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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Floating-point unit</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/FPU" title="FPU – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="FPU" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matematick%C3%BD_koprocesor" title="Matematický koprocesor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Matematický koprocesor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleitkommaeinheit" title="Gleitkommaeinheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gleitkommaeinheit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1_%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Μονάδα Κινητής Υποδιαστολής – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μονάδα Κινητής Υποδιαστολής" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unidad_de_coma_flotante" title="Unidad de coma flotante – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Unidad de coma flotante" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AF_%D9%85%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B2_%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="واحد ممیز شناور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واحد ممیز شناور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_de_calcul_en_virgule_flottante" title="Unité de calcul en virgule flottante – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Unité de calcul en virgule flottante" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%80%EB%8F%99%EC%86%8C%EC%88%98%EC%A0%90_%EC%9E%A5%EC%B9%98" title="부동소수점 장치 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="부동소수점 장치" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_titik_mengambang" title="Unit titik mengambang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Unit titik mengambang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A0_di_calcolo_in_virgola_mobile" title="Unità di calcolo in virgola mobile – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Unità di calcolo in virgola mobile" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%97%D7%99%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%94" title="יחידת נקודה צפה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יחידת נקודה צפה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peldo%C5%A1%C4%81_komata_procesors" title="Peldošā komata procesors – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Peldošā komata procesors" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/FPU" title="FPU – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="FPU" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_unit" title="Floating-point unit – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Floating-point unit" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/FPU" title="FPU – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="FPU" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyttallsprosessor" title="Flyttallsprosessor – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Flyttallsprosessor" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koprocesor" title="Koprocesor – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Koprocesor" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unidade_de_ponto_flutuante" title="Unidade de ponto flutuante – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Unidade de ponto flutuante" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Математический сопроцессор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Математический сопроцессор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point_unit" title="Floating point unit – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Floating point unit" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matematick%C3%BD_koprocesor" title="Matematický koprocesor – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Matematický koprocesor" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Математичний співпроцесор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Математичний співпроцесор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%AE%E7%82%B9%E8%BF%90%E7%AE%97%E5%99%A8" title="浮点运算器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="浮点运算器" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q733507#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Part of a computer system</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:X87_FPUs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/X87_FPUs.jpg/220px-X87_FPUs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/X87_FPUs.jpg/330px-X87_FPUs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/X87_FPUs.jpg/440px-X87_FPUs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3900" data-file-height="2903" /></a><figcaption>Collection of the <a href="/wiki/X87" title="X87">x87</a> family of math coprocessors by <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>floating-point unit</b> (<b>FPU</b>), <b>numeric processing unit</b> (<b>NPU</b>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> colloquially <b>math coprocessor</b>, is a part of a <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> system specially designed to carry out operations on <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point</a> numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical operations are <a href="/wiki/Addition" title="Addition">addition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subtraction" title="Subtraction">subtraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiplication" title="Multiplication">multiplication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Division_(mathematics)" title="Division (mathematics)">division</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Square_root" title="Square root">square root</a>. Some FPUs can also perform various <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_function" title="Transcendental function">transcendental functions</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Exponential_function" title="Exponential function">exponential</a> or <a href="/wiki/Trigonometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigonometric">trigonometric</a> calculations, but the accuracy can be low,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so some systems prefer to compute these functions in software. </p><p>In general-purpose <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architectures</a>, one or more FPUs may be integrated as <a href="/wiki/Execution_unit" title="Execution unit">execution units</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a>; however, many <a href="/wiki/Embedded_processor" class="mw-redirect" title="Embedded processor">embedded processors</a> do not have hardware support for floating-point operations (while they increasingly have them as standard). </p><p>When a CPU is executing a program that calls for a floating-point operation, there are three ways to carry it out: </p> <ul><li>A floating-point unit emulator (a floating-point library in software)</li> <li>Add-on FPU hardware</li> <li>Integrated FPU (in hardware)</li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Floating-point_unit&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1954, the <a href="/wiki/IBM_704" title="IBM 704">IBM 704</a> had floating-point arithmetic as a standard feature, one of its major improvements over its predecessor the <a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">IBM 701</a>. This was carried forward to its successors the 709, 7090, and 7094. </p><p>In 1963, Digital announced the <a href="/wiki/PDP-6" title="PDP-6">PDP-6</a>, which had floating point as a standard feature.