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id="toc-Working_principle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Working_principle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Working principle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Working_principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carrier_balance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carrier_balance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Carrier balance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carrier_balance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Material_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Material_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Material technologies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Material_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Material technologies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Material_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Small_molecules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small_molecules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Small molecules </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small_molecules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymer_light-emitting_diodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymer_light-emitting_diodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Polymer light-emitting diodes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymer_light-emitting_diodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phosphorescent_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phosphorescent_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Phosphorescent materials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phosphorescent_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Device_architectures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Device_architectures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Device architectures </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Device_architectures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Device architectures subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Device_architectures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bottom_emission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bottom_emission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Bottom emission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bottom_emission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Top_emission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Top_emission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Top emission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Top_emission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Improvements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improvements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Improvements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improvements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deuterium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deuterium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Deuterium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deuterium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro_Lens_Array_(MLA)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro_Lens_Array_(MLA)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Micro Lens Array (MLA) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro_Lens_Array_(MLA)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro-cavity_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro-cavity_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Micro-cavity theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro-cavity_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color_filters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_filters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.4 Color filters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_filters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_architectures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_architectures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Other architectures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_architectures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transparent_OLEDs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transparent_OLEDs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Transparent OLEDs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transparent_OLEDs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graded_heterojunction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graded_heterojunction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Graded heterojunction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graded_heterojunction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stacked_OLEDs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stacked_OLEDs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Stacked OLEDs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stacked_OLEDs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inverted_OLED" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inverted_OLED"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Inverted OLED </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inverted_OLED-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color_patterning_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_patterning_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Color patterning technologies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Color_patterning_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Color patterning technologies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Color_patterning_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shadow_mask_patterning_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shadow_mask_patterning_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Shadow mask patterning method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shadow_mask_patterning_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_+_color_filter_method_(WOLED)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_+_color_filter_method_(WOLED)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 White + color filter method (WOLED) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_+_color_filter_method_(WOLED)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_color_patterning_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_color_patterning_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Other color patterning approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_color_patterning_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thin-film_transistor_backplanes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thin-film_transistor_backplanes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Thin-film transistor backplanes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thin-film_transistor_backplanes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Advantages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Disadvantages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Disadvantages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Disadvantages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lifespan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lifespan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Lifespan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lifespan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 Degradation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color_balance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_balance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Color balance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_balance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency_of_blue_OLEDs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency_of_blue_OLEDs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Efficiency of blue OLEDs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency_of_blue_OLEDs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_damage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_damage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Water damage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outdoor_performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outdoor_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Outdoor performance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outdoor_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_consumption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_consumption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Power consumption </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_consumption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screen_flicker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screen_flicker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Screen flicker </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screen_flicker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturers_and_commercial_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturers_and_commercial_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Manufacturers and commercial uses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manufacturers_and_commercial_uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Manufacturers and commercial uses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Manufacturers_and_commercial_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Fashion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automotive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automotive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Automotive </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automotive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Company-specific_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Company-specific_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Company-specific applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Company-specific_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Samsung" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samsung"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.1 Samsung </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samsung-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.2 Sony </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LG" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LG"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.3 LG </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LG-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitsubishi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitsubishi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.4 Mitsubishi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mitsubishi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recom_Group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recom_Group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.5 Recom Group </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recom_Group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.6 Dell </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apple" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apple"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.7 Apple </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apple-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nintendo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nintendo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.8 Nintendo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nintendo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">OLED</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" > 46 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%B6%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AB_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%A1" title="ثنائي مساري عضوي باعث للضوء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثنائي مساري عضوي باعث للضوء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF" title="ওএলইডি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ওএলইডি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%91%D0%B4" title="Арганічны сьвятлодыёд – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Арганічны сьвятлодыёд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%ADode_org%C3%A0nic_emissor_de_llum" title="Díode orgànic emissor de llum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Díode orgànic emissor de llum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organische_Leuchtdiode" title="Organische Leuchtdiode – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Organische Leuchtdiode" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgaaniline_valgusdiood" title="Orgaaniline valgusdiood – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Orgaaniline valgusdiood" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%86%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Οργανική φωτοδίοδος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οργανική φωτοδίοδος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodo_org%C3%A1nico_de_emisi%C3%B3n_de_luz" title="Diodo orgánico de emisión de luz – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Diodo orgánico de emisión de luz" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AF_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="دیود نورگسیل ارگانیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیود نورگسیل ارگانیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_%C3%A9lectroluminescente_organique" title="Diode électroluminescente organique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Diode électroluminescente organique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EA%B8%B0_%EB%B0%9C%EA%B4%91_%EB%8B%A4%EC%9D%B4%EC%98%A4%EB%93%9C" title="유기 발광 다이오드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유기 발광 다이오드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A1" title="कार्बनिक प्रकाश उत्सर्जक डायोड – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कार्बनिक प्रकाश उत्सर्जक डायोड" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED_televizori" title="OLED televizori – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="OLED televizori" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioda_pemancar_cahaya_organik" title="Dioda pemancar cahaya organik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dioda pemancar cahaya organik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D" title="ಸಾವಯವ ಬೆಳಕು ಸೂಸುವ ಡಯೋಡ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಾವಯವ ಬೆಳಕು ಸೂಸುವ ಡಯೋಡ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Органска светлечка диода – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Органска светлечка диода" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%93%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D" title="ഓർഗാനിക് ലൈറ്റ് എമിറ്റിങ്ങ് ഡയോഡ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഓർഗാനിക് ലൈറ്റ് എമിറ്റിങ്ങ് ഡയോഡ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diod_pemancar_cahaya_organik" title="Diod pemancar cahaya organik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Diod pemancar cahaya organik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oled" title="Oled – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oled" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%A9%9F%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AF%E3%83%88%E3%83%AD%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9F%E3%83%8D%E3%83%83%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9" title="有機エレクトロルミネッセンス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="有機エレクトロルミネッセンス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organiczna_dioda_elektroluminescencyjna" title="Organiczna dioda elektroluminescencyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Organiczna dioda elektroluminescencyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodo_org%C3%A2nico_emissor_de_luz" title="Diodo orgânico emissor de luz – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Diodo orgânico emissor de luz" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Органический светодиод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Органический светодиод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_diode" title="Organic light-emitting diode – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Organic light-emitting diode" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisk_ljus-emitterande_diod" title="Organisk ljus-emitterande diod – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Organisk ljus-emitterande diod" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE_%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கரிம ஒளிகாலும் இருமுனையம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கரிம ஒளிகாலும் இருமுனையம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLED" title="OLED – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="OLED" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Органічний світлодіод – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Органічний світлодіод" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_ph%C3%A1t_s%C3%A1ng_h%E1%BB%AFu_c%C6%A1" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Diode that emits light from an organic compound</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Organic light-emitting diode</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:OEL_right.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/OEL_right.JPG/250px-OEL_right.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/OEL_right.JPG/330px-OEL_right.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/OEL_right.JPG/500px-OEL_right.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2973" data-file-height="2035" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Prototype OLED lighting panels</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a></td></tr></tbody></table> An organic light-emitting diode (OLED), also known as organic electroluminescent (organic EL) diode,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a> (LED) in which the <a href="/wiki/Emission_(electromagnetic_radiation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission (electromagnetic radiation)">emissive</a> <a href="/wiki/Electroluminescence" title="Electroluminescence">electroluminescent</a> layer is an <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compound</a> film that emits light in response to an electric current. This organic layer is situated between two <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a>; typically, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create <a href="/wiki/Digital_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital display">digital displays</a> in devices such as <a href="/wiki/Television_set" title="Television set">television</a> screens, <a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">computer monitors</a>, and portable systems such as <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Handheld_game_console" title="Handheld game console">handheld game consoles</a>. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_lighting" title="Solid-state lighting">solid-state lighting</a> applications.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> There are two main families of OLED: those based on small molecules and those employing <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>. Adding mobile <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> to an OLED creates a <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_electrochemical_cell" title="Light-emitting electrochemical cell">light-emitting electrochemical cell</a> (LEC) which has a slightly different mode of operation. An OLED display can be driven with a <a href="/wiki/Passive_matrix_addressing" title="Passive matrix addressing">passive-matrix</a> (PMOLED) or <a href="/wiki/Active_matrix" title="Active matrix">active-matrix</a> (<a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">AMOLED</a>) control scheme. In the PMOLED scheme, each row and line in the display is controlled sequentially, one by one,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> whereas AMOLED control uses a <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">thin-film transistor</a> (TFT) backplane to directly access and switch each individual pixel on or off, allowing for higher resolution and larger display sizes. OLEDs are fundamentally different from <a href="/wiki/LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LEDs</a>, which are based on a <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode" title="P–n diode">p–n diode</a> <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> solid structure. In LEDs, <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a> is used to create p- and n-regions by changing the conductivity of the host <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>. OLEDs do not employ a crystalline p-n structure. Doping of OLEDs is used to increase radiative efficiency by direct modification of the quantum-mechanical optical recombination rate. Doping is additionally used to determine the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of photon emission.