</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalid2003" class="citation book cs1">Khalid (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=22GNugHxmIEC&q=Constantin+Zureiq&pg=PA321"><i>War and Peace in Sudan: A Tale of Two Countries</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-0663-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-0663-0"><bdi>978-0-7103-0663-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211020133917/https://books.google.com/books?id=22GNugHxmIEC&q=Constantin+Zureiq&pg=PA321">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Peace+in+Sudan%3A+A+Tale+of+Two+Countries&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7103-0663-0&rft.au=Khalid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D22GNugHxmIEC%26q%3DConstantin%2BZureiq%26pg%3DPA321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAflaq1977" class="citation book cs1">Aflaq, Michel (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ea8eNQAACAAJ"><i>Choice of Texts from the Baʻth Party Founder's Thought</i></a>. Unity Freedom Socialism. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506201912/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ea8eNQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Choice+of+Texts+from+the+Ba%CA%BBth+Party+Founder%27s+Thought&rft.pub=Unity+Freedom+Socialism&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Aflaq&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEa8eNQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oyBbAAAAIAAJ&q=Jurji+Zaydan"><i>Asian and African Studies</i></a>. Jerusalem Academic Press. 1973. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210503022437/https://books.google.com/books?id=oyBbAAAAIAAJ&q=Jurji+Zaydan">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asian+and+African+Studies&rft.pub=Jerusalem+Academic+Press&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoyBbAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DJurji%2BZaydan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegev2000" class="citation book cs1">Segev, Tom (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onepalestinecomp00sege"><i>One Palestine, complete : Jews and Arabs under the Mandate</i></a>. Internet Archive. New York : Metropolitan Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-4848-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-4848-3"><bdi>978-0-8050-4848-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Palestine%2C+complete+%3A+Jews+and+Arabs+under+the+Mandate&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Metropolitan+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-4848-3&rft.aulast=Segev&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonepalestinecomp00sege&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoreh1976">Moreh 1976</a>, p. 292; <a href="#CITEREFJayyusi1977">Jayyusi 1977</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Somekh, "The Neo-Classical Poets" in M.M. Badawi (ed.) "Modern Arabic Literature", Cambridge University Press 1992, pp36-82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thawra.sy/">"صحيفة الثورة"</a>. <i>صحيفة الثورة</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9&rft.atitle=%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthawra.sy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFالكعبي2005" class="citation book cs1">الكعبي, ضياء (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AFAW9lnZFHQC&q=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84+%D9%82%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%B5%D9%8A&pg=PT173"><i>السرد العربي القديم</i></a>. بيروت: المؤسسة العربية للدراسات والنشر. p. 445. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9953-36-784-1" title="Special:BookSources/9953-36-784-1"><bdi>9953-36-784-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85&rft.place=%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA&rft.pages=445&rft.pub=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A4%D8%B3%D8%B3%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%84%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9953-36-784-1&rft.aulast=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A&rft.aufirst=%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAFAW9lnZFHQC%26q%3D%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2586%25D8%25A7%25D9%2582%25D8%25AF%2B%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25B9%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A8%25D9%258A%2B%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A3%25D9%2588%25D9%2584%2B%25D9%2582%25D8%25B3%25D8%25B7%25D8%25A7%25D9%2583%25D9%258A%2B%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AD%25D9%2585%25D8%25B5%25D9%258A%26pg%3DPT173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pascal Zoghbi, "[The First Arabic Script Printing Press in Lebanon: Arabic Type Designer & Typographer: Arabic Type. 29 letters 5 January 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2011.]".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sabri Al-Adl, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/742/sc1.htm">All the Pasha's Papers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060302114541/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/742/sc1.htm">Archived</a> 2 March 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>," Al-Ahram Weekly Online, Issue No. 742, 12–18 May 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alkhaleej.ae/studiesandopinions/page/3f1e120f-f5db-417f-b9ab-3b798a609b1c">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"العروة الوثقى" عبر الهند"</a>. <i>www.alkhaleej.ae</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.alkhaleej.ae&rft.atitle=%22%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D9%89%22+%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alkhaleej.ae%2Fstudiesandopinions%2Fpage%2F3f1e120f-f5db-417f-b9ab-3b798a609b1c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140426215503/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2440">"Urwat al-Wuthqa, al- – Oxford Islamic Studies Online"</a>. <i>www.oxfordislamicstudies.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2440">the original</a> on 26 April 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com&rft.atitle=Urwat+al-Wuthqa%2C+al-+%E2%80%93+Oxford+Islamic+Studies+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordislamicstudies.com%2Farticle%2Fopr%2Ft125%2Fe2440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.islamonline.net/?p=9729">"الارشيف"</a>. <i>archive.islamonline.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.islamonline.net&rft.atitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%81&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.islamonline.net%2F%3Fp%3D9729&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/urwa-al-wuthqa-al">"Urwa al-Wuthqa, al- | Encyclopedia.com"</a>. <i>www.encyclopedia.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Urwa+al-Wuthqa%2C+al-+%7C+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fhumanities%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Furwa-al-wuthqa-al&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatenpaugh,_H._Z.,2010">Watenpaugh, H. Z., 2010</a>, p. 227; <a href="#CITEREFWatenpaugh,_K._D.,2006">Watenpaugh, K. D., 2006</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshourGhazoulReda-Mekdashi2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Radwa_Ashour" title="Radwa Ashour">Ashour, Radwa</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ferial_Ghazoul" title="Ferial Ghazoul">Ghazoul, Ferial J.</a>; Reda-Mekdashi, Hasna, eds. (2008). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabwomenwriters00asho"><i>Arab Women Writers: a Critical Reference Guide, 1873–1999</i></a></span>. American University in Cairo Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabwomenwriters00asho/page/n18">4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9774161469" title="Special:BookSources/978-9774161469"><bdi>978-9774161469</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Women+Writers%3A+a+Critical+Reference+Guide%2C+1873%E2%80%931999&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9774161469&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabwomenwriters00asho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHourani1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hourani" title="Albert Hourani">Hourani, Albert</a> (1983) [First published 1962]. <i>Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27423-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27423-4"><bdi>978-0-521-27423-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+Thought+in+the+Liberal+Age%2C+1798%E2%80%931939&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27423-4&rft.aulast=Hourani&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJayyusi1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Salma_Jayyusi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salma Jayyusi">Jayyusi, Salma Khadra</a> (1977). <i>Trends and Movements in Modern Arabic Poetry</i>. Vol. I. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04920-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04920-8"><bdi>978-90-04-04920-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trends+and+Movements+in+Modern+Arabic+Poetry&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-90-04-04920-8&rft.aulast=Jayyusi&rft.aufirst=Salma+Khadra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreh1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Moreh" title="Shmuel Moreh">Moreh, Shmuel</a> (1976). <i>Modern Arabic Poetry 1800–1970: the Development of its Forms and Themes under the Influence of Western Literature</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04795-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04795-2"><bdi>978-90-04-04795-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Arabic+Poetry+1800%E2%80%931970%3A+the+Development+of+its+Forms+and+Themes+under+the+Influence+of+Western+Literature&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-90-04-04795-2&rft.aulast=Moreh&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreh1988" class="citation book cs1">Moreh, Shmuel (1988). <i>Studies in Modern Arabic Prose and Poetry</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08359-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08359-2"><bdi>978-90-04-08359-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Modern+Arabic+Prose+and+Poetry&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08359-2&rft.aulast=Moreh&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuleiman2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yasir_Suleiman" title="Yasir Suleiman">Suleiman, Yasir</a> (2003). <i>The Arabic Language and National Identity: a Study in Ideology</i>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87840-395-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87840-395-0"><bdi>978-0-87840-395-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+Language+and+National+Identity%3A+a+Study+in+Ideology&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-87840-395-0&rft.aulast=Suleiman&rft.aufirst=Yasir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatenpaugh,_H._Z.,2010" class="citation book cs1">Watenpaugh, Heghnar Zeitlian (2010). "The Harem as Biography: Domestic Architecture, Gender and Nostalgia in Modern Syria". In Booth, Marilyn (ed.). <i>Harem Histories: Envisioning Places and Living Spaces</i>. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822348580" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822348580"><bdi>978-0822348580</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Harem+as+Biography%3A+Domestic+Architecture%2C+Gender+and+Nostalgia+in+Modern+Syria&rft.btitle=Harem+Histories%3A+Envisioning+Places+and+Living+Spaces&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0822348580&rft.aulast=Watenpaugh&rft.aufirst=Heghnar+Zeitlian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatenpaugh,_K._D.,2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_David_Watenpaugh" title="Keith David Watenpaugh">Watenpaugh, Keith David</a> (2006). <i>Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691121697" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691121697"><bdi>978-0691121697</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+Modern+in+the+Middle+East%3A+Revolution%2C+Nationalism%2C+Colonialism%2C+and+the+Arab+Middle+Class&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0691121697&rft.aulast=Watenpaugh&rft.aufirst=Keith+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWielandt1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wielandt, Rotraud (1992). "Fransis Fathallah Marrashs Zugang zum Gedankengut der Aufklärung und der französischen Revolution". In <a href="/wiki/Geert_Jan_van_Gelder" title="Geert Jan van Gelder">van Gelder, Geert Jan</a>; de Moor, Ed (eds.). <i>The Middle East and Europe: Encounters and Exchanges</i> (in German). Rodopi Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5183-397-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5183-397-3"><bdi>978-90-5183-397-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fransis+Fathallah+Marrashs+Zugang+zum+Gedankengut+der+Aufkl%C3%A4rung+und+der+franz%C3%B6sischen+Revolution&rft.btitle=The+Middle+East+and+Europe%3A+Encounters+and+Exchanges&rft.pub=Rodopi+Publishers&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-90-5183-397-3&rft.aulast=Wielandt&rft.aufirst=Rotraud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahda" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hourani" title="Albert Hourani">Albert Hourani</a>, <i>A History of the Arab Peoples</i>, New York: <a href="/wiki/Warner_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Warner Books">Warner Books</a>, 1991. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-446-39392-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-446-39392-4">0-446-39392-4</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. Lapidus">Ira M. Lapidus</a>, <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd Ed. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2002.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Armstrong" title="Karen Armstrong">Karen Armstrong</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_God" title="The Battle for God">The Battle for God</a></i>, New York City, 2000.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Kassir" title="Samir Kassir">Samir Kassir</a>, <i>Considérations sur le malheur arabe</i>, Paris, 2004.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sheehi" title="Stephen Sheehi">Stephen Sheehi</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Modern_Arab_Identity" title="Foundations of Modern Arab Identity">Foundations of Modern Arab Identity</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Florida" title="University Press of Florida">University Press of Florida</a>, 2004.</li> <li>Fruma Zachs and Sharon Halevi, <i>From Difa Al-Nisa to Masalat Al-Nisa in greater Syria: Readers and writers debate women and their rights, 1858–1900.</i> International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 4 (2009): 615 – 633.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahda&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060109063918/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/757/cu3.htm">Plain talk</a> – by Mursi Saad ed-Din, in <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Ahram" title="Al-Ahram">Al-Ahram</a></i> Weekly.