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1963, the <a href="/wiki/GE-200_series" title="GE-200 series">GE-235</a> featured an "Auxiliary Arithmetic Unit" for floating point and double-precision calculations.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, some systems implemented <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating point</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Coprocessor" title="Coprocessor">coprocessor</a> rather than as an integrated unit (but now in addition to the CPU, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">GPUs</a> – that are coprocessors not always built into the CPU – have FPUs as a rule, while first generations of GPUs did not). This could be a single <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a>, an entire <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">circuit board</a> or a cabinet. Where floating-point calculation hardware has not been provided, floating-point calculations are done in software, which takes more processor time, but avoids the cost of the extra hardware. For a particular computer architecture, the floating-point unit instructions may be <a href="/wiki/Emulator" title="Emulator">emulated</a> by a library of software functions; this may permit the same <a href="/wiki/Object_code" title="Object code">object code</a> to run on systems with or without floating-point hardware. Emulation can be implemented on any of several levels: in the CPU as <a href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">microcode</a>, as an <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> function, or in <a href="/wiki/User-space" class="mw-redirect" title="User-space">user-space</a> code. When only integer functionality is available, the <a href="/wiki/CORDIC" title="CORDIC">CORDIC</a> methods are most commonly used for <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_function" title="Transcendental function">transcendental function</a> evaluation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="When a fast integer multiply is available, this can be surprising. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In most modern computer architectures, there is some division of floating-point operations from <a href="/wiki/Integer" title="Integer">integer</a> operations. This division varies significantly by architecture; some have dedicated floating-point registers, while some, like <a href="/wiki/X86" title="X86">Intel x86</a>, go as far as independent <a href="/wiki/Computer_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer clock">clocking</a> schemes.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>CORDIC routines have been implemented in <a href="/wiki/X87" title="X87">Intel x87</a> coprocessors (<a href="/wiki/Intel_8087" title="Intel 8087">8087</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Muller_2006_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller_2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nave_1983_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nave_1983-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Palmer_1984_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer_1984-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glass_1990_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glass_1990-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jarvis_1990_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarvis_1990-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 80287,<sup id="cite_ref-Jarvis_1990_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarvis_1990-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yuen_1988_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yuen_1988-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 80387<sup id="cite_ref-Jarvis_1990_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarvis_1990-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yuen_1988_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yuen_1988-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) up to the <a href="/wiki/Intel_80486" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel 80486">80486</a><sup id="cite_ref-Muller_2006_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller_2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> microprocessor series, as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68881" title="Motorola 68881">Motorola 68881</a><sup id="cite_ref-Muller_2006_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller_2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nave_1983_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nave_1983-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 68882 for some kinds of floating-point instructions, mainly as a way to reduce the <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">gate</a> counts (and complexity) of the FPU subsystem. </p><p>Floating-point operations are often <a href="/wiki/Instruction_pipelining" title="Instruction pipelining">pipelined</a>. In earlier <a href="/wiki/Superscalar" class="mw-redirect" title="Superscalar">superscalar</a> architectures without general <a href="/wiki/Out-of-order_execution" title="Out-of-order execution">out-of-order execution</a>, floating-point operations were sometimes pipelined separately from integer operations. </p><p>The modular architecture of <a href="/wiki/Bulldozer_(microarchitecture)" title="Bulldozer (microarchitecture)">Bulldozer microarchitecture</a> uses a special FPU named FlexFPU, which uses <a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_multithreading" title="Simultaneous multithreading">simultaneous multithreading</a>. Each physical integer core, two per module, is single-threaded, in contrast with Intel's <a href="/wiki/Hyperthreading" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperthreading">Hyperthreading</a>, where two virtual simultaneous threads share the resources of a single physical core.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Floating-point_library"><span class="anchor" id="Floating-point_emulation"></span>Floating-point library</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Floating-point_unit&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Floating-point library"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Floating_Point/Soft_Implementations" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Floating Point/Soft Implementations">Floating Point/Soft Implementations</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Embedded_Systems/Floating_Point_Unit" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Embedded Systems/Floating Point Unit">Embedded Systems/Floating Point Unit</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <p>Some floating-point hardware only supports the simplest operations: addition, subtraction, and multiplication. But even the most complex floating-point hardware has a finite number of operations it can support – for example, no FPUs directly support <a href="/wiki/Arbitrary-precision_arithmetic" title="Arbitrary-precision arithmetic">arbitrary-precision arithmetic</a>. </p><p>When a CPU is executing a program that calls for a floating-point operation that is not directly supported by the hardware, the