<a href="#cite_note-pears1-7">[7]</a> OLED displays are made in a similar way to LCDs, including manufacturing of several displays on a mother substrate that is later thinned and cut into several displays. Substrates for OLED displays come in the same sizes as those used for manufacturing LCDs. For OLED manufacture, after the formation of TFTs (for active matrix displays), addressable grids (for passive matrix displays), or <a href="/wiki/Indium_tin_oxide" title="Indium tin oxide">indium tin oxide</a> (ITO) segments (for segment displays), the display is coated with hole injection, transport and blocking layers, as well with electroluminescent material after the first two layers, after which ITO or metal may be applied again as a <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a>. Later, the entire stack of materials is encapsulated. The TFT layer, addressable grid, or ITO segments serve as or are connected to the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a>, which may be made of ITO or metal.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> OLEDs can be made flexible and transparent, with <a href="/wiki/Transparent_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparent display">transparent displays</a> being used in smartphones with optical fingerprint scanners and <a href="/wiki/Flexible_display" title="Flexible display">flexible displays</a> being used in <a href="/wiki/Foldable_smartphone" title="Foldable smartphone">foldable smartphones</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Bernanose" title="André Bernanose">André Bernanose</a> and co-workers at the <a href="/wiki/Nancy-Universit%C3%A9" title="Nancy-Université">Nancy-Université</a> in France made the first observations of <a href="/wiki/Electroluminescence" title="Electroluminescence">electroluminescence</a> in organic materials in the early 1950s. They applied high alternating <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltages</a> in air to materials such as <a href="/wiki/Acridine_orange" title="Acridine orange">acridine orange</a> dye, either deposited on or dissolved in <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cellophane" title="Cellophane">cellophane</a> <a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin films</a>. The proposed mechanism was either direct excitation of the dye molecules or <a href="/wiki/Electron_excitation" title="Electron excitation">excitation of electrons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In 1960, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Pope" title="Martin Pope">Martin Pope</a> and some of his co-workers at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> in the United States developed <a href="/wiki/Ohmic_contact" title="Ohmic contact">ohmic</a> dark-injecting electrode contacts to organic crystals.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> They further described the necessary energetic requirements (<a href="/wiki/Work_function" title="Work function">work functions</a>) for hole and electron injecting electrode contacts. These contacts are the basis of charge injection in all modern OLED devices. Pope's group also first observed direct current (DC) electroluminescence under vacuum on a single pure crystal of <a href="/wiki/Anthracene" title="Anthracene">anthracene</a> and on anthracene crystals doped with <a href="/wiki/Tetracene" title="Tetracene">tetracene</a> in 1963<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> using a small area silver electrode at 400 <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a>. The proposed mechanism was field-accelerated electron excitation of molecular fluorescence. Pope's group reported in 1965<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> that in the absence of an external electric field, the electroluminescence in anthracene crystals is caused by the recombination of a thermalized electron and hole, and that the conducting level of anthracene is higher in energy than the <a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">exciton</a> energy level. Also in 1965, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Helfrich" title="Wolfgang Helfrich">Wolfgang Helfrich</a> and W. G. Schneider of the <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (Canada)">National Research Council</a> in Canada produced double injection recombination electroluminescence for the first time in an anthracene single crystal using hole and electron injecting electrodes,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> the forerunner of modern double-injection devices. In the same year, <a href="/wiki/Dow_Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Dow Chemical">Dow Chemical</a> researchers patented a method of preparing electroluminescent cells using high-voltage (500–1500 V) AC-driven (100–3000 Hz) electrically insulated one millimetre thin layers of a melted phosphor consisting of ground anthracene powder, tetracene, and <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> powder.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Their proposed mechanism involved electronic excitation at the contacts between the graphite particles and the anthracene molecules. The first Polymer LED (PLED) to be created was by Roger Partridge at the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a> in the United Kingdom. It used a film of <a href="/wiki/Polyvinylcarbazole" title="Polyvinylcarbazole">polyvinylcarbazole</a> up to 2.2 micrometers thick located between two charge-injecting electrodes. The light generated was readily visible in normal lighting conditions though the polymer used had 2 limitations; low conductivity and the difficulty of injecting electrons.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Later development of conjugated polymers would allow others to largely eliminate these problems. His contribution has often been overlooked due to the secrecy NPL imposed on the project. When it was patented in 1974<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> it was given a deliberately obscure "catch all" name while the government's Department for Industry tried and failed to find industrial collaborators to fund further development.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical_OLEDs">Practical OLEDs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Practical OLEDs">edit</a>]</div> Chemists <a href="/wiki/Ching_Wan_Tang" title="Ching Wan Tang">Ching Wan Tang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steven_Van_Slyke" title="Steven Van Slyke">Steven Van Slyke</a> at <a href="/wiki/Eastman_Kodak" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastman Kodak">Eastman Kodak</a> built the first practical OLED device in 1987.<a href="#cite_note-ApplPhy87-27">[27]</a> This device used a two-layer structure with separate hole transporting and electron transporting layers such that recombination and light emission occurred in the middle of the organic layer; this resulted in a reduction in operating voltage and improvements in efficiency.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Research into polymer electroluminescence culminated in 1990, with J. H. Burroughes at the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a>, UK, reporting a high-efficiency green light-emitting polymer-based device using 100 nm thick films of <a href="/wiki/Poly(p-phenylene_vinylene)" title="Poly(p-phenylene vinylene)">poly(p-phenylene vinylene)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-b-28">[28]</a> Moving from molecular to macromolecular materials solved the problems previously encountered with the long-term stability of the organic films and enabled high-quality films to be easily made.<a href="#cite_note-b-28">[28]</a> Subsequent research developed multilayer polymers and the new field of <a href="/wiki/Plastic_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic electronics">plastic electronics</a> and OLED research and device production grew rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> White OLEDs, pioneered by J. Kido et al. at <a href="/wiki/Yamagata_University" title="Yamagata University">Yamagata University</a>, Japan in 1995, achieved the commercialization of OLED-backlit displays and lighting.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In 1999, Kodak and <a href="/wiki/Sanyo" title="Sanyo">Sanyo</a> had entered into a partnership to jointly research, develop, and produce OLED displays. They announced the world's first 2.4-inch active-matrix, full-color OLED display in September the same year.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In September 2002, they presented a prototype of 15-inch HDTV format display based on white OLEDs with color filters at the CEATEC Japan.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Manufacturing of small molecule OLEDs was started in 1997 by <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Corporation" title="Pioneer Corporation">Pioneer Corporation</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/TDK" title="TDK">TDK</a> in 2001 and <a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a>-<a href="/wiki/NEC" title="NEC">NEC</a> Mobile Display (SNMD), which later became one of the world's largest OLED display manufacturers - Samsung Display, in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sony_XEL-1" title="Sony XEL-1">Sony XEL-1</a>, released in 2007, was the first OLED television.<a href="#cite_note-xel1-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Universal_Display_Corporation" title="Universal Display Corporation">Universal Display Corporation</a>, one of the OLED materials companies, holds a number of patents concerning the commercialization of OLEDs that are used by major OLED manufacturers around the world.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> On 5 December 2017, <a href="/wiki/JOLED" title="JOLED">JOLED</a>, the successor of <a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panasonic" title="Panasonic">Panasonic</a>'s printable OLED business units, began the world's first commercial shipment of inkjet-printed OLED panels.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Working_principle">Working principle</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Working principle">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OLED_schematic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/OLED_schematic.svg/400px-OLED_schematic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/OLED_schematic.svg/600px-OLED_schematic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/OLED_schematic.svg/800px-OLED_schematic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of a bilayer OLED: 1. Cathode (−), 2. Emissive Layer, 3. Emission of radiation, 4. Conductive layer, 5. Anode (+)</figcaption></figure> A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two electrodes, the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a>, all deposited on a <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(materials_science)" title="Substrate (materials science)">substrate</a>. The organic molecules are electrically conductive as a result of <a href="/wiki/Delocalized_electron" title="Delocalized electron">delocalization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pi_electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Pi electrons">pi electrons</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Conjugated_system" title="Conjugated system">conjugation</a> over part or all of the molecule. These materials have conductivity levels ranging from insulators to conductors, and are therefore considered <a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">organic semiconductors</a>. The highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (<a href="/wiki/HOMO_and_LUMO" title="HOMO and LUMO">HOMO and LUMO</a>) of organic semiconductors are analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Valence_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence band">valence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conduction_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction band">conduction</a> bands of inorganic semiconductors.<a href="#cite_note-kho2-40">[40]</a> Originally, the most basic polymer OLEDs consisted of a single organic layer. One example was the first light-emitting device synthesised by J. H. Burroughes et al., which involved a single layer of <a href="/wiki/Poly(p-phenylene_vinylene)" title="Poly(p-phenylene vinylene)">poly(p-phenylene vinylene)</a>. However multilayer OLEDs can be fabricated with two or more layers in order to improve device efficiency. As well as conductive properties, different materials may be chosen to aid charge injection at electrodes by providing a more gradual electronic profile,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> or block a charge from reaching the opposite electrode and being wasted.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Many modern OLEDs incorporate a simple bilayer structure, consisting of a conductive layer and an emissive layer. Developments in OLED architecture in 2011 improved <a href="/wiki/Quantum_efficiency" title="Quantum efficiency">quantum efficiency</a> (up to 19%) by using a graded heterojunction.<a href="#cite_note-r2-43">[43]</a> In the graded heterojunction architecture, the composition of hole and electron-transport materials varies continuously within the emissive layer with a dopant emitter. The graded heterojunction architecture combines the benefits of both conventional architectures by improving charge injection while simultaneously balancing charge transport within the emissive region.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> During operation, a voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode is positive with respect to the cathode. Anodes are picked based upon the quality of their optical transparency, electrical conductivity, and chemical stability.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> A current of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> flows through the device from cathode to anode, as electrons are injected into the LUMO of the organic layer at the cathode and withdrawn from the HOMO at the anode. This latter process may also be described as the injection of <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">electron holes</a> into the HOMO. Electrostatic forces bring the electrons and the holes towards each other and they recombine forming an <a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">exciton</a>, a bound state of the electron and hole. This happens closer to the electron-transport layer part of the emissive layer, because in organic semiconductors holes are generally more <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_carrier_mobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor carrier mobility">mobile</a> than electrons.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The decay of this excited state results in a relaxation of the energy levels of the electron, accompanied by emission of <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a> is in the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible region</a>. The frequency of this radiation depends on the <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a> of the material, in this case the difference in energy between the HOMO and LUMO. As electrons and holes are <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a> with half integer <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>, an exciton may either be in a <a href="/wiki/Singlet_state" title="Singlet state">singlet state</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Triplet_state" title="Triplet state">triplet state</a> depending on how the spins of the electron and hole have been combined. Statistically three triplet excitons will be formed for each singlet exciton. Decay from triplet states (<a href="/wiki/Phosphorescence" title="Phosphorescence">phosphorescence</a>) is spin forbidden, increasing the timescale of the transition and limiting the internal efficiency of fluorescent OLED emissive layers and devices. <a href="/wiki/Phosphorescent_organic_light-emitting_diode" title="Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diode">Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes</a> (PHOLEDs) or emissive layers make use of <a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93orbit_interaction" title="Spin–orbit interaction">spin–orbit interactions</a> to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Intersystem_crossing" title="Intersystem crossing">intersystem crossing</a> between singlet and triplet states, thus obtaining emission from both singlet and triplet states and improving the internal efficiency. <a href="/wiki/Indium_tin_oxide" title="Indium tin oxide">Indium tin oxide</a> (ITO) is commonly used as the anode material. It is transparent to visible light and has a high <a href="/wiki/Work_function" title="Work function">work function</a> which promotes injection of holes into the HOMO level of the organic layer. A second conductive (injection) layer is typically added, which may consist of <a href="/wiki/PEDOT:PSS" title="PEDOT:PSS">PEDOT:PSS</a>,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> as the HOMO level of this material generally lies between the work function of ITO and the HOMO of other commonly used polymers, reducing the energy barriers for hole injection. Metals such as <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> are often used for the cathode as they have low <a href="/wiki/Work_function" title="Work function">work functions</a> which promote injection of electrons into the LUMO of the organic layer.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Such metals are reactive, so they require a capping layer of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> to avoid degradation. Two secondary benefits of the aluminum capping layer include robustness to electrical contacts and the back reflection of emitted light out to the transparent ITO layer. Experimental research has proven that the properties of the anode, specifically the anode/hole transport layer (HTL) interface topography plays a major role in the efficiency, performance, and lifetime of organic light-emitting diodes. Imperfections in the surface of the anode decrease anode-organic film interface adhesion, increase electrical resistance, and allow for more frequent formation of non-emissive dark spots in the OLED material adversely affecting lifetime. Mechanisms to decrease anode roughness for ITO/glass substrates include the use of thin films and self-assembled monolayers. Also, alternative substrates and anode materials are being considered to increase OLED performance and lifetime. Possible examples include single crystal sapphire substrates treated with gold (Au) film anodes yielding lower work functions, operating voltages, electrical resistance values, and increasing lifetime of OLEDs.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Single carrier devices are typically used to study the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">kinetics</a> and charge transport mechanisms of an organic material and can be useful when trying to study energy transfer processes. As current through the device is composed of only one type of charge carrier, either electrons or holes, recombination does not occur and no light is emitted. For example, electron only devices can be obtained by replacing ITO with a lower work function metal which increases the energy barrier of hole injection. Similarly, hole only devices can be made by using a cathode made solely of aluminium, resulting in an energy barrier too large for efficient electron injection.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Carrier_balance">Carrier balance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Carrier balance">edit</a>]</div> Balanced charge injection and transfer are required to get high internal efficiency, pure emission of luminance layer without contaminated emission from charge transporting layers, and high stability. A common way to balance charge is optimizing the thickness of the charge transporting layers but is hard to control. Another way is using the exciplex. Exciplex formed between hole-transporting (p-type) and electron-transporting (n-type) side chains to localize electron-hole pairs. Energy is then transferred to luminophore and provide high efficiency. An example of using exciplex is grafting Oxadiazole and carbazole side units in red diketopyrrolopyrrole-doped Copolymer main chain shows improved external quantum efficiency and color purity in no optimized OLED.