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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prisoner_of_war_camp" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prisoner_of_war_camp"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Prisoner of war camp</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prisoner_of_war_camp-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concentration_camp" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concentration_camp"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Concentration camp</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concentration_camp-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-More_prisoners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#More_prisoners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>More prisoners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-More_prisoners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Außenlager_(satellite_camps)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Außenlager_(satellite_camps)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span><i>Außenlager</i> (satellite camps)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Außenlager_(satellite_camps)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment_of_prisoners_and_deaths_in_the_camp" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment_of_prisoners_and_deaths_in_the_camp"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Treatment of prisoners and deaths in the camp</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment_of_prisoners_and_deaths_in_the_camp-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Liberation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_prosecution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_prosecution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Legal prosecution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_prosecution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memorial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memorial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Memorial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memorial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Personal accounts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_inmates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_inmates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notable inmates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_inmates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bergen-Belsen concentration camp</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen-konsentrasiekamp" title="Bergen-Belsen-konsentrasiekamp – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bergen-Belsen-konsentrasiekamp" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%86" title="معسكر بيرغن بيلسن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معسكر بيرغن بيلسن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belzen" title="Bergen-Belzen – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bergen-Belzen" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Берген-Бельзен – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Берген-Бельзен" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%91%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Бэрген-Бэльзэн – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэрген-Бэльзэн" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Берген-Белзен – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Берген-Белзен" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koncentra%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_t%C3%A1bor_Bergen-Belsen" title="Koncentrační tábor Bergen-Belsen – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Koncentrační tábor Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_koncentrationslejr" title="Bergen-Belsen koncentrationslejr – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bergen-Belsen koncentrationslejr" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/KZ_Bergen-Belsen" title="KZ Bergen-Belsen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="KZ Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%B4%CE%BF_%CF%83%CF%85%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%BD-%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B6%CE%B5%CE%BD" title="Στρατόπεδο συγκέντρωσης Μπέργκεν-Μπέλζεν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Στρατόπεδο συγκέντρωσης Μπέργκεν-Μπέλζεν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%86" title="اردوگاه کار اجباری برگن-بلزن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اردوگاه کار اجباری برگن-بلزن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campa_g%C3%A9ibhinn_Bergen-Belsen" title="Campa géibhinn Bergen-Belsen – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Campa géibhinn Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%B4%EA%B2%90-%EB%B2%A8%EC%A0%A0_%EA%B0%95%EC%A0%9C_%EC%88%98%EC%9A%A9%EC%86%8C" title="베르겐-벨젠 강제 수용소 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베르겐-벨젠 강제 수용소" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%B6-%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A6%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Բերգեն-Բելզեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բերգեն-Բելզեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koncentracijski_logor_Bergen-Belsen" title="Koncentracijski logor Bergen-Belsen – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Koncentracijski logor Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamp_konsentrasi_Bergen-Belsen" title="Kamp konsentrasi Bergen-Belsen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kamp konsentrasi Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campo_di_concentramento_di_Bergen-Belsen" title="Campo di concentramento di Bergen-Belsen – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Campo di concentramento di Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%9F-%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%96%D7%9F" title="ברגן-בלזן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ברגן-בלזן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergenes-Belzenes_koncentr%C4%81cijas_nometne" title="Bergenes-Belzenes koncentrācijas nometne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bergenes-Belzenes koncentrācijas nometne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-belseni_koncentr%C3%A1ci%C3%B3s_t%C3%A1bor" title="Bergen-belseni koncentrációs tábor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bergen-belseni koncentrációs tábor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%B3%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80" title="बर्गन-बेल्सन छळछावणी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बर्गन-बेल्सन छळछावणी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%94_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94" title="ბერგენ-ბელზენიშ საკონცენტრაციე კარე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბერგენ-ბელზენიშ საკონცენტრაციე კარე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B2%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%82%BC%E3%83%B3%E5%BC%B7%E5%88%B6%E5%8F%8E%E5%AE%B9%E6%89%80" title="ベルゲン・ベルゼン強制収容所 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベルゲン・ベルゼン強制収容所" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lag%C4%83rul_de_concentrare_Bergen-Belsen" title="Lagărul de concentrare Bergen-Belsen – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Lagărul de concentrare Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champ_da_concentraziun_Bergen-Belsen" title="Champ da concentraziun Bergen-Belsen – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Champ da concentraziun Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Берген-Бельзен – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Берген-Бельзен" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koncentra%C4%8Dn%C3%BD_t%C3%A1bor_Bergen-Belsen" title="Koncentračný tábor Bergen-Belsen – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Koncentračný tábor Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Концентрациони логор Берген-Белзен – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Концентрациони логор Берген-Белзен" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsenin_keskitysleiri" title="Bergen-Belsenin keskitysleiri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bergen-Belsenin keskitysleiri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen" title="Bergen-Belsen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bergen-Belsen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="ค่ายกักกันแบร์เกิน-เบ็ลเซิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ค่ายกักกันแบร์เกิน-เบ็ลเซิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_toplama_kamp%C4%B1" title="Bergen-Belsen toplama kampı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bergen-Belsen toplama kampı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Берген-Бельзен – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Берген-Бельзен" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp&params=52_45_28_N_9_54_28_E_type:landmark_region:DE-NI"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">52°45′28″N</span> <span class="longitude">9°54′28″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">52.75778°N 9.90778°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">52.75778; 9.90778</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Nazi concentration camp</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Bergen-Belsen" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Bergen-Belsen (disambiguation)">Bergen-Belsen (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org">Bergen-Belsen</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi concentration camp">Nazi concentration camp</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4711_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4711_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4711_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4711_%28cropped%29.jpg/338px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4711_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4711_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4711_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1324" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">View of the camp after liberation</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:240px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:240px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:240px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:German_Empire_1937_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is located in Germany"><img alt="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is located in Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/German_Empire_1937_adm_location_map.svg/240px-German_Empire_1937_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/German_Empire_1937_adm_location_map.svg/360px-German_Empire_1937_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/German_Empire_1937_adm_location_map.svg/480px-German_Empire_1937_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="1133" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:36.843%;left:24.903%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp"><img alt="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Location of Bergen-Belsen within Germany</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp&params=52_45_28_N_9_54_28_E_type:landmark_region:DE-NI"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">52°45′28″N</span> <span class="longitude">9°54′28″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">52.75778°N 9.90778°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">52.75778; 9.90778</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Germany" title="Northern Germany">Northern Germany</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Operated by</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS-Totenkopfverbände</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Commandant</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adolf_Haas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adolf Haas (page does not exist)">Adolf Haas</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Haas_(KZ-Kommandant)" class="extiw" title="de:Adolf Haas (KZ-Kommandant)">de</a>]</span> (April 1943 – December 2, 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Kramer" title="Josef Kramer">Josef Kramer</a> (December 2, 1944 – April 15, 1945)</li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Original use</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp" title="Prisoner-of-war camp">Prisoner-of-war camp</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Operational</th><td class="infobox-data">1940–1945</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Inmates</th><td class="infobox-data">Jews, Poles, Soviets, Dutch, Czechs, Germans, Austrians</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Number of inmates</th><td class="infobox-data">120,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Killed</th><td class="infobox-data">70,000 or more</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Liberated by</th><td class="infobox-data">United Kingdom and Canada, April 15, 1945</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable inmates</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margot_Frank" title="Margot Frank">Margot Frank</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/">bergen-belsen<wbr />.stiftung-ng<wbr />.de<wbr />/en<wbr />/</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Bergen-Belsen</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈbɛʁɡn̩ˌbɛlsn̩]</a></span>), or <b>Belsen</b>, was a <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi concentration camp">Nazi concentration camp</a> in what is today <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Germany" title="Northern Germany">northern</a> <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, southwest of the town of <a href="/wiki/Bergen,_Lower_Saxony" title="Bergen, Lower Saxony">Bergen</a> near <a href="/wiki/Celle" title="Celle">Celle</a>. Originally established as a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoner of war camp">prisoner of war camp</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1943, parts of it became a concentration camp. Initially this was an "exchange camp", where <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish people">Jewish</a> hostages were held with the intention of exchanging them for German prisoners of war held overseas.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The camp was later expanded to hold Jews from other concentration camps. </p><p>After 1945, the name was applied to the <a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_DP_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergen-Belsen DP camp">displaced persons camp</a> established nearby, but it is most commonly associated with the concentration camp. From 1941 to 1945, almost 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> and a further 50,000 inmates died there.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppenheimer_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppenheimer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overcrowding, lack of food, and poor sanitary conditions caused outbreaks of <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>; leading to the deaths of more than 35,000 people in the first few months of 1945, shortly before and after the liberation. </p><p>The camp was liberated on April 15, 1945, by the <a href="/wiki/11th_Armoured_Division_(United_Kingdom)" title="11th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)">British 11th Armoured Division</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11th_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11th-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soldiers discovered approximately 60,000 prisoners inside, most of them half-starved and seriously ill,<sup id="cite_ref-BB_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BB-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and another 13,000 corpses lying around the camp unburied.<sup id="cite_ref-11th_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11th-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A memorial with an exhibition hall currently stands at the site. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prisoner_of_war_camp">Prisoner of war camp</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bergen-Belsen_-_2018-02-26_(088).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Bergen-Belsen_-_2018-02-26_%28088%29.jpg/150px-Bergen-Belsen_-_2018-02-26_%28088%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Bergen-Belsen_-_2018-02-26_%28088%29.jpg/225px-Bergen-Belsen_-_2018-02-26_%28088%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Bergen-Belsen_-_2018-02-26_%28088%29.jpg/300px-Bergen-Belsen_-_2018-02-26_%28088%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3186" data-file-height="4500" /></a><figcaption>Memorial to Soviet prisoners of war</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> began to build a large military complex close to the village of <a href="/wiki/Belsen_(Bergen)" title="Belsen (Bergen)">Belsen</a>, a part of the town of Bergen, in what was then the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Hanover" title="Province of Hanover">Province of Hanover</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This became the largest military training area in Germany of the time and was used for armoured vehicle training.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The barracks were finished in 1937. The camp has been in continuous operation since then and is today known as <a href="/wiki/Bergen-Hohne_Training_Area" title="Bergen-Hohne Training Area">Bergen-Hohne Training Area</a>. It is used by the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> armed forces. </p><p>The workers who constructed the original buildings were housed in camps near <a href="/wiki/Fallingbostel" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallingbostel">Fallingbostel</a> and Bergen, the latter being the so-called Bergen-Belsen Army Construction Camp.