CPU uses a series of simpler floating-point operations. In systems without any floating-point hardware, the CPU <a href="/wiki/Emulator" title="Emulator">emulates</a> it using a series of simpler <a href="/wiki/Fixed-point_arithmetic" title="Fixed-point arithmetic">fixed-point arithmetic</a> operations that run on the integer <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">arithmetic logic unit</a>. </p><p>The software that lists the necessary series of operations to emulate floating-point operations is often packaged in a floating-point <a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">library</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Integrated_FPUs">Integrated FPUs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Floating-point_unit&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Integrated FPUs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some cases, FPUs may be specialized, and divided between simpler floating-point operations (mainly addition and multiplication) and more complicated operations, like division. In some cases, only the simple operations may be implemented in hardware or <a href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">microcode</a>, while the more complex operations are implemented as software. </p><p>In some current architectures, the FPU functionality is combined with <a href="/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_data" title="Single instruction, multiple data">SIMD</a> units to perform SIMD computation; an example of this is the augmentation of the <a href="/wiki/X87" title="X87">x87</a> instructions set with <a href="/wiki/Streaming_SIMD_Extensions" title="Streaming SIMD Extensions">SSE</a> instruction set in the <a href="/wiki/X86-64" title="X86-64">x86-64</a> architecture used in newer Intel and AMD processors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Add-on_FPUs">Add-on FPUs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Floating-point_unit&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Add-on FPUs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coprocessor" title="Coprocessor">Coprocessor</a></div> <p>Several models of the <a href="/wiki/PDP-11" title="PDP-11">PDP-11</a>, such as the PDP-11/45,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PDP-11/34a,<sup id="cite_ref-1979-pdp-11-handbook_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1979-pdp-11-handbook-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 184–185">: 184–185 </span></sup> PDP-11/44,<sup id="cite_ref-1979-pdp-11-handbook_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1979-pdp-11-handbook-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 195, 211">: 195, 211 </span></sup> and PDP-11/70,<sup id="cite_ref-1979-pdp-11-handbook_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1979-pdp-11-handbook-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 277, 286–287">: 277, 286–287 </span></sup> supported an add-on floating-point unit to support floating-point instructions. The PDP-11/60,<sup id="cite_ref-1979-pdp-11-handbook_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1979-pdp-11-handbook-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 261">: 261 </span></sup> MicroPDP-11/23<sup id="cite_ref-micro-PDP-11-handbook_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-micro-PDP-11-handbook-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and several <a href="/wiki/VAX" title="VAX">VAX</a> models<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> could execute floating-point instructions without an add-on FPU (the MicroPDP-11/23 required an add-on microcode option),<sup id="cite_ref-micro-PDP-11-handbook_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-micro-PDP-11-handbook-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and offered add-on accelerators to further speed the execution of those instructions. </p><p>In the 1980s, it was common in <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM PC">IBM PC</a>/compatible <a href="/wiki/Microcomputers" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcomputers">microcomputers</a> for the FPU to be entirely separate from the <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a>, and typically sold as an optional add-on. It would only be purchased if needed to speed up or enable math-intensive programs. </p><p>The IBM PC, <a href="/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT" title="IBM Personal Computer XT">XT</a>, and most compatibles based on the 8088 or 8086 had a socket for the optional 8087 coprocessor. The <a href="/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer/AT" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Personal Computer/AT">AT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intel_80286" title="Intel 80286">80286</a>-based systems were generally socketed for the <a href="/wiki/X87#80287" title="X87">80287</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intel_80386" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel 80386">80386/80386SX</a>-based machines – for the <a href="/wiki/X87#80387" title="X87">80387</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intel_80387SX" title="Intel 80387SX">80387SX</a> respectively, although early ones were socketed for the 80287, since the 80387 did not exist yet. Other companies manufactured co-processors for the Intel x86 series. These included <a href="/wiki/Cyrix" title="Cyrix">Cyrix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weitek" title="Weitek">Weitek</a>. <a href="/wiki/Acorn_Computers" title="Acorn Computers">Acorn Computers</a> opted for the WE32206 to offer <a href="/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format" title="Single-precision floating-point format">single</a>, <a href="/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format" title="Double-precision floating-point format">double</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extended_precision" title="Extended precision">extended precision</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to its <a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="ARM architecture">ARM</a> powered <a href="/wiki/Acorn_Archimedes" title="Acorn Archimedes">Archimedes</a> range, introducing a gate array to interface the ARM2 processor with the WE32206 to support the additional ARM floating-point instructions.<sup id="cite_ref-abcomputing199003_arm_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abcomputing199003_arm-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acorn later offered the FPA10 coprocessor, developed by ARM, for various machines fitted with the ARM3 processor.