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Material_technologies">Material technologies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Material technologies">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small_molecules">Small molecules</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Small molecules">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlumQ3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/AlumQ3.svg/250px-AlumQ3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/AlumQ3.svg/330px-AlumQ3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/AlumQ3.svg/340px-AlumQ3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="371" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium" title="Tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium">Alq3</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ApplPhy87-27">[27]</a> commonly used in small molecule OLEDs</figcaption></figure> Organic small-molecule electroluminescent materials have the advantages of a wide variety, easy to purify, and strong chemical modifications. In order to make the luminescent materials to emit light as required, some chromophores or unsaturated groups such as alkene bonds and benzene rings will usually be introduced in the molecular structure design to change the size of the conjugation range of the material, so that the photophysical properties of the material changes. In general, the larger the range of π-electron conjugation system, the longer the wavelength of light emitted by the material. For instance, with the increase of the number of benzene rings, the fluorescence emission peak of <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naphthalene" title="Naphthalene">naphthalene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthracene" title="Anthracene">anthracene</a>,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> and tetracene gradually red-shifted from 283 nm to 480 nm. Common organic small molecule electroluminescent materials include aluminum complexes, <a href="/wiki/Anthracene" title="Anthracene">anthracenes</a>, biphenyl acetylene aryl derivatives, coumarin derivatives,<a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-54">[54]</a> and various fluorochromes. Efficient OLEDs using small molecules were first developed by <a href="/wiki/Ching_W._Tang" class="mw-redirect" title="Ching W. Tang">Ching W. Tang</a> et al.<a href="#cite_note-ApplPhy872-55">[55]</a> at <a href="/wiki/Eastman_Kodak" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastman Kodak">Eastman Kodak</a>. The term OLED traditionally refers specifically to this type of device, though the term SM-OLED is also in use.<a href="#cite_note-kho2-40">[40]</a> Molecules commonly used in OLEDs include organometallic <a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">chelates</a> (for example <a href="/wiki/Tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium" title="Tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium">Alq3</a>, used in the organic light-emitting device reported by Tang et al.), fluorescent and phosphorescent dyes and conjugated <a href="/wiki/Dendrimer" title="Dendrimer">dendrimers</a>. A number of materials are used for their charge transport properties, for example <a href="/wiki/Triphenylamine" title="Triphenylamine">triphenylamine</a> and derivatives are commonly used as materials for hole transport layers.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Fluorescent dyes can be chosen to obtain light emission at different wavelengths, and compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Perylene" title="Perylene">perylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubrene" title="Rubrene">rubrene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quinacridone" title="Quinacridone">quinacridone</a> derivatives are often used.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Alq3 has been used as a green light emitter, electron transport material and as a host for yellow light and red light emitting dyes. Because of the structural flexibility of small-molecule electroluminescent materials, thin films can be prepared by vacuum vapor deposition, which is more expensive and of limited use for large-area devices. The vacuum coating system, however, can make the entire process from film growth to OLED device preparation in a controlled and complete operating environment, helping to obtain uniform and stable films, thus ensuring the final fabrication of high-performance OLED devices.However, small molecule organic dyes are prone to fluorescence quenching<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> in the solid state, resulting in lower luminescence efficiency. The doped OLED devices are also prone to crystallization, which reduces the luminescence and efficiency of the devices. Therefore, the development of devices based on small-molecule electroluminescent materials is limited by high manufacturing costs, poor stability, short life, and other shortcomings. Coherent emission from a laser dye-doped tandem SM-OLED device, excited in the pulsed regime, has been demonstrated.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The emission is nearly diffraction limited with a spectral width similar to that of broadband dye lasers.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Researchers report luminescence from a single polymer molecule, representing the smallest possible organic light-emitting diode (OLED) device.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Scientists will be able to optimize substances to produce more powerful light emissions. Finally, this work is a first step towards making molecule-sized components that combine electronic and optical properties. Similar components could form the basis of a molecular computer.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymer_light-emitting_diodes">Polymer light-emitting diodes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Polymer light-emitting diodes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polyphenylene_vinylene.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Polyphenylene_vinylene.svg/250px-Polyphenylene_vinylene.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Polyphenylene_vinylene.svg/330px-Polyphenylene_vinylene.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Polyphenylene_vinylene.svg/500px-Polyphenylene_vinylene.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="351" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Poly(p-phenylene_vinylene)" title="Poly(p-phenylene vinylene)">poly(p-phenylene vinylene)</a>, used in the first PLED<a href="#cite_note-b-28">[28]</a></figcaption></figure> Polymer light-emitting diodes (PLED, P-OLED), also light-emitting polymers (LEP), involve an <a href="/wiki/Electroluminescence" title="Electroluminescence">electroluminescent</a> <a href="/wiki/Conductive_polymer" title="Conductive polymer">conductive polymer</a> that emits <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> when connected to an external voltage. They are used as a <a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin film</a> for <a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Full-spectrum">full-spectrum</a> colour displays. Polymer OLEDs are quite efficient and require a relatively small amount of power for the amount of light produced. Vacuum deposition is not a suitable method for forming thin films of polymers. If the polymeric OLED films are made by vacuum vapor deposition, the chain elements will be cut off and the original photophysical properties will be compromised. However, polymers can be processed in solution, and <a href="/wiki/Spin_coating" title="Spin coating">spin coating</a> is a common method of depositing thin polymer films. This method is more suited to forming large-area films than thermal evaporation. No vacuum is required, and the emissive materials can also be applied on the <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(printing)" title="Substrate (printing)">substrate</a> by a technique derived from commercial <a href="/wiki/Inkjet_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Inkjet printer">inkjet</a> printing.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> However, as the application of subsequent layers tends to dissolve those already present, formation of multilayer structures is difficult with these methods. The metal cathode may still need to be deposited by thermal evaporation in vacuum. An alternative method to vacuum deposition is to deposit a <a href="/wiki/Langmuir-Blodgett_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Langmuir-Blodgett film">Langmuir-Blodgett film</a>. Typical polymers used in PLED displays include derivatives of <a href="/wiki/Poly(p-phenylene_vinylene)" title="Poly(p-phenylene vinylene)">poly(p-phenylene vinylene)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyfluorene" title="Polyfluorene">polyfluorene</a>. <a href="/wiki/Substitution_reaction" title="Substitution reaction">Substitution</a> of side chains onto the polymer backbone may determine the colour of emitted light<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> or the stability and solubility of the polymer for performance and ease of processing.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> While unsubstituted poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) is typically insoluble, a number of PPVs and related poly(naphthalene vinylene)s (PNVs) that are soluble in organic solvents or water have been prepared via <a href="/wiki/Ring_opening_metathesis_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Ring opening metathesis polymerization">ring opening metathesis polymerization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> These water-soluble polymers or conjugated poly electrolytes (CPEs) also can be used as hole injection layers alone or in combination with <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> like graphene.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phosphorescent_materials">Phosphorescent materials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phosphorescent materials">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ir(mppy)3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ir%28mppy%293.svg/250px-Ir%28mppy%293.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ir%28mppy%293.svg/330px-Ir%28mppy%293.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ir%28mppy%293.svg/500px-Ir%28mppy%293.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="754" /></a><figcaption>Ir(mppy)3, a phosphorescent dopant which emits green light<a href="#cite_note-yang-71">[71]</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phosphorescent_organic_light-emitting_diode" title="Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diode">Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diode</a></div> Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes use the principle of electrophosphorescence to convert electrical energy in an OLED into light in a highly efficient manner,<a href="#cite_note-baldo-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-baldo2-73">[73]</a> with the internal quantum efficiencies of such devices approaching 100%.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> PHOLEDs can be deposited using vacuum deposition through a shadow mask.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Typically, a polymer such as poly(<a href="/wiki/N-vinylcarbazole" class="mw-redirect" title="N-vinylcarbazole">N-vinylcarbazole</a>) is used as a host material to which an organometallic <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">complex</a> is added as a dopant. <a href="/wiki/Organoiridium_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organoiridium compound">Iridium complexes</a><a href="#cite_note-baldo2-73">[73]</a> such as Ir(mppy)3<a href="#cite_note-yang-71">[71]</a> as of 2004 were a focus of research, although complexes based on other heavy metals such as platinum<a href="#cite_note-baldo-72">[72]</a> have also been used. The heavy metal atom at the centre of these complexes exhibits strong spin-orbit coupling, facilitating <a href="/wiki/Intersystem_crossing" title="Intersystem crossing">intersystem crossing</a> between <a href="/wiki/Singlet_state" title="Singlet state">singlet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triplet_state" title="Triplet state">triplet</a> states. By using these phosphorescent materials, both singlet and triplet excitons will be able to decay radiatively, hence improving the internal quantum efficiency of the device compared to a standard OLED where only the singlet states will contribute to emission of light. Applications of OLEDs in solid state lighting require the achievement of high brightness with good <a href="/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space" title="CIE 1931 color space">CIE coordinates</a> (for white emission). The use of macromolecular species like polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) in conjunction with the use of phosphorescent species such as Ir for printed OLEDs have exhibited brightnesses as high as 10,000 cd/m2.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Device_architectures">Device architectures</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Device architectures">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bottom_emission">Bottom emission</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bottom emission">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Structures_of_BEOLED_vs._TEOLED.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Structures_of_BEOLED_vs._TEOLED.png/250px-Structures_of_BEOLED_vs._TEOLED.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Structures_of_BEOLED_vs._TEOLED.png/330px-Structures_of_BEOLED_vs._TEOLED.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Structures_of_BEOLED_vs._TEOLED.png/500px-Structures_of_BEOLED_vs._TEOLED.png 2x" data-file-width="1284" data-file-height="1144" /></a><figcaption>a) Bottom-emitting and b) top-emitting OLED structures; c,d) Schematic diagrams based on bottom-emitting and top-emitting OLEDs with low and high contrast ratio, respectively.</figcaption></figure> The bottom-emission organic light-emitting diode (BE-OLED) is the architecture that was used in the early-stage <a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">AMOLED</a> displays. It had a transparent anode fabricated on a glass substrate, and a shiny reflective cathode. Light is emitted from the transparent anode direction. To reflect all the light towards the anode direction, a relatively thick metal cathode such as aluminum is used. For the anode, high-transparency <a href="/wiki/Indium_tin_oxide" title="Indium tin oxide">indium tin oxide</a> (ITO) was a typical choice to emit as much light as possible.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Organic thin-films, including the emissive layer that actually generates the light, are then sandwiched between the ITO anode and the reflective metal cathode. The downside of bottom emission structure is that the light has to travel through the pixel drive circuits such as the <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">thin-film transistor</a> (TFT) substrate, and the area from which light can be extracted is limited and the light emission efficiency is reduced. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Top_emission">Top emission</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Top emission">edit</a>]</div> An alternative configuration is to switch the mode of emission. A reflective anode, and a transparent (or more often semi-transparent) cathode are used so that the light emits from the cathode side, and this configuration is called top-emission OLED (TE-OLED). Unlike BEOLEDs where the anode is made of transparent conductive ITO, this time the cathode needs to be transparent, and the ITO material is not an ideal choice for the cathode because of a damage issue due to the sputtering process.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Thus, a thin metal film such as pure Ag and the Mg:Ag alloy are used for the semi-transparent cathode due to their high <a href="/wiki/Transmittance" title="Transmittance">transmittance</a> and high <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">conductivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> In contrast to the bottom emission, light is extracted from the opposite side in top emission without the need of passing through multiple drive circuit layers. Thus, the light generated can be extracted more efficiently. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improvements">Improvements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Improvements">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deuterium">Deuterium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Deuterium">edit</a>]</div> Using deuterium instead of hydrogen, in other words deuterated compounds, in red light , green light , blue light and white light OLED light emitting material layers and other layers nearby in OLED displays can improve their brightness by up to 30%. This is achieved by improving the current handling capacity, and lifespan of these materials.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Micro_Lens_Array_(MLA)">Micro Lens Array (MLA)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Micro Lens Array (MLA)">edit</a>]</div> Making indentations shaped like lenses on a transparent layer through which light passes from an OLED light emitting material, reduces the amount of scattered light within the display and directs it forward, improving brightness.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Micro-cavity_theory">Micro-cavity theory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Micro-cavity theory">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sony%27s_Super_Top_Emission_OLED.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sony%27s_Super_Top_Emission_OLED.png/250px-Sony%27s_Super_Top_Emission_OLED.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sony%27s_Super_Top_Emission_OLED.png/330px-Sony%27s_Super_Top_Emission_OLED.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sony%27s_Super_Top_Emission_OLED.png/500px-Sony%27s_Super_Top_Emission_OLED.png 2x" data-file-width="1094" data-file-height="1506" /></a><figcaption>Sony's Super Top Emission OLED technology enhances the color purity of emitted lights.</figcaption></figure> When light waves meet while traveling along the same medium, <a href="/wiki/Wave_interference" title="Wave interference">wave interference</a> occurs. This interference can be constructive or destructive. It is sometimes desirable for several waves of the same frequency to sum up into a wave with higher amplitudes. Since both electrodes are reflective in TEOLED, light reflections can happen within the diode, and they cause more complex <a href="/wiki/Wave_interference" title="Wave interference">interferences</a> than those in BEOLEDs. In addition to the two-beam interference, there exists a multi-resonance interference between two electrodes. Because the structure of TEOLEDs is similar to that of the <a href="/wiki/Fabry%E2%80%93P%C3%A9rot_interferometer" title="Fabry–Pérot interferometer">Fabry-Perot resonator</a> or <a href="/wiki/Optical_cavity" title="Optical cavity">laser resonator</a>, which contains two parallel mirrors comparable to the two reflective electrodes),<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> this effect is especially strong in TEOLED. This two-beam interference and the Fabry-Perot interferences are the main factors in determining the output spectral intensity of OLED. This optical effect is called the "micro-cavity effect." In the case of OLED, that means the cavity in a TEOLED could be especially designed to enhance the light output intensity and color purity with a narrow band of wavelengths, without consuming more power. In TEOLEDs, the microcavity effect commonly occurs, and when and how to restrain or make use of this effect is indispensable for device design. To match the conditions of constructive interference, different layer thicknesses are applied according to the resonance wavelength of that specific color. The thickness conditions are carefully designed and engineered according to the peak resonance emitting wavelengths of the blue light (460 nm), green light (530 nm), and red light (610 nm) color LEDs. This technology greatly improves the light-emission efficiency of OLEDs, and are able to achieve a <a href="/wiki/Wide_Color_Gamut" class="mw-redirect" title="Wide Color Gamut">wider color gamut</a> due to high color purity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Color_filters">Color filters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Color filters">edit</a>]</div> In "<a href="#White_+_color_filter_method">white + color filter method</a>", also known as WOLED,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> red, green, and blue emissions are obtained from the same white-light LEDs using different color filters.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> With this method, the OLED materials produce white light, which is then filtered to obtain the desired RGB colors. This method eliminated the need to deposit three different organic emissive materials side by side, so only one kind of OLED material per layer is used to produce white light. It also eliminated the <a href="#Color_balance">uneven degradation</a> rate of blue pixels vs. red and green pixels. Disadvantages of this method are low color purity and contrast. Also, the filters absorb most of the emitted light, requiring the background white light to be relatively strong to compensate for the drop in brightness, and thus the power consumption for such displays can be higher. Color filters can also be implemented into bottom- and top-emission OLEDs. By adding the corresponding RGB color filters after the semi-transparent cathode, even purer wavelengths of light can be obtained. The use of a microcavity in top-emission OLEDs with color filters also contributes to an increase in the contrast ratio by reducing the reflection of incident ambient light.