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the military complex was completed in 1938–39, the workers' camp fell into disuse. However, after the <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of Poland">German invasion of Poland</a> in September 1939, the <i>Wehrmacht</i> began using the huts as a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoner of war</a> (POW) camp. </p><p>The camp of huts near Fallingbostel became known as <a href="/wiki/Stalag_XI-B" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalag XI-B">Stalag XI-B</a> and was to become one of the <i>Wehrmacht</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s largest POW camps, holding up to 95,000 prisoners from various countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1940, Belgian and French POWs were housed in the former Bergen-Belsen construction workers' camp. This installation was significantly expanded from June 1941, once Germany prepared to invade the Soviet Union, becoming an independent camp known as <a href="/wiki/Stalag_XI-C" title="Stalag XI-C">Stalag XI-C</a> (311). It was intended to hold up to 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> POWs and was one of three such camps in the area. The others were at <a href="/wiki/Oerbke" title="Oerbke">Oerbke</a> (Stalag XI-D (321)) and <a href="/wiki/Wietzendorf" title="Wietzendorf">Wietzendorf</a> (Stalag X-D (310)). By the end of March 1942, some 41,000 Soviet POWs had died in these three camps of starvation, exhaustion, and disease. By the end of the war, the total number of dead had increased to 50,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the POW camp in Bergen ceased operation in early 1945, as the <i>Wehrmacht</i> handed it over to the <a href="/wiki/SS" class="mw-redirect" title="SS">SS</a>, the cemetery contained over 19,500 dead Soviet prisoners. </p><p>In the summer of 1943, Stalag XI-C (311) was dissolved and Bergen-Belsen became a branch camp of Stalag XI-B. It served as the hospital for all Soviet POWs in the region until January 1945. Other inmates/patients were Italian military internees from August 1944 and, following the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a> in October 1944, around 1,000 members of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Home_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Home Army">Polish Home Army</a> were imprisoned in a separate section of the POW camp.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website2_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concentration_camp">Concentration camp</h3></div> <p>In April 1943, a part of the Bergen-Belsen camp was taken over by the SS Economic-Administration Main Office (<i>SS Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt; WVHA</i>). It thus became part of the <a href="/wiki/Concentration_camp" title="Concentration camp">concentration camp</a> system, run by the <i>SS <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a></i> but it was a special case.<sup id="cite_ref-USHMM_website_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USHMM_website-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having initially been designated a <i>Zivilinterniertenlager</i> ("civilian internment camp"), in June 1943 it was redesignated <i>Aufenthaltslager</i> ("holding camp"), since the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> stipulated that the former type of facility must be open to inspection by international committees.<sup id="cite_ref-Exhibition_guide_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Exhibition_guide-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This "holding camp" or "exchange camp" was for Jews who were intended to be exchanged for German civilians interned in other countries, or for hard currency.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SS divided this camp into subsections for individual groups (the "Hungarian camp", the "special camp" for Polish Jews, the "neutrals camp" for citizens of neutral countries and the "Star camp" for <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Dutch</a> Jews). Between the summer of 1943 and December 1944 at least 14,600 Jews, including 2,750 minors were transported to the Bergen-Belsen "holding" or exchange camp.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 160">: 160 </span></sup> Inmates were made to work, many of them in the "shoe commando" which salvaged usable pieces of leather from shoes collected and brought to the camp from all over Germany and occupied Europe. In general the prisoners of this part of the camp were treated less harshly than some other classes of Bergen-Belsen prisoner until fairly late in the war, due to their perceived potential exchange value.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website3_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, only around 2,560 Jewish prisoners were ever actually released from Bergen-Belsen and allowed to leave Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website3_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 1944, part of the camp was redesignated as an <i>Erholungslager</i> ("recovery camp"),<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> where prisoners too sick to work were brought from other concentration camps. They were in Belsen supposedly to recover and then return to their original camps and resume work, but many of them died in Belsen of disease, starvation, exhaustion and lack of medical attention.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website4_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1944, a new section was created and this became the so-called "women's camp". By November 1944 this camp received around 9,000 women and young girls. Most of those who were able to work stayed only for a short while and were then sent on to other concentration camps or slave-labour camps. The first women interned there were Poles, arrested after the failed Warsaw Uprising. Others were Jewish women from Poland or Hungary, transferred from Auschwitz.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website4_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Margot_Frank" title="Margot Frank">Margot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a> died there in February or March 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-DeathResearch_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeathResearch-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="More_prisoners">More prisoners</h3></div> <p>In December 1944 <i>SS-<a href="/wiki/Hauptsturmf%C3%BChrer" title="Hauptsturmführer">Hauptsturmführer</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Josef_Kramer" title="Josef Kramer">Josef Kramer</a>, previously at <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz-Birkenau" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz-Birkenau">Auschwitz-Birkenau</a>, became the new camp commandant, replacing <i>SS-Hauptsturmführer</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adolf_Haas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adolf Haas (page does not exist)">Adolf Haas</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Haas_(KZ-Kommandant)" class="extiw" title="de:Adolf Haas (KZ-Kommandant)">de</a>]</span>, who had been in post since the spring of 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-USHMM_website_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USHMM_website-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 1945, the SS took over the POW hospital and increased the size of Bergen-Belsen. As eastern concentration camps were evacuated before the advance of the Red Army, at least 85,000 people were transported in cattle cars or marched to Bergen-Belsen.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website5a_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website5a-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before that the number of prisoners at Belsen had been much smaller. In July 1944 there were 7,300; by December 1944 the number had increased to 15,000; and by February 1945 it had risen to 22,000. Numbers then soared to around 60,000 by April 15, 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-USHMM_website_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USHMM_website-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This overcrowding led to a vast increase in deaths from disease: particularly <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> in a camp originally designed to hold about 10,000 inmates. At this point also, the special status of the exchange prisoners no longer applied. All inmates were subject to starvation and epidemics.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website5a_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website5a-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Außenlager_(satellite_camps)"><span id="Au.C3.9Fenlager_.28satellite_camps.29"></span><i>Außenlager</i> (satellite camps)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Bergen-Belsen" title="List of subcamps of Bergen-Belsen">List of subcamps of Bergen-Belsen</a></div> <p>Bergen-Belsen concentration camp had three satellite camps.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were at regional armament works. Around 2,000 female concentration camp prisoners were forced to work there. Those who were too weak or sick to continue with their work were brought to Bergen-Belsen.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204–205">: 204–205 </span></sup> </p><p><i>Außenlager Bomlitz-Benefeld</i> at <a href="/wiki/Bomlitz" title="Bomlitz">Bomlitz</a> near <a href="/wiki/Fallingbostel" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallingbostel">Fallingbostel</a> was in use from September 3 to October 15, 1944. It was located at the facility of Eibia GmbH, a gunpowder works. Around 600 female Polish Jews were used for construction and production work.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> </p><p><i>Außenlager Hambühren-Ovelgönne</i> (Lager III, Waldeslust) at <a href="/wiki/Hamb%C3%BChren" title="Hambühren">Hambühren</a> south of <a href="/wiki/Winsen_an_der_Aller" title="Winsen an der Aller">Winsen</a> was in use from August 23, 1944, to February 4, 1945. It was an abandoned <a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a> mine, now intended as an underground production site for Bremen plane manufacturer <a href="/wiki/Focke-Wulf" title="Focke-Wulf">Focke-Wulf</a>. Around 400 prisoners, mostly female Polish or Hungarian Jews, were forced to prepare the facility and to help lay train tracks to it. This was done for the company <a href="/wiki/Hochtief" title="Hochtief">Hochtief</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> </p><p><i>Außenlager Unterlüß-Altensothrieth</i> (Tannenberglager) east of Bergen was in use from late August 1944 to April 13, 1945. It was located at <a href="/wiki/Unterl%C3%BC%C3%9F" title="Unterlüß">Unterlüß</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Rheinmetall" title="Rheinmetall">Rheinmetall-Borsig AG</a> had a large test site. Up to 900 female Polish, Hungarian, Romanian, Yugoslavian and Czech Jews had to clear forest, do construction work or work in munitions production.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> </p><p>Prisoners were guarded by SS staff and received no wages for their work. The companies instead reimbursed the SS for the labour supplied. Wage taxes were also levied by local authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204–205">: 204–205 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment_of_prisoners_and_deaths_in_the_camp">Treatment of prisoners and deaths in the camp</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4004.jpg/220px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4004.jpg/330px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4004.jpg/440px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="796" /></a><figcaption>Bergen Belsen crematorium in April 1945</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_03.jpg/220px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_03.jpg/330px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_03.jpg/440px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="775" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Bulldozer" title="Bulldozer">bulldozer</a> pushes dead bodies into a <a href="/wiki/Mass_grave" title="Mass grave">mass grave</a> at Belsen, April 19, 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>Current estimates put the number of prisoners who passed through the concentration camp during its period of operation from 1943 to 1945 at around 120,000. Due to the destruction of the camp's files by the SS, not even half of them, around 55,000, are known by name.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 269">: 269 </span></sup> As mentioned above, treatment of prisoners by the SS varied between individual sections of the camp, with the inmates of the exchange camp generally being better treated than other prisoners, at least initially. However, in October 1943 the SS selected 1,800 men and women from the <i>Sonderlager</i> ("special camp"), Jews from Poland who held passports from Latin American countries. Since the governments of these nations mostly refused to honour the passports, these people had lost their value to the regime. Under the pretext of sending them to a fictitious "Lager Bergau", the SS had them transported to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where they were sent directly to the gas chambers and murdered. In February and May 1944 another 350 prisoners from the "special camp" were sent to Auschwitz. Thus, out of the total of 14,600 prisoners in the exchange camp, at least 3,550 died, more than 1,400 of them at Belsen, and around 2,150 at Auschwitz.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 187">: 187 </span></sup> </p><p>In the <i>Männerlager</i> (the male section of the "recovery camp"), inmates suffered even more from lack of care, malnourishment, disease and mistreatment by the guards. Thousands of them died. In the summer of 1944, at least 200 men were murdered by orders of the SS by being injected with <a href="/wiki/Phenol" title="Phenol">phenol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 196">: 196 </span></sup> </p><p>There were no <a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber#Germany" title="Gas chamber">gas chambers</a> at Bergen-Belsen, since the mass-murders took place in the camps further east. Nevertheless, current estimates put the number of deaths at Belsen at more than 50,000 <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech people">Czechs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a>, anti-Nazi <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexual">homosexuals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Roma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sinti" title="Sinti">Sinti</a> (Gypsies).<sup id="cite_ref-USHMM_website_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USHMM_website-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among them were <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a> member <a href="/wiki/Jean_Maurice_Paul_Jules_de_Noailles" title="Jean Maurice Paul Jules de Noailles">Jean Maurice Paul Jules de Noailles</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Ayen" title="Duke of Ayen">6th Duke of Ayen</a> (on April 14, 1945),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Czech painter and writer <a href="/wiki/Josef_%C4%8Capek" title="Josef Čapek">Josef Čapek</a> (estimated to be in April 1945), who had coined the word <i><a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robot</a></i>, popularised by his brother <a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Karel Čapek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rate at which inmates died at Belsen accelerated notably after the mass transport of prisoners from other camps began in December 1944. From 1943 to the end of 1944 around 3,100 died. From January to mid-April 1945 this rose to around 35,000. Another 14,000 died after liberation between April 15 and the end of June 1945, in the <a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_displaced_persons_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp">Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp</a> under British authority.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 233">: 233 </span></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3"><b>Deaths at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp</b><br /> December 1944 to April 15, 1945<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 232–233">: 232–233 </span></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>December 1944 </td> <td>at least 360 </td></tr> <tr> <td>January 1945 </td> <td>around 1,200 </td></tr> <tr> <td>February 1945 </td> <td>around 6,400 </td></tr> <tr> <td>March 1945 </td> <td>at least 18,168 </td></tr> <tr> <td>April 1945 </td> <td>around 10,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>After the war, there were allegations that the camp (or possibly a section of it), was "of a privileged nature", compared to others. A lawsuit filed by the Jewish community in <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> against 55 alleged collaborators claims that 53 of them were sent to Bergen-Belsen "as a special favor" granted by the Germans.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liberation">Liberation</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4068.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4068.jpg/220px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4068.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4068.jpg/330px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4068.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4068.jpg/440px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4068.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>British and German officers finalize the arrangements for the ending of their temporary truce, April 1945</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4274.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4274.jpg/220px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4274.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4274.jpg/330px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4274.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4274.jpg/440px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4274.