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</button> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuremberg_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuremberg_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Nuremberg trials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuremberg_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tokyo_Trial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tokyo_Trial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Tokyo Trial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tokyo_Trial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_crimes_against_humanity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_crimes_against_humanity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types of crimes against humanity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_crimes_against_humanity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of crimes against humanity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_crimes_against_humanity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Apartheid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apartheid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Apartheid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apartheid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Israeli_apartheid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israeli_apartheid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Israeli apartheid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israeli_apartheid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rape_and_sexual_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rape_and_sexual_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Rape and sexual violence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rape_and_sexual_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_status_of_crimes_against_humanity_in_international_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_status_of_crimes_against_humanity_in_international_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Legal status of crimes against humanity in international law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_status_of_crimes_against_humanity_in_international_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>United Nations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-United_Nations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle United Nations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-United_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Security_Council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security_Council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Security Council</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Security_Council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_courts_and_criminal_tribunals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_courts_and_criminal_tribunals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>International courts and criminal tribunals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-International_courts_and_criminal_tribunals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle International courts and criminal tribunals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-International_courts_and_criminal_tribunals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Yugoslavia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Yugoslavia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Yugoslavia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Special Court for Sierra Leone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraordinary_Chambers_in_the_Courts_of_Cambodia_(ECCC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraordinary_Chambers_in_the_Courts_of_Cambodia_(ECCC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extraordinary_Chambers_in_the_Courts_of_Cambodia_(ECCC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Criminal_Court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Criminal_Court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>International Criminal Court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Criminal_Court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Council_of_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Council of Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Crimes against humanity</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">72 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdade_teen_die_Mensdom" title="Misdade teen die Mensdom – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Misdade teen die Mensdom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbrechen_gegen_die_Menschlichkeit" title="Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%B6%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جريمة ضد الإنسانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جريمة ضد الإنسانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nsanl%C4%B1q_%C9%99leyhin%C9%99_cinay%C9%99tl%C9%99r" title="İnsanlıq əleyhinə cinayətlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnsanlıq əleyhinə cinayətlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7" title="মানবতাবিরোধী অপরাধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মানবতাবিরোধী অপরাধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8C_%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Злачынствы супраць чалавецтва – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Злачынствы супраць чалавецтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%89%D1%83_%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Престъпления срещу човечеството – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Престъпления срещу човечеството" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo%C4%8Dini_protiv_%C4%8Dovje%C4%8Dnosti" title="Zločini protiv čovječnosti – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zločini protiv čovječnosti" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D2%AF%D0%BC%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%82%D1%8D_%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D2%AF%D2%AF_%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%82%D1%8D_%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Хүмүүнлигтэ эсэргүү гэмтэ хэрэг – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хүмүүнлигтэ эсэргүү гэмтэ хэрэг" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crim_contra_la_humanitat" title="Crim contra la humanitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Crim contra la humanitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo%C4%8Din_proti_lidskosti" title="Zločin proti lidskosti – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zločin proti lidskosti" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trosedd_yn_erbyn_dynoliaeth" title="Trosedd yn erbyn dynoliaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trosedd yn erbyn dynoliaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbrydelse_mod_menneskeheden" title="Forbrydelse mod menneskeheden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Forbrydelse mod menneskeheden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbrechen_gegen_die_Menschlichkeit" title="Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inimsusvastane_kuritegu" title="Inimsusvastane kuritegu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Inimsusvastane kuritegu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AC_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Έγκλημα κατά της ανθρωπότητας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Έγκλημα κατά της ανθρωπότητας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimen_de_lesa_humanidad" title="Crimen de lesa humanidad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Crimen de lesa humanidad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimoj_kontra%C5%AD_la_homeco" title="Krimoj kontraŭ la homeco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Krimoj kontraŭ la homeco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gizadiaren_aurkako_krimen" title="Gizadiaren aurkako krimen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gizadiaren aurkako krimen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="جنایت علیه بشریت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنایت علیه بشریت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_contre_l%27humanit%C3%A9" title="Crime contre l'humanité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Crime contre l'humanité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdieden_tsjin_de_minsklikheid" title="Misdieden tsjin de minsklikheid – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Misdieden tsjin de minsklikheid" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_de_lesa_humanidade" title="Crime de lesa humanidade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Crime de lesa humanidade" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%97%90_%EB%B0%98%ED%95%9C_%EC%A3%84" title="인도에 반한 죄 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인도에 반한 죄" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%B4_%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B2%D5%B2%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մարդկության դեմ ուղղված հանցագործություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մարդկության դեմ ուղղված հանցագործություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="मानवता-विरोधी अपराध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानवता-विरोधी अपराध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo%C4%8Din_protiv_%C4%8Dovje%C4%8Dnosti" title="Zločin protiv čovječnosti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zločin protiv čovječnosti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejahatan_kemanusiaan" title="Kejahatan kemanusiaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kejahatan kemanusiaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A6pir_gegn_mann%C3%BA%C3%B0" title="Glæpir gegn mannúð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Glæpir gegn mannúð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimine_contro_l%27umanit%C3%A0" title="Crimine contro l'umanità – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Crimine contro l'umanità" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%93_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA" title="פשע נגד האנושות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פשע נגד האנושות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%9Bt%C9%9B_%C9%9Bza%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Tɛtɛ ɛzaɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tɛtɛ ɛzaɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D2%9B%D0%B0_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8B_%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Адамзатқа қарсы қылмыстар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Адамзатқа қарсы қылмыстар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Адамкерчиликке каршы кылмыштар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Адамкерчиликке каршы кылмыштар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scelus_contra_humanitatem" title="Scelus contra humanitatem – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scelus contra humanitatem" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noziegumi_pret_cilv%C4%93ci" title="Noziegumi pret cilvēci – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Noziegumi pret cilvēci" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nusikaltimai_%C5%BEmoni%C5%A1kumui" title="Nusikaltimai žmoniškumui – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nusikaltimai žmoniškumui" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emberiess%C3%A9g_elleni_b%C5%B1ntett" title="Emberiesség