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> In a conventional panel, a circular polarizer was installed on the panel surface. While this was provided to prevent the reflection of ambient light, it also reduced the light output. By replacing this polarizing layer with color filters, the light intensity is not affected, and essentially all ambient reflected light can be cut, allowing a better contrast on the display panel. This potentially reduced the need for brighter pixels and can lower the power consumption. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_architectures">Other architectures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other architectures">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transparent_OLEDs">Transparent OLEDs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Transparent OLEDs">edit</a>]</div> Transparent OLEDs use transparent or semi-transparent contacts on both sides of the device to create displays that can be made to be both top and bottom emitting (transparent). TOLEDs can greatly improve contrast, making it much easier to view displays in bright sunlight.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> This technology can be used in <a href="/wiki/Head-up_display" title="Head-up display">head-up displays</a>, smart windows or <a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">augmented reality</a> applications. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Graded_heterojunction">Graded heterojunction</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Graded heterojunction">edit</a>]</div> Graded heterojunction OLEDs gradually decrease the ratio of electron holes to electron transporting chemicals.<a href="#cite_note-r2-43">[43]</a> This results in almost double the quantum efficiency of existing OLEDs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stacked_OLEDs">Stacked OLEDs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Stacked OLEDs">edit</a>]</div> Stacked OLEDs use a pixel architecture that stacks the red, green, and blue subpixels on top of one another instead of next to one another, leading to substantial increase in <a href="/wiki/Gamut" title="Gamut">gamut</a> and color depth,<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> and greatly reducing pixel gap. Other display technologies with RGB (and RGBW) pixels mapped next to each other, tend to decrease potential resolution. Tandem OLEDs are similar but have 2 layers of the same color stacked together. This improves the brightness of OLED displays.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inverted_OLED">Inverted OLED</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Inverted OLED">edit</a>]</div> In contrast to a conventional OLED, in which the anode is placed on the substrate, an inverted OLED uses a bottom cathode that can be connected to the drain end of an n-channel TFT, especially for the low-cost <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> TFT backplane useful in the manufacturing of <a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">AMOLED</a> displays.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> All OLED displays (passive and active matrix) use a driver IC, often mounted using the chip-on-glass (COG) technology with an <a href="/wiki/Anisotropic_conductive_film" title="Anisotropic conductive film">anisotropic conductive film</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Color_patterning_technologies">Color patterning technologies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Color patterning technologies">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shadow_mask_patterning_method">Shadow mask patterning method</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Shadow mask patterning method">edit</a>]</div> The most commonly used patterning method for organic light-emitting displays is shadow masking during film deposition,<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> also called the "RGB side-by-side" method or "RGB pixelation" method. Metal sheets with multiple apertures made of low thermal expansion material, such as nickel alloy, are placed between the heated evaporation source and substrate, so that the organic or inorganic material from the evaporation source is masked off, or blocked by the sheet from reaching the substrate in most locations, so the materials are deposited only on the desired locations on the substrate, and the rest is deposited and remains on the sheet. Almost all small OLED displays for smartphones have been manufactured using this method. Fine metal masks (FMMs) made by <a href="/wiki/Photochemical_machining" title="Photochemical machining">photochemical machining</a>, reminiscent of old CRT <a href="/wiki/Shadow_mask" title="Shadow mask">shadow masks</a>, are used in this process. The dot density of the mask will determine the pixel density of the finished display.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Fine Hybrid Masks (FHMs) are lighter than FFMs, reducing bending caused by the mask's own weight, and are made using an electroforming process.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> This method requires heating the electroluminescent materials at 300 °C using a thermal method in a high vacuum of 10−5 Pa. An oxygen meter ensures that no oxygen enters the chamber as it could damage (through oxidation) the electroluminescent material, which is in powder form. The mask is aligned with the mother substrate before every use, and it is placed just below the substrate. The substrate and mask assembly are placed at the top of the deposition chamber.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Afterwards, the electrode layer is deposited, by subjecting silver and aluminum powder to 1000 °C, using an electron beam.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-104">[104]</a> Shadow masks allow for high pixel densities of up to 2,250 DPI (890 dot/cm). High pixel densities are necessary for <a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_headset" title="Virtual reality headset">virtual reality headsets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_+_color_filter_method_(WOLED)">White + color filter method (WOLED)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: White + color filter method (WOLED)">edit</a>]</div> Although the shadow-mask patterning method is a mature technology used from the first OLED manufacturing, it causes many issues like <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dark_spot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dark spot (page does not exist)">dark spot</a> formation due to mask-substrate contact or misalignment of the pattern due to the deformation of shadow mask. Such defect formation can be regarded as trivial when the display size is small, however it causes serious issues when a large display is manufactured, which brings significant production yield loss. To circumvent such issues, white emission devices with 4-sub-pixel color filters (white, red, green and blue) have been used for large televisions. In spite of the light absorption by the color filter, state-of-the-art OLED televisions can reproduce color very well, such as 100% <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a>, and consume little power at the same time. This is done by using an emission spectrum with high human-eye sensitivity, special color filters with a low spectrum overlap, and performance tuning with color statistics into consideration.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> This approach is also called the "Color-by-white" method. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_color_patterning_approaches">Other color patterning approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Other color patterning approaches">edit</a>]</div> There are other types of emerging patterning technologies to increase the manufacturability of OLEDs. Patternable organic light-emitting devices use a light or heat activated electroactive layer. A latent material (<a href="/wiki/PEDOT-TMA" title="PEDOT-TMA">PEDOT-TMA</a>) is included in this layer that, upon activation, becomes highly efficient as a hole injection layer. Using this process, light-emitting devices with arbitrary patterns can be prepared.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Colour patterning can be accomplished by means of a laser, such as a radiation-induced sublimation transfer (RIST).<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Organic vapour jet printing (OVJP) uses an inert carrier gas, such as <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, to transport evaporated organic molecules (as in organic vapour phase deposition). The gas is expelled through a <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometre</a>-sized nozzle or nozzle array close to the substrate as it is being translated. This allows printing arbitrary multilayer patterns without the use of solvents. Like <a href="/wiki/Ink_jet_material_deposition" title="Ink jet material deposition">ink jet material deposition</a>, inkjet etching (IJE) deposits precise amounts of solvent onto a substrate designed to selectively dissolve the substrate material and induce a structure or pattern. Inkjet etching of polymer layers in OLEDs can be used to increase the overall out-coupling efficiency. In OLEDs, light produced from the emissive layers of the OLED is partially transmitted out of the device and partially trapped inside the device by <a href="/wiki/Total_internal_reflection" title="Total internal reflection">total internal reflection</a> (TIR). This trapped light is wave-guided along the interior of the device until it reaches an edge where it is dissipated by either absorption or emission. Inkjet etching can be used to selectively alter the polymeric layers of OLED structures to decrease overall TIR and increase out-coupling efficiency of the OLED. Compared to a non-etched polymer layer, the structured polymer layer in the OLED structure from the IJE process helps to decrease the TIR of the OLED device. IJE solvents are commonly <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic</a> instead of water-based due to their non-acidic nature and ability to effectively dissolve materials at temperatures under the boiling point of water.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Transfer-printing is an emerging technology to assemble large numbers of parallel OLED and AMOLED devices efficiently. It takes advantage of standard metal deposition, <a href="/wiki/Photolithography" title="Photolithography">photolithography</a>, and etching to create alignment marks commonly on glass or other device substrates. Thin polymer adhesive layers are applied to enhance resistance to particles and surface defects. Microscale ICs are transfer-printed onto the adhesive surface and then baked to fully cure adhesive layers. An additional photosensitive polymer layer is applied to the substrate to account for the topography caused by the printed ICs, reintroducing a flat surface. Photolithography and etching removes some polymer layers to uncover conductive pads on the ICs. Afterwards, the anode layer is applied to the device backplane to form the bottom electrode. OLED layers are applied to the anode layer with conventional <a href="/wiki/Vapor_deposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Vapor deposition">vapor deposition</a>, and covered with a conductive metal electrode layer. As of 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit">[update]</a> transfer-printing was capable to print onto target substrates up to 500 mm × 400 mm. This size limit needs to expand for transfer-printing to become a common process for the fabrication of large OLED/AMOLED displays.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Experimental OLED displays using conventional photolithography techniques instead of FMMs have been demonstrated, allowing for large substrate sizes (as it eliminates the need for a mask that needs to be as large as the substrate) and good yield control.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Visionox has announced the use of photolithography for depositing OLED emissive materials.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thin-film_transistor_backplanes">Thin-film transistor backplanes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Thin-film transistor backplanes">edit</a>]</div> For a high resolution display like a TV, a <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">thin-film transistor</a> (TFT) backplane is necessary to drive the pixels correctly. As of 2019, <a href="/wiki/Low-temperature_polycrystalline_silicon" title="Low-temperature polycrystalline silicon">low-temperature polycrystalline silicon</a> (LTPS) – TFT is widely used for commercial <a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">AMOLED</a> displays due to its superior current handling capacity over amorphous silicon (a-Si) TFTs.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> LTPS-TFT has variation of the performance in a display, so various compensation circuits have been reported.<a href="#cite_note-r1-114">[114]</a> Due to the size limitation of the <a href="/wiki/Excimer_laser" title="Excimer laser">excimer laser</a> used for LTPS, the <a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">AMOLED</a> size was limited. To cope with the hurdle related to the panel size, amorphous-silicon/microcrystalline-silicon backplanes have been reported with large display prototype demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Indium_gallium_zinc_oxide" title="Indium gallium zinc oxide">indium gallium zinc oxide</a> (IGZO) backplane can also be used. Large OLED displays usually use AOS (amporphous oxide semiconductor) TFT transistors instead, also called oxide TFTs<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> and these are usually based on IGZO.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Many AMOLED displays use <a href="/wiki/Low-temperature_polycrystalline_silicon#LTPO" title="Low-temperature polycrystalline silicon">LTPO</a> TFT transistors. These transistors offer stability at low refresh rates, and variable refresh rates, which allows for power saving displays that do not show visual artifacts.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Advantages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_CRT,_LCD,_plasma,_and_OLED_displays" title="Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays">Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays</a></div> The different manufacturing process of OLEDs has several advantages over <a href="/wiki/Flat_panel_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat panel display">flat panel displays</a> made with LCD technology. <dl><dt>Lower cost in the future</dt> <dd>OLEDs can be printed onto any suitable <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(printing)" title="Substrate (printing)">substrate</a> by an inkjet printer or even by screen printing,<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> theoretically making them cheaper to produce than LCD or <a href="/wiki/Plasma_display" title="Plasma display">plasma displays</a>. However, fabrication of the OLED substrate as of 2018 is costlier than that for TFT LCDs.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Roll-to-roll vapor-deposition methods for organic devices do allow mass production of thousands of devices per minute for minimal cost; however, this technique also induces problems: devices with multiple layers can be challenging to make because of <a href="/wiki/Printing_registration" title="Printing registration">registration</a> — lining up the different printed layers to the required degree of accuracy.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Lightweight and flexible plastic substrates</dt> <dd>OLED displays can be fabricated on flexible plastic substrates, leading to the possible fabrication of <a href="/wiki/Flexible_organic_light-emitting_diode" title="Flexible organic light-emitting diode">flexible organic light-emitting diodes</a> for other new applications, such as <a href="/wiki/Rollable_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Rollable display">roll-up displays</a> embedded in fabrics or clothing. If a substrate like <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</a> (PET)<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> can be used, the displays may be produced inexpensively. Furthermore, plastic substrates are shatter-resistant, unlike the glass displays used in LCD devices. Flexible OLED displays are made on polyamide plastic films which are bonded to glass panels during production. Once the OLED display is encapsulated, a Laser is used to separate the plastic from the glass in a Laser Lift-Off (LLO) process.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Power efficiency</dt> <dd>LCDs filter the light emitted from a <a href="/wiki/Backlight" title="Backlight">backlight</a>, allowing a small fraction of light through. Thus, they cannot show true black. However, an inactive OLED element does not produce light or consume power, allowing true blacks.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Removing the backlight also makes OLEDs lighter because some substrates are not needed.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Response time</dt> <dd>OLEDs also have a much faster <a href="/wiki/Pixel_response_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Pixel response time">response time</a> than an LCD. Using response time compensation technologies, the fastest modern LCDs can reach response times as low as <a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display#Specifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid crystal display">1 ms</a> for their fastest color transition, and are capable of <a href="/wiki/Refresh_rate" title="Refresh rate">refresh frequencies</a> as high as 240 Hz. According to <a href="/wiki/LG_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="LG Corporation">LG</a>, OLED response times are up to 1,000 times faster than LCD,<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> putting conservative estimates at under 10 μs (0.01 ms), which could theoretically accommodate refresh frequencies approaching 100 kHz (100,000 Hz). Due to their extremely fast response time, OLED displays can also be easily designed to be strobed, creating an effect similar to CRT flicker in order to avoid the <a href="/wiki/Sample-and-hold" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample-and-hold">sample-and-hold</a> behavior seen on both LCDs and some OLED displays, which creates the perception of <a href="/wiki/Motion_blur" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion blur">motion blur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>High dynamic range support</dt> <dd>Because OLEDs can turn off individual pixels showing true black, the contrast ratio of an OLED display can be very large, which allows for representation of <a href="/wiki/High_dynamic_range" title="High dynamic range">high dynamic range</a> (HDR) images and video at high quality. Data must be encoded with a HDR format to display in HDR, and HDR format support varies by OLED display. Maximum (peak) brightness also varies by OLED display, which impacts the dynamic range that can be represented.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Disadvantages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Light_Emitting_Polymer_display_partially_failed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Light_Emitting_Polymer_display_partially_failed.jpg/250px-Light_Emitting_Polymer_display_partially_failed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Light_Emitting_Polymer_display_partially_failed.jpg/330px-Light_Emitting_Polymer_display_partially_failed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Light_Emitting_Polymer_display_partially_failed.jpg/500px-Light_Emitting_Polymer_display_partially_failed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Light-emitting polymer (LEP) display showing partial failure</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oled_display_alterung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Oled_display_alterung.jpg/250px-Oled_display_alterung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Oled_display_alterung.jpg/330px-Oled_display_alterung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Oled_display_alterung.jpg/500px-Oled_display_alterung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="516" /></a><figcaption>An old OLED display showing wear</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lifespan">Lifespan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Lifespan">edit</a>]</div> The biggest technical problem for OLEDs is the limited lifetime of the organic materials. One 2008 technical report on an OLED TV panel found that after 1,000 hours, the blue luminance degraded by 12%, the red by 7% and the green by 8%.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In particular, blue OLEDs at that time had a lifetime of around 14,000 hours to half original brightness (five years at eight hours per day) when used for flat-panel displays. This is lower than the typical lifetime of LCD, LED or <a href="/wiki/Plasma_display" title="Plasma display">PDP</a> technology; each rated for about 25,000–40,000 hours to half brightness, depending on manufacturer and model. One major challenge for OLED displays is the formation of dark spots due to the ingress of oxygen and moisture, which degrades the organic material over time whether or not the display is powered.