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Women survivors in Bergen-Belsen, April 1945</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_01.jpg/220px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_01.jpg/330px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_01.jpg/440px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>Former guards are made to load the bodies of dead prisoners onto a truck for burial, April 17–18, 1945</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_05.jpg/220px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_05.jpg/330px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_05.jpg/440px-Bergen_Belsen_Liberation_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="766" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Some of the 60 tables, each staffed by two German doctors and two German nurses, at which the sick were washed and deloused, May 1–4, 1945</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mass_Grave_3_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Mass_Grave_3_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp.jpg/220px-Mass_Grave_3_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Mass_Grave_3_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp.jpg/330px-Mass_Grave_3_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Mass_Grave_3_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp.jpg/440px-Mass_Grave_3_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Klein_(Nazi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fritz Klein (Nazi)">Fritz Klein</a> stands amongst corpses in Mass Grave 3</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_May_1945_BU6674.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_May_1945_BU6674.jpg/220px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_May_1945_BU6674.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_May_1945_BU6674.jpg/330px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_May_1945_BU6674.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_May_1945_BU6674.jpg/440px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_May_1945_BU6674.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A crowd watches the destruction of the last camp hut</figcaption></figure> <p>When the British and Canadians advanced on Bergen-Belsen in 1945, the German army negotiated a truce and exclusion zone around the camp to prevent the spread of typhus.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 11, 1945 <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a> (the <i>Reichsführer SS</i>) agreed to have the camp handed over without a fight. SS guards ordered prisoners to bury some of the dead. The next day, <i>Wehrmacht</i> representatives approached the British, D Squadron of the <a href="/wiki/Inns_of_Court_Regiment" title="Inns of Court Regiment">Inns of Court Regiment</a>, at the bridge at <a href="/wiki/Winsen_(Aller)" class="mw-redirect" title="Winsen (Aller)">Winsen</a> and were brought to <a href="/wiki/VIII_Corps_(United_Kingdom)" title="VIII Corps (United Kingdom)">VIII Corps</a>. At around 1 a.m. on April 13, an agreement was signed, designating an area of 48 square kilometers (19 square miles) around the camp as a neutral zone.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the SS were allowed to leave. Only a small number of SS men and women, including the camp commandant Kramer, remained to "uphold order inside the camp". The outside was guarded by Hungarian and regular German troops who were returned to the German front lines by the British shortly afterwards. Due to heavy fighting near <a href="/wiki/Winsen_an_der_Aller" title="Winsen an der Aller">Winsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walle_(Winsen)" title="Walle (Winsen)">Walle</a>, the British were unable to reach Bergen-Belsen on April 14, as originally planned. The camp was liberated on the afternoon of April 15, 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 253">: 253 </span></sup> The first two to reach the camp were a British <a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service" title="Special Air Service">Special Air Service</a> officer, Lieutenant John Randall, and his jeep driver, who were on a reconnaissance mission and discovered the camp by chance.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American soldiers attached to the British forces also helped liberate the camp.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When British and Canadian troops finally entered they found over 13,000 unburied bodies and (including the satellite camps) around 60,000 inmates, most acutely sick and starving. The prisoners had been without food or water for days before the Allied arrival, partially due to Allied bombing. Immediately before and after liberation, prisoners were dying at around 500 per day, mostly from typhus.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scenes that greeted British troops were described by the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dimbleby" title="Richard Dimbleby">Richard Dimbleby</a>, who accompanied them: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...Here over an acre of ground lay dead and dying people. You could not see which was which... The living lay with their heads against the corpses and around them moved the awful, ghostly procession of emaciated, aimless people, with nothing to do and with no hope of life, unable to move out of your way, unable to look at the terrible sights around them ... Babies had been born here, tiny wizened things that could not live ... A mother, driven mad, screamed at a British sentry to give her milk for her child, and thrust the tiny mite into his arms, then ran off, crying terribly. He opened the bundle and found the baby had been dead for days. This day at Belsen was the most horrible of my life.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Initially lacking sufficient manpower, the British allowed the Hungarians to remain in charge and only commandant Kramer was arrested. Subsequently, SS and Hungarian guards shot and killed some of the starving prisoners who were trying to get their hands on food supplies from the store houses.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British started to provide emergency medical care, clothing and food. Immediately following the liberation, revenge killings took place in the satellite camp the SS had created in the area of the army barracks that later became Hohne-Camp. Around 15,000 prisoners from <a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora" class="mw-redirect" title="Mittelbau-Dora">Mittelbau-Dora</a> had been relocated there in early April. These prisoners were in much better physical condition than most of the others. Some of these men turned on those who had been their overseers at Mittelbau. About 170 of these "<a href="/wiki/Kapo_(concentration_camp)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kapo (concentration camp)">Kapos</a>" were killed on April 15, 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 62">: 62 </span></sup> On April 20, four German fighter planes attacked the camp, damaging the water supply and killing three British medical orderlies.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 261">: 261 </span></sup> </p><p>Over the next days the surviving prisoners were deloused and moved to a nearby German <a href="/wiki/Panzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Panzer">Panzer</a> army camp, which became the <a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_displaced_persons_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp">Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp</a>. Over a period of four weeks, almost 29,000 of the survivors were moved to the <a href="/wiki/Displaced_persons_camps_in_post-World_War_II_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Displaced persons camps in post-World War II Europe">displaced persons (DP) camp</a>. Before the handover, the SS had managed to destroy the camp's administrative files, thereby eradicating most written evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website5_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British forced the former SS camp personnel to help bury the thousands of dead bodies in mass graves.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website5_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The personnel were given starvation rations, not allowed to use gloves or other protective clothing, and were continuously shouted at and threatened to make sure that they did not stop working. Some of the bodies were so rotten that arms and legs tore away from the torso.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within two months, 17 staff members had died of typhus due to being forced to handle the bodies with no protection. Another committed suicide, and three others were shot and killed by British soldiers after trying to escape.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some civil servants from Celle and <i><a href="/wiki/Landkreis_Celle" class="mw-redirect" title="Landkreis Celle">Landkreis Celle</a></i> were brought to Belsen and confronted with the crimes committed on their doorstep.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 262">: 262 </span></sup> Military photographers and cameramen of No. 5 <a href="/wiki/Army_Film_and_Photographic_Unit" title="Army Film and Photographic Unit">Army Film and Photographic Unit</a> documented the conditions in the camp and the measures of the British Army to ameliorate them. Many of the pictures they took and the films they made from April 15 to June 9, 1945, were published or shown abroad. Today, the originals are in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum" title="Imperial War Museum">Imperial War Museum</a>. These documents had a lasting impact on the international perception and memory of Nazi concentration camps to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243">: 243 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website5_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Habbo Knoch, head of the institution that runs the memorial today: "Bergen-Belsen [...] became a synonym world-wide for German crimes committed during the time of Nazi rule."<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup> </p><p>Bergen-Belsen concentration camp was then burned to the ground by <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrowing</a> <a href="/wiki/Universal_Carrier" title="Universal Carrier">"Bren gun" carriers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Churchill_Crocodile" title="Churchill Crocodile">Churchill Crocodile</a> tanks because of the <a href="/wiki/Epidemic_typhus" title="Epidemic typhus">typhus epidemic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louse" title="Louse">louse</a> infestation.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the concentration camp ceased to exist at this point, the name Belsen after this time refers to events at the Bergen-Belsen DP camp.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 265">: 265 </span></sup> </p><p>There were massive efforts to help the survivors with food and medical treatment, led by Brigadier <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Llewellyn_Glyn_Hughes" title="Hugh Llewellyn Glyn Hughes">Glyn Hughes</a>, deputy director of Medical Services of 2nd Army, and <a href="/wiki/James_Johnston_(British_Army_medical_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Johnston (British Army medical officer)">James Johnston</a>, the Senior Medical Officer. Despite their efforts, about another 9,000 died in April, and by the end of June 1945 another 4,000 had died. (After liberation 13,994 people died.)<sup id="cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 305">: 305 </span></sup> </p><p>Two specialist teams were dispatched from Britain to deal with the feeding problem. The first, led by <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Peter_Meiklejohn" title="Arnold Peter Meiklejohn">A. P. Meiklejohn</a>, included <a href="/wiki/London_medical_students_at_Belsen" class="mw-redirect" title="London medical students at Belsen">96 medical student volunteers</a> from London teaching hospitals<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who were later credited with significantly reducing the death rate amongst prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A research team led by <a href="/wiki/Janet_Vaughan" title="Janet Vaughan">Janet Vaughan</a> was dispatched by the <a href="/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(United_Kingdom)" title="Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)">Medical Research Council</a> to test the effectiveness of various feeding regimes. </p><p>The British troops and medical staff tried these diets to feed the prisoners, in this order:<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bully_beef" title="Bully beef">Bully beef</a> from Army rations. Most of the prisoners' digestive systems were in too weak a state from long-term starvation to handle such food.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skimmed_milk" title="Skimmed milk">Skimmed milk</a>. The result was a bit better, but still far from acceptable.</li> <li>Bengal Famine Mixture. This is a rice-and-sugar-based mixture which had achieved good results after the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a>, but it proved less suitable to Europeans than to Bengalis because of the differences in the food to which they were accustomed.<sup id="cite_ref-Riley143_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riley143-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adding the common ingredient <a href="/wiki/Paprika" title="Paprika">paprika</a> to the mixture made it more palatable to these people and recovery started.</li></ul> <p>Some were too weak to even consume the Bengal Famine Mixture. <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous feeding">Intravenous feeding</a> was attempted but abandoned. SS doctors had previously used injections to murder prisoners, so some panicked at the sight of the intravenous feeding equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-Riley143_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riley143-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_prosecution">Legal prosecution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belsen_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Belsen trial">Belsen trial</a></div> <p>Many of the former SS staff who survived the typhus epidemic were tried by the British military at the <a href="/wiki/Belsen_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Belsen trial">Belsen trial</a>. Over the period in which Bergen-Belsen operated as a concentration camp, at least 480 people had worked as guards or members of the commandant's staff, including around 45 women.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website7_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website7-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From September 17 to November 17, 1945, 45 of those were tried by a military tribunal in Lüneburg. They included former commandant Josef Kramer, 16 other SS male members, 16 female SS guards and 12 former kapos (one of whom became ill during the trial).<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website8-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among them were <a href="/wiki/Irma_Grese" title="Irma Grese">Irma Grese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Volkenrath" title="Elisabeth Volkenrath">Elisabeth Volkenrath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herta_Ehlert" title="Herta Ehlert">Hertha Ehlert</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ilse_Lothe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ilse Lothe (page does not exist)">Ilse Lothe</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilse_Lothe" class="extiw" title="de:Ilse Lothe">de</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Juana_Bormann" title="Juana Bormann">Johanna Bormann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Klein" title="Fritz Klein">Fritz Klein</a>. Many of the defendants were not just charged with crimes committed at Belsen but also earlier ones at Auschwitz. Their activities at other concentration camps such as <a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora" class="mw-redirect" title="Mittelbau-Dora">Mittelbau-Dora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck" class="mw-redirect" title="Ravensbrück">Ravensbrück</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuengamme_concentration_camp" title="Neuengamme concentration camp">Neuengamme</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gross_Rosen" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Rosen">Gross Rosen</a> subcamps at <a href="/wiki/Neusalz" class="mw-redirect" title="Neusalz">Neusalz</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Langenleuba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Langenleuba (page does not exist)">Langenleuba</a>, and the Mittelbau-Dora subcamp at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gross_Werther&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gross Werther (page does not exist)">Gross Werther</a> were not subject of the trial. It was based on British military law and the charges were thus limited to war crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website8-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Substantial media coverage of the trial provided the German and international public with detailed information on the mass killings at Belsen as well as on the gas chambers of Auschwitz-Birkenau.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website8-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eleven of the defendants were sentenced to death.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website8-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They included Kramer, Volkenrath and Klein. The executions by hanging took place on December 13, 1945, in Hamelin.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website8-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fourteen defendants were acquitted (one was excluded from the trial due to illness). Of the remaining 19, one was sentenced to life in prison but he was executed for another crime. Eighteen were sentenced to prison for periods of one to 15 years; however, most of these sentences were subsequently reduced significantly on appeals or pleas for clemency.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website8-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By June 1955, the last of those sentenced in the Belsen trial had been released.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37">: 37 </span></sup> Ten other members of the Belsen personnel were tried by later military tribunals in 1946 and 1948, with five of them being executed.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website8-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a> courts were created by the Allies to try members of the SS and other Nazi organisations. Between 1947 and 1949 these courts initiated proceedings against at least 46 former SS staff at Belsen. Around half of these were discontinued, mostly because the defendants were considered to have been forced to join the SS.