elleni bűntett – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Emberiesség elleni bűntett" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2_%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Злосторство против човештвото – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Злосторство против човештвото" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%B6%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87" title="جريمه ضد البشريه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جريمه ضد البشريه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenayah_terhadap_kemanusiaan" title="Jenayah terhadap kemanusiaan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jenayah terhadap kemanusiaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D2%AF%D0%BC%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B3_%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%82_%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Хүмүүнлэгийн эсрэг гэмт хэрэг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хүмүүнлэгийн эсрэг гэмт хэрэг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%91%E1%80%AF%E1%80%A1%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%8A%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%80%87%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="လူသားထုအပေါ် ကျူးလွန်သည့် ရာဇဝတ်မှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လူသားထုအပေါ် ကျူးလွန်သည့် ရာဇဝတ်မှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdaden_tegen_de_menselijkheid" title="Misdaden tegen de menselijkheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Misdaden tegen de menselijkheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%81%93%E3%81%AB%E5%AF%BE%E3%81%99%E3%82%8B%E7%BD%AA" title="人道に対する罪 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="人道に対する罪" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbrytelser_mot_menneskeheten" title="Forbrytelser mot menneskeheten – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Forbrytelser mot menneskeheten" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crim_contra_l%27umanitat" title="Crim contra l'umanitat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Crim contra l'umanitat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insoniyatga_qarshi_jinoyatlar" title="Insoniyatga qarshi jinoyatlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Insoniyatga qarshi jinoyatlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%B6%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87" title="د بشريت ضد جرمونه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د بشريت ضد جرمونه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbrodnia_przeciwko_ludzko%C5%9Bci" title="Zbrodnia przeciwko ludzkości – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zbrodnia przeciwko ludzkości" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_contra_a_humanidade" title="Crime contra a humanidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Crime contra a humanidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_%C3%AEmpotriva_umanit%C4%83%C8%9Bii" title="Crime împotriva umanității – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Crime împotriva umanității" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Преступления против человечества – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Преступления против человечества" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%ACmene_contra_s%27umanidade" title="Crìmene contra s'umanidade – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Crìmene contra s'umanidade" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimet_kund%C3%ABr_njer%C3%ABzimit" title="Krimet kundër njerëzimit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Krimet kundër njerëzimit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Crimes against humanity" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo%C4%8Din_proti_%C4%BEudskosti" title="Zločin proti ľudskosti – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zločin proti ľudskosti" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo%C4%8Din_proti_%C4%8Dlove%C5%A1tvu" title="Zločin proti človeštvu – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zločin proti človeštvu" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DA%98%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A4%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="تاوانەکانی دژی مرۆڤایەتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تاوانەکانی دژی مرۆڤایەتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2_%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Злочин против човечности – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Злочин против човечности" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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href="/wiki/File:Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg/240px-Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg/360px-Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg/480px-Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3999" data-file-height="2731" /></a><figcaption>In 1915, the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> (pictured) was <a href="/wiki/May_1915_Triple_Entente_declaration" title="May 1915 Triple Entente declaration">officially condemned</a> as a "crime against humanity" by Russia, France, and the United Kingdom.</figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 1.0em 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/220px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/330px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/440px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk & actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Ferri_(criminologist)" title="Enrico Ferri (criminologist)">Enrico Ferri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Lacassagne" title="Alexandre Lacassagne">Alexandre Lacassagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Reiss" title="Archibald Reiss">Archibald Reiss</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime"><span class="nowrap">Public-order</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a> in penology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template talk:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> <b>Crimes against humanity</b> are certain serious crimes committed as part of a large-scale attack against <a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">civilians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mettraux_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mettraux-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a>, crimes against humanity can be committed during both peace and war and against a state's own nationals as well as foreign nationals.<sup id="cite_ref-Mettraux_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mettraux-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeGuzman_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeGuzman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together with <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">crime of aggression</a>, crimes against humanity are one of the core crimes of <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, like other crimes against international law, <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Non-Applicability_of_Statutory_Limitations_to_War_Crimes_and_Crimes_Against_Humanity" title="Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity">have no temporal</a> or jurisdictional limitations on prosecution (where <a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">universal jurisdiction</a> is recognized).<sup id="cite_ref-DeGuzman_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeGuzman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first prosecution for crimes against humanity took place during the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> against defeated leaders of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. Crimes against humanity have been prosecuted by other international courts (such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>) as well as by domestic courts. The law of crimes against humanity has primarily been developed as a result of the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">customary international law</a>. Crimes against humanity are not codified in an international convention, so an international effort to establish such a treaty, led by the <a href="/wiki/Crimes_Against_Humanity_Initiative" title="Crimes Against Humanity Initiative">Crimes Against Humanity Initiative</a>, has been underway since 2008. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a>, there are eleven types of crime that can be charged as a crime against humanity when "committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any <a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">civilian</a> population": "murder; <a href="/wiki/Extermination_(crime)" title="Extermination (crime)">extermination</a>; <a href="/wiki/Enslavement" class="mw-redirect" title="Enslavement">enslavement</a>; <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Forcible_transfer_of_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Forcible transfer of population">forcible transfer of population</a>; imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of fundamental rules of international law; <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>; rape, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sexual slavery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enforced_prostitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Enforced prostitution">enforced prostitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_pregnancy" title="Forced pregnancy">forced pregnancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_abortion" title="Forced abortion">forced abortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enforced_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Enforced sterilization">enforced sterilization</a>, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity; <a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">persecution</a> against any identifiable group or collectivity...; <a href="/wiki/Enforced_disappearance" title="Enforced disappearance">enforced disappearance</a>...; the <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">crime of apartheid</a>; other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health."<sup id="cite_ref-un_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_term">Origins of the term</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "crimes against humanity" is potentially <a href="/wiki/Ambiguous" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiguous">ambiguous</a> because of the ambiguity of the word "humanity", which originally meant the <a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">quality of being human</a> (first recorded in 1384) but more recently (in 1450) additionally took on another meaning as a synonym of <a href="/wiki/Mankind" class="mw-redirect" title="Mankind">mankind</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OED_humanity_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED_humanity-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The context of the term in documents related to the Nuremberg trials shows that the original sense is intended.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leopold_ii_garter_knight.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leopold_ii_garter_knight.jpg/220px-Leopold_ii_garter_knight.