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060119200537/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/568/cu1.htm">Tahtawi in Paris</a> – by Peter Gran, in <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Ahram" title="Al-Ahram">Al-Ahram</a></i> Weekly.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-591/_nr-9/_p-1/i.html">France as a Role Model</a> – by Barbara Winckler</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Egypt_topics" title="Template:Egypt topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Egypt_topics" title="Template talk:Egypt topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Egypt_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Egypt topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Egypt_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Egypt" title="List of years in Egypt">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template:Ancient Egypt topics">topics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">27th Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">31st Dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Lighthouse of Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt" title="Diocese of Egypt">Diocese of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt#Christian_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sassanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Muslim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Egypt" title="Islamization of Egypt">Islamization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_invasions_of_Egypt" title="Crusader invasions of Egypt">Crusader invasions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali%27s_seizure_of_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Ali's seizure of power">Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty">Muhammad Ali dynasty</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nahda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Ethiopian_War" title="Egyptian–Ethiopian War">Egyptian–Ethiopian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urabi_revolt" title="Urabi revolt">Urabi revolt</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Egypt" title="History of modern Egypt">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French occupation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Cairo" title="Revolt of Cairo">Revolt of Cairo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">British occupation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution" title="1919 Egyptian revolution">1919 revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_World_War_II" title="Egypt in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_republican_Egypt" title="History of republican Egypt">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Egypt" title="Land reform in Egypt">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Anwar_Sadat" title="History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat">Sadat era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Anwar_Sadat" title="Assassination of Anwar Sadat">Assassination of Anwar Sadat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Hosni_Mubarak" title="History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak">Mubarak era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Crisis_(2011%E2%80%932014)" title="Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)">2010s Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Egyptian_revolution" title="2011 Egyptian revolution">2011 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_2013_Rabaa_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="August 2013 Rabaa massacre">2013 Rabaa massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Egypt" title="Anarchism in Egypt">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cigarette_industry" title="Egyptian cigarette industry">Cigarette industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Egyptian_Constitution" title="History of the Egyptian Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Copts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Egypt" title="Genetic history of Egypt">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Egypt" title="Healthcare in Egypt">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt">Muslim Brotherhood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1928%E2%80%931938)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1928–1938)">1928–1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1939%E2%80%931954)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1939–1954)">1939–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1954%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1954–present)">1954–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Egyptian_parliament" title="History of the Egyptian parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Egypt" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Egypt">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin_in_Egypt" title="Saladin in Egypt">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_timekeeping_devices_in_Egypt" title="History of timekeeping devices in Egypt">Timekeeping devices</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alexandria" title="History of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cairo" title="Timeline of Cairo">Cairo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Port_Said" title="Timeline of Port Said">Port Said</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Egypt" title="Geography of Egypt">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_biota_of_Egypt" title="Category:Lists of biota of Egypt">Biota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Egypt" title="Template:Borders of Egypt">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Egypt" title="List of cities and towns in Egypt">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Egypt" title="Climate of Egypt">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_Egypt" title="Category:Deserts of Egypt">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Egypt" title="List of earthquakes in Egypt">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Egypt" title="Environmental issues in Egypt">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossils_of_Egypt" title="Fossils of Egypt">Fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Egypt" title="Geology of Egypt">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfaya_Pass" title="Halfaya Pass">Halfaya Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Egypt" title="Category:Islands of Egypt">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Egypt" title="List of lakes of Egypt">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Egypt" title="Category:Mountains of Egypt">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai" title="Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_coast_of_Egypt" title="Northern coast of Egypt">Northern coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oases_of_Egypt" title="Category:Oases of Egypt">Oases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qattara_Depression" title="Qattara Depression">Qattara Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_Riviera" title="Red Sea Riviera">Red Sea Riviera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Egypt" title="List of rivers of Egypt">Rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_and_villages_in_Egypt" title="List of towns and villages in Egypt">Towns and