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39">: 39 </span></sup> Those who were sentenced received prison terms of between four and 36 months or were fined. As the judges decided to count the time the defendants had spent in Allied internment towards the sentence, the terms were considered to have already been fully served.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website9_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website9-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only one trial was ever held by a German court for crimes committed at Belsen, at Jena in 1949; the defendant was acquitted. More than 200 other SS members who were at Belsen have been known by name but never had to stand trial.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website9_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website9-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No German soldier was ever put on trial for crimes committed against the inmates of the POW camps at Bergen-Belsen, albeit some were tried for participating in death marches headed towards Bergen-Belsen and in the region around it,<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website7_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website7-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite the fact that the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_at_Nuremberg" class="mw-redirect" title="International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg">International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg</a> had found in 1946 that the treatment of Soviet POWs by the <i>Wehrmacht</i> constituted a war crime.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39">: 39 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memorial">Memorial</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Denkmal_Rampe_Bergen_Belsen_IMGP4318_wp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Denkmal_Rampe_Bergen_Belsen_IMGP4318_wp.jpg/220px-Denkmal_Rampe_Bergen_Belsen_IMGP4318_wp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Denkmal_Rampe_Bergen_Belsen_IMGP4318_wp.jpg/330px-Denkmal_Rampe_Bergen_Belsen_IMGP4318_wp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Denkmal_Rampe_Bergen_Belsen_IMGP4318_wp.jpg/440px-Denkmal_Rampe_Bergen_Belsen_IMGP4318_wp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1993" /></a><figcaption>Memorial on the ramp where prisoners arrived</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anne_frank_memorial_bergen_belsen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A Memorial for Margot and Anne Frank shows a Star of David and the full names and birthdates and year of death of each of the sisters, in white lettering on a large black stone. The stone sits alone in a grassy field, and the ground beneath the stone is covered with floral tributes and photographs of Anne Frank" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Anne_frank_memorial_bergen_belsen.jpg/220px-Anne_frank_memorial_bergen_belsen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Anne_frank_memorial_bergen_belsen.jpg/330px-Anne_frank_memorial_bergen_belsen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Anne_frank_memorial_bergen_belsen.jpg/440px-Anne_frank_memorial_bergen_belsen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Memorial for <a href="/wiki/Margot_Frank" title="Margot Frank">Margot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a> at the Bergen-Belsen site</figcaption></figure> <p>The area of the former Bergen-Belsen camp fell into neglect after the burning of the buildings and the closure of the nearby displaced persons' camp in the summer of 1950. The area reverted to heath; few traces of the camp remained. However, as early as May 1945, the British had erected large signs at the former camp site. Ex-prisoners began to set up monuments.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website6_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website6-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A first wooden memorial was built by Jewish DPs in September 1945, followed by one made in stone, dedicated on the first anniversary of the liberation in 1946. On November 2, 1945, a large wooden cross was dedicated as a memorial to the murdered Polish prisoners. Also by the end of 1945 the Soviets had built a memorial at the entrance to the POW cemetery. A memorial to the Italian POWs followed in 1950, but was removed when the bodies were reinterred in a Hamburg cemetery. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mass_grave_at_Bergen-Belsen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mass_grave_at_Bergen-Belsen.jpg/220px-Mass_grave_at_Bergen-Belsen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mass_grave_at_Bergen-Belsen.jpg/330px-Mass_grave_at_Bergen-Belsen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mass_grave_at_Bergen-Belsen.jpg/440px-Mass_grave_at_Bergen-Belsen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>One of several mass graves on the site of the former camp; the sign simply reads: '"Here lie 5,000 dead. April 1945"</figcaption></figure> <p>The British military authorities ordered the construction of a permanent memorial in September 1945 after having been lambasted by the press for the desolate state of the camp.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41">: 41 </span></sup> In the summer of 1946, a commission presented the design plan, which included the obelisk and memorial walls. The memorial was finally inaugurated in a large ceremony in November 1952, with the participation of Germany's president <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Heuss" title="Theodor Heuss">Theodor Heuss</a>, who called on the Germans never to forget what had happened at Belsen.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41">: 41 </span></sup> </p><p>For a long time, however, remembering Bergen-Belsen was not a political priority. Periods of attention were followed by long phases of official neglect. For much of the 1950s, Belsen "was increasingly forgotten as a place of remembrance".<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website6_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website6-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only after 1957 did large groups of young people visit the place where Anne Frank had died. After anti-Semitic graffiti was scrawled on the Cologne synagogue over Christmas 1959, German chancellor <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> followed a suggestion by <a href="/wiki/Nahum_Goldmann" title="Nahum Goldmann">Nahum Goldmann</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/World_Jewish_Congress" title="World Jewish Congress">World Jewish Congress</a>, and visited the site of a former concentration camp for the first time. In a speech at the Bergen-Belsen memorial, Adenauer assured the Jews still living in Germany that they would have the same respect and security as everyone else.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 42">: 42 </span></sup> Afterwards, the German public saw the Belsen memorial as primarily a Jewish place of remembrance. Nevertheless, the memorial was redesigned in 1960–61. In 1966, a document centre was opened which offered a permanent exhibition on the persecution of the Jews, with a focus on events in the nearby Netherlands – where Anne Frank and her family had been arrested in 1944. This was complemented by an overview of the history of the Bergen-Belsen camp. This was the first ever permanent exhibit anywhere in Germany on the topic of Nazi crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 42">: 42 </span></sup> However, there was still no scientific personnel at the site, with only a caretaker as permanent staff. Memorial events were only organized by the survivors themselves. </p><p>In October 1979, the president of the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> <a href="/wiki/Simone_Veil" title="Simone Veil">Simone Veil</a>, herself a survivor of Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen, came to the memorial for a speech which focused on the Nazi persecution of Roma and Sinti. This was the first time that an official event in Germany acknowledged this aspect of the Nazi era. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm/200px--President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="147" data-durationhint="641" data-mwtitle="President_Reagan's_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany,_May_5,_1985.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany,_May_5,_1985.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c7/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="654" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="654" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c7/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="196" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c7/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="328" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c7/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="490" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c7/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm/President_Reagan%27s_remarks_at_Bergen-Belsen_Concentration_Camp_in_West_Germany%2C_May_5%2C_1985.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="490" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>President Reagan's remarks at Bergen-Belsen Concentration Camp in West Germany, May 5, 1985</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1985, international attention was focused on Bergen-Belsen.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The camp was hastily included in <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>'s itinerary when he visited West Germany after a controversy about a visit to a cemetery where the interred included members of the <i>Waffen SS</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Bitburg_controversy" title="Bitburg controversy">Bitburg controversy</a>). Shortly before Reagan's visit on May 5, there had been a large memorial event on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the camp's liberation, which had been attended by German president <a href="/wiki/Richard_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker" title="Richard von Weizsäcker">Richard von Weizsäcker</a> and chancellor <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 44">: 44 </span></sup> In the aftermath of these events, the parliament of Lower Saxony decided to expand the exhibition centre and to hire permanent scientific staff. In 1990, the permanent exhibition was replaced by a new version and a larger document building was opened. </p><p>Only in 2000 did the Federal Government of Germany begin to financially support the memorial. Co-financed by the state of Lower Saxony, a complete redesign was planned which was intended to be more in line with contemporary thought on exhibition design.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 15, 2005, there was a ceremony, commemorating the 60th anniversary of the liberation and many ex-prisoners and ex-liberating troops attended.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 2007, the redesigned memorial site was opened, including a large new Documentation Centre and permanent exhibition on the edge of the newly redefined camp, whose structure and layout can now be traced. Since 2009, the memorial has been receiving funding from the Federal government on an ongoing basis.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_website10_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial_website10-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_Memorial_at_Bergen-Belsen.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Jewish_Memorial_at_Bergen-Belsen.JPG/220px-Jewish_Memorial_at_Bergen-Belsen.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Jewish_Memorial_at_Bergen-Belsen.JPG/330px-Jewish_Memorial_at_Bergen-Belsen.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Jewish_Memorial_at_Bergen-Belsen.JPG/440px-Jewish_Memorial_at_Bergen-Belsen.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The Jewish Memorial at the site of the former camp, decorated with wreaths on Liberation Day, April 15, 2012</figcaption></figure> <p>The site is open to the public and includes monuments to the dead, including a successor to the wooden cross of 1945, some individual memorial stones and a "House of Silence" for reflection. In addition to the Jewish, Polish and Dutch national memorials, a memorial to eight Turkish citizens who were killed at Belsen was dedicated in December 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_accounts">Personal accounts</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4195.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg/220px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg/330px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg/440px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>The liberation of Bergen-Belsen, April 1945</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4026.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4026.jpg/220px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4026.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4026.jpg/330px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4026.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4026.jpg/440px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4026.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>Liberated women inmates gaze at the naked body of a woman who died of starvation</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The British comedian <a href="/wiki/Michael_Bentine" title="Michael Bentine">Michael Bentine</a>, who took part in the liberation of the camp, wrote this on his encounter with Belsen:</li></ul> <blockquote><p>Millions of words have been written about these horror camps, many of them by inmates of those unbelievable places. I've tried, without success, to describe it from my own point of view, but the words won't come. To me Belsen was the ultimate blasphemy.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <ul><li><i>Memories of Anne Frank</i>, a book written by Alison Leslie Gold on the recollections of Hannah Goslar, a friend of <a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mervin_Willett_Gonin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mervin Willett Gonin (page does not exist)">Mervin Willett Gonin</a> <a href="/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Order" title="Distinguished Service Order">DSO</a> wrote about the immediate aftermath to the liberation of Bergen-Belsen in his diary.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (April 2013)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Hardman" title="Leslie Hardman">Leslie Hardman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Army_Chaplains%27_Department" title="Royal Army Chaplains' Department">British Army Chaplain</a>, was the first <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_Chaplain" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Chaplain">chaplain</a> to enter the camp, two days after its liberation, and published his account in the collective book <i>Belsen in History and Memory</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Memory_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memory-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <i><a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_1945:_A_Medical_Student%27s_Journal" title="Bergen-Belsen 1945: A Medical Student's Journal">Bergen-Belsen 1945: A Medical Student's Journal</a></i>, volunteer <a href="/wiki/Michael_Hargrave" title="Michael Hargrave">Michael Hargrave</a> gives his first-hand testimony of working at the displaced persons camp after liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anita_Lasker-Wallfisch" title="Anita Lasker-Wallfisch">Anita Lasker-Wallfisch</a> describes life in Belsen, its liberation and her stay at the <a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_DP_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergen-Belsen DP camp">displaced persons camp</a> in her autobiography <i>Inherit the Truth</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-HMDT_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMDT-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaul_Ladany" title="Shaul Ladany">Shaul Ladany</a>, who was in the camp as an 8-year-old and later survived the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Munich Massacre">Munich Massacre</a> at the 1972 Summer Olympics recalled:</li></ul> <blockquote><p>I saw my father beaten by the SS, and I lost most of my family there... A ransom deal that the Americans attempted saved 2,000 Jews and I was one. I actually went into the gas chamber, but was reprieved. God knows why.<sup id="cite_ref-sports-reference1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sports-reference1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <ul><li>In his book <i>From Belsen to Buckingham Palace</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Oppenheimer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Oppenheimer (page does not exist)">Paul Oppenheimer</a> tells of the events leading up to the internment of his whole family at the camp and their incarceration there between February 1944 and April 1945, when he was aged 14–15.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppenheimer_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppenheimer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following publication of the book, Oppenheimer personally talked to many groups and schools about the events he witnessed. This work was continued by his brother Rudi, who shared the experiences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Webb_(veteran)" title="Leonard Webb (veteran)">Leonard Webb</a>, British veteran from the liberation of the camp.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Describing the concentration camp, Major Dick Williams, one of the first British soldiers to enter and liberate the camp, said: "It was an evil, filthy place; a hell on Earth."<sup id="cite_ref-scotsman1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scotsman1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abel_Herzberg" title="Abel Herzberg">Abel Herzberg</a> wrote the diary <i>Between Two Streams</i> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Tweestromenland</i>) during his internment in Bergen-Belsen<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>British servicemen <a href="/wiki/Denis_Norden" title="Denis Norden">Denis Norden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Sykes" title="Eric Sykes">Eric Sykes</a>, who later became popular comedians, stumbled upon the camp in 1945 shortly after liberation; "Appalled, aghast, repelled – it is difficult to find words to express how we felt as we looked upon the degradation of some of the inmates not yet repatriated," Sykes later wrote. "They squatted in their thin, striped uniforms, unmoving bony structures who could have been anywhere between 30 and 60 years old, staring ahead with dead, hopeless eyes and incapable of feeling any relief at their deliverance."