<sup id="cite_ref-acorn_fpa10_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acorn_fpa10-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coprocessors were available for the <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68000_series" title="Motorola 68000 series">Motorola 68000 family</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68881" title="Motorola 68881">68881 and 68882</a>. These were common in <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68020" title="Motorola 68020">Motorola 68020</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motorola_68030" title="Motorola 68030">68030</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Workstation" title="Workstation">workstations</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Sun-3" title="Sun-3">Sun-3</a> series. They were also commonly added to higher-end models of Apple <a href="/wiki/Macintosh" class="mw-redirect" title="Macintosh">Macintosh</a> and Commodore <a href="/wiki/Amiga" title="Amiga">Amiga</a> series, but unlike IBM PC-compatible systems, sockets for adding the coprocessor were not as common in lower-end systems. </p><p>There are also add-on FPU coprocessor units for <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a> units (MCUs/μCs)/<a href="/wiki/Single-board_computer" title="Single-board computer">single-board computer</a> (SBCs), which serve to provide floating-point <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> capability. These add-on FPUs are host-processor-independent, possess their own programming requirements (<a href="/wiki/Mathematical_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical operation">operations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction set">instruction sets</a>, etc.) and are often provided with their own <a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">integrated development environments</a> (IDEs). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Floating-point_unit&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">Arithmetic logic unit</a> (ALU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Address_generation_unit" title="Address generation unit">Address generation unit</a> (AGU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load%E2%80%93store_unit" title="Load–store unit">Load–store unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CORDIC" title="CORDIC">CORDIC</a> routines are used in many FPUs to implement functions but not greatly increase gate count</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_unit" title="Execution unit">Execution unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_754" title="IEEE 754">IEEE 754</a> floating-point standard</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_hexadecimal_floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM hexadecimal floating point">IBM hexadecimal floating point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiply%E2%80%93accumulate_operation" title="Multiply–accumulate operation">Multiply–accumulate operation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Floating-point_unit&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WCCFtech&rft.atitle=AMD+Steamroller+vs+Bulldozer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdn3.wccftech.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2013%2F07%2FAMD-Steamroller-vs-Bulldozer.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFloating-point+unit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalfacree2010" class="citation web cs1">Halfacree, Gareth (28 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170322014910/https://www.bit-tech.net/news/hardware/2010/10/28/amd-unveils-flex-fp/1">"AMD unveils Flex FP"</a>. <i>bit-tech.net</i>. 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book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp11/handbooks/PDP11_Handbook1979.pdf"><i>PDP-11 Processor Handbook</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a>. 1979.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PDP-11+Processor+Handbook&rft.pub=Digital+Equipment+Corporation&rft.date=1979&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbitsavers.org%2Fpdf%2Fdec%2Fpdp11%2Fhandbooks%2FPDP11_Handbook1979.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFloating-point+unit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-micro-PDP-11-handbook-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-micro-PDP-11-handbook_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-micro-PDP-11-handbook_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link 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class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/vax/handbook/VAX_Hardware_Handbook_Volume_2_1986.pdf"><i>VAX – Hardware Handbook Volume II – 1986</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a>. 1986.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=VAX+%E2%80%93+Hardware+Handbook+Volume+II+%E2%80%93+1986&rft.pub=Digital+Equipment+Corporation&rft.date=1986&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbitsavers.org%2Fpdf%2Fdec%2Fvax%2Fhandbook%2FVAX_Hardware_Handbook_Volume_2_1986.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFloating-point+unit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/32206/index.html">"Western Electric 32206 co-processor"</a>. <i>www.cpu-world.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cpu-world.com&rft.atitle=Western+Electric+32206+co-processor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpu-world.com%2FCPUs%2F32206%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFloating-point+unit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-abcomputing199003_arm-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-abcomputing199003_arm_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFellows1990" class="citation magazine cs1">Fellows, Paul (March 1990). "Programming The ARM: The Floating Point Co-processor". <i>A&B Computing</i>. pp. 43–44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A%26B+Computing&rft.atitle=Programming+The+ARM%3A+The+Floating+Point+Co-processor&rft.pages=43-44&rft.date=1990-03&rft.aulast=Fellows&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFloating-point+unit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-acorn_fpa10-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-acorn_fpa10_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chrisacorns.computinghistory.org.uk/docs/Acorn/PR/FPA_release.txt">"Acorn Releases Floating Point Accelerator"</a> (Press release). Acorn Computers Limited. 5 July 1993<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Acorn+Releases+Floating+Point+Accelerator&rft.pub=Acorn+Computers+Limited&rft.date=1993-07-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchrisacorns.computinghistory.org.uk%2Fdocs%2FAcorn%2FPR%2FFPA_release.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFloating-point+unit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Floating-point_unit&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiliatreault2003" class="citation web cs1">Filiatreault, Raymond (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.website.masmforum.com/tutorials/fptute/index.html">"SIMPLY FPU"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SIMPLY+FPU&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Filiatreault&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.website.masmforum.com%2Ftutorials%2Ffptute%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFloating-point+unit" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="mw-redirect" title="Finite-state machine with datapath">with datapath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_state_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical state machine">Hierarchical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterministic_finite_automaton" title="Deterministic finite automaton">Deterministic finite automaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_automaton" title="Queue automaton">Queue automaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_automaton" title="Cellular automaton">Cellular automaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cellular_automaton" title="Quantum cellular automaton">Quantum cellular