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In 2016, LG Electronics reported an expected lifetime of 100,000 hours, up from 36,000 hours in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> A US Department of Energy paper shows that the expected lifespans of OLED lighting products goes down with increasing brightness, with an expected lifespan of 40,000 hours at 25% brightness, or 10,000 hours at 100% brightness.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Compared to <a href="/wiki/LCD" class="mw-redirect" title="LCD">LCDs</a>, OLEDs may be more susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Screen_burn-in" title="Screen burn-in">screen burn-in</a> and/or brightness degradation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Degradation">Degradation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Degradation">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This subsection may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details. (April 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Degradation occurs because of the accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">nonradiative recombination</a> centers and luminescence quenchers in the emissive zone. It is said that the chemical breakdown in the semiconductors occurs in four steps: <ol><li>recombination<a href="#cite_note-135">[a]</a> of charge carriers through the absorption of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homolysis_(chemistry)" title="Homolysis (chemistry)">homolytic dissociation</a></li> <li>subsequent radical addition reactions that form π radicals</li> <li>disproportionation between two radicals resulting in hydrogen-atom transfer reactions<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a></li></ol> In 2007, experimental OLEDs were created which can sustain 400 cd/m2 of <a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">luminance</a> for over 198,000 hours for green OLEDs and 62,000 hours for blue OLEDs.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> In 2012, OLED lifetime to half of the initial brightness was improved to 900,000 hours for red, 1,450,000 hours for yellow and 400,000 hours for green at an initial <a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">luminance</a> of 1,000 cd/m2.<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> Proper encapsulation is critical for prolonging an OLED display's lifetime, as the OLED light emitting electroluminescent materials are sensitive to oxygen and moisture. When exposed to moisture or oxygen, the electroluminescent materials in OLEDs degrade as they oxidize, generating black spots and reducing or shrinking the area that emits light, reducing light output. This reduction can occur in a pixel by pixel basis. This can also lead to delamination of the electrode layer, eventually leading to complete panel failure. Degradation occurs three orders of magnitude faster when exposed to moisture than when exposed to oxygen. Encapsulation can be performed by applying an epoxy adhesive with dessicant,<a href="#cite_note-auto-139">[138]</a> by laminating a glass sheet with epoxy glue and dessicant<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> followed by vacuum degassing, or by using Thin-Film Encapsulation (TFE),<a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a> which is a multi-layer coating of alternating organic and inorganic layers. The organic layers are applied using inkjet printing, and the inorganic layers are applied using <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Layer_Deposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic Layer Deposition">Atomic Layer Deposition</a> (ALD). The encapsulation process is carried out under a nitrogen environment, using UV-curable <a href="/wiki/Liquid_optically_clear_adhesive" title="Liquid optically clear adhesive">LOCA</a> glue and the electroluminescent and electrode material deposition processes are carried out under a high vacuum. The encapsulation and material deposition processes are carried out by a single machine, after the <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">thin-film transistors</a> have been applied. The transistors are applied in a process that is the same for LCDs. The electroluminescent materials can also be applied using inkjet printing.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-145">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-139">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Color_balance">Color balance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Color balance">edit</a>]</div> The OLED material used to produce blue light degrades much more rapidly than the materials used to produce other colors; in other words, blue light output will decrease relative to the other colors of light. This variation in the differential color output will change the <a href="/wiki/White_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="White balance">color balance</a> of the display, and is much more noticeable than a uniform decrease in overall luminance.<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> This can be avoided partially by adjusting the color balance, but this may require advanced control circuits and input from a knowledgeable user. More commonly, though, manufacturers optimize the size of the R, G and B subpixels to reduce the current density through the subpixel in order to equalize lifetime at full luminance. For example, a blue subpixel may be 75% larger than the green subpixel. The red subpixel may be 10% larger than the green. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efficiency_of_blue_OLEDs">Efficiency of blue OLEDs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Efficiency of blue OLEDs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This subsection may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details. (April 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Improvements to the efficiency and lifetime of blue OLEDs is vital to the success of OLEDs as replacements for LCD technology. Considerable research has been invested in developing blue OLEDs with high <a href="/wiki/External_quantum_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="External quantum efficiency">external quantum efficiency</a>, as well as a deeper blue color.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> Since 2012, research focuses on organic materials exhibiting <a href="/wiki/TADF" class="mw-redirect" title="TADF">thermally activated delayed fluorescence</a> (TADF), discovered at <a href="/wiki/Kyushu_University#Center_for_Organic_Photonics_and_Electronics_Research" title="Kyushu University">Kyushu University OPERA</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">UC Santa Barbara CPOS</a>. TADF would allow stable and high-efficiency solution processable (meaning that the organic materials are layered in solutions producing thinner layers) blue emitters, with <a href="/wiki/Internal_quantum_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal quantum efficiency">internal quantum efficiencies</a> reaching 100%.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> Early in 2017,<a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-54">[54]</a> TADF materials based on oxygen-based fully bridged boron-type electron accepttors had achieved huge breakthrough in their proprities. The external quantum efficiency of TADF-OLED for blue and green light had achieved 38%, with thin full-width half-maximum and high color purity. In 2022, Han et al.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> synthesized a new D-A type luminescent material, TDBA-Cz, and used the m-AC-DBNA synthesized by Meng et al. as a control to investigate the effect of the substitution site of the carbazole unit as an electron donor on the oxygen-bridged triphenylboron electron acceptor unit on the photophysical properties of the overall molecule. It was found that the introduction of two carbazole units into the same benzene ring of the oxygen-bridged triphenylboron electron acceptor unit could effectively suppress the conformational relaxation of the molecule during the radiative transition, resulting in narrow bandwidth blue light emission. In addition, TDBA-Cz is the first reported blue material to achieve both a FWHM down to 45 nm and a maximum EQE of 21.4% in a non-doped TADF-OLED. Blue TADF emitters are expected to market by 2020<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> and would be used for <a href="#White_+_color_filter_method">WOLED</a> displays with phosphorescent color filters, as well as blue OLED displays with ink-printed <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_display#QDCF" title="Quantum dot display">QD color filters</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_damage">Water damage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Water damage">edit</a>]</div> Water can instantly damage the organic materials of the displays. Therefore, improved sealing processes are important for practical manufacturing. Water damage especially may limit the longevity of more flexible displays.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outdoor_performance">Outdoor performance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Outdoor performance">edit</a>]</div> As an emissive display technology, OLEDs rely completely upon converting electricity to light, unlike most LCDs which are to some extent reflective. <a href="/wiki/Electronic_paper" title="Electronic paper">E-paper</a> leads the way in efficiency with ~ 33% ambient light reflectivity, enabling the display to be used without any internal light source. The metallic cathode in an OLED acts as a mirror, with reflectance approaching 80%, leading to poor readability in bright ambient light such as outdoors. However, with the proper application of a <a href="/wiki/Circular_polarizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular polarizer">circular polarizer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antireflective_coating" class="mw-redirect" title="Antireflective coating">antireflective coatings</a>, the diffuse reflectance can be reduced to less than 0.1%. With 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Foot-candle" title="Foot-candle">fc</a> incident illumination (typical test condition for simulating outdoor illumination), that yields an approximate <a href="/w/index.php?title=Photopic_contrast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Photopic contrast (page does not exist)">photopic contrast</a> of 5:1. Advances in OLED technologies, however, enable OLEDs to become actually better than LCDs in bright sunlight. The <a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">AMOLED</a> display in the <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_S5" class="mw-redirect" title="Galaxy S5">Galaxy S5</a>, for example, was found to outperform all LCD displays on the market in terms of power usage, brightness and reflectance.<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_consumption">Power consumption</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Power consumption">edit</a>]</div> While an OLED will consume around 40% of the power of an LCD displaying an image that is primarily black, for the majority of images it will consume 60–80% of the power of an LCD. However, an OLED can use more than 300% power to display an image with a white background, such as a document or web site.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a> This can lead to reduced battery life in mobile devices when white backgrounds are used. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Screen_flicker">Screen flicker</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Screen flicker">edit</a>]</div> Many OLEDs use <a href="/wiki/Pulse_width_modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse width modulation">pulse width modulation</a> to display colour/brightness gradations. For example, a pixel instructed to display gray will flicker on and off rapidly, creating a subtle strobe effect.<a href="#cite_note-pwm-158">[157]</a> The alternative way to decrease brightness would be to decrease power to the display, which would eliminate screen flicker to the detriment of <a href="/wiki/Colour_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour balance">colour balance</a>, which deteriorates as brightness decreases. However, use of PWM gradations may be more harmful for eye health.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturers_and_commercial_uses">Manufacturers and commercial uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Manufacturers and commercial uses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nexus_one_screen_microscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Nexus_one_screen_microscope.jpg/250px-Nexus_one_screen_microscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Nexus_one_screen_microscope.jpg/330px-Nexus_one_screen_microscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Nexus_one_screen_microscope.jpg/500px-Nexus_one_screen_microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Magnified image of the <a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">AMOLED</a> screen on the Google <a href="/wiki/Nexus_One" title="Nexus One">Nexus One</a> smartphone using the <a href="/wiki/PenTile_RGBG" class="mw-redirect" title="PenTile RGBG">RGBG</a> system of the <a href="/wiki/PenTile_Matrix_Family" class="mw-redirect" title="PenTile Matrix Family">PenTile Matrix Family</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OLEDScreen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/OLEDScreen.jpg/250px-OLEDScreen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/OLEDScreen.jpg/330px-OLEDScreen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/OLEDScreen.jpg/500px-OLEDScreen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A 3.8 cm (1.5 in) OLED display from a Creative <a href="/wiki/ZEN_V" title="ZEN V">ZEN V</a> media player</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aquis_Plaza_OLED_Kunstwerk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Aquis_Plaza_OLED_Kunstwerk.jpg/250px-Aquis_Plaza_OLED_Kunstwerk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Aquis_Plaza_OLED_Kunstwerk.jpg/330px-Aquis_Plaza_OLED_Kunstwerk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Aquis_Plaza_OLED_Kunstwerk.jpg/500px-Aquis_Plaza_OLED_Kunstwerk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="4352" /></a><figcaption>OLED lighting in a <a href="/wiki/Shopping_mall" title="Shopping mall">shopping mall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></figcaption></figure> Almost all OLED manufacturers rely on material deposition equipment that is only made by a handful of companies,<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> the most notable one being <a href="/wiki/Canon_Tokki" title="Canon Tokki">Canon Tokki</a>, a unit of <a href="/wiki/Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon Inc.</a> although Ulvac and Sunic System are also notable.<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> Canon Tokki is reported to have a near-monopoly of the giant OLED-manufacturing vacuum machines, notable for their 100-metre (330 ft) size.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a> has relied solely on Canon Tokki in its bid to introduce its own OLED displays for the iPhones released in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> The electroluminescent materials needed for OLEDs are also made by a handful of companies, some of them being Merck, Universal Display Corporation and LG Chem.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> The machines that apply these materials can operate continuously for 5–6 days, and can process a mother substrate in 5 minutes.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a> OLED displays are mainly made by Samsung Display and LG Display.<a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a> OLED technology is used in commercial applications such as displays for mobile phones and portable <a href="/wiki/Digital_media_player" title="Digital media player">digital media players</a>, car radios and <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital cameras</a> among others, as well as lighting.<a href="#cite_note-:0-168">[167]</a> Such portable display applications favor the high light output of OLEDs for readability in sunlight and their low power drain. Portable displays are also used intermittently, so the lower lifespan of organic displays is less of an issue. Prototypes have been made of flexible and rollable displays which use OLEDs' unique characteristics. Applications in flexible signs and lighting are also being developed.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> OLED lighting offers several advantages over LED lighting, such as higher quality illumination, more diffuse light source, and panel shapes.<a href="#cite_note-:0-168">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> Lighting has made OLED lighting samples under the brand name "Lumiblade" available online<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Novaled_AG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Novaled AG (page does not exist)">Novaled AG</a> based in Dresden, Germany, introduced a line of OLED desk lamps called "Victory" in September, 2011.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nokia" title="Nokia">Nokia</a> introduced OLED mobile phones including the <a href="/wiki/Nokia_N85" title="Nokia N85">N85</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nokia_N86_8MP" title="Nokia N86 8MP">N86 8MP</a>, both of which feature an AMOLED display. OLEDs have also been used in most <a href="/wiki/Motorola" title="Motorola">Motorola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a> color cell phones, as well as some <a href="/wiki/HTC_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="HTC Corporation">HTC</a>, <a href="/wiki/LG" title="LG">LG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sony_Ericsson" class="mw-redirect" title="Sony Ericsson">Sony Ericsson</a> models.<a href="#cite_note-cellphone-172">[171]</a> OLED technology can also be found in digital media players such as the Creative <a href="/wiki/ZEN_V" title="ZEN V">ZEN V</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Iriver_clix" class="mw-redirect" title="Iriver clix">iriver clix</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zune_HD" title="Zune HD">Zune HD</a> and the Sony <a href="/wiki/Walkman_X_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="Walkman X Series">Walkman X Series</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> and HTC <a href="/wiki/Nexus_One" title="Nexus One">Nexus One</a> smartphone includes an AMOLED screen, as does HTC's own <a href="/wiki/HTC_Desire" title="HTC Desire">Desire</a> and <a href="/wiki/HTC_Legend" title="HTC Legend">Legend</a> phones. However, due to supply shortages of the Samsung-produced displays, certain HTC models will use Sony's <a href="/wiki/S-LCD" class="mw-redirect" title="S-LCD">SLCD</a> displays in the future,<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> while the Google and Samsung <a href="/wiki/Nexus_S" title="Nexus S">Nexus S</a> smartphone will use "Super Clear LCD" instead in some countries.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> OLED displays were used in watches made by Fossil (JR-9465) and Diesel (DZ-7086). Other manufacturers of OLED panels include <a href="/wiki/Anwell_Technologies_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Anwell Technologies Limited">Anwell Technologies Limited</a> (Hong Kong),<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/AU_Optronics" class="mw-redirect" title="AU Optronics">AU Optronics</a> (Taiwan),<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chimei_Innolux_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chimei Innolux Corporation">Chimei Innolux Corporation</a> (Taiwan),<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/LG" title="LG">LG</a> (Korea),<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> stated in a press release in May 2010, that they can produce a 50-inch OLED TV in two minutes with a new printing technology. If this can be scaled up in terms of manufacturing, then the total cost of OLED TVs would be greatly reduced. DuPont also states that OLED TVs made with this less expensive technology can last up to 15 years if left on for a normal eight-hour day.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> The use of OLEDs may be subject to <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a> held by <a href="/wiki/Universal_Display_Corporation" title="Universal Display Corporation">Universal Display Corporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastman_Kodak" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastman Kodak">Eastman Kodak</a>, <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Royal Philips Electronics</a>, numerous universities and others.<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a> By 2008, thousands of patents associated with OLEDs, came from larger corporations and smaller technology companies.