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leopold_ii_garter_knight.jpg/330px-Leopold_ii_garter_knight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leopold_ii_garter_knight.jpg/440px-Leopold_ii_garter_knight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="1041" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II</a>, King of the Belgians and <i>de facto</i> owner of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a>, whose agents were accused of crimes against humanity</figcaption></figure> <p>The term "crimes against humanity" was used by <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Williams" title="George Washington Williams">George Washington Williams</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an American minister, politician and historian, in a letter he wrote to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">United States Secretary of State</a> describing the <a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">atrocities</a> committed by <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II of Belgium</a>'s administration in the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> in 1890.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was an early but not, as is often claimed, the first use of the term in its modern sense in the English language. In his first annual message in December 1889, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> spoke about the slave trade in Africa as a "crime against humanity". Already in 1883, Williams had used the same term in his reflections about slavery in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In treaty law, the term originated in the Second <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Convention</a> of 1899 preamble and was expanded in the Fourth Hague Convention of 1907 preamble and their respective regulations, which were concerned with the codification of new rules of <a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">international humanitarian law</a>. The preamble of the two Conventions referenced the "laws of humanity" as an expression of underlying inarticulated humanistic values.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is part of what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Martens_Clause" title="Martens Clause">Martens Clause</a>. </p><p>On May 24, 1915, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied Powers</a>, Britain, France, and Russia, <a href="/wiki/May_1915_Triple_Entente_declaration" title="May 1915 Triple Entente declaration">jointly issued a statement</a> explicitly and for the first time ever charging another government with committing "a crime against humanity". An excerpt from this joint statement reads: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In view of these new crimes of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> against humanity and civilization, the Allied Governments announce publicly to the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Sublime Porte</a> that they will hold personally responsible for these crimes all members of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turks" title="Young Turks">Ottoman Government</a>, as well as those of their agents who are implicated in such massacres.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>At the conclusion of the war, the Allied <a href="/wiki/Commission_of_Responsibilities" title="Commission of Responsibilities">Commission of Responsibilities</a> recommended the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">tribunal</a> to try "violations of the laws of humanity" because the law of war did not cover atrocities committed by a state against its own nationals or allied persons.<sup id="cite_ref-JFS_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JFS-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the US representative objected to references to the "law of humanity" as being imprecise and insufficiently developed at that time, and the concept was not pursued.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, a UN report in 1948 referred to the usage of the term "crimes against humanity" regarding the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> as a precedent to the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Tokyo trials</a>. On May 15, 1948, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_and_Social_Council" title="United Nations Economic and Social Council">Economic and Social Council</a> presented a 384-page report prepared by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_War_Crimes_Commission" title="United Nations War Crimes Commission">United Nations War Crimes Commission</a> (UNWCC),<sup id="cite_ref-W.19_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W.19-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> set up in London (October 1943) to collect and collate information on war crimes and war criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-Avedian2018_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Avedian2018-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 129">: 129 </span></sup> The report was in compliance with the request by the UN Secretary-General to make arrangements for "the collection and publication of information concerning human rights arising from trials of war criminals, quislings, and traitors, and in particular from the Nuremberg trials and Tokyo Trials." The report had been prepared by members of the Legal Staff of the commission. The report is highly topical regarding the Armenian Genocide, not only because it uses the 1915 events as a historic example but also as a precedent to Articles 6 (c) and 5 (c) of the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Charter" title="Tokyo Charter">Tokyo Charters</a>, and thereby as a precursor to the then newly adopted UN <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a>, differentiating between war crimes and crimes against humanity. By referring to the information collected during WWI and put forward by the 1919 <a href="/wiki/Commission_of_Responsibilities" title="Commission of Responsibilities">Commission of Responsibilities</a>, the report titled "Information Concerning Human Rights Arising from Trials of War Criminals" used the Armenian case as a vivid example of crimes committed by a state against its own citizens. The report also noted that while the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Treaties</a> with Germany, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria did not include any reference to "laws of humanity", instead basing the charges on violations of "laws and customs of war", the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Sèvres Peace Treaty</a> with Turkey did so. In addition to the Articles 226–228, concerning customs of war (corresponding to Articles 228–230 of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>), the Sèvres Treaty also contained an additional Article 230, obviously in compliance with the Allied ultimatum of May 24, 1915 regarding committed "crimes against humanity and civilization".<sup id="cite_ref-Avedian2018_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Avedian2018-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130">: 130 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuremberg_trials">Nuremberg trials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nuremberg trials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Defendants_in_the_dock_at_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Defendants_in_the_dock_at_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/300px-Defendants_in_the_dock_at_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Defendants_in_the_dock_at_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/450px-Defendants_in_the_dock_at_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Defendants_in_the_dock_at_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/600px-Defendants_in_the_dock_at_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2944" data-file-height="2274" /></a><figcaption>Nuremberg Trials. The defendants are in the dock. The main target of the prosecution was <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a> (at the left edge on the first row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving official in the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Third <i>Reich</i></a> after <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler's</a> death.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Second World War, the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a> set down the laws and procedures by which the Nuremberg trials were to be conducted. The drafters of this document were faced with the problem of how to charge the men at the Nuremberg Trial with committing <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and other state-sanctioned atrocities committed in Germany and German-allied states by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi regime">Nazi regime</a>. As far as German law was concerned the men had committed no crime, but only followed orders. Not following orders however, in Nazi Germany, was a horribly punished crime. The problem in trying the individuals responsible for the German atrocities lied in the fact that, like in World War I, a traditional understanding of war crimes gave no provision for atrocities committed by a state on its own citizens or its allies.<sup id="cite_ref-JFS_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JFS-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, to solve this problem and close the loophole, Article 6 of the Charter was drafted to include not only traditional war crimes and <a href="/wiki/Crime_against_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime against peace">crimes against peace</a>, but also <i>crimes against humanity</i>, defined as: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a>, extermination, <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">enslavement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a>, and other <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/inhumane" class="extiw" title="wikt:inhumane">inhumane</a> acts committed against any <a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">civilian</a> population, before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where perpetrated.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-black_book_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-black_book-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Under this definition, crimes against humanity could be punished only insofar as they could be connected somehow to war crimes or crimes against peace.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilberg1145_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilberg1145-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The jurisdictional limitation was explained by the American chief representative to the London Conference, <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>, who pointed out that it "has been a general principle from time immemorial that the internal affairs of another government are not ordinarily our business". Thus, "it is justifiable that we interfere or attempt to bring retribution to individuals or to states only because the concentration camps and the deportations were in pursuance of a common plan or enterprise of making an unjust war".<sup id="cite_ref-Hilberg1145_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilberg1145-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The judgement of the first Nuremberg trial found that "the policy of persecution, repression and murder of civilians" and persecution of Jews within Germany before the outbreak of war in 1939 were not crimes against humanity, because as "revolting and horrible as many of these crimes were, it has not been satisfactorily proved that they were done in execution of, or in connection with", war crimes or crimes against peace.