automaton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_Turing_machine" title="Alternating Turing machine">Alternating Turing machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Turing_machine" title="Post–Turing machine">Post–Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Turing_machine" title="Quantum Turing machine">Quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondeterministic_Turing_machine" title="Nondeterministic Turing machine">Nondeterministic Turing machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probabilistic_Turing_machine" title="Probabilistic Turing machine">Probabilistic Turing machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercomputation" title="Hypercomputation">Hypercomputation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_machine" title="Zeno machine">Zeno machine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general-purpose_CPUs#Belt_machine_architecture" title="History of general-purpose CPUs">Belt machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_machine" title="Stack machine">Stack machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_machine" title="Register machine">Register machines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter_machine" title="Counter machine">Counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pointer_machine" title="Pointer machine">Pointer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random-access_machine" title="Random-access machine">Random-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random-access_stored-program_machine" title="Random-access stored-program machine">Random-access stored program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microarchitecture" title="Microarchitecture">Microarchitecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">Von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_architecture" title="Harvard architecture">Harvard</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modified_Harvard_architecture" title="Modified Harvard architecture">modified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dataflow_architecture" title="Dataflow architecture">Dataflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_triggered_architecture" title="Transport triggered architecture">Transport-triggered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_architecture" title="Cellular architecture">Cellular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endianness" title="Endianness">Endianness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Memory access</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-uniform_memory_access" title="Non-uniform memory access">NUMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_memory_access" title="Uniform memory access">HUMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load%E2%80%93store_architecture" title="Load–store architecture">Load–store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register%E2%80%93memory_architecture" title="Register–memory architecture">Register/memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_hierarchy" title="Cache hierarchy">Cache hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_hierarchy" title="Memory hierarchy">Memory hierarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary storage">Secondary storage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous_System_Architecture" title="Heterogeneous System Architecture">Heterogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabric_computing" title="Fabric computing">Fabric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_computing" title="Cognitive computing">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">Instruction set<br />architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_instruction_set" title="Orthogonal instruction set">Orthogonal instruction set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_instruction_set_computer" title="Complex instruction set computer">CISC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_instruction_set_computer" title="Reduced instruction set computer">RISC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application-specific_instruction_set_processor" title="Application-specific instruction set processor">Application-specific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_data_graph_execution" title="Explicit data graph execution">EDGE</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TRIPS_architecture" title="TRIPS architecture">TRIPS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_long_instruction_word" title="Very long instruction word">VLIW</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explicitly_parallel_instruction_computing" title="Explicitly parallel instruction computing">EPIC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_instruction_set_computer" title="Minimal instruction set computer">MISC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-instruction_set_computer" title="One-instruction set computer">OISC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_instruction_set_computing" title="No instruction set computing">NISC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_instruction_set_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero instruction set computer">ZISC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VISC_architecture" title="VISC architecture">VISC architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_instruction_set_architectures" title="Comparison of instruction set architectures">Comparison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addressing_mode" title="Addressing mode">Addressing modes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruction<br />sets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motorola_68000_series" title="Motorola 68000 series">Motorola 68000 series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VAX" title="VAX">VAX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDP-11_architecture" title="PDP-11 architecture">PDP-11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X86" title="X86">x86</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture_family" title="ARM architecture family">ARM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_MIPS" title="Stanford MIPS">Stanford MIPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MIPS-X" title="MIPS-X">MIPS-X</a></li> <li>Power <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IBM_POWER_architecture" title="IBM POWER architecture">POWER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PowerPC" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_ISA" title="Power ISA">Power ISA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipper_architecture" title="Clipper architecture">Clipper architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPARC" title="SPARC">SPARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SuperH" title="SuperH">SuperH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DEC_Alpha" title="DEC Alpha">DEC Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ETRAX_CRIS" title="ETRAX CRIS">ETRAX CRIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M32R" title="M32R">M32R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicore" title="Unicore">Unicore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IA-64" title="IA-64">Itanium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenRISC" title="OpenRISC">OpenRISC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RISC-V" title="RISC-V">RISC-V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroBlaze" title="MicroBlaze">MicroBlaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_man_computer" title="Little