<a href="#cite_note-kho2-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Flexible_organic_light-emitting_diode" title="Flexible organic light-emitting diode">Flexible OLED</a> displays have been used by manufacturers to create curved displays such as the <a href="/wiki/Samsung_Galaxy_S7" title="Samsung Galaxy S7">Galaxy S7 Edge</a> but they were not in devices that can be flexed by the users.<a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> Samsung demonstrated a roll-out display in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:125px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Foldable_Smartphones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Foldable_Smartphones.jpg/250px-Foldable_Smartphones.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Foldable_Smartphones.jpg/330px-Foldable_Smartphones.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Foldable_Smartphones.jpg/500px-Foldable_Smartphones.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12000" data-file-height="9000" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:125px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Foldable_Phones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Foldable_Phones.jpg/167px-Foldable_Phones.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Foldable_Phones.jpg/251px-Foldable_Phones.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Foldable_Phones.jpg/334px-Foldable_Phones.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12000" data-file-height="9000" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Samsung <a href="/wiki/Foldable_smartphone" title="Foldable smartphone">foldable smartphones</a></div></div></div></div> On 31 October 2018, <a href="/wiki/Royole" title="Royole">Royole</a>, a Chinese electronics company, unveiled the world's first foldable screen phone featuring a flexible OLED display.<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> On 20 February 2019, <a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a> announced the <a href="/wiki/Samsung_Galaxy_Fold" title="Samsung Galaxy Fold">Samsung Galaxy Fold</a> with a foldable OLED display from Samsung Display, its majority-owned subsidiary.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> At <a href="/wiki/Mobile_World_Congress" title="Mobile World Congress">MWC</a> 2019 on 25 February 2019, <a href="/wiki/Huawei" title="Huawei">Huawei</a> announced the <a href="/wiki/Huawei_Mate_X" title="Huawei Mate X">Huawei Mate X</a> featuring a foldable OLED display from <a href="/wiki/BOE_Technology_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="BOE Technology Group">BOE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a> The 2010s also saw the wide adoption of tracking gate-line in pixel (TGP), which moves the driving circuitry from the borders of the display to in between the display's pixels, allowing for narrow bezels.<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a> In 2023 the German startup Inuru has announced to manufacture low-cost OLED with printing for packaging and fashion applications.<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Fashion">edit</a>]</div> Textiles incorporating OLEDs are an innovation in the fashion world and pose for a way to integrate lighting to bring inert objects to a whole new level of fashion. The hope is to combine the comfort and low cost properties of textile with the OLEDs properties of illumination and low energy consumption. Although this scenario of illuminated clothing is highly plausible, challenges are still a road block. Some issues include: the lifetime of the OLED, rigidness of flexible foil substrates, and the lack of research in making more fabric like photonic textiles.<a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automotive">Automotive</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Automotive">edit</a>]</div> The number of automakers using OLEDs is still rare and limited to the high-end of the market. For example, the 2010 <a href="/wiki/Lexus_RX" title="Lexus RX">Lexus RX</a> features an OLED display instead of a thin film transistor (TFT-LCD) display. A Japanese manufacturer <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Electronic_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pioneer Electronic Corporation">Pioneer Electronic Corporation</a> produced the first car stereos with a monochrome OLED display, which was also the world's first OLED product.<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a> The Aston Martin DB9 incorporated the world's first automotive OLED display,<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a> which was manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Yazaki" title="Yazaki">Yazaki</a>,<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> followed by the 2004 Jeep Grand Cherokee and the Chevrolet Corvette C6.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a> The 2015 <a href="/wiki/Hyundai_Sonata" title="Hyundai Sonata">Hyundai Sonata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kia_Soul" title="Kia Soul">Kia Soul</a> EV use a 3.5-inch white PMOLED display. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Company-specific_applications">Company-specific applications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Company-specific applications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Samsung">Samsung</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Samsung">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dynamic_AMOLED.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Dynamic_AMOLED.jpg/250px-Dynamic_AMOLED.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Dynamic_AMOLED.jpg/330px-Dynamic_AMOLED.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Dynamic_AMOLED.jpg/500px-Dynamic_AMOLED.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Samsung AMOLED displays</figcaption></figure> By 2004, Samsung Display, a subsidiary of <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>'s largest <a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">conglomerate</a> and a former Samsung-<a href="/wiki/NEC" title="NEC">NEC</a> joint venture, was the world's largest OLED manufacturer, producing 40% of the OLED displays made in the world,<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a> and as of 2010, has a 98% share of the global <a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">AMOLED</a> market.<a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a> The company is leading the world of OLED industry, generating $100.2 million out of the total $475 million revenues in the global OLED market in 2006.<a href="#cite_note-findarticles.com-198">[197]</a> As of 2006, it held more than 600 American patents and more than 2800 international patents, making it the largest owner of AMOLED technology patents.<a href="#cite_note-findarticles.com-198">[197]</a> Samsung SDI announced in 2005, the world's largest OLED TV at the time, at 21 inches (53 cm).<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a> This OLED featured the highest resolution at the time, of 6.22 million pixels. In addition, the company adopted active matrix-based technology for its low power consumption and high-resolution qualities. This was exceeded in January 2008, when Samsung showcased the world's largest and thinnest OLED TV at the time, at 31 inches (78 cm) and 4.3 mm.<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> In May 2008, Samsung unveiled an ultra-thin 12.1 inch (30 cm) laptop OLED display concept, with a 1,280×768 resolution with infinite contrast ratio.<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> According to Woo Jong Lee, Vice President of the Mobile Display Marketing Team at Samsung SDI, the company expected OLED displays to be used in notebook PCs as soon as 2010.<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a> In October 2008, Samsung showcased the world's thinnest OLED display, also the first to be "flappable" and bendable.<a href="#cite_note-flapping-203">[202]</a> It measures just 0.05 mm (thinner than paper), yet a Samsung staff member said that it is "technically possible to make the panel thinner".<a href="#cite_note-flapping-203">[202]</a> To achieve this thickness, Samsung etched an OLED panel that uses a normal glass substrate. The drive circuit was formed by low-temperature polysilicon TFTs. Also, low-molecular organic EL materials were employed. The pixel count of the display is 480 × 272. The contrast ratio is 100,000:1, and the luminance is 200 cd/m2. The colour reproduction range is 100% of the NTSC standard. At the <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Electronics_Show" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer Electronics Show">Consumer Electronics Show (CES)</a> in January 2010, Samsung demonstrated a laptop computer with a large, transparent OLED display featuring up to 40% transparency<a href="#cite_note-laptoptransparent-204">[203]</a> and an animated OLED display in a photo ID card.<a href="#cite_note-photoid-205">[204]</a> Samsung's 2010 AMOLED smartphones used their <a href="/wiki/Super_AMOLED" class="mw-redirect" title="Super AMOLED">Super AMOLED</a> trademark, with the <a href="/wiki/Samsung_Wave_S8500" title="Samsung Wave S8500">Samsung Wave S8500</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samsung_i9000_Galaxy_S" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsung i9000 Galaxy S">Samsung i9000 Galaxy S</a> being launched in June 2010. In January 2011, Samsung announced their Super AMOLED Plus displays, which offer several advances over the older <a href="/wiki/Super_AMOLED" class="mw-redirect" title="Super AMOLED">Super AMOLED</a> displays: real stripe matrix (50% more sub pixels), thinner form factor, brighter image and an 18% reduction in energy consumption.<a href="#cite_note-Super-Amoled-PLus-206">[205]</a> At CES 2012, Samsung introduced the first 55" TV screen that uses Super OLED technology.<a href="#cite_note-CES-2012-review-207">[206]</a> On 8 January 2013, at CES Samsung unveiled a unique curved 4K Ultra S9 OLED television, which they state provides an "IMAX-like experience" for viewers.<a href="#cite_note-Samsung's_curved_OLED_TV_provides_an_'IMAX-like'_experience-208">[207]</a> On 13 August 2013, Samsung announced availability of a 55-inch curved OLED TV (model KN55S9C) in the US at a price point of $8999.99.<a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a> On 6 September 2013, Samsung launched its 55-inch curved OLED TV (model KE55S9C) in the United Kingdom with John Lewis.<a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a> Samsung introduced the Galaxy Round smartphone in the Korean market in October 2013. The device features a 1080p screen, measuring 5.7 inches (14 cm), that curves on the vertical axis in a rounded case. The corporation has promoted the following advantages: A new feature called "Round Interaction" that allows users to look at information by tilting the handset on a flat surface with the screen off, and the feel of one continuous transition when the user switches between home screens.<a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a> Samsung released a new line of OLED TVs in 2022, its first using the technology since 2013.<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a> They use panels sourced from Samsung Display; previously, LG was the sole manufacturer of OLED panels for TVs.<a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sony">Sony</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Sony">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sony_oled.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Sony_oled.jpg/250px-Sony_oled.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Sony_oled.jpg/330px-Sony_oled.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Sony_oled.jpg/500px-Sony_oled.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sony_XEL-1" title="Sony XEL-1">Sony XEL-1</a>, the world's first OLED TV<a href="#cite_note-xel1-35">[35]</a> (front)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Sony_CLI%C3%89_PEG-VZ90" title="Sony CLIÉ PEG-VZ90">Sony CLIÉ PEG-VZ90</a> was released in 2004, being the first PDA to feature an OLED screen.<a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a> Other Sony products to feature OLED screens include the MZ-RH1 portable minidisc recorder, released in 2006<a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Walkman_X_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="Walkman X Series">Walkman X Series</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a> At the 2007, <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley" title="Las Vegas Valley">Las Vegas</a> <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Electronics_Show" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer Electronics Show">Consumer Electronics Show</a> (CES), Sony showcased a 11-inch (28 cm), (resolution 960×540) and 27-inch (69 cm), full HD resolution at 1920 × 1080 OLED TV models.<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> Both claimed 1,000,000:1 <a href="/wiki/Contrast_ratio" title="Contrast ratio">contrast ratios</a> and total thicknesses (including bezels) of 5 mm. In April 2007, Sony announced it would manufacture 1000 11-inch (28 cm) OLED TVs per month for market testing purposes.<a href="#cite_note-218">[217]</a> On 1 October 2007, Sony announced that the 11-inch (28 cm) model <a href="/wiki/Sony_XEL-1" title="Sony XEL-1">XEL-1</a>, was the first commercial OLED TV<a href="#cite_note-xel1-35">[35]</a> and it was released in Japan in December 2007.<a href="#cite_note-219">[218]</a> In May 2007, Sony publicly unveiled a video of a 2.5-inch (6.4 cm) flexible OLED screen which is only 0.3 millimeters thick.<a href="#cite_note-220">[219]</a> At the Display 2008 exhibition, Sony demonstrated a 0.2 mm thick 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) display with a resolution of 320×200 pixels and a 0.3 mm thick 11-inch (28 cm) display with 960×540 pixels resolution, one-tenth the thickness of the XEL-1.<a href="#cite_note-221">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[221]</a> In July 2008, a Japanese government body said it would fund a joint project of leading firms, which is to develop a key technology to produce large, energy-saving organic displays. The project involves one laboratory and 10 companies including Sony Corp. <a href="/wiki/New_Energy_and_Industrial_Technology_Development_Organization" title="New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization">NEDO</a> said the project was aimed at developing a core technology to mass-produce 40 inch or larger OLED displays in the late 2010s.<a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a> In October 2008, Sony published results of research it carried out with the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Planck Institute">Max Planck Institute</a> over the possibility of mass-market bending displays, which could replace rigid LCDs and plasma screens. Eventually, bendable, <a href="/wiki/See-through_display" title="See-through display">see-through displays</a> could be stacked to produce 3D images with much greater contrast ratios and <a href="/wiki/Viewing_angle" title="Viewing angle">viewing angles</a> than existing products.<a href="#cite_note-224">[223]</a> Sony exhibited a 24.5" (62 cm) prototype OLED 3D television during the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2010.<a href="#cite_note-engadget1-225">[224]</a> In January 2011, Sony announced the <a href="/wiki/PlayStation_Vita" title="PlayStation Vita">PlayStation Vita</a> handheld game console (the successor to the <a href="/wiki/PlayStation_Portable" title="PlayStation Portable">PSP</a>) will feature a 5-inch OLED screen.<a href="#cite_note-usatoday-226">[225]</a> On 17 February 2011, Sony announced its 25" (63.5 cm) OLED Professional Reference Monitor aimed at the Cinema and high end Drama Post Production market.<a href="#cite_note-Sony_Professional-227">[226]</a> On 25 June 2012, Sony and Panasonic announced a joint venture for creating low cost mass production OLED televisions by 2013.<a href="#cite_note-sonypan-228">[227]</a> Sony unveiled its first OLED TV since 2008 at <a href="/wiki/CES_2017" class="mw-redirect" title="CES 2017">CES 2017</a> called A1E. It revealed two other models in 2018 one at <a href="/wiki/CES_2018" class="mw-redirect" title="CES 2018">CES 2018</a> called A8F and other a Master Series TV called A9F. At <a href="/wiki/CES_2019" class="mw-redirect" title="CES 2019">CES 2019</a> they unveiled another two models one the A8G and the other another Bravia Series TV called A9G. Then, at <a href="/wiki/CES_2020" class="mw-redirect" title="CES 2020">CES 2020</a>, they revealed the A8H, which was effectively an A9G in terms of picture quality but with some compromises due to its lower cost. At the same event, they also revealed a 48-inch version of the A9G, making this its smallest OLED TV since the XEL-1.<a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="LG">LG</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: LG">edit</a>]</div> On 9 April 2009, LG acquired <a href="/wiki/Kodak" title="Kodak">Kodak</a>'s OLED business and started to utilize white OLED technology.<a href="#cite_note-233">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[233]</a> As of 2010, <a href="/wiki/LG_Electronics" title="LG Electronics">LG Electronics</a> produced one model of OLED television, the 15-inch (38 cm) 15EL9500<a href="#cite_note-LG-235">[234]</a> and had announced a 31-inch (79 cm) OLED 3D television for March 2011.<a href="#cite_note-236">[235]</a> On 26 December 2011, LG officially announced the "world's largest 55-inch (140 cm) OLED panel" and featured it at CES 2012.<a href="#cite_note-237">[236]</a> In late 2012, LG announces the launch of the 55EM9600 OLED television in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-238">[237]</a> In January 2015, LG Display signed a long-term agreement with Universal Display Corporation for the supply of OLED materials and the right to use their patented OLED emitters.<a href="#cite_note-239">[238]</a> As of 2022, LG produces the world's largest OLED TV, at 97 inches.<a href="#cite_note-240">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[240]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mitsubishi">Mitsubishi</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Mitsubishi">edit</a>]</div> Lumiotec is the first company in the world developing and selling, since January 2011, mass-produced OLED lighting panels with such brightness and long lifetime. Lumiotec is a joint venture of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, ROHM, Toppan Printing, and Mitsui & Co. On 1 June 2011, <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Electric" title="Mitsubishi Electric">Mitsubishi Electric</a> installed a 6-meter OLED 'sphere' in Tokyo's Science Museum.<a href="#cite_note-242">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recom_Group">Recom Group</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Recom Group">edit</a>]</div> On 6 January 2011, Los Angeles-based technology company Recom Group introduced the first small screen consumer application of the OLED at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas. This was a 2.8" (7 cm) OLED display being used as a wearable video name tag.<a href="#cite_note-243">[242]</a> At the Consumer Electronics Show in 2012, Recom Group introduced the world's first video mic flag incorporating three 2.8" (7 cm) OLED displays on a standard broadcaster's mic flag. The video mic flag allowed video content and advertising to be shown on a broadcasters standard mic flag.<a href="#cite_note-244">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dell">Dell</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Dell">edit</a>]</div> On 6 January 2016, Dell announced the Ultrasharp UP3017Q OLED monitor at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas.<a href="#cite_note-245">[244]</a> The monitor was announced to feature a 30-inch (76 cm) 4K UHD OLED panel with a 120 Hz refresh rate, 0.1 millisecond response time, and a contrast ratio of 400,000:1. The monitor was set to sell at a price of $4,999 and release in March, 2016, just a few months later. As the end of March rolled around, the monitor was not released to the market and Dell did not speak on reasons for the delay. Reports suggested that Dell canceled the monitor as the company was unhappy with the image quality of the OLED panel, especially the amount of color drift that it displayed when viewed from the sides.<a href="#cite_note-246">[245]</a> On 13 April 2017, Dell finally released the UP3017Q OLED monitor to the market at a price of $3,499 ($1,500 less than its original spoken price of $4,999 at CES 2016). In addition to the price drop, the monitor featured a 60 Hz refresh rate and a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1. As of June, 2017, the monitor is no longer available to purchase from Dell's website. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Apple">Apple</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Apple">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a> began using OLED panels in its watches in 2015 and in its laptops in 2016 with the introduction of an OLED touchbar to the MacBook Pro.<a href="#cite_note-247">[246]</a> In 2017, Apple announced the introduction of their tenth anniversary <a href="/wiki/IPhone_X" title="IPhone X">iPhone X</a> with their own optimized OLED display licensed from Universal Display Corporation.