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">subsequent Nuremberg trials</a> were conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 which included a revised definition of crimes against humanity with a wider scope.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tokyo_Trial">Tokyo Trial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Tokyo Trial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IMTFE_defendants.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/IMTFE_defendants.jpg/300px-IMTFE_defendants.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/IMTFE_defendants.jpg/450px-IMTFE_defendants.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/IMTFE_defendants.jpg/600px-IMTFE_defendants.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="881" /></a><figcaption>The defendants at the Tokyo International Tribunal. General <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a> was one of the main defendants and is in the centre of the middle row.</figcaption></figure> <p>The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), also known as the Tokyo Trial, was convened to <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">try</a> the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> for three types of crimes: "Class A" (<a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against peace">crimes against peace</a>), "Class B" (<a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a>), and "Class C" (crimes against humanity), committed during the Second World War. </p><p>The legal basis for the trial was established by the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Charter" title="Tokyo Charter">Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (CIMTFE)</a> that was proclaimed on 19 January 1946. The tribunal convened on May 3, 1946, and was adjourned on November 12, 1948. </p><p>In the Tokyo Trial, Crimes against Humanity (Class C) was not applied for any suspect.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Prosecutions related to the <a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a> were categorised as infringements upon the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of War">Laws of War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigurashi2008116–119_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigurashi2008116–119-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A panel of eleven <a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">judges</a> presided over the IMTFE, one each from victorious Allied powers (<a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines" title="Commonwealth of the Philippines">Philippines</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_crimes_against_humanity">Types of crimes against humanity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types of crimes against humanity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The definition of a crime against humanity varies both between and within countries and it also varies on both the international and domestic levels. Isolated and inhumane acts of a certain nature which are not committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack may constitute grave infringements of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, or – depending on the circumstances – <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a> but they are not classified as crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-Horton2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horton2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a>, there are eleven types of crimes that can be charged as crimes against humanity when they are "committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any <a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">civilian</a> population":<sup id="cite_ref-un_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>Murder;</li><li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_(crime)" title="Extermination (crime)">Extermination</a> [including "the intentional infliction of conditions of life, inter alia the deprivation of access to food and medicine, calculated to bring about the destruction of part of a population"];</li><li><a href="/wiki/Enslavement" class="mw-redirect" title="Enslavement">Enslavement</a>;</li><li>Deportation or <a href="/wiki/Forcible_transfer_of_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Forcible transfer of population">forcible transfer of population</a>;</li><li>Imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of fundamental rules of international law;</li><li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a>;</li><li>Rape, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sexual slavery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enforced_prostitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Enforced prostitution">enforced prostitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_pregnancy" title="Forced pregnancy">forced pregnancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enforced_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Enforced sterilization">enforced sterilization</a>, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity</li><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a> against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender as defined in paragraph 3, or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law, in connection with any act referred to in this paragraph or any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court;</li><li><a href="/wiki/Enforced_disappearance" title="Enforced disappearance">Enforced disappearance</a> of persons;</li><li>The <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">crime of apartheid</a>;</li><li>Other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health.</li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apartheid">Apartheid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Apartheid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></div> <p>The systematic <a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">persecution</a> of members of one racial group by members of another racial group, such as the persecution which was practiced by the <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> government, was recognized as a crime against humanity by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> in 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">Charter of the United Nations</a>, Articles 13, 14, 15 makes actions of the General Assembly advisory to the Security Council.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regard to apartheid in particular, the UN General Assembly has not made any findings, nor have apartheid-related trials for crimes against humanity been conducted. <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Israeli_apartheid">Israeli apartheid</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Israeli apartheid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Israeli_apartheid" title="Israeli apartheid">Israeli apartheid</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euro-Med_Human_Rights_Monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor">Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lynk" title="Michael Lynk">Michael Lynk</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Special_Rapporteur_on_the_occupied_Palestinian_territories" title="United Nations Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories">UN Special Rapporteur for the Palestinian occupied territory</a>) have accused Israel of committing apartheid against Palestinians in the <a href="/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_the_West_Bank" title="Israeli occupation of the West Bank">Israeli-occupied West Bank</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-guardian-20240719_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian-20240719-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amnesty.org_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amnesty.org-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rape_and_sexual_violence">Rape and sexual violence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rape and sexual violence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nuremberg and Tokyo Charters did not contain any explicit provisions which recognized sexual and gender-based crimes as war crimes or crimes against humanity, but Control Council Law No. 10 recognized <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a> as a crime against humanity. The statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda both included rape as a crime against humanity. The ICC is the first international court which expressly includes various forms of sexual and gender-based crimes –  including rape, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sexual slavery</a>, enforced <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a>, forced pregnancy, <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">enforced sterilisation</a>, and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence" title="Sexual violence">sexual violence</a> –  as both an underlying act of crimes against humanity and a war crime which is committed during international and/or non-international armed conflicts.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2008, the <a href="/wiki/U.N._Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="U.N. Security Council">U.N. Security Council</a> adopted <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1820" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1820">resolution 1820</a>, which noted that "rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide".<sup id="cite_ref-Un.org_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Un.org-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_status_of_crimes_against_humanity_in_international_law">Legal status of crimes against humanity in international law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Legal status of crimes against humanity in international law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike genocide and war crimes, which have been widely recognized and prohibited in international criminal law since the establishment of the Nuremberg principles,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there has never been a comprehensive convention on crimes against humanity,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though such crimes are continuously perpetrated worldwide in numerous conflicts and crises.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are eleven international texts defining crimes against humanity, but they all differ slightly as to their definition of that crime and its legal elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Crimes_Against_Humanity_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crimes_Against_Humanity-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Crimes_Against_Humanity_Initiative" title="Crimes Against Humanity Initiative">Crimes Against Humanity Initiative</a> was launched to address this gap in international law.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 30, 2013, the United Nations <a href="/wiki/International_Law_Commission" title="International Law Commission">International Law Commission</a> voted to include the topic of crimes against humanity in its long-term program of work. In July 2014, the Commission moved this topic to its active programme of work<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based largely on a report submitted by <a href="/wiki/Sean_D._Murphy" title="Sean D. Murphy">Sean D. Murphy</a> (the Special Rapporteur for Crimes Against Humanity).