villages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wadis_of_Egypt" title="Category:Wadis of Egypt">Wadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Egypt" title="Wildlife of Egypt">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt" title="Politics of Egypt">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Egypt" title="Subdivisions of Egypt">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_in_Egypt#List_of_Governorates_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Local Government in Egypt">Governorates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Civil_Code" title="Egyptian Civil Code">Civil Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Egypt" title="Corruption in Egypt">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Egypt" title="Conscription in Egypt">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Egypt" title="Constitution of Egypt">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Egypt" title="Elections in Egypt">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Egypt" title="Foreign relations of Egypt">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Egypt" title="List of diplomatic missions of Egypt">Missions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism_in_20th-century_Egypt" title="Islamic extremism in 20th-century Egypt">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Egypt" title="Judiciary of Egypt">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_National_Police" title="Egyptian National Police">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Egypt" title="List of massacres in Egypt">Massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Armed_Forces" title="Egyptian Armed Forces">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_the_Armed_Forces" title="Supreme Council of the Armed Forces">Supreme Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationality_law" title="Egyptian nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Egypt" title="Parliament of Egypt">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_passport" title="Egyptian passport">Passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Egypt" title="List of political parties in Egypt">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Egypt" title="President of Egypt">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Egypt" title="List of presidents of Egypt">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Egypt" title="Prime Minister of Egypt">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Egypt" title="List of prime ministers of Egypt">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Administrative_Capital" title="New Administrative Capital">Proposed new capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_in_Egypt" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war in Egypt">Refugees of the Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Egypt" title="Terrorism in Egypt">Terrorism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_tourism_in_Egypt" title="Terrorism and tourism in Egypt">Terrorism and tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Egypt" title="List of twin towns and sister cities in Egypt">Twin towns and sister cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt" title="Economy of Egypt">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt#Land,_agriculture_and_crops" title="Economy of Egypt">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Egypt" title="List of banks in Egypt">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Egypt" title="National Bank of Egypt">National Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Egypt" title="List of companies of Egypt">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_regions_of_Egypt" title="Economic regions of Egypt">Economic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Exchange" title="Egyptian Exchange">Egyptian stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pound" title="Egyptian pound">Egyptian pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Egypt" title="Energy in Egypt">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship_policies_in_Egypt" title="Entrepreneurship policies in Egypt">Entrepreneurship policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing in Egypt">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt_and_the_environment" title="Economy of Egypt and the environment">Impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lighthouses_in_Egypt" title="List of lighthouses in Egypt">Lighthouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_industry_of_Egypt" title="Military industry of Egypt">Military industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Egypt" title="Mining industry of Egypt">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mines_in_Egypt" title="List of mines in Egypt">Mines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Egypt" title="Nuclear program of Egypt">Nuclear program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of power stations in Egypt">Power stations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Egyptian_Armed_Forces" title="Economy of the Egyptian Armed Forces">Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_Egypt" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in Egypt">Tallest buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Egypt" title="Internet in Egypt">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Egypt" title="Tourism in Egypt">Tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_tourism_in_Egypt" title="Cultural tourism in Egypt">Cultural tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Egypt" title="Transport in Egypt">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Egypt" title="List of airlines of Egypt">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Egypt" title="List of airports in Egypt">Airports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_railway_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of railway stations in Egypt">Railway stations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Egypt" title="Water supply and sanitation in Egypt">Water supply and sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_management_in_Egypt" title="Water resources management in Egypt">Water resources management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Egypt" title="Category:Society of Egypt">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Egypt" title="Abortion in Egypt">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare_in_Egypt" title="Animal welfare in Egypt">Animal welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptians_by_net_worth" title="List of Egyptians by net worth">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Egypt" title="Cannabis in Egypt">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Egypt" title="Capital punishment in Egypt">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_in_Egypt" title="Census in Egypt">Censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Egypt" title="Corruption in Egypt">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Egypt" title="Crime in Egypt">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Egypt" title="Human trafficking in Egypt">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_sexual_assault_in_Egypt" title="Mass sexual assault in Egypt">Mass sexual assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_in_Egypt" title="Rape in Egypt">Rape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Egypt" title="Demographics of Egypt">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_diaspora" title="Egyptian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_grading_in_Egypt" title="Academic