<a href="#cite_note-248">[247]</a> With the exception of the <a href="/wiki/IPhone_SE" title="IPhone SE">iPhone SE</a> line, iPhone XR and iPhone 11, all iPhones released since then have also featured OLED displays. In 2024, Apple announced the <a href="/wiki/IPad_Pro_(7th_generation)" title="IPad Pro (7th generation)">7th generation iPad Pro</a>, which featured a "tandem OLED"<a href="#cite_note-249">[248]</a> panel in an attempt to increase the panel's brightness. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nintendo">Nintendo</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Nintendo">edit</a>]</div> A third model of <a href="/wiki/Nintendo" title="Nintendo">Nintendo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nintendo_Switch" title="Nintendo Switch">Switch</a>, a hybrid gaming system, features an OLED panel in place of the original model's <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">LCD</a> panel. Announced in the summer of 2021, it was released on 8 October 2021.<a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Chemical_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation">Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation</a> (MCC), a subsidiary of <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Chemical_Holdings" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings">Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings</a>, developed an OLED panel with a 30,000-hour life, twice that of conventional OLED panels.<a href="#cite_note-251">[250]</a> The search for efficient OLED materials has been extensively supported by simulation methods; it is possible to calculate important properties computationally, independent of experimental input,<a href="#cite_note-252">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[252]</a> making materials development cheaper. On 18 October 2018, <a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a> showed of their research roadmap at their 2018 Samsung OLED Forum. This included Fingerprint on Display (FoD), Under Panel Sensor (UPS), Haptic on Display (HoD) and Sound on Display (SoD).<a href="#cite_note-254">[253]</a> Various venders are also researching cameras under OLEDs (Under Display Cameras). According to IHS Markit <a href="/wiki/Huawei" title="Huawei">Huawei</a> has partnered with <a href="/wiki/BOE_Technology_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="BOE Technology Group">BOE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oppo" title="Oppo">Oppo</a> with China Star Optoelectronics Technology (CSOT), <a href="/wiki/Xiaomi" title="Xiaomi">Xiaomi</a> with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Visionox&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Visionox (page does not exist)">Visionox</a>.<a href="#cite_note-255">[254]</a> In 2020, researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Queensland_University_of_Technology" title="Queensland University of Technology">Queensland University of Technology</a> (QUT) proposed using <a href="/wiki/Human_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Human hair">human hair</a> which is a source of carbon and nitrogen to create OLED displays.<a href="#cite_note-256">[255]</a> In 2025, researchers from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Turku" title="University of Turku">University of Turku</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> developed a model showing that <a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">polariton</a> OLEDs could dramatically improve efficiency. By leveraging hybrid light-matter states, polariton OLEDs could increase dark-to-bright state conversion by up to 10 million times. The breakthrough demonstrated the potential of single-molecule strong coupling, though large-scale application would remain challenging due to the need for new device architectures or molecules.<a href="#cite_note-257">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/40px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/60px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_display_technology" title="Comparison of display technology">Comparison of display technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-emission_display" title="Field-emission display">Field-emission display</a> – type of displayPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat-panel_display" title="Flat-panel display">Flat-panel display</a> – Electronic display technology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_electronics" title="Flexible electronics">Flexible electronics</a> – Mounting of electronic devices on flexible plastic substrates</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_organic_light-emitting_diode" title="Flexible organic light-emitting diode">Flexible organic light-emitting diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List of emerging technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flat_panel_display_manufacturers" title="List of flat panel display manufacturers">List of flat panel display manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_electronics" title="Molecular electronics">Molecular electronics</a> – Branch of chemistry and electronics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic light-emitting transistor</a> – form of transistor that emits lightPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a> – Electronic devices created by various printing methods</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_display" title="Quantum dot display">Quantum dot display</a> – Type of display device</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roll-to-roll_processing" title="Roll-to-roll processing">Roll-to-roll processing</a> – countinous printing method that prints directly onto a roll of fabric or other materialsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-on-dark_color_scheme" title="Light-on-dark color scheme">Light-on-dark color scheme</a> – Type of color scheme (Dark Mode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-conduction_electron-emitter_display" title="Surface-conduction electron-emitter display">Surface-conduction electron-emitter display</a> – CRT screen</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LED_display" title="LED display">LED display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroLED" title="MicroLED">microLED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LED-backlit_LCD#Mini_LED" title="LED-backlit LCD">Mini LED</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> The energy absorbed by a material is released in the form of photons. Generally these photons contain the same or less energy than those initially absorbed. This effect is how LEDs create light. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sel.co.jp/en/technology/oled.html">"Organic EL - R&D"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Shunpei_Yamazaki" title="Shunpei Yamazaki">Semiconductor Energy Laboratory</a>. 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Advanced Functional Materials. 25 (13): 1955–1971. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fadfm.201403004">10.1002/adfm.201403004</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0001-6CD1-A">21.11116/0000-0001-6CD1-A</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18575622">18575622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advanced+Functional+Materials&rft.atitle=Modeling+of+Organic+Light+Emitting+Diodes%3A+From+Molecular+to+Device+Properties&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1955-%3C%2Fspan%3E1971&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F21.11116%2F0000-0001-6CD1-A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18575622%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fadfm.201403004&rft.aulast=Kordt&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOLED" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_is_working_on_an_indisplay_frontfacing_camera-news-33821.php">"Samsung is working on an in-display front-facing camera"</a>. GSMArena.com. Retrieved 16 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GSMArena.com&rft.atitle=Samsung+is+working+on+an+in-display+front-facing+camera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gsmarena.com%2Fsamsung_is_working_on_an_indisplay_frontfacing_camera-news-33821.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOLED" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.instantflashnews.com/en/2019/08/05/08-05-apples-2021-iphones-will-allegedly-come-with-face-id-and-on-screen-fingerprint-sensors-huawei-is-allegedly-busy-testing-its-smartphone-armed-with-self-developed-hongmeng-os-etc/">"08-05: Apple's 2021 iPhones will allegedly come with Face ID and on-screen fingerprint sensors; Huawei is allegedly busy testing its smartphone armed with self-developed HongMeng OS; etc"</a>. Instantflashnews.com. 5 August 2019. Retrieved 16 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Instantflashnews.com&rft.atitle=08-05%3A+Apple%27s+2021+iPhones+will+allegedly+come+with+Face+ID+and+on-screen+fingerprint+sensors%3B+Huawei+is+allegedly+busy+testing+its+smartphone+armed+with+self-developed+HongMeng+OS%3B+etc.&rft.date=2019-08-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.instantflashnews.com%2Fen%2F2019%2F08%2F05%2F08-05-apples-2021-iphones-will-allegedly-come-with-face-id-and-on-screen-fingerprint-sensors-huawei-is-allegedly-busy-testing-its-smartphone-armed-with-self-developed-hongmeng-os-etc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOLED" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newatlas.com/electronics/human-hair-carbon-dot-oled/">"Discarded human hair repurposed to make new OLED screens"</a>. New Atlas. 5 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Atlas&rft.atitle=Discarded+human+hair+repurposed+to+make+new+OLED+screens&rft.date=2020-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewatlas.com%2Felectronics%2Fhuman-hair-carbon-dot-oled%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOLED" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSiltanen2025" class="citation journal cs1">Siltanen, Olli; et al. (25 January 2025). "Enhancing the Efficiency of Polariton OLEDs in and Beyond the Single-Excitation Subspace". Advanced Optical Materials. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fadom.202403046">10.1002/adom.202403046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advanced+Optical+Materials&rft.atitle=Enhancing+the+Efficiency+of+Polariton+OLEDs+in+and+Beyond+the+Single-Excitation+Subspace&rft.date=2025-01-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fadom.202403046&rft.aulast=Siltanen&rft.aufirst=Olli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOLED" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>T. Tsujimura, OLED Display Fundamentals and Applications, Wiley-SID Series in Display Technology, New York (2017). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-18731-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-18731-8">978-1-119-18731-8</a>.</li> <li>P. Chamorro-Posada, J. Martín-Gil, P. Martín-Ramos, L.M. Navas-Gracia, Fundamentos de la Tecnología OLED (Fundamentals of OLED Technology). University of Valladolid, Spain (2008). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-936644-0-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-936644-0-4">978-84-936644-0-4</a>. Available online, with permission from the authors, at the webpage: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/13325893/Fundamentos-de-la-Tecnologia-OLED">Fundamentos de la Tecnología OLED</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKordt2015" class="citation journal cs1">Kordt, Pascal; et al. (2015). "Modeling of Organic Light Emitting Diodes: From Molecular to Device Properties". Advanced Functional Materials. 25 (13): 1955–1971. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fadfm.201403004">10.1002/adfm.201403004</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0001-6CD1-A">21.11116/0000-0001-6CD1-A</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18575622">18575622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advanced+Functional+Materials&rft.atitle=Modeling+of+Organic+Light+Emitting+Diodes%3A+From+Molecular+to+Device+Properties&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1955-%3C%2Fspan%3E1971&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F21.11116%2F0000-0001-6CD1-A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18575622%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fadfm.201403004&rft.aulast=Kordt&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOLED" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Shinar, Joseph (Ed.), Organic Light-Emitting Devices: A Survey. NY: Springer-Verlag (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-95343-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-95343-4">0-387-95343-4</a>.</li> <li>Hari Singh Nalwa (Ed.), Handbook of Luminescence, Display Materials and Devices, Volume 1–3. American Scientific Publishers, Los Angeles (2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58883-010-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-58883-010-1">1-58883-010-1</a>. Volume 1: Organic Light-Emitting Diodes</li> <li>Hari Singh Nalwa (Ed.), Handbook of Organic Electronics and Photonics, Volume 1–3. American Scientific Publishers, Los Angeles (2008). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58883-095-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-58883-095-0">1-58883-095-0</a>.</li> <li>Müllen, Klaus (Ed.), Organic Light Emitting Devices: Synthesis, Properties and Applications. Wiley-VCH (2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-527-31218-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-527-31218-8">3-527-31218-8</a></li> <li>Yersin, Hartmut (Ed.), Highly Efficient OLEDs with Phosphorescent Materials. Wiley-VCH (2007). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-527-40594-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-527-40594-1">3-527-40594-1</a></li> <li>Kho, Mu-Jeong, Javed, T., Mark, R., Maier, E., and David, C. (2008) 'Final Report: OLED Solid State Lighting – Kodak European Research' MOTI (Management of Technology and Innovation) Project, Judge Business School of the University of Cambridge and Kodak European Research, Final Report presented on 4 March 2008 at Kodak European Research at Cambridge Science Park, Cambridge, UK., pages 1–12.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDisplay2018" class="citation news cs1">Display, New Vision (12 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/@newvisiondisplay/between-cut-throat-competition-which-is-better-oled-lcd-or-pmoled-c611db896cca">"Between cut-throat competition, Which is better OLED, LCD or PMOLED"</a>. Medium.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medium&rft.atitle=Between+cut-throat+competition%2C+Which+is+better+OLED%2C+LCD+or+PMOLED&rft.date=2018-02-12&rft.aulast=Display&rft.aufirst=New+Vision&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2F%40newvisiondisplay%2Fbetween-cut-throat-competition-which-is-better-oled-lcd-or-pmoled-c611db896cca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOLED" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=OLED&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:OLED" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:OLED">OLED</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lcd-module.com/support/know-how.html">OLED, LCD & TFT - Construction and Difference, advantages and disadvantages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525145251/https://www.lcd-module.com/support/know-how.html">Archived</a> 25 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 08. Juli 2020</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ewh.ieee.org/soc/cpmt/presentations/cpmt0401a.pdf">Structure and working principle of OLEDs and electroluminescent displays</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://techtv.mit.edu/videos/3175">MIT introduction to OLED technology</a> (video)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oled-info.com/history">Historical list of OLED products from 1996 to present</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Display_technology191" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Display_technology" title="Template:Display technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Display_technology" title="Template talk:Display technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Display_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Display technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Display_technology191" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Display_device" title="Display device">Display technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Display_device#video_display" title="Display device">Video displays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Past generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eidophor" title="Eidophor">Eidophor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">Cathode-ray tube</a> (CRT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumbotron" title="Jumbotron">Jumbotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroluminescent_display" title="Electroluminescent display">Electroluminescent display</a> (ELD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rear-projection_television" title="Rear-projection television">Rear-projection display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_display" title="Plasma display">Plasma display panel</a> (PDP) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternate_lighting_of_surfaces" title="Alternate lighting of surfaces">ALiS</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Current generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_display" title="Quantum dot display">Quantum dot display</a> (QLED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_paper" title="Electronic paper">Electronic paper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E_Ink" title="E Ink">E Ink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyricon" title="Gyricon">Gyricon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LED_display" title="LED display">Light-emitting diode display</a> (LED) <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Organic light-emitting diode</a> (OLED) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">Active-Matrix Organic light-emitting diode</a> (AMOLED)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">Liquid-crystal display</a> (LCD) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TFT_LCD" title="TFT LCD">TFT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twisted_nematic_field_effect" title="Twisted nematic field effect">TN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPS_panel" title="IPS panel">IPS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LED-backlit_LCD" title="LED-backlit LCD">LED-backlit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_phase_mode_LCD" title="Blue phase mode LCD">Blue Phase</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_light_processing" title="Digital light processing">Digital light processing</a> (DLP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal_on_silicon" title="Liquid crystal on silicon">Liquid crystal on silicon</a> (LCoS)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Next_generation_of_display_technology" title="Next generation of display technology">Next generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MicroLED" title="MicroLED">microLED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_display#Self-emissive_quantum_dot_diodes" title="Quantum dot display">Electroluminescent Quantum Dots</a> (ELQD/QD-LED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic light-emitting transistor</a> (OLET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-conduction_electron-emitter_display" title="Surface-conduction electron-emitter display">Surface-conduction electron-emitter display</a> (SED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-emission_display" title="Field-emission display">Field-emission display</a> (FED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_TV" title="Laser TV">Laser TV</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_laser" title="Quantum dot laser">Quantum dot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_laser" title="Liquid-crystal laser">Liquid crystal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">MEMS</a> display <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interferometric_modulator_display" title="Interferometric modulator display">IMoD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-multiplexed_optical_shutter" title="Time-multiplexed optical shutter">TMOS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_liquid_crystal_display" title="Ferroelectric liquid crystal display">Ferroelectric liquid crystal display</a> (FLCD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick-film_dielectric_electroluminescent_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology">Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology</a> (TDEL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-powered_phosphor_display" title="Laser-powered phosphor display">Laser-powered phosphor display</a> (LPD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-video</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flip-disc_display" title="Flip-disc display">Flip-dot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-flap_display" title="Split-flap