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is some debate on the status of crimes against humanity under customary international law is. M. Cherif Bassiouni argues that crimes against humanity are part of <i><a href="/wiki/Jus_cogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jus cogens">jus cogens</a></i> and as such constitute a <a href="/wiki/Derogation" title="Derogation">non-derogable</a> rule of international law.<sup id="cite_ref-Crimes_Against_Humanity_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crimes_Against_Humanity-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: United Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United Nations has been primarily responsible for the prosecution of crimes against humanity since it was chartered in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Nuremberg, there was no international court with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity for almost 50 years. However, work continued on developing the definition of crimes against humanity at the United Nations. For instance, in 1947, the <a href="/wiki/International_Law_Commission" title="International Law Commission">International Law Commission</a> was charged by the United Nations General Assembly with the formulation of the principles of international law recognized and reinforced in the Nuremberg Charter and judgment, and they were also tasked with drafting a 'code of offenses against the peace and security of mankind'. Completed 50 years later in 1996, the Draft Code defined crimes against humanity as various inhumane acts, <i>i.e.</i>, "murder, extermination, torture, enslavement, persecution on political, racial, religious or ethnic grounds, institutionalized discrimination, arbitrary deportation or forcible transfer of population, arbitrary imprisonment, rape, enforced prostitution and other inhuman acts committed in a systematic manner or on a large scale and instigated or directed by a Government or by any organization or group." This definition differs from the one used in Nuremberg, where the criminal acts were to have been committed "before or during the war", thus establishing a nexus between crimes against humanity and armed conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 21 March 2013, at its 22nd session, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council" title="United Nations Human Rights Council">United Nations Human Rights Council</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Report_of_the_Commission_of_Inquiry_on_Human_Rights_in_the_Democratic_People%27s_Republic_of_Korea" title="Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea">Commission of Inquiry on human rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea</a> (DPRK). The Commission was mandated to investigate the systematic, widespread, and grave violations of human rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, with a view to ensuring full accountability, in particular for violations that may amount to crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Commission dealt with matters relating to crimes against humanity on the basis of definitions set out by customary international criminal law and in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.<sup id="cite_ref-ohchr.org_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ohchr.org-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2014 Report by the Commission found "the body of testimony and other information it received establishes that crimes against humanity have been committed in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, pursuant to policies established at the highest level of the State [....] These crimes against humanity entail extermination, murder, enslavement, torture, imprisonment, rape, forced abortions and other sexual violence, persecution on political, religious, racial and gender grounds, the forcible transfer of populations, the enforced disappearance of persons and the inhumane act of knowingly causing prolonged starvation. The Commission further finds that crimes against humanity are ongoing in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea because the policies, institutions and patterns of impunity that lie at their heart remain in place." Additionally, the Commission found that crimes against humanity have been committed against starving populations, particularly during the 1990s and that they were still being committed against persons from other countries who were systematically abducted or denied repatriation because they sought to gain labour and other skills for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-ohchr.org_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ohchr.org-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_Council">Security Council</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Security Council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1674" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council Resolution 1674">UN Security Council Resolution 1674</a>, adopted by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> on 28 April 2006, "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 <a href="/wiki/World_Summit_Outcome_Document" class="mw-redirect" title="World Summit Outcome Document">World Summit Outcome Document</a> regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution">resolution</a> commits the Council to action to protect civilians in armed conflict. </p><p>In 2008 the <a href="/wiki/U.N._Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="U.N. Security Council">UN Security Council</a> adopted <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1820" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1820">resolution 1820</a>, which noted that "rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide".<sup id="cite_ref-Un.org_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Un.org-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> resolution 1970 (2011) concerning <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, any direct or indirect trade of arms to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, in the form of supply, transfer, or sale should be prevented by the member nations. The <a href="/wiki/Arms_embargo" title="Arms embargo">arms embargo</a> restricts the supply of arms, weapons, military vehicles, spare parts, technical assistance, finances, and the provision of armed <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a> with origins of a country other than the one providing.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later, the United Nations claimed in its November 2019 report that the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> were then violating the arms embargo imposed on Libya under the 1970 resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An airstrike on the migrant detention center in <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> in July 2019, believed to have been carried out by the United Arab Emirates, can be amounted as a war crime, as stated by the United Nations. The airstrike was deadlier than the 2011 militarized uprising that overthrew the regime of <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_courts_and_criminal_tribunals">International courts and criminal tribunals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: International courts and criminal tribunals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of 1945–1946, another international tribunal with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity was not established for another five decades. In response to atrocities committed in the 1990s, multiple ad hoc tribunals were established with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity. The statutes of the International Criminal Court, the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda each contain different definitions of crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a></div><p> In 1993, the UN Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), with jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute three international crimes which had taken place in the former Yugoslavia: genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Article 5 of the ICTY Statute states that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The International Tribunal shall have the power to prosecute persons responsible for the following crimes when committed in armed conflict, whether international or internal in character, and directed against any civilian population:<sup id="cite_ref-ICTY_Statute_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICTY_Statute-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><dl><dd>(a) murder;</dd> <dd>(b) extermination;</dd> <dd>(c) enslavement;</dd> <dd>(d) deportation;</dd> <dd>(e) imprisonment;</dd> <dd>(f) torture;</dd> <dd>(g) rape;</dd> <dd>(h) persecutions on political, racial and religious grounds;</dd> <dd>(i) other inhumane acts."</dd></dl></blockquote> <p>This definition of crimes against humanity revived the original 'Nuremberg' nexus with armed conflict, connecting crimes against humanity to both international and non-international armed conflict. It also expanded the list of criminal acts used in Nuremberg to include imprisonment, torture and rape.<sup id="cite_ref-ICTY_Statute_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICTY_Statute-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cherif Bassiouni has argued that this definition was necessary as the conflict in the former Yugoslavia was considered to be a conflict of both an international and non-international nature. Therefore, this adjusted definition of crimes against humanity was necessary to afford the tribunal jurisdiction over this crime.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></div> <p>The UN Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in 1994 following the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>. Under the ICTR Statute, the link between crimes against humanity and an armed conflict of any kind was dropped. Rather, the requirement was added that the inhumane acts must be part of a "systematic or widespread attack against any civilian population on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, the conflict in Rwanda was deemed to be non-international, so crimes against humanity would likely not have been applicable if the nexus to armed conflict had been maintained. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Special Court for Sierra Leone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extraordinary_Chambers_in_the_Courts_of_Cambodia_(ECCC)"><span id="Extraordinary_Chambers_in_the_Courts_of_Cambodia_.28ECCC.29"></span>Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cambodia_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambodia Tribunal">Cambodia Tribunal</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Criminal_Court">International Criminal Court</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: International Criminal Court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Criminal_Court_Headquarters,_Netherlands.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/International_Criminal_Court_Headquarters%2C_Netherlands.jpg/278px-International_Criminal_Court_Headquarters%2C_Netherlands.jpg" decoding="async" width="278" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/International_Criminal_Court_Headquarters%2C_Netherlands.jpg/417px-International_Criminal_Court_Headquarters%2C_Netherlands.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/International_Criminal_Court_Headquarters%2C_Netherlands.jpg/556px-International_Criminal_Court_Headquarters%2C_Netherlands.