<sup id="cite_ref-sykes_norden_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sykes_norden-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A number of British artists depicted the aftermath of the liberation of the camp. These included <a href="/wiki/Eric_Taylor_(artist)" title="Eric Taylor (artist)">Eric Taylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Cole_(artist)" title="Leslie Cole (artist)">Leslie Cole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doris_Zinkeisen" title="Doris Zinkeisen">Doris Zinkeisen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Kessell" title="Mary Kessell">Mary Kessell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Ainsworth_(artist)" title="Edgar Ainsworth (artist)">Edgar Ainsworth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Response_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Response-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In his 2011 autobiography <i>I Was a Boy in Belsen</i>, Holocaust survivor Tomi Reichental recounts his experiences as a prisoner in the Bergen- Belsen concentration camp.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>In The Dead Years - Holocaust Memoirs</i> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789492371164" title="Special:BookSources/9789492371164">9789492371164</a>), published by Amsterdam Publishers, survivor Joseph Schupack (1922-1989) tells about his last camp, Bergen-Belsen (pp. 173–174):</li> <li><i>And The Month Was May: A Memoir</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781440140846" title="Special:BookSources/9781440140846">9781440140846</a>) by Lilian Berliner The book traces the life of Lillian Berliner, from her childhood in Hungary, to the concentration camps of Auschwitz and Bergen Belsen, to her eventual liberation and resettlement in New York.</li></ul> <blockquote><p> After a day’s journey, we arrived at Bergen-Belsen. This concentration camp was hopelessly overcrowded and we were not accepted. The right hand no longer knew what the left hand was doing, so we were sent to an adjoining Wehrmacht compound. As the soldiers of the Wehrmacht marched out, we moved in. The confusion was unbelievable; this time it was disorder with German perfection. We were moved into clean barracks, equipped for human beings with excellent bathrooms and clean beds stacked three on top of each other. After all we had experienced in the preceding year, this was sheer luxury. There was no mention of the usual camp rituals, no roll calls and no work, but also no food.</p></blockquote> <ul><li>CMK Parsons, a British Army chaplain and great-grandfather of British artist <a href="/wiki/Tom_Marshall_(artist)" title="Tom Marshall (artist)">Tom Marshall</a> photographed his time at the camp, including the burning of the huts.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His photos were published in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Lieutenant Colonel Mervin Willett Gonin DSO<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <blockquote><p> It was shortly after the British Red Cross arrived, though it may have no connection, that a very large quantity of lipstick arrived. This was not at all what we men wanted, we were screaming for hundreds and thousands of other things and I don't know who asked for lipstick. I wish so much that I could discover who did it, it was the action of genius, sheer unadulterated brilliance. I believe nothing did more for those internees than the lipstick. Women lay in bed with no sheets and no nightie but with scarlet red lips, you saw them wandering about with nothing but a blanket over their shoulders, but with scarlet red lips. I saw a woman dead on the post mortem table and clutched in her hand was a piece of lipstick. At last someone had done something to make them individuals again, they were someone, no longer merely the number tattooed on the arm. At last they could take an interest in their appearance. That lipstick started to give them back their humanity.</p></blockquote> <ul><li><i>Belsen Uncovered</i> by Derrick Sington (1946)<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <blockquote><p> The twentieth century has so far produced no more terrifying example of collective human wickedness than the Belsen Concentration Camp, a black spot which it fell to the lot of the British Army to occupy. This book is the personal story of the first British officer to enter the camp on its liberation and the last to leave, after a stay of five months. The author and two of his N.C.O.'s between them spoke five languages, so they had unrivalled opportunities for discovering what the inmates, men, women and children, experienced and felt. The evil which produced the concentration camps is fully exposed, and here too will be found a record of how the psychological and medical problems were tackled, as well as such complicated matters as supplies, welfare and rehabilitation.</p></blockquote> <ul><li><i>Liberating Belsen Concentration Camp - A Personal Account</i> by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Berney" title="Leonard Berney">Leonard Berney</a> (former) Lt-Colonel Leonard Berney R.A. T.D. (2015)</li></ul> <blockquote><p> But what should you do when faced with 60,000 dead, sick and dying people? We were in the army to fight a war and to beat the enemy. We were good at that, having been in combat for the last ten months, but none of us had any experience of dealing with the situation in Belsen and we were all more or less traumatized by the sights we had seen. I myself, although a 'senior officer', had turned 25 years of age only a few days before. Most of the men sent to deal with that human disaster were in their late teens or early twenties, even younger than I was. What we suddenly found ourselves faced with was beyond anyone's comprehension</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media">Media</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:BergenBelsenHatikva.ogg" title="File:BergenBelsenHatikva.ogg">Vocal</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="88" data-mwtitle="BergenBelsenHatikva.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/BergenBelsenHatikva.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/BergenBelsenHatikva.ogg/BergenBelsenHatikva.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABergenBelsenHatikva.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description"><a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> recording from April 20, 1945 of Jewish survivors of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp singing <i><a href="/wiki/Hatikvah" title="Hatikvah">Hatikvah</a></i>, today the <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a> of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, only five days after their liberation by Allied forces. (The words sung are from the original poem by <a href="/wiki/Naftali_Herz_Imber" title="Naftali Herz Imber">Naftali Herz Imber</a>.)</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Relief_of_Belsen" title="The Relief of Belsen">The Relief of Belsen</a></i> (2007 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Frontline_(U.S._TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontline (U.S. TV series)">Frontline</a></i>: "Memory of the Camps" (May 7, 1985, Season 3, Episode 18), is a 56-minute television documentary that addresses Bergen-Belsen and other Nazi concentration camps<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memorandum_(film)" title="Memorandum (film)">Memorandum</a></i> (1965 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Night_Will_Fall" title="Night Will Fall">Night Will Fall</a></i> is a 2014 documentary film that includes video footage shot by British armed forces upon their liberation of Bergen-Belsen<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A protagonist in the novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_L%C3%BCneburg_Variation" title="The Lüneburg Variation">The Lüneburg Variation</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Maurensig" title="Paolo Maurensig">Paolo Maurensig</a> describes the deprivations he suffered at Bergen-Belsen, “…only then did I understand that we’d been playing for human lives, lives that in Bergen-Belsen were worth less than a pfennig, less than a handful of dried beans.’</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_inmates">Notable inmates</h2></div> <p>This list contains some of the notable people who were imprisoned in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. With the exception of those marked as survivors, they all died there. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Adler_(politician)" title="Julius Adler (politician)">Julius Adler</a> – a German Communist politician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Alexander" title="Eduard Alexander">Eduard Alexander</a> – a German Communist politician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Aronson" title="Alex Aronson">Alex Aronson</a> (survived) – a Dutch aid worker executed in Ba'athist Iraq</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmi_Baruh" title="Kalmi Baruh">Kalmi Baruh</a> – a <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of the Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnian Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">scholar</a> in the field of <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Spanish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Spanish language">Judeo-Spanish language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Berr" title="Hélène Berr">Hélène Berr</a> – a French woman of Jewish ancestry who documented her life in a diary during the time of Nazi occupation of France</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_de_Briey" title="Thierry de Briey">Thierry de Briey</a> – a Belgian <a href="/wiki/Equestrianism" title="Equestrianism">equestrian</a> and Belgian Resistance member</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Brodniewicz" title="Bruno Brodniewicz">Bruno Brodniewicz</a> – the first <a href="/wiki/Lager%C3%A4lteste" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagerälteste">Lagerälteste</a> (camp elder) of the Auschwitz concentration camp</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braulia_C%C3%A1novas" title="Braulia Cánovas">Braulia Cánovas</a> - (survived) Spanish Republican who fought in French Resistance as "Monique".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_%C4%8Capek" title="Josef Čapek">Josef Čapek</a> – a Czech artist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Dunois" title="Amédée Dunois">Amédée Dunois</a> – a French lawyer, journalist and politician</li> <li>Adrien d'Esclaibes d'Hust (see <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien_d%27Esclaibes_d%27Hust" class="extiw" title="fr:Adrien d'Esclaibes d'Hust">French article</a>) – French city mayor, lawyer, scout leader and resistant</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Flersheim" title="Ernst Flersheim">Ernst Flersheim</a> – a German Jewish art collector</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margot_Frank" title="Margot Frank">Margot Frank</a>, who both died of <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> there in February or March 1945, shortly before the camp was liberated on April 15, 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Franken" title="Marianne Franken">Marianne Franken</a> – a Dutch painter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Pick-Goslar" title="Hannah Pick-Goslar">Hanneli Goslar</a> (survived) – a friend of Anne Frank, spoke about memories of Frank after surviving Bergen-Belsen.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Ihleb%C3%A6k" title="Oscar Ihlebæk">Oscar Ihlebæk</a> – a Norwegian newspaper editor and resistance member</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirjam_Jacobson" title="Mirjam Jacobson">Mirjam Jacobson</a> – a Dutch painter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Jasper" title="Heinrich Jasper">Heinrich Jasper</a> – a German politician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnny_%26_Jones" title="Johnny & Jones">Johnny & Jones</a>, actually Nol (Arnold Siméon) van Wesel and Max (Salomon Meyer) Kannewasser – a jazz-duo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Klukowski" title="Józef Klukowski">Józef Klukowski</a> – a Polish sculptor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Kohn" title="Suzanne Kohn">Suzanne Kohn</a> – a French Jew born into one of France's most prominent Jewish families</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaul_Ladany" title="Shaul Ladany">Shaul Ladany</a> (survived) – an Israeli Olympic athlete and survivor of the <a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Landauer" title="Karl Landauer">Karl Landauer</a> – a German psychoanalyst</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rywka_Lipszyc" title="Rywka Lipszyc">Rywka Lipszyc</a> – a Polish-Jewish teenage girl who wrote a personal diary while in the <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustin_Malroux" title="Augustin Malroux">Augustin Malroux</a> – a French socialist politician and member of the French Resistance</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Maurice_Paul_Jules_de_Noailles" title="Jean Maurice Paul Jules de Noailles">Jean Maurice Paul Jules de Noailles</a> – a member of the <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gino_Parin" title="Gino Parin">Gino Parin</a> – an Italian painter of Jewish ancestry</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gisella_Perl" title="Gisella Perl">Gisella Perl</a> (survived) – a Hungarian doctor and author</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Philipp" title="Julius Philipp">Julius Philipp</a> – a German-born metal trader</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yvonne_Rudellat" title="Yvonne Rudellat">Yvonne Rudellat</a> – an agent of the <a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive" title="Special Operations Executive">Special Operations Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuzana_R%C5%AF%C5%BEi%C4%8Dkov%C3%A1" title="Zuzana Růžičková">Zuzana Růžičková</a> (survived) – a Czech harpsichordist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felice_Schragenheim" title="Felice Schragenheim">Felice Schragenheim</a> – a Jewish resistance fighter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Marius_Telders" title="Benjamin Marius Telders">Benjamin Marius Telders</a> – a professor of law at <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Valois" title="Georges Valois">Georges Valois</a> – a French journalist and <a href="/wiki/National_syndicalist" class="mw-redirect" title="National syndicalist">national syndicalist</a> politician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Vanderpoorten" title="Arthur Vanderpoorten">Arthur Vanderpoorten</a> – a Belgian liberal politician and minister</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerardus_van_der_Wel" title="Gerardus van der Wel">Gerardus van der Wel</a> – a Dutch <a href="/wiki/Long-distance_running" title="Long-distance running">long-distance runner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Wolff_(mathematician)" title="Julius Wolff (mathematician)">Julius Wolff</a> – a Dutch mathematician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uri_Orlev" title="Uri Orlev">Uri Orlev</a> (survived) - a Polish-Israeli children's author</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Memorial_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Memorial Day">Holocaust Memorial Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_memorial_landscapes_in_Germany" title="Holocaust memorial landscapes in Germany">Holocaust memorial landscapes in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_concentration_camps" title="List of Nazi concentration camps">List of Nazi concentration camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Moore_(war_artist)" title="Alan Moore (war artist)">Alan Moore (war artist)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130329003451/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/belsen-military-camp.html">"Belsen Military Camp"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/belsen-military-camp.html">the original</a> on March 29, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Belsen+Military+Camp&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fbelsen-military-camp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShephard2006" class="citation book cs1">Shephard, Ben (2006). <i>After daybreak: the liberation of Belsen, 1945</i>. London: Pimlico. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1844135400" title="Special:BookSources/978-1844135400"><bdi>978-1844135400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+daybreak%3A+the+liberation+of+Belsen%2C+1945&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1844135400&rft.aulast=Shephard&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oppenheimer-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheimer_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheimer_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOppenheimer,_Paul1996" class="citation book cs1">Oppenheimer, Paul (1996). <i>From Belsen to Buckingham Palace</i>. Nottingham: Quill Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9536280-3-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9536280-3-2"><bdi>978-0-9536280-3-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Belsen+to+Buckingham+Palace&rft.place=Nottingham&rft.pub=Quill+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-9536280-3-2&rft.au=Oppenheimer%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11th-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-11th_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-11th_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-11th-armoured-division-great-britain">"The 11th Armoured Division (Great Britain)"</a>. <i>United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</i>. Washington<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 7,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum&rft.atitle=The+11th+Armoured+Division+%28Great+Britain%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fthe-11th-armoured-division-great-britain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BB-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BB_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005224">"Bergen-Belsen"</a>. <i>www.ushmm.