man computer">LMC</a></li> <li>System/3x0 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IBM_System/360_architecture" title="IBM System/360 architecture">S/360</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_System/370" title="IBM System/370">S/370</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_System/390" title="IBM System/390">S/390</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z/Architecture" title="Z/Architecture">z/Architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tilera ISA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VISC_architecture" title="VISC architecture">VISC architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adapteva#Products" class="mw-redirect" title="Adapteva">Epiphany architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_instruction_set_architectures" title="Comparison of instruction set architectures">Others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Instruction_cycle" title="Instruction cycle">Execution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Instruction_pipelining" title="Instruction pipelining">Instruction pipelining</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline_stall" title="Pipeline stall">Pipeline stall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operand_forwarding" title="Operand forwarding">Operand forwarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_RISC_pipeline" title="Classic RISC pipeline">Classic RISC pipeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hazard_(computer_architecture)" title="Hazard (computer architecture)">Hazards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data_dependency" title="Data dependency">Data dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural hazard">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Control hazard">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_sharing" title="False sharing">False sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Out-of-order_execution" title="Out-of-order execution">Out-of-order</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scoreboarding" title="Scoreboarding">Scoreboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomasulo%27s_algorithm" title="Tomasulo's algorithm">Tomasulo's algorithm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_station" title="Reservation station">Reservation station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Re-order_buffer" title="Re-order buffer">Re-order buffer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_renaming" title="Register renaming">Register renaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-issue" title="Wide-issue">Wide-issue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speculative_execution" title="Speculative execution">Speculative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Branch_predictor" title="Branch predictor">Branch prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_dependence_prediction" title="Memory dependence prediction">Memory dependence prediction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallelism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bit-level_parallelism" title="Bit-level parallelism">Bit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bit-serial_architecture" title="Bit-serial architecture">Bit-serial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)" title="Word (computer architecture)">Word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instruction-level_parallelism" title="Instruction-level parallelism">Instruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instruction_pipelining" title="Instruction pipelining">Pipelining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_processor" title="Scalar processor">Scalar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superscalar_processor" title="Superscalar processor">Superscalar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_parallelism" title="Task parallelism">Task</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">Thread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">Process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_parallelism" title="Data parallelism">Data</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vector_processor" title="Vector processor">Vector</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory-level_parallelism" title="Memory-level parallelism">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributed architecture">Distributed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_multithreading" title="Temporal multithreading">Temporal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_multithreading" title="Simultaneous multithreading">Simultaneous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyper-threading" title="Hyper-threading">Hyperthreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_and_heterogeneous_multithreading" title="Simultaneous and heterogeneous multithreading">Simultaneous and heterogenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_multithreading" title="Speculative multithreading">Speculative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preemption_(computing)" title="Preemption (computing)">Preemptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_multitasking" title="Cooperative multitasking">Cooperative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flynn%27s_taxonomy" title="Flynn's taxonomy">Flynn's taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single_instruction,_single_data" title="Single instruction, single data">SISD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_data" title="Single instruction, multiple data">SIMD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_threads" title="Single instruction, multiple threads">Array processing (SIMT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flynn%27s_taxonomy#Pipelined_processor" title="Flynn's taxonomy">Pipelined processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flynn%27s_taxonomy#Associative_processor" title="Flynn's taxonomy">Associative processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SWAR" title="SWAR">SWAR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_instruction,_single_data" title="Multiple instruction, single data">MISD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_instruction,_multiple_data" title="Multiple instruction, multiple data">MIMD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single_program,_multiple_data" title="Single program, multiple data">SPMD</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_performance" title="Computer performance">Processor<br />performance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor_count" title="Transistor count">Transistor count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instructions_per_cycle" title="Instructions per cycle">Instructions per cycle</a> (IPC) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycles_per_instruction" title="Cycles per instruction">Cycles per instruction</a> (CPI)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instructions_per_second" title="Instructions per second">Instructions per second</a> (IPS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FLOPS" class="mw-redirect" title="FLOPS">Floating-point