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1836" /></a><figcaption>Headquarters of the ICC in The Hague</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2002, the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> (ICC) was established in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> (<a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">Rome Statute</a> provides for the ICC to have jurisdiction over <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. ICC proceedings definitions of a "crime against humanity" have evolved significantly from its original legal definition or that used by the UN.<sup id="cite_ref-crimesofwar_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crimesofwar-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Essentially, the Rome Statute employs the same definition of crimes against humanity that the ICTR Statute does, minus the requirement that the attack was carried out 'on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds'. In addition, the Rome Statute definition offers the most expansive list of specific criminal acts that may constitute crimes against humanity to date. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a> Explanatory Memorandum states that crimes against humanity: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>are particularly odious offenses in that they constitute a serious attack on human dignity or grave humiliation or a degradation of one or more human beings. They are not isolated or sporadic events, but are part either of a government policy (although the perpetrators need not identify themselves with this policy) or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated or condoned by a government or a de facto authority. However, murder, extermination, torture, rape, political, racial, or religious persecution and other inhumane acts reach the threshold of crimes against humanity only if they are part of a widespread or systematic practice. Isolated inhumane acts of this nature may constitute grave infringements of human rights, or depending on the circumstances, war crimes, but may fall short of meriting the stigma attaching to the category of crimes under discussion. On the other hand, an individual may be guilty of crimes against humanity even if he perpetrates one or two of the offences mentioned above, or engages in one such offense against only a few civilians, provided those offenses are part of a consistent pattern of misbehavior by a number of persons linked to that offender (for example, because they engage in armed action on the same side or because they are parties to a common plan or for any similar reason.) Consequently when one or more individuals are not accused of planning or carrying out a policy of inhumanity, but simply of perpetrating specific atrocities or vicious acts, in order to determine whether the necessary threshold is met one should use the following test: one ought to look at these atrocities or acts in their context and verify whether they may be regarded as part of an overall policy or a consistent pattern of an inhumanity, or whether they instead constitute isolated or sporadic acts of cruelty and wickedness.<sup id="cite_ref-Horton2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horton2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>To fall under the Rome Statute, a crime against humanity which is defined in Article 7.1 must be "part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population". Article 7.2.a states "For the purpose of paragraph 1: 'Attack directed against any civilian population means a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack'." This means that an individual crime on its own, or even a number of such crimes, would not fall under the Rome Statute unless they were the result of a state policy or an organizational policy. This was confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Luis_Moreno_Ocampo" title="Luis Moreno Ocampo">Luis Moreno Ocampo</a> in an open letter publishing his conclusions about allegations of crimes committed during the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 which might fall under the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">ICC</a>. In a section entitled "Allegations concerning Genocide and Crimes against Humanity," Ocampo states that "the available information provided no reasonable indicator of the required elements for a crime against humanity," <i>i.e.</i>, 'a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population'".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ICC can only prosecute crimes against humanity in situations under which it has jurisdiction. The ICC only has jurisdiction over crimes contained in its statute – genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity – which have been committed on the territory of a State party to the Rome Statute, when a non-party State refers a situation within its country to the court, or when the United Nation Security Council refers a case to the ICC.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005 the UN referred to the ICC the situation in Darfur. This referral resulted in an indictment of Sudanese President <a href="/wiki/Omar_al-Bashir" title="Omar al-Bashir">Omar al-Bashir</a> for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-al-bashir_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-bashir-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the ICC President reported to the UN regarding its progress handling these crimes against humanity case, Judge Phillipe Kirsch said "The Court does not have the power to arrest these persons. That is the responsibility of States and other actors. Without arrests, there can be no trials.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Council_of_Europe">Council of Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Council of Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee of Ministers">Committee of Ministers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> on 30 April 2002 issued a recommendation to the member states, on the protection of women against violence. In the section "Additional measures concerning violence in conflict and post-conflict situations", states in paragraph 69 that member states should: "penalize rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity as an intolerable violation of human rights, as crimes against humanity and, when committed in the context of an armed conflict, as war crimes;"<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Explanatory Memorandum on this recommendation when considering paragraph 69: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Reference should be made to the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal</a> adopted in Rome in July 1998. Article 7 of the Statute defines rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity, as crimes against humanity. Furthermore, Article 8 of the Statute defines rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization or any other form of sexual violence as a serious breach of the Geneva Conventions and as war crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D%C3%ADa_por_la_Memoria,_la_Verdad_y_la_Justicia_24-03-2019_(13).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/D%C3%ADa_por_la_Memoria%2C_la_Verdad_y_la_Justicia_24-03-2019_%2813%29.jpg/220px-D%C3%ADa_por_la_Memoria%2C_la_Verdad_y_la_Justicia_24-03-2019_%2813%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/D%C3%ADa_por_la_Memoria%2C_la_Verdad_y_la_Justicia_24-03-2019_%2813%29.jpg/330px-D%C3%ADa_por_la_Memoria%2C_la_Verdad_y_la_Justicia_24-03-2019_%2813%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/D%C3%ADa_por_la_Memoria%2C_la_Verdad_y_la_Justicia_24-03-2019_%2813%29.jpg/440px-D%C3%ADa_por_la_Memoria%2C_la_Verdad_y_la_Justicia_24-03-2019_%2813%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Argentines commemorate <a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">victims of military junta</a>, 24 March 2019.</figcaption></figure> <p>Numerous sources cite the 20th century as the bloodiest century in global history.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Millions of civilian infants, children, adults, and elderly people died in warfare. One civilian perished for every combatant killed.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, war criminals did not face the possibility of prosecution, apprehension, or imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain's Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> favored the outright execution of war criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States was more lenient and called for a just trial.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British Government was convinced to institute the Nuremberg Trials, which left several legacies. These include <a href="/wiki/Worldwide_jurisdiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Worldwide jurisdiction">worldwide jurisdiction</a> for severe war crimes, the creation of international war crime tribunals, judicial procedures that effectively documented the history of colossal crimes, and the success of UN courts in holding impartial trials.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The UN highlighted the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC), specifically Article 7 (Crimes against Humanity), which defines large-scale acts of violence against a locality's civilian populace. These acts include murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation or forcible transfer of the population, imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of international laws, torture, forced prostitution and rape, persecution against certain groups, apartheid (racial discrimination and segregation), and other inhumane acts.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A publication from Trial International mentioned that crimes against humanity have been codified starting in 1990. These include the 1993 Statute of the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia</a>, the 1994 Statute of the <a href="/wiki/International_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="International Tribunal for Rwanda">International Tribunal for Rwanda</a>, and the 1998 <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court</a>. The latter contains the latest and most extensive list of detailed crimes against civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A report on the 2008–09 <a href="/wiki/Gaza_War_(2008%E2%80%932009)" title="Gaza War (2008–2009)">Gaza War</a> by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Goldstone" title="Richard Goldstone">Richard Goldstone</a> accused Israeli and Hamas forces of possibly committing a crime against humanity. The report concluded that Israel had used disproportionate force, targeted Palestinian civilians, used them as human shields, and destroyed civilian infrastructure. Hamas was found to have deliberately targeted Israeli civilians and Israeli infrastructure by mounting indiscriminate rocket attacks. Both the Israeli government and Hamas dismissed the findings of the report.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an April 2011 <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i> article Goldstone wrote the report would have been a different document if he had known in 2009 what he knew in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2019, United Nations investigators announced that <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israeli troops</a> may have committed crimes against humanity. During the Gaza protests 189 Palestinians were killed, investigators said, 183 were shot with live ammunition, including 35 children, three health workers, and two journalists.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amnesty International has accused <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> of committing the crime of apartheid against Palestinians.