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=Bergen-Belsen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Farticle.php%3Flang%3Den%26ModuleId%3D10005224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website2_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website2_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website2_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131016093251/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/POW_Camps.html">"POW Camps"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/POW_Camps.html">the original</a> on October 16, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=POW+Camps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2FPOW_Camps.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USHMM_website-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USHMM_website_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USHMM_website_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USHMM_website_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USHMM_website_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005224">"Bergen-Belsen"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bergen-Belsen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Fen%2Farticle.php%3FModuleId%3D10005224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Exhibition_guide-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Exhibition_guide_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodeke2007" class="citation book cs1">Godeke, Monika, ed. (2007). <i>Bergen-Belsen Memorial 2007: Guide to the Exhibition</i>. Scherrer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-9811617-3-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-9811617-3-1"><bdi>978-3-9811617-3-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bergen-Belsen+Memorial+2007%3A+Guide+to+the+Exhibition&rft.pub=Scherrer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-9811617-3-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website3-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website3_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website3_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website3_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130421052736/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/concentration-camp/exchange-camp.html">"The Exchange Camp"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/concentration-camp/exchange-camp.html">the original</a> on April 21, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Exchange+Camp&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fconcentration-camp%2Fexchange-camp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-New_Exhibition_Guide-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Exhibition_Guide_10-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnoch2010" class="citation book cs1">Knoch, Habbo, ed. (2010). <i>Bergen-Belsen: Wehrmacht POW Camp 1940–1945, Concentration Camp 1943–1945, Displaced Persons Camp 1945–1950. Catalogue of the permanent exhibition</i>. Wallstein. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8353-0794-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8353-0794-0"><bdi>978-3-8353-0794-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bergen-Belsen%3A+Wehrmacht+POW+Camp+1940%E2%80%931945%2C+Concentration+Camp+1943%E2%80%931945%2C+Displaced+Persons+Camp+1945%E2%80%931950.+Catalogue+of+the+permanent+exhibition&rft.pub=Wallstein&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-8353-0794-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website4-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website4_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website4_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130421052948/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/concentration-camp/mens-and-womens-camps.html">"Men's and Women's Camps"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/concentration-camp/mens-and-womens-camps.html">the original</a> on April 21, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Men%27s+and+Women%27s+Camps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fconcentration-camp%2Fmens-and-womens-camps.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeathResearch-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DeathResearch_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annefrank.org/en/News/News/2015/Maart/Anne-Franks-last-months/">"New research sheds new light on Anne Frank's last months"</a>. AnneFrank.org, 31 March 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website5a-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website5a_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website5a_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130421052240/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/concentration-camp/reception-and-dying-camp.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Reception" and dying camps"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/concentration-camp/reception-and-dying-camp.html">the original</a> on April 21, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Reception%22+and+dying+camps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fconcentration-camp%2Freception-and-dying-camp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deutschland-ein-denkmal.de/ded/database/category;jsessionid=F525331306A130FBD111E2D0ED447E2D?cat=kz.beb">List of places: Concentration camps and outlying camps Concentration camp Bergen-Belsen</a> in 'List of national socialist camps and detention sites 1933 - 1945 Germany - A Memorial', www.deutschland-ein-denkmal.de, accessed 15 October 2023</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1993" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Georges (1993). <i>Histoire et généalogie de la maison de Noailles</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+et+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9alogie+de+la+maison+de+Noailles&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1952/11/18/le-tribunal-militaire-de-paris-condamne-a-vingt-ans-de-reclusion-une-collaboratrice-de-la-gestapo-accusee-d-avoir-denonce-le-duc-d-ayen_2000965_1819218.html">"Le tribunal militaire de Paris condamne à vingt ans de réclusion une collaboratrice de la Gestapo accusée d'avoir dénoncé le duc d'Ayen"</a> [The Paris military court sentences a Gestapo collaborator accused of having denounced the Duke of Ayen to twenty years of imprisonment]. <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i> (in French). November 18, 1952.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde&rft.atitle=Le+tribunal+militaire+de+Paris+condamne+%C3%A0+vingt+ans+de+r%C3%A9clusion+une+collaboratrice+de+la+Gestapo+accus%C3%A9e+d%27avoir+d%C3%A9nonc%C3%A9+le+duc+d%27Ayen&rft.date=1952-11-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Farchives%2Farticle%2F1952%2F11%2F18%2Fle-tribunal-militaire-de-paris-condamne-a-vingt-ans-de-reclusion-une-collaboratrice-de-la-gestapo-accusee-d-avoir-denonce-le-duc-d-ayen_2000965_1819218.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kultura.zpravy.idnes.cz/autorska-prava-josefa-capka-dpc-/literatura.aspx?c=A160108_130210_literatura_ob">"Pejsek a kočička mají ještě autorská práva chráněna, Mein Kampf je volný"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/IDNES.cz" class="mw-redirect" title="IDNES.cz">iDNES.cz</a></i> (in Czech). January 8, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iDNES.cz&rft.atitle=Pejsek+a+ko%C4%8Di%C4%8Dka+maj%C3%AD+je%C5%A1t%C4%9B+autorsk%C3%A1+pr%C3%A1va+chr%C3%A1n%C4%9Bna%2C+Mein+Kampf+je+voln%C3%BD&rft.date=2016-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkultura.zpravy.idnes.cz%2Fautorska-prava-josefa-capka-dpc-%2Fliteratura.aspx%3Fc%3DA160108_130210_literatura_ob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCelinscak2015" class="citation book cs1">Celinscak, Mark (2015). <i>Distance from the Belsen Heap: Allied Forces and the Liberation of a Concentration Camp</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442615700" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442615700"><bdi>978-1442615700</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distance+from+the+Belsen+Heap%3A+Allied+Forces+and+the+Liberation+of+a+Concentration+Camp&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1442615700&rft.aulast=Celinscak&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A F Taggart (1949), <i>Needs Must; The History of the Inns Of Court Regiment 1940–45</i>, pp 83–85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Straubenzee,_Alexander2005" class="citation news cs1">van Straubenzee, Alexander (April 10, 2005). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/1487534/The-gate-of-Hell.html">"The gate of Hell"</a></span>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/1487534/The-gate-of-Hell.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 12, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 10,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=The+gate+of+Hell&rft.date=2005-04-10&rft.au=van+Straubenzee%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Feurope%2Fpoland%2F1487534%2FThe-gate-of-Hell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Valls2012" class="citation news cs1">John Valls (March 2, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buelr.net/ohms-viewer/viewer.php?cachefile=Valls.xml">"Texas Liberators"</a>. <i>Baylor University Institute for Oral History</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Baylor+University+Institute+for+Oral+History&rft.atitle=Texas+Liberators&rft.date=2012-03-02&rft.au=John+Valls&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbuelr.net%2Fohms-viewer%2Fviewer.php%3Fcachefile%3DValls.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10006188">"The 11th Armoured Division (Great Britain)"</a>. <i>Holocaust Encyclopedia</i>. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 3,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=%22Richard+Dimbleby+Describes+Belsen%22%2C+BBC+News%2C+April+15%2C+1945&rft.date=2005-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Farchive%2Frichard-dimbleby-describes-belsen%2Fzvw7cqt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_Guide-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_Guide_24-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnoch2010" class="citation book cs1">Knoch, Habbo, ed. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/concentration-camp/liberation.html">the original</a> on April 26, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de&rft.atitle=Liberation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fconcentration-camp%2Fliberation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynn2020" class="citation book cs1">Wynn, Stephen (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AwI2EAAAQBAJ&dq=belsen+bodies+typhus++british+gloves&pg=PT169"><i>Holocaust: The Nazis' Wartime Jewish Atrocities</i></a>. Pen and Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-2822-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-2822-7"><bdi>978-1-5267-2822-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holocaust%3A+The+Nazis%27+Wartime+Jewish+Atrocities&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-5267-2822-7&rft.aulast=Wynn&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAwI2EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dbelsen%2Bbodies%2Btyphus%2B%2Bbritish%2Bgloves%26pg%3DPT169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShephard2007" class="citation book cs1">Shephard, Ben (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I74zlvTlvS4C&dq=belsen+bodies+typhus++british+gloves&pg=PT71"><i>After Daybreak: The Liberation of Bergen-Belsen, 1945</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42463-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42463-1"><bdi>978-0-307-42463-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Daybreak%3A+The+Liberation+of+Bergen-Belsen%2C+1945&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42463-1&rft.aulast=Shephard&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI74zlvTlvS4C%26dq%3Dbelsen%2Bbodies%2Btyphus%2B%2Bbritish%2Bgloves%26pg%3DPT71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher2007" class="citation cs2">Fletcher, David (2007), "Churchill Crocodile Flamethrower", <i>Volume 136 of New Vanguard</i>, Osprey Publishing, pp. 33 & 47, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-083-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-083-3"><bdi>978-1-84603-083-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Volume+136+of+New+Vanguard&rft.atitle=Churchill+Crocodile+Flamethrower&rft.pages=33+%26+47&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-083-3&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiley1997" class="citation book cs1">Riley, Joanne (1997). <i>Belsen in History and Memory</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0714643236" title="Special:BookSources/978-0714643236"><bdi>978-0714643236</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belsen+in+History+and+Memory&rft.pages=141&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0714643236&rft.aulast=Riley&rft.aufirst=Joanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiley1998" class="citation book cs1">Riley, Joanne (1998). <i>Belsen: The Liberation of a Concentration Camp</i>. Psychology Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0714643236" title="Special:BookSources/978-0714643236"><bdi>978-0714643236</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belsen%3A+The+Liberation+of+a+Concentration+Camp&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0714643236&rft.aulast=Riley&rft.aufirst=Joanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Television program <i>The Relief Of Belsen</i>, <a href="/wiki/Channel_4" title="Channel 4">Channel 4</a> (UK commercial television), 9:00 p.m. to 11:05 p.m. on Monday October 15, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Riley143-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Riley143_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riley143_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiley1997" class="citation book cs1">Riley, Joanne (1997). <i>Belsen in History and Memory</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0714643236" title="Special:BookSources/978-0714643236"><bdi>978-0714643236</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belsen+in+History+and+Memory&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0714643236&rft.aulast=Riley&rft.aufirst=Joanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website7-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website7_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website7_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130421052828/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/prosecution-of-perpetrators.html">"The Prosecution of the Perpetrators"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/prosecution-of-perpetrators.html">the original</a> on April 21, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Prosecution+of+the+Perpetrators&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fprosecution-of-perpetrators.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website8-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website8_34-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130329050106/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/prosecution-of-perpetrators/belsen-trial.html">"Belsen Trial"</a>. <i>bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/prosecution-of-perpetrators/belsen-trial.html">the original</a> on March 29, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de&rft.atitle=Belsen+Trial&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fprosecution-of-perpetrators%2Fbelsen-trial.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website9-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website9_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website9_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131016091715/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/prosecution-of-perpetrators/german-proceedings.html">"German proceedings"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/prosecution-of-perpetrators/german-proceedings.html">the original</a> on October 16, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=German+proceedings&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fprosecution-of-perpetrators%2Fgerman-proceedings.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/theprosecutionoftheperpetrators/">"The Prosecution of the Perpetrators"</a>. <i>bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 12,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de&rft.atitle=The+Prosecution+of+the+Perpetrators&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Ftheprosecutionoftheperpetrators%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website6-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website6_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website6_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/place-of-remembrance.html">"Place_of_Remembrance"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 21,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Place_of_Remembrance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fplace-of-remembrance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard J. Jensen, <i>Reagan at Bergen-Belsen and Bitburg</i> (Texas A&M UP, 2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120081629/reagan-at-bergen-belsen-and-bitburg">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>The Holocaust, Viewed Not From Then but From the Here and Now</i>", The New York Times, viewed January 22, 2009 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/arts/design/22abro.html">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4445529.stm">Liberation of Belsen commemorated</a>. BBC News, April 15, 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/1488109/Horrors-of-Belsen-flood-back-for-survivors.html">Horrors of Belsen flood back for survivors</a>, <i>The Telegraph</i>, April 19, 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial_website10-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_website10_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150619012035/http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/place-of-remembrance/redesign.html">"Memorial redesign"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de/en/history/place-of-remembrance/redesign.html">the original</a> on June 19, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memorial+redesign&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbergen-belsen.stiftung-ng.de%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fplace-of-remembrance%2Fredesign.