grading in Egypt">Academic grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of law schools in Egypt">Law schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of medical schools in Egypt">Medical schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of schools in Egypt">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Egypt" title="List of universities in Egypt">Universities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Egyptian_families" title="Category:Egyptian families">Families</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaza_family" title="Abaza family">Abaza family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_Egypt" title="Gender inequality in Egypt">Gender inequality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Egypt" title="Health in Egypt">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Egypt" title="Healthcare in Egypt">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_Egypt" title="List of hospitals in Egypt">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Egypt" title="Housing in Egypt">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Egypt" title="Human rights in Egypt">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt#Freedom_of_religion_and_human_rights" title="Religion in Egypt">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Egypt">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Egypt" title="International rankings of Egypt">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Egypt" title="Languages of Egypt">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Sign_Language" title="Egyptian Sign Language">Sign Language</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Egypt" title="Prostitution in Egypt">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Egypt" title="Baháʼí Faith in Egypt">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blasphemy_law_in_Egypt" title="Blasphemy law in Egypt">Blasphemy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Egypt" title="Christianity in Egypt">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_dioceses_in_Egypt" title="List of Catholic dioceses in Egypt">Catholic dioceses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Coptic_Orthodox_churches_in_Egypt" title="List of Coptic Orthodox churches in Egypt">Coptic Churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Arab_states#Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism in Arab states">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_identification_card_controversy" title="Egyptian identification card controversy">Identification card controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Egypt" title="Irreligion in Egypt">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Egypt" title="Islam in Egypt">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_in_Egypt" title="Ahmadiyya in Egypt">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_Egypt" title="List of mosques in Egypt">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niq%C4%81b_in_Egypt" title="Niqāb in Egypt">Niqāb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_synagogues_in_Egypt" title="List of synagogues in Egypt">Synagogues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology_in_Egypt" title="Scientology in Egypt">Scientology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Egypt" title="Smoking in Egypt">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_units_of_measurement" title="Egyptian units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Egypt" title="Vehicle registration plates of Egypt">Vehicle registration plates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Egypt" title="Waste management in Egypt">Waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Egypt" title="Women in Egypt">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Egypt" title="Culture of Egypt">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Egypt" title="Architecture of Egypt">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art (ancient)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art_in_Egypt" title="Contemporary art in Egypt">Art (contemporary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanical_gardens_in_Egypt" title="List of botanical gardens in Egypt">Botanical gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_castles,_forts,_fortifications_and_city_walls" title="List of Egyptian castles, forts, fortifications and city walls">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Egypt" title="Cinema of Egypt">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Egypt" title="Coat of arms of Egypt">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cuisine" title="Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_Egypt" title="Beer in Egypt">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_wine" title="Egyptian wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Egyptian_films" title="Lists of Egyptian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Egypt" title="Flag of Egypt">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_flags" title="List of Egyptian flags">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_regions_of_Egypt" title="Flags of regions of Egypt">regions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_Egypt" title="Football in Egypt">Football</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_football_clubs_in_Egypt" title="List of football clubs in Egypt">Football clubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_football_stadiums_in_Egypt" title="List of football stadiums in Egypt">Football stadiums</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Egypt" title="Mass media in Egypt">Mass media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magazines_in_Egypt" title="List of magazines in Egypt">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Egypt" title="List of newspapers in Egypt">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of radio stations in Egypt">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Egypt" title="Television in Egypt">TV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Egypt" title="List of museums in Egypt">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilady,_Bilady,_Bilady" title="Bilady, Bilady, Bilady">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_at_the_Olympics" title="Egypt at the Olympics">Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Egypt" title="Public holidays in Egypt">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Egypt" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Egypt">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Egypt" title="Category:Egypt">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Egypt" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Egypt">WikiProject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Egypt">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Syria_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Syria_topics" title="Template:Syria topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Syria_topics" title="Template talk:Syria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syria_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Syria topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Syria_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Syrian_history" title="Timeline of Syrian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Syria" title="List of years in Syria">Years in Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistorical Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_corridor" title="Levantine corridor">Levantine corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hureyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Aswad" title="Tell Aswad">Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Syria">Ancient Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Achaemenid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid Syria">Seleucid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Syria">Medieval Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a> (636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Caliphal Syria <i><span style="font-size:85%;">(Bilad al-Sham)</span></i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid dynasty">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zangid dynasty">Zangid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Syria">Fatimid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saljuqid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Saljuqid Syria">Saljuqid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Syria">Ayyubid Syria</a> (1174–1260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Syria">Mamluk Syria</a> (1260–1516)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> (1516–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Syria" title="Modern history of Syria">Modern Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab kingdom</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haj_Fadel_Government" title="Haj Fadel Government">Haj Fadel Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and Lebanon">French Mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Federation" title="Syrian Federation">Syrian Federation</a> (1922–25)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> (1925–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Republic</a> (1930–46)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_First_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent First Syrian Republic">independent First Republic</a> (1946–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Republic</a> (1950–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/80px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/120px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/160px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="403" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Syria" title="Template:Borders of Syria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">Governorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Syria" title="List of rivers of Syria">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Syria" title="List of volcanoes in Syria">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia">Al-Jazira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Hermon" title="Mount Hermon">Hermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">Southern Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" title="Politics of Syria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Syria" title="Corruption in Syria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Syria)" title="Council of Ministers (Syria)">Council of Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights#Territorial_claims" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province#Turkish–Syrian_dispute" title="Hatay Province">Iskandaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_ministries_of_Syria" title="Government ministries of Syria">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Syria">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Syria" title="Judiciary of Syria">Judiciary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Judicial_Council" title="High Judicial Council">High council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Syria" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria">Supreme Constitutional Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Council of Syria">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker of the People's Council of Syria">Speakers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Syria" title="List of political parties in Syria">Political parties</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a></span> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">national</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">regional command</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_Change_and_Liberation" title="Popular Front for Change and Liberation">Popular Front for Change and Liberation</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Golan_Heights" class="mw-redirect" title="Status of the Golan Heights">Political status of the Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Syria" title="Terrorism in Syria">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Syria">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force" title="Syrian Air Force">Air force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Defense_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Air Defense Force">air defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Navy" title="Syrian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_(Syria)" title="Chief of the General Staff (Syria)">Chief of the General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Syria" title="Central Bank of Syria">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Syria" title="List of companies of Syria">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_in_Syria" title="Industry in Syria">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Syria" title="International rankings of Syria">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Pound <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Securities_Exchange" title="Damascus Securities Exchange">Securities Exchange <span style="font-size:85%;">(stock exchange)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria#Energy_and_mineral_resources" title="Economy of Syria">Energy and mineral resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Syria" title="Petroleum industry in Syria">Petroleum industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Syria" title="Transport in Syria">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Syria" title="Category:Society of Syria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in Syria">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Syria" title="Health in Syria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_Syria" title="Hunger in Syria">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of the Syrian Civil War">refugees <span style="font-size:85%;">(2011–present)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Syria" title="Public holidays in Syria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouts_of_Syria" title="Scouts of Syria">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Syria" title="Squatting in Syria">Squatting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of Syria">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria" title="Coat of arms of Syria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_wine" title="Syrian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_films" title="List of Syrian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Syria" title="Mass media in Syria">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Organization_of_Radio_and_TV_(Syria)" title="General Organization of Radio and TV (Syria)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Syria" title="Television in Syria">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Syria" title="Smoking in Syria">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syria" title="Category:Syria">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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