display">Split-flap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_display#Eggcrate_displays" title="Text display">Eggcrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_display" title="Fiber-optic display">Fiber-optic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">Vacuum fluorescent display</a> (VFD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_electrochemical_cell" title="Light-emitting electrochemical cell">Light-emitting electrochemical cell</a> (LEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightguide_display" title="Lightguide display">Lightguide display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dot-matrix_display" title="Dot-matrix display">Dot-matrix display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">Seven-segment display</a> (SSD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-segment_display" title="Eight-segment display">Eight-segment display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine-segment_display" title="Nine-segment display">Nine-segment display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen-segment_display" title="Fourteen-segment display">Fourteen-segment display</a> (FSD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen-segment_display" title="Sixteen-segment display">Sixteen-segment display</a> (SISD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/3D_display" title="3D display">3D display</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autostereoscopy" title="Autostereoscopy">Autostereoscopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiscopy" title="Multiscopy">Multiscopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">Hologram</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_display" title="Holographic display">Holographic display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-generated_holography" title="Computer-generated holography">Computer-generated holography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_display" title="Volumetric display">Volumetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_display" title="Fog display">Fog display</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Static media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoscope" title="Monoscope">Monoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_sign" title="Neon sign">Neon sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_(projection)" title="Transparency (projection)">Transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_lighting_display" title="Laser lighting display">Laser beam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display capabilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_Display_Identification_Data" title="Extended Display Identification Data">EDID</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CEA-861" class="mw-redirect" title="CEA-861">CEA-861</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DisplayID" title="DisplayID">DisplayID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always-on_display" title="Always-on display">Always-on display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/See-through_display" title="See-through display">See-through display</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scan_line" title="Scan line">Scan line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_display_technology" title="History of display technology">History of display technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-screen_television_technology" title="Large-screen television technology">Large-screen television technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimum_HDTV_viewing_distance" title="Optimum HDTV viewing distance">Optimum HDTV viewing distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-dynamic-range_television" title="High-dynamic-range television">High Dynamic Range</a> (HDR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Light_Output" title="Color Light Output">Color Light Output</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_display" title="Flexible display">Flexible display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_CRT,_LCD,_plasma,_and_OLED_displays" title="Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays">Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_display_technology" title="Comparison of display technology">Comparison of display technology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emerging_technologies167" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Next_generation_of_display_technology" title="Next generation of display technology">Next generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-emission_display" title="Field-emission display">FED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_liquid_crystal_display" title="Ferroelectric liquid crystal display">FLCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interferometric_modulator_display" title="Interferometric modulator display">iMoD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_TV" title="Laser TV">Laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-powered_phosphor_display" title="Laser-powered phosphor display">LPD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroLED" title="MicroLED">MicroLED</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">OLED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">OLET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_display" title="Quantum dot display">QD-LED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-conduction_electron-emitter_display" title="Surface-conduction electron-emitter display">SED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick-film_dielectric_electroluminescent_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology">TDEL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-multiplexed_optical_shutter" title="Time-multiplexed optical shutter">TMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telescopic_pixel_display&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telescopic pixel display (page does not exist)">TPD</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Screenless_video" title="Screenless video">Screenless</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bionic_contact_lens" title="Bionic contact lens">Bionic contact lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head-mounted_display" title="Head-mounted display">Head-mounted display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head-up_display" title="Head-up display">Head-up display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_head-mounted_display" title="Optical head-mounted display">Optical head-mounted display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_retinal_display" title="Virtual retinal display">Virtual retinal display</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autostereoscopy" title="Autostereoscopy">Autostereoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_display" title="Flexible display">Flexible display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_display" title="Holographic display">Holographic display</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-generated_holography" title="Computer-generated holography">Computer-generated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-primary_color_display" title="Multi-primary color display">Multi-primary color display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-definition_television" title="Ultra-high-definition television">Ultra HD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_display" title="Volumetric display">Volumetric display</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electronic_components254" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electronic_components" title="Template:Electronic components"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electronic_components" title="Template talk:Electronic components"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic_components" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic components"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electronic_components254" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Electronic components</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PMOS_logic" title="PMOS logic">PMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BiCMOS" title="BiCMOS">BiCMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">BioFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">Chemical field-effect transistor</a> (ChemFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">Complementary MOS</a> (CMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depletion-load_NMOS_logic" title="Depletion-load NMOS logic">Depletion-load NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FinFET" class="mw-redirect" title="FinFET">Fin field-effect transistor</a> (FinFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">Floating-gate MOSFET</a> (FGMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor">Insulated-gate bipolar transistor</a> (IGBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">ISFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LDMOS" title="LDMOS">LDMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigate_device" title="Multigate device">Multi-gate field-effect transistor</a> (MuGFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">Thin-film transistor</a> (TFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMOS" title="VMOS">VMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET#UMOS" title="Power MOSFET">UMOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Other transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">Bipolar junction transistor</a> (BJT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffused_junction_transistor" title="Diffused junction transistor">Diffused junction transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a> (FET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JFET" title="JFET">Junction Gate FET (JFET)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_field-effect_transistor" title="Organic field-effect transistor">Organic FET (OFET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_transistor" title="Light-emitting transistor">Light-emitting transistor</a> (LET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic LET (OLET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode_transistor" title="Pentode transistor">Pentode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_unijunction_transistor" title="Programmable unijunction transistor">Programmable unijunction transistor</a> (PUT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_transistor" title="Static induction transistor">Static induction transistor</a> (SIT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode_transistor" title="Tetrode transistor">Tetrode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unijunction_transistor" title="Unijunction transistor">Unijunction transistor</a> (UJT)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diodes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche_diode" title="Avalanche diode">Avalanche diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-current_diode" title="Constant-current diode">Constant-current diode</a> (CLD, CRD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunn_diode" title="Gunn diode">Gunn diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">Laser diode</a> (LD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">Light-emitting diode</a> (LED)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Organic light-emitting diode</a> (OLED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">Photodiode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIN_diode" title="PIN diode">PIN diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Step_recovery_diode" title="Step recovery diode">Step recovery diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">Zener diode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIAC" title="DIAC">DIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterostructure_barrier_varactor" title="Heterostructure barrier varactor">Heterostructure barrier varactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> (IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">Hybrid integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_emitting_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light emitting capacitor">Light emitting capacitor</a> (LEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memtransistor" title="Memtransistor">Memtransistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal-oxide_varistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal-oxide varistor">Metal-oxide varistor</a> (MOV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (MOS IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">Organic semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">Photodetector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_CMOS" title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_controlled_rectifier" title="Silicon controlled rectifier">Silicon controlled rectifier</a> (SCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solaristor" title="Solaristor">Solaristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_thyristor" title="Static induction thyristor">Static induction thyristor</a> (SITh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a> (3D IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trancitor" title="Trancitor">Trancitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIAC" title="TRIAC">TRIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">Voltage regulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_regulator" title="Linear regulator">Linear regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator" title="Low-dropout regulator">Low-dropout regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switching_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching regulator">Switching regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_converter" title="Buck converter">Buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boost_converter" title="Boost converter">Boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck%E2%80%93boost_converter" title="Buck–boost converter">Buck–boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-pi_topology" title="Split-pi topology">Split-pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%86uk_converter" title="Ćuk converter">Ćuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-ended_primary-inductor_converter" title="Single-ended primary-inductor converter">SEPIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_pump" title="Charge pump">Charge pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switched_capacitor" title="Switched capacitor">Switched capacitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_tube" title="Acorn tube">Acorn tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_tetrode" title="Beam tetrode">Beam tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-wire_barretter" title="Hot-wire barretter">Barretter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compactron" title="Compactron">Compactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleming_valve" title="Fleming valve">Fleming valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Neutron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonode" title="Nonode">Nonode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuvistor" title="Nuvistor">Nuvistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagrid_converter" title="Pentagrid converter">Pentagrid</a> (Hexode, Heptode, Octode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode" title="Pentode">Pentode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube" title="Photomultiplier tube">Photomultiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototube" title="Phototube">Phototube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode" title="Tetrode">Tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">Triode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">RF</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backward-wave_oscillator" title="Backward-wave oscillator">Backward-wave oscillator</a> (BWO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">Cavity magnetron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossed-field_amplifier" title="Crossed-field amplifier">Crossed-field amplifier</a> (CFA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrotron" title="Gyrotron">Gyrotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_output_tube" title="Inductive output tube">Inductive output tube</a> (IOT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klystron" title="Klystron">Klystron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maser" title="Maser">Maser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutton_tube" title="Sutton tube">Sutton tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube" title="Traveling-wave tube">Traveling-wave tube</a> (TWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">X-ray tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">Cathode-ray tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_deflection_tube" title="Beam deflection tube">Beam deflection tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charactron" title="Charactron">Charactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">Iconoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_eye_tube" title="Magic eye tube">Magic eye tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoscope" title="Monoscope">Monoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_tube" title="Storage tube">Storage tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trochotron">Trochotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">Video camera tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-filled_tube" title="Gas-filled tube">Gas-filled tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_cathode" title="Cold cathode">Cold cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossatron" title="Crossatron">Crossatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignitron" title="Ignitron">Ignitron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krytron" title="Krytron">Krytron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve" title="Mercury-arc valve">Mercury-arc valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lamp" title="Neon lamp">Neon lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyratron" title="Thyratron">Thyratron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigatron" title="Trigatron">Trigatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage-regulator_tube" title="Voltage-regulator tube">Voltage-regulator tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Adjustable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentiometer" title="Potentiometer">Potentiometer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_potentiometer" title="Digital potentiometer">digital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_capacitor" title="Variable capacitor">Variable capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Passive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Connector <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_and_video_interfaces_and_connectors" title="Audio and video interfaces and connectors">audio and video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AC_power_plugs_and_sockets" title="AC power plugs and sockets">electrical power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_connector" title="RF connector">RF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_detector" title="Electrolytic detector">Electrolytic detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrite_core" title="Ferrite core">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifuse" title="Antifuse">Antifuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">Fuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resettable_fuse" title="Resettable fuse">resettable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="EFUSE">eFUSE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">Switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermistor" title="Thermistor">Thermistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varistor" title="Varistor">Varistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wollaston_wire" title="Wollaston wire">Wollaston wire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_reactance" title="Electrical reactance">Reactive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor_types" title="Capacitor types">types</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_resonator" title="Ceramic resonator">Ceramic resonator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" title="Crystal oscillator">Crystal oscillator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parametron" title="Parametron">Parametron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">Relay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reed_relay" title="Reed relay">reed relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_relay" title="Mercury relay">mercury relay</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox472" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority 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