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/109752--memorial-in-memory-of-8-turkish-citizens-killed-during-wwii-opens-in-germany">"Memorial in memory of 8 Turkish citizens killed during WWII opens in Germany"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memorial+in+memory+of+8+Turkish+citizens+killed+during+WWII+opens+in+Germany&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aa.com.tr%2Fen%2Fworld%2F109752--memorial-in-memory-of-8-turkish-citizens-killed-during-wwii-opens-in-germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Bentine, <i>The Reluctant Jester</i> (Anstey, England: Ulverscroft, 1993), page 281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScarlata" class="citation web cs1">Scarlata. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112109/http://caixadelata.blogspot.co.uk/2007/11/banksy-manifesto.html">"Caixa-de-Lata: Banksy – Manifesto"</a>. Caixadelata.blogspot.co.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caixadelata.blogspot.co.uk/2007/11/banksy-manifesto.html">the original</a> on March 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 3,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Caixa-de-Lata%3A+Banksy+%E2%80%93+Manifesto&rft.pub=Caixadelata.blogspot.co.uk&rft.au=Scarlata&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaixadelata.blogspot.co.uk%2F2007%2F11%2Fbanksy-manifesto.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memory-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Memory_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReilly1997" class="citation book cs1">Reilly, Joanne; et al., eds. (1997). <i>Belsen in History and Memory</i>. London: F. Cass.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belsen+in+History+and+Memory&rft.place=London&rft.pub=F.+Cass&rft.date=1997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2013" class="citation web cs1">Parker, Nicky (November 27, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org.uk/blogs/stories-and-rights/belsen-still-relevant">"Stories & Rights: Belsen – still relevant?"</a>. <i>www.amnesty.org.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 19,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.amnesty.org.uk&rft.atitle=Stories+%26+Rights%3A+Belsen+%E2%80%93+still+relevant%3F&rft.date=2013-11-27&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Nicky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org.uk%2Fblogs%2Fstories-and-rights%2Fbelsen-still-relevant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HMDT-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HMDT_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140420185353/http://hmd.org.uk/sites/default/files/files/stories/survivor_stories_anita_lasker_wallfisch_1.pdf">"Anita Lasker-Wallfisch – Inherit the Truth"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shaul+Ladany+Bio%2C+Stats%2C+and+Results+%26%23124%3B+Olympics+at&rft.pub=Sports-reference.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sports-reference.com%2Folympics%2Fathletes%2Fla%2Fshaul-ladany-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scotsman1-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-scotsman1_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotsman.com/news/international/tears-as-day-of-deliverance-from-belsen-recalled-1-708065">"Tears as day of deliverance from Belsen recalled"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Scotsman" title="The Scotsman">The Scotsman</a></i>. Edinburgh. April 16, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scotsman&rft.atitle=Tears+as+day+of+deliverance+from+Belsen+recalled&rft.date=2005-04-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotsman.com%2Fnews%2Finternational%2Ftears-as-day-of-deliverance-from-belsen-recalled-1-708065&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Sterling, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fcit.coedu.usf.edu/holocaust/resource/REVIEWS/Herzberg.HTM">Between Two Streams: A Diary from Bergen-Belsen Review</a>", <i>A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust</i>, 1999. Retrieved on 15 February 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sykes_norden-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sykes_norden_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-33230122">"How Denis Norden stumbled upon concentration camp horror"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. June 23, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Dublin: O'Brien Press Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847172273" title="Special:BookSources/9781847172273"><bdi>9781847172273</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Was+a+Boy+in+Belsen&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=O%27Brien+Press+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781847172273&rft.aulast=Reichental&rft.aufirst=Tomi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABergen-Belsen+concentration+camp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall2015" class="citation web cs1">Marshall, Tom (October 28, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.photogra-fix.com/post/2015/10/28/a-chaplain-at-belsen-1">"A Chaplain at Belsen"</a>. <i>PhotograFix</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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This link is to his <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phdn.org/archives/www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/WCC/belsen2.htm">testimony at the Bergen-Belsen trial</a> of his experience there.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/4445811.stm">BBC Journalist Richard Dimbleby's original radio report from April 15</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/camp/view/">Frontline "Memory of the Camps" (includes footage of liberation of Belsen)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131024122942/http://realholocausthistory.org/OtherTrials/OtherTrials.htm">The Belsen Trial of Joseph Kramer and 44 Others (full trial report)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/user/83/u747283.shtml">"A Personal Account" by Leonard Berney, Lt-Col R.A. T.D. (Rtd)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nf208A63se4">Leonard Berney's Story - the liberation of Bergen-Belsen on Twitter</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.gatech.edu/holocaust/bergenframe.htm">Map of the camp, Georgia Institute of Technology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130416195316/http://life.time.com/history/at-the-gates-of-hell-the-liberation-of-bergen-belsen-april-1945/#1">Pictures of the liberation at Time-Life</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/rosh_hashana/from_our_archive02.asp">Jewish Calendar and Prayers from Bergen-Belsen</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bergenbelsendiary.org/">Bergen Belsen and Beyond Holocaust Diary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsterdampublishers.com/books/holocaust-memoirs-bergen-belsen-survivor">Holocaust Memoirs of a Bergen-Belsen survivor and Classmate of Anne Frank</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archivesearch.lib.cam.ac.uk/repositories/9/archival_objects/461306">32 photographs taken after the liberation of Belsen concentration camp. 1945</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Template:Nazi concentration camps"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Template talk:Nazi concentration camps"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nazi concentration camps"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nazi_concentration_camps" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main camps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbeitsdorf_concentration_camp" title="Arbeitsdorf concentration camp">Arbeitsdorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Auschwitz" title="List of subcamps of Auschwitz">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bergen-Belsen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Bergen-Belsen" title="List of subcamps of Bergen-Belsen">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Buchenwald" title="List of subcamps of Buchenwald">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Dachau" title="List of subcamps of Dachau">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossenb%C3%BCrg_concentration_camp" title="Flossenbürg concentration camp">Flossenbürg</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Flossenb%C3%BCrg" title="List of subcamps of Flossenbürg">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp" title="Gross-Rosen concentration camp">Gross-Rosen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Gross-Rosen" title="List of subcamps of Gross-Rosen">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzogenbusch_concentration_camp" title="Herzogenbusch concentration camp">Herzogenbusch</a> <ul><li>subcamps</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinzert_concentration_camp" title="Hinzert concentration camp">Hinzert</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_subcamps_of_Hinzert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of subcamps of Hinzert (page does not exist)">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserwald_concentration_camp" title="Kaiserwald concentration camp">Kaiserwald</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_subcamps_of_Kaiserwald&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of subcamps of Kaiserwald (page does not exist)">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauen_concentration_camp" title="Kauen concentration camp">Kauen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Kauen" title="List of subcamps of Kauen">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w-P%C5%82asz%C3%B3w_concentration_camp" title="Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp">Kraków-Płaszów</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Krak%C3%B3w-P%C5%82asz%C3%B3w" title="List of subcamps of Kraków-Płaszów">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Majdanek" title="List of subcamps of Majdanek">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gusen_concentration_camp" title="Gusen concentration camp">Gusen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Mauthausen" title="List of subcamps of Mauthausen">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp" title="Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp">Mittelbau-Dora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Mittelbau" title="List of subcamps of Mittelbau">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natzweiler-Struthof_concentration_camp" title="Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp">Natzweiler-Struthof</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Natzweiler-Struthof" title="List of subcamps of Natzweiler-Struthof">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuengamme_concentration_camp" title="Neuengamme concentration camp">Neuengamme</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Neuengamme" title="List of subcamps of Neuengamme">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niederhagen_concentration_camp" title="Niederhagen concentration camp">Niederhagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck_concentration_camp" title="Ravensbrück concentration camp">Ravensbrück</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Ravensbr%C3%BCck" title="List of subcamps of Ravensbrück">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Sachsenhausen" title="List of subcamps of Sachsenhausen">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Stutthof" class="mw-redirect" title="List of subcamps of Stutthof">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaivara_concentration_camp" title="Vaivara concentration camp">Vaivara</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_subcamps_of_Vaivara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of subcamps of Vaivara (page does not exist)">subcamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_Camps_Inspectorate" title="Concentration Camps Inspectorate">Concentration Camps Inspectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Main_Economic_and_Administrative_Office" title="SS Main Economic and Administrative Office">SS Main Economic and Administrative Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Earth_and_Stone_Works" title="German Earth and Stone Works">German Earth and Stone Works</a> (DEST)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Wirtschaftsbetriebe" title="Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe">Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS-Totenkopfverbände</a></i> (Camp SS)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appellplatz" title="Appellplatz">Appellplatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanit%C3%A4tswesen" title="Sanitätswesen">Sanitätswesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcamp" title="Subcamp">Subcamp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_construction_brigade" title="SS construction brigade">SS construction brigade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politische_Abteilung" title="Politische Abteilung">Politische Abteilung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revier_(Nazi_concentration_camps)" title="Revier (Nazi concentration camps)">Revier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strafkompanie" title="Strafkompanie">Strafkompanie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_14f13" title="Action 14f13">Action 14f13</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Action_14f14&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Action 14f14 (page does not exist)">Action 14f14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_camps" title="Early camps">Early camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Forced labor in Nazi concentration camps">Forced labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_of_inmates_in_German_concentration_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Identification of inmates in German concentration camps">Identification of inmates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camp_badge" title="Nazi concentration camp badge">Badges</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_triangle_(badge)" title="Black triangle (badge)">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P_(Nazi_symbol)" title="P (Nazi symbol)">P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_triangle" title="Pink triangle">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purple_triangle" title="Purple triangle">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Language of Nazi concentration camps">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muselmann" title="Muselmann">Muselmann</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disciplinary_and_Penal_Code" title="Disciplinary and Penal Code">Disciplinary and Penal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_marches_(Holocaust)" class="mw-redirect" title="Death marches (Holocaust)">Death marches</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Postenpflicht" title="Postenpflicht">Postenpflicht</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_(Holocaust)" title="Selection (Holocaust)">Selection</a></li> <li>Slogans <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arbeit_macht_frei" title="Arbeit macht frei">Arbeit macht frei</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jedem_das_Seine" title="Jedem das Seine">Jedem das Seine</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camp_commandant" title="Nazi concentration camp commandant">Commandant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagerf%C3%BChrer" title="Lagerführer">Lagerführer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzhaftlagerf%C3%BChrer" title="Schutzhaftlagerführer">Schutzhaftlagerführer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_guards_in_Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Female guards in Nazi concentration camps">Female guards</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wehrmacht_guards_at_Nazi_concentration_camps&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wehrmacht guards at Nazi concentration camps (page does not exist)">Wehrmacht</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe_guards_at_concentration_camps" title="Luftwaffe guards at concentration camps">Luftwaffe guards</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prisoners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_functionaries" title="Prisoner functionaries">Prisoner functionaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapo" title="Kapo">Kapo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Asocial_prisoners_in_Nazi_concentration_camps&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asocial prisoners in Nazi concentration camps (page does not exist)">"Asocials"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany">Homosexuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany#Concentration_camps" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews#Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jews">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_prisoners_in_Nazi_concentration_camps&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Political prisoners in Nazi concentration camps (page does not exist)">Political prisoners</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nacht_und_Nebel" title="Nacht und Nebel">Nacht und Nebel</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonder-_und_Ehrenhaft" title="Sonder- und Ehrenhaft">Sonder- und Ehrenhaft</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rassenschande" title="Rassenschande">"Race defilers"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_Holocaust" title="Romani Holocaust">Roma and Sinti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet prisoners of war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historiography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Der_Ort_des_Terrors" title="Der Ort des Terrors">Der Ort des Terrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Camps_and_Ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos">Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/KL_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="KL (book)">KL</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Holocaust" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:The_Holocaust" title="Template