operations per second</a> (FLOPS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactions_per_second" title="Transactions per second">Transactions per second</a> (TPS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUPS" title="SUPS">Synaptic updates per second</a> (SUPS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_per_watt" title="Performance per watt">Performance per watt</a> (PPW)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_performance_measurement_and_metric" title="Cache performance measurement and metric">Cache performance metrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_performance_by_orders_of_magnitude" title="Computer performance by orders of magnitude">Computer performance by orders of magnitude</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">Central processing unit</a> (CPU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a> (GPU) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General-purpose_computing_on_graphics_processing_units" title="General-purpose computing on graphics processing units">GPGPU</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_processor" title="Vector processor">Vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrel_processor" title="Barrel processor">Barrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tile_processor" title="Tile processor">Tile processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprocessor" title="Coprocessor">Coprocessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_Array_Logic" title="Programmable Array Logic">PAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit" title="Application-specific integrated circuit">ASIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array" title="Field-programmable gate array">FPGA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_object_array" title="Field-programmable object array">FPOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_programmable_logic_device" title="Complex programmable logic device">CPLD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-chip_module" title="Multi-chip module">Multi-chip module</a> (MCM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_in_a_package" title="System in a package">System in a package</a> (SiP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Package_on_a_package" title="Package on a package">Package on a package</a> (PoP)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By application</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">Microcontroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_processor" title="Mobile processor">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-low-voltage_processor" title="Ultra-low-voltage processor">Ultra-low-voltage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application-specific_instruction_set_processor" title="Application-specific instruction set processor">ASIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_microprocessor" title="Soft microprocessor">Soft microprocessor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Systems<br />on chip</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">System on a chip</a> (SoC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessor_system_on_a_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiprocessor system on a chip">Multiprocessor</a> (MPSoC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypress_PSoC" title="Cypress PSoC">Cypress PSoC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_on_a_chip" title="Network on a chip">Network on a chip</a> (NoC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware<br />accelerators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coprocessor" title="Coprocessor">Coprocessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AI_accelerator" title="AI accelerator">AI accelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a> (GPU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_processor" title="Image processor">Image processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_processing_unit" title="Vision processing unit">Vision processing unit</a> (VPU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_processing_unit" title="Physics processing unit">Physics processing unit</a> (PPU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processor" title="Digital signal processor">Digital signal processor</a> (DSP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensor_Processing_Unit" title="Tensor Processing Unit">Tensor Processing Unit</a> (TPU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secure_cryptoprocessor" title="Secure cryptoprocessor">Secure cryptoprocessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_processor" title="Network processor">Network processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseband_processor" title="Baseband processor">Baseband processor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)" title="Word (computer architecture)">Word size</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1-bit_computing" title="1-bit computing">1-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-bit_computing" title="4-bit computing">4-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-bit_computing" title="8-bit computing">8-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-bit_computing" title="12-bit computing">12-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer" title="Apollo Guidance Computer">15-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16-bit_computing" title="16-bit computing">16-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/24-bit_computing" title="24-bit computing">24-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/32-bit_computing" title="32-bit computing">32-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/48-bit_computing" title="48-bit computing">48-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/64-bit_computing" title="64-bit computing">64-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/128-bit_computing" title="128-bit computing">128-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/256-bit_computing" title="256-bit computing">256-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/512-bit_computing" title="512-bit computing">512-bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit_slicing" title="Bit slicing">bit slicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)#Table_of_word_sizes" title="Word (computer architecture)">others</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)#Variable-word_architectures" title="Word (computer architecture)">variable</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core count</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-core" title="Single-core">Single-core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-core_processor" title="Multi-core processor">Multi-core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manycore_processor" title="Manycore processor">Manycore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous_computing" title="Heterogeneous computing">Heterogeneous architecture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_(computing)" title="Cache (computing)">Cache</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CPU_cache" title="CPU cache">CPU cache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scratchpad_memory" title="Scratchpad memory">Scratchpad memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_cache" class="mw-redirect" title="Data cache">Data cache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instruction_cache" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction cache">Instruction cache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies" title="Cache replacement policies">replacement policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_coherence" title="Cache coherence">coherence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bus_(computing)" title="Bus (computing)">Bus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clock_rate" title="Clock rate">Clock rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clock_signal" title="Clock signal">Clock signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIFO_(computing_and_electronics)" title="FIFO (computing and electronics)">FIFO</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Execution_unit" title="Execution unit">Functional<br />units</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">Arithmetic logic unit</a> (ALU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Address_generation_unit" title="Address generation unit">Address generation unit</a> (AGU)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Floating-point unit</a> (FPU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_management_unit" title="Memory management unit">Memory management unit</a> (MMU) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Load%E2%80%93store_unit" title="Load–store unit">Load–store unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_lookaside_buffer" title="Translation lookaside buffer">Translation lookaside buffer</a> (TLB)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_predictor" title="Branch predictor">Branch predictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_target_predictor" title="Branch target predictor">Branch target predictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_controller" title="Memory controller">Integrated memory controller</a> (IMC) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_management_unit" title="Memory management unit">Memory management unit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instruction_decoder" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction decoder">Instruction decoder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combinational_logic" title="Combinational logic">Combinational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_logic" title="Sequential logic">Sequential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glue_logic" title="Glue logic">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">Logic gate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_logic_gate" title="Quantum logic gate">Quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_array" title="Gate array">Array</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardware_register" title="Hardware register">Registers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">Processor register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_register" title="Status register">Status register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_register" title="Stack register">Stack register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_file" title="Register file">Register file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_buffer_register" title="Memory buffer register">Memory buffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_address_register" title="Memory address register">Memory address register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Program_counter" title="Program counter">Program counter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Control_unit" title="Control unit">Control unit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hardwired_control_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardwired control unit">Hardwired control unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instruction_unit" title="Instruction unit">Instruction unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_buffer" title="Data buffer">Data buffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Write_buffer" title="Write buffer">Write buffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">Microcode</a> <a href="/wiki/ROM_image" title="ROM image">ROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_(digital)" title="Counter (digital)">Counter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Datapath" title="Datapath">Datapath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiplexer" title="Multiplexer">Multiplexer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demultiplexer" class="mw-redirect" title="Demultiplexer">Demultiplexer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adder_(electronics)" title="Adder (electronics)">Adder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_multiplier" title="Binary multiplier">Multiplier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CPU_multiplier" title="CPU multiplier">CPU</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_decoder" title="Binary decoder">Binary decoder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Address_decoder" title="Address decoder">Address decoder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sum-addressed_decoder" title="Sum-addressed decoder">Sum-addressed decoder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrel_shifter" title="Barrel shifter">Barrel shifter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">Circuitry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">3D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_management_integrated_circuit" title="Power management integrated circuit">Power management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boolean_circuit" title="Boolean circuit">Boolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_(computer_science)" title="Circuit (computer science)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogue_electronics" title="Analogue electronics">Analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch#Electronic_switches" title="Switch">Switch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Power_management" title="Power management">Power<br />management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_Management_Unit" title="Power Management Unit">PMU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Power_Management" title="Advanced Power Management">APM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACPI" title="ACPI">ACPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_frequency_scaling" title="Dynamic frequency scaling">Dynamic frequency scaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_voltage_scaling" title="Dynamic voltage scaling">Dynamic voltage scaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clock_gating" title="Clock gating">Clock gating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_per_watt" title="Performance per watt">Performance per watt</a> (PPW)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general-purpose_CPUs" title="History of general-purpose CPUs">History of general-purpose CPUs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor_chronology" title="Microprocessor chronology">Microprocessor chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processor_design" title="Processor design">Processor design</a></li> <li><a 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