<sup id="cite_ref-amnesty.org_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amnesty.org-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2022, the <a href="/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Office_assessment_of_human_rights_concerns_in_Xinjiang" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Human Rights Office assessment of human rights concerns in Xinjiang">UN Human Rights Office assessment of human rights concerns in Xinjiang</a> concluded that the extent of <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">arbitrary and discriminatory detention</a> of members of <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a> and other predominantly <a href="/wiki/Muslim_groups_in_China" title="Muslim groups in China">Muslim groups in China</a>, since 2017, pursuant to law and policy, in context of restrictions and deprivation more generally of fundamental rights enjoyed individually and collectively, may constitute international crimes, in particular crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Myanmar military's targeting of the <a href="/wiki/Rohingya_people" title="Rohingya people">Rohingya Muslims</a> in which more than 25,000 have been killed and more than 18,000 women and girls have been systematically raped have been labelled as crimes against humanity by <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">OHCHR</a> Independent Fact-Finding Mission have found <a href="/wiki/Tatmadaw" title="Tatmadaw">Tatmadaw</a> of committing crimes against humanity, genocide, and ethnic cleansing.<sup id="cite_ref-fact-finding_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fact-finding-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A report of a UN fact-finding mission, which was released in March 2024 and presided over by <a href="/wiki/Sara_Hossain" title="Sara Hossain">Sara Hossain</a>, revealed that the Iranian regime engaged in systematic and egregious institutionalized crimes against humanity on a large scale. Between 2021 and 2022, 551 protestors were killed during the <a href="/wiki/Woman,_Life,_Freedom_movement" title="Woman, Life, Freedom movement">Woman, Life, Freedom movement</a>, and 834 people were executed in 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 2024, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council" title="United Nations Human Rights Council">United Nations Human Rights Council</a> (UNHRC) adopted a resolution calling for Israel to be held accountable for possible <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war#By_Israel" title="War crimes in the Israel–Hamas war">war crimes</a> and crimes against humanity in the <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a>, and demanding a halt to all arms sales to the country. 28 countries voted in favor, 13 abstained, and six voted against. Israel's ambassador accused the UN of anti-Israeli bias.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mettraux-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mettraux_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mettraux_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMettraux2005" class="citation book cs1">Mettraux, Guénaël (2005). <i>International Crimes and the Ad Hoc Tribunals</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927155-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927155-9"><bdi>978-0-19-927155-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Crimes+and+the+Ad+Hoc+Tribunals&rft.pages=320&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927155-9&rft.aulast=Mettraux&rft.aufirst=Gu%C3%A9na%C3%ABl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeGuzman-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeGuzman_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeGuzman_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret M. DeGuzman,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1745183">"Crimes Against Humanity"</a> <i>Research Handbook on International Criminal Law</i>, Bartram S. Brown, ed., Edgar Elgar Publishing, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwöbel-Patel2020" class="citation book cs1">Schwöbel-Patel, Christine (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/41306/chapter/352055519">"The Core Crimes of International Criminal Law"</a>. <i>The Oxford Handbook of International Criminal Law</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 768. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198825203" title="Special:BookSources/9780198825203"><bdi>9780198825203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Core+Crimes+of+International+Criminal+Law&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+International+Criminal+Law&rft.pages=768&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780198825203&rft.aulast=Schw%C3%B6bel-Patel&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F41306%2Fchapter%2F352055519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-un-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-un_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-un_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/crimes-against-humanity.shtml">"United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect"</a>. <i>www.un.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.un.org&rft.atitle=United+Nations+Office+on+Genocide+Prevention+and+the+Responsibility+to+Protect&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fgenocideprevention%2Fcrimes-against-humanity.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OED_humanity-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OED_humanity_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2854821022"><i>Oxford English Dictionary</i></a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOED%2F2854821022">10.1093/OED/2854821022</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2FOED%2F2854821022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2FOED%2F2854821022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuban2004" class="citation journal cs1">Luban, David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/146/">"A Theory of Crimes Against Humanity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Yale_Journal_of_International_Law" title="The Yale Journal of International Law">The Yale Journal of International Law</a></i>. <b>29</b> (1): 85–167.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Yale+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=A+Theory+of+Crimes+Against+Humanity&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85-167&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Luban&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.georgetown.edu%2Ffacpub%2F146%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProvostAkhavan2010" class="citation book cs1">Provost, René; Akhavan, Payam, eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C0U74u6SyRwC"><i>Confronting Genocide</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9048198405" title="Special:BookSources/978-9048198405"><bdi>978-9048198405</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confronting+Genocide&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-9048198405&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC0U74u6SyRwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hochschild, A. <i>King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa</i>. Houghton Mifflin, 1999. pp. 111–112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLösing2020" class="citation book cs1">Lösing, Felix (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1182579739"><i>A 'Crisis of Whiteness' in the 'Heart of Darkness'. Racism and the Congo Reform Movement</i></a>. Bielefeld: transcript. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8376-5498-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8376-5498-1"><bdi>978-3-8376-5498-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1182579739">1182579739</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+%27Crisis+of+Whiteness%27+in+the+%27Heart+of+Darkness%27.+Racism+and+the+Congo+Reform+Movement&rft.place=Bielefeld&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=transcript&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1182579739&rft.isbn=978-3-8376-5498-1&rft.aulast=L%C3%B6sing&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1182579739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cherif Bassiouni, M. <i>Crimes against Humanity: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Application</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. p. 86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1915 declaration <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr933&dbname=106&">Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160414183759/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr933&dbname=106&">Archived</a> 2016-04-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 106th Congress,2nd Session, House of Representatives</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.RES.316:">Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced in House of Representatives)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160703194652/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.RES.316:">Archived</a> 2016-07-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 109th Congress, 1st Session, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HE00316:">H.RES.316</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160703194650/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HE00316:">Archived</a> 2016-07-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, June 14, 2005. 15 September 2005 House Committee/Subcommittee:International Relations actions. Status: Ordered to be Reported by the Yeas and Nays: 40–7.</li> <li>"Crimes Against Humanity", 23 British Yearbook of International Law (1946) p. 181</li> <li>Schabas <a href="#References">References</a> pp. 16–17</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.160/current_category.7/affirmation_detail.html">Original source of the telegram sent by the Department of State, Washington containing the French, British and Russian joint declaration</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-JFS-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JFS_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JFS_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakemli_Makale,_Sümeyra_Tekin" class="citation web cs1">Hakemli Makale, Sümeyra Tekin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/426221#page=8">"THE ORIGINS OF CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY: FROM NUREMBERG TO ROME"</a>. DergiPark. pp. 156–157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=THE+ORIGINS+OF+CRIMES+AGAINST+HUMANITY%3A+FROM+NUREMBERG+TO+ROME&rft.pages=156-157&rft.pub=DergiPark&rft.au=Hakemli+Makale%2C+S%C3%BCmeyra+Tekin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdergipark.org.tr%2Fen%2Fdownload%2Farticle-file%2F426221%23page%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCryerHakan_FrimanDarryl_RobinsonElizabeth_Wilmshurst2007" class="citation book cs1">Cryer, Robert; Hakan Friman; Darryl Robinson; Elizabeth Wilmshurst (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00crye"><i>An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00crye/page/n234">188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+International+Criminal+Law+and+Procedure&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Cryer&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Hakan+Friman&rft.au=Darryl+Robinson&rft.au=Elizabeth+Wilmshurst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoin00crye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W.19-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W.19_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://undocs.org/E/CN.4/W.19">"E/CN.4/W.19"</a>. UN.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=E%2FCN.4%2FW.19&rft.pub=UN.