talk:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Special:EditPage/Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Holocaust" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Albania" title="The Holocaust in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Austria" title="The Holocaust in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgaria" title="The Holocaust in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li>Czechoslovakia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="The Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia">Bohemia and Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="The Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Sudetenland" title="The Holocaust in the Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Germany" title="The Holocaust in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgarian-occupied_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Bulgarian-occupied Greece">Bulgarian-occupied Greece</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Hungary" title="The Holocaust in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Italy" title="The Holocaust in Italy">Italy</a> and colonies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Libya" title="The Holocaust in Libya">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Netherlands" title="The Holocaust in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Norway" title="The Holocaust in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Romania" title="The Holocaust in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Yugoslavia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_German-occupied_Serbia" title="The Holocaust in German-occupied Serbia">Serbia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust" title="Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust">Evidence and documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Contemporary knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_children_during_the_Holocaust" title="Hidden children during the Holocaust">Hidden children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Holocaust" title="Timeline of the Holocaust">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">International response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_the_Holocaust" title="Japan and the Holocaust">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_and_the_Holocaust" title="Philippines and the Holocaust">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_and_the_Holocaust" title="Portugal and the Holocaust">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_Holocaust" title="Spain and the Holocaust">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_and_the_Holocaust" title="Sweden and the Holocaust">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_and_the_Holocaust" title="Turkey and the Holocaust">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_Holocaust" title="United States and the Holocaust">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Vatican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue of Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Catholics_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust">by Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">by Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Camps_and_ghettos" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Camps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">ghettos</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Concentration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bergen-Belsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossenb%C3%BCrg_concentration_camp" title="Flossenbürg concentration camp">Flossenbürg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp" title="Gross-Rosen concentration camp">Gross-Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzogenbusch_concentration_camp" title="Herzogenbusch concentration camp">Herzogenbusch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinzert_concentration_camp" title="Hinzert concentration camp">Hinzert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserwald_concentration_camp" title="Kaiserwald concentration camp">Kaiserwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauen_concentration_camp" title="Kauen concentration camp">Kauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w-P%C5%82asz%C3%B3w_concentration_camp" title="Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp">Kraków-Płaszów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gusen_concentration_camp" title="Gusen concentration camp">Gusen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp" title="Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp">Mittelbau-Dora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natzweiler-Struthof_concentration_camp" title="Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp">Natzweiler-Struthof </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuengamme_concentration_camp" title="Neuengamme concentration camp">Neuengamme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck_concentration_camp" title="Ravensbrück concentration camp">Ravensbrück</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaivara_concentration_camp" title="Vaivara concentration camp">Vaivara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz II-Birkenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><span class="smallcaps">be</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Breendonk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechelen_transit_camp" title="Mechelen transit camp">Mechelen</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France" title="Internment camps in France"><span class="smallcaps">fr</span></a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurs_internment_camp" title="Gurs internment camp">Gurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_concentration_camps" title="List of Italian concentration camps"><span class="smallcaps">it</span></a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolzano_Transit_Camp" title="Bolzano Transit Camp">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risiera_di_San_Sabba" title="Risiera di San Sabba">Risiera di San Sabba</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">nl</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amersfoort_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Amersfoort concentration camp">Amersfoort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamp_Schoorl" title="Kamp Schoorl">Schoorl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westerbork_transit_camp" title="Westerbork transit camp">Westerbork</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">sk</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sere%C4%8F_concentration_camp" title="Sereď concentration camp">Sereď</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_gas_van" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi gas van">Gas van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">Gas chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">Extermination through labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_marches_during_the_Holocaust" title="Death marches during the Holocaust">Death marches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nazi units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS-<i>Totenkopfverbände</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_Camps_Inspectorate" title="Concentration Camps Inspectorate">Concentration Camps Inspectorate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politische_Abteilung" title="Politische Abteilung">Politische Abteilung</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sanit%C3%A4tswesen" title="Sanitätswesen">Sanitätswesen</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Ghettos</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Nazi ghettos">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Ghetto" title="Lublin Ghetto">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Lwów Ghetto">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radom_Ghetto" title="Radom Ghetto">Radom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Ghetto" title="Budapest Ghetto">Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kovno_Ghetto" title="Kovno Ghetto">Kovno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Ghetto" title="Minsk Ghetto">Minsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theresienstadt_Ghetto" title="Theresienstadt Ghetto">Theresienstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto" title="Vilna Ghetto">Vilna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Judenrat</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Ghetto_Police" title="Jewish Ghetto Police">Jewish Ghetto Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Association_of_Jews_in_Germany" title="Reich Association of Jews in Germany">Reich Association of Jews in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Astred%C5%88a_%C5%BDidov" title="Ústredňa Židov">Ústredňa Židov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Victims" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Victims</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">Jews</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roundup_(police_action)" title="Roundup (police action)">Roundups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Izieu" title="Izieu">Izieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marseille_roundup" title="Marseille roundup">Marseille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Pogroms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorohoi_pogrom" title="Dorohoi pogrom">Dorohoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i_pogrom" title="Iași pogrom">Iași</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_eastern_Poland" title="1941 pogroms in eastern Poland">1941 pogroms in eastern Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lviv_pogroms_(1941)" title="Lviv pogroms (1941)">Lviv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_Lithuania" title="1941 pogroms in Lithuania">in Lithuania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trains" title="Holocaust trains">Holocaust trains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mass executions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival" title="Operation Harvest Festival">Harvest Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maly_Trostenets" title="Maly Trostenets">Maly Trostenets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Odessa_massacre" title="1941 Odessa massacre">Odesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_in_Pia%C5%9Bnica" title="Massacres in Piaśnica">Piaśnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumbula_massacre" title="Rumbula massacre">Rumbula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bielski_partisans" title="Bielski partisans">Bielski partisans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprisings" title="Ghetto uprisings">Ghetto uprisings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto uprising">Częstochowa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_and_Rescue_Committee" title="Aid and Rescue Committee">Aid and Rescue Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_the_twentieth_convoy" title="Attack on the twentieth convoy">Attack on the twentieth convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastner_train" title="Kastner train">Kastner train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Chambon-sur-Lignon" title="Le Chambon-sur-Lignon">Le Chambon-sur-Lignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Danish underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Group_(resistance_organization)" title="Working Group (resistance organization)">Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Others</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_Plan" title="Hunger Plan">Soviet urban residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_security_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi security warfare">Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Euthanasia in Nazi Germany">People with disabilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Romani people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligenzaktion" title="Intelligenzaktion">Polish leaders and intellectuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany">Homosexuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Responsibility" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_perpetrators_of_the_Holocaust" title="List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust">List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel"><i>Schutzstaffel</i> (SS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">Reich Security Main Office</a> (RSHA) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Head_Office_Referat_IV_B4" title="Reich Security Head Office Referat IV B4">Referat IV B4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a> (SD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a> (Orpo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_Regiment_Centre" title="Police Regiment Centre">Police Regiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_Police_battalions" title="Order Police battalions">Order Police battalions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">Collaborators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs Kommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Security_Police" title="Lithuanian Security Police">Lithuanian Security Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandsche_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederlandsche SS">Nederlandsche SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollkommando_Hamann" title="Rollkommando Hamann">Rollkommando Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Brigades" title="Special Brigades">Special Brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topf_and_Sons" title="Topf and Sons">Topf and Sons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trawniki_concentration_camp" title="Trawniki concentration camp">Trawnikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Ukrainian Auxiliary Police">Ukrainian Auxiliary Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ypatingasis_b%C5%ABrys" title="Ypatingasis būrys">Ypatingasis būrys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Early_elementsAftermathRemembrance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Early elements</li><li>Aftermath</li><li>Remembrance</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Nazi racial policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haavara_Agreement" title="Haavara Agreement">Haavara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler%27s_prophecy" title="Hitler's prophecy">Hitler's prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">Jewish war conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emigration_from_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany">Jewish emigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kindertransport" title="Kindertransport">Kindertransport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Plan" title="Madagascar Plan">Madagascar Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisko_Plan" title="Nisko Plan">Nisko Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_T4" title="Aktion T4">Forced euthanasia <span style="font-size:85%;">(Action T4)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_villages_and_towns_depopulated_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="List of villages and towns depopulated of Jews during the Holocaust">Depopulated shtetls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Holocaust survivors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sh%27erit_ha-Pletah" title="Sh'erit ha-Pletah">Sh'erit ha-Pletah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricha" title="Bricha">Bricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_survivors" title="List of Holocaust survivors">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_violence_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe,_1944%E2%80%9346" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Jewish violence in Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–46">Postwar violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazis_and_Nazi_Collaborators_(Punishment)_Law" title="Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law">Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Eichmann trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust restitution">Holocaust restitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_Agreement_between_Israel_and_West_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany">Reparations Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">trivialization</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">History and memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">Academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_The_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of The Holocaust">Books and other resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Memorial_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Memorial Days">Days of remembrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_education" title="Holocaust education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_films" title="List of Holocaust films">Films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessons_of_the_Holocaust" title="Lessons of the Holocaust">Lessons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_memorials_and_museums" title="List of Holocaust memorials and museums">Memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide and the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_humor" title="Holocaust humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yizkor_books" title="Yizkor books">Yizkor books</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Never_again" title="Never again">Never again</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 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.navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/21px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/42px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7332#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7332#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7332#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000123700120">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/157411022">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/723559/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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