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fundocs.org%2FE%2FCN.4%2FW.19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Avedian2018-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Avedian2018_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Avedian2018_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvedian2018" class="citation book cs1">Avedian, Vahagn (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tv7iuQEACAAJ"><i>Knowledge and Acknowledgement in the Politics of Memory of the Armenian Genocide</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-13-831885-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-13-831885-4"><bdi>978-1-13-831885-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knowledge+and+Acknowledgement+in+the+Politics+of+Memory+of+the+Armenian+Genocide&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-13-831885-4&rft.aulast=Avedian&rft.aufirst=Vahagn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTv7iuQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/judprov.asp">"Nuremberg War Crimes Trial: The Charter Provisions"</a>. <i>avalon.law.yale.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=avalon.law.yale.edu&rft.atitle=Nuremberg+War+Crimes+Trial%3A+The+Charter+Provisions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2Fimt%2Fjudprov.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-black_book-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-black_book_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Courtois" title="Stéphane Courtois">Stéphane Courtois</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism</a>: Crimes, Terror, Repression</i>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 858 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-07608-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-07608-7">0-674-07608-7</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hilberg1145-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hilberg1145_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hilberg1145_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilberg2003" class="citation book cs1">Hilberg, Raul (2003). <i>The Destruction of the European Jews</i> (3rd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 1145–1147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300095579" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300095579"><bdi>978-0300095579</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Destruction+of+the+European+Jews&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pages=1145-1147&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0300095579&rft.aulast=Hilberg&rft.aufirst=Raul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/judlawre.asp">Judgement : The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity</a>" contained in the <a href="/wiki/Avalon_Project" title="Avalon Project">Avalon Project</a> archive at <a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_School" title="Yale Law School">Yale Law School</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe1998" class="citation journal cs1">Wolfe, Robert (1 January 1998). "Flaws in the Nuremberg Legacy: An Impediment to International War Crimes Tribunals' Prosecution of Crimes Against Humanity". <i>Holocaust and Genocide Studies</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 443–444. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhgs%2F12.3.434">10.1093/hgs/12.3.434</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+and+Genocide+Studies&rft.atitle=Flaws+in+the+Nuremberg+Legacy%3A+An+Impediment+to+International+War+Crimes+Tribunals%27+Prosecution+of+Crimes+Against+Humanity&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=443-444&rft.date=1998-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fhgs%2F12.3.434&rft.aulast=Wolfe&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigurashi2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Higurashi, Yoshinobu (2008). <i>Tokyo Saiban</i> <bdi lang="ja">東京裁判</bdi> [<i>The Tokyo Trial</i>] (in Japanese). Kodansha. pp. 26, 116–119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4062879248" title="Special:BookSources/978-4062879248"><bdi>978-4062879248</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tokyo+Saiban+%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4&rft.pages=26%2C+116-119&rft.pub=Kodansha&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-4062879248&rft.aulast=Higurashi&rft.aufirst=Yoshinobu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayashi2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Hirofumi_Hayashi" title="Hirofumi Hayashi">Hayashi, Hirofumi</a> (2005). <i>BC-kyū Senpan Saiban</i> <bdi lang="ja">BC級戦犯裁判</bdi> [<i>The Class B & C War Criminal Trials</i>] (in Japanese). Iwanami Shoten Publishers. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4004309529" title="Special:BookSources/978-4004309529"><bdi>978-4004309529</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=BC-ky%C5%AB+Senpan+Saiban+BC%E7%B4%9A%E6%88%A6%E7%8A%AF%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Iwanami+Shoten+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-4004309529&rft.aulast=Hayashi&rft.aufirst=Hirofumi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigurashi2008116–119-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigurashi2008116–119_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHigurashi2008">Higurashi 2008</a>, pp. 116–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horton2-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Horton2_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horton2_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">As quoted by Guy Horton in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs3/Horton-2005.pdf">Dying Alive – A Legal Assessment of Human Rights Violations in Burma</a></i> April 2005, co-Funded by The Netherlands Ministry for Development Co-Operation. See section "12.52 Crimes against humanity", p. 201. He references RSICC/C, Vol. 1 p. 360</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/RS-Eng.pdf">Rome Statute</a> article 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anc.org.za/un/uncrime.htm">International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091011235327/http://www.anc.org.za/un/uncrime.htm">Archived</a> October 11, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> adopted and opened for signature, ratification by General Assembly resolution 3068 (XXVIII) of 30 November 1973. It entered into force 18 July 1976, in accordance with article X (10)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090417093634/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html">"Charter of the United Nations"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html">the original</a> on 17 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charter+of+the+United+Nations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Faboutun%2Fcharter%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/6412/Israel-destroys-all-basic-conditions-for-life-in-northern-Gaza,-targets-residents,-forcing-another-round-of-displacement">"Israel destroys all basic conditions for life in northern Gaza, targets residents, forcing another round of displacement"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Israel+destroys+all+basic+conditions+for+life+in+northern+Gaza%2C+targets+residents%2C+forcing+another+round+of+displacement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feuromedmonitor.org%2Fen%2Farticle%2F6412%2FIsrael-destroys-all-basic-conditions-for-life-in-northern-Gaza%2C-targets-residents%2C-forcing-another-round-of-displacement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-guardian-20240719-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-guardian-20240719_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiddique2024" class="citation news cs1">Siddique, Haroon (19 July 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/19/israels-settlement-policies-break-international-law-court-finds">"UN court orders Israel to end its occupation of Palestinian territories"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Reconsidering+the+Goldstone+Report+on+Israel+and+War+Crimes&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft.aulast=Goldstone&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fopinions%2Freconsidering-the-goldstone-report-on-israel-and-war-crimes%2F2011%2F04%2F01%2FAFg111JC_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2019" class="citation news cs1">Holmes, Oliver (28 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/28/gaza-israel-un-inquiry-killings-protest-war-crimes-army">"UN says Israel's killings at Gaza protests may amount to war crimes"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/TheGuardian.com" class="mw-redirect" title="TheGuardian.com">TheGuardian.com</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TheGuardian.com&rft.atitle=UN+says+Israel%27s+killings+at+Gaza+protests+may+amount+to+war+crimes&rft.date=2019-02-28&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2019%2Ffeb%2F28%2Fgaza-israel-un-inquiry-killings-protest-war-crimes-army&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/10/commission-inquiry-finds-israeli-occupation-unlawful-under-international-law">"Commission of Inquiry finds that the Israeli occupation is unlawful under international law"</a>. <i>OHCHR</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OHCHR&rft.atitle=Commission+of+Inquiry+finds+that+the+Israeli+occupation+is+unlawful+under+international+law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fen%2Fpress-releases%2F2022%2F10%2Fcommission-inquiry-finds-israeli-occupation-unlawful-under-international-law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCumming-Bruce2019" class="citation news cs1">Cumming-Bruce, Nick (28 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/28/world/middleeast/israel-crimes-against-humanity-gaza-un.html">"Israelis May Have Committed Crimes Against Humanity in Gaza Protests, U.N. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=China%27s+treatment+of+Uyghurs+may+be+crime+against+humanity%2C+says+UN+human+rights+chief&rft.date=2022-08-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2022%2Faug%2F31%2Fchina-uyghur-muslims-xinjiang-michelle-bachelet-un&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62744522">"Torture claims against China Uyghurs credible – UN"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 31 August 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220901074250/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62744522">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ohchr.org&rft.atitle=Report+of+Independent+International+Fact-Finding+Mission+on+Myanmar&rft.date=2018-08-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FEN%2FHRBodies%2FHRC%2FMyanmarFFM%2FPages%2FReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/08/30/burmese-generals-should-stand-trial-for-atrocities-against-the-rohingya">"Burmese generals should stand trial for atrocities against the Rohingya"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. 30 August 2018. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Burmese+generals+should+stand+trial+for+atrocities+against+the+Rohingya&rft.date=2018-08-30&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fleaders%2F2018%2F08%2F30%2Fburmese-generals-should-stand-trial-for-atrocities-against-the-rohingya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20240318-scale-of-iran-rights-abuses-slammed-at-un">"Nobel winner urges world to turn the screw on Iran over rights abuses"</a>. <i>Agence France-Presse</i>. 18 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Agence+France-Presse&rft.atitle=Nobel+winner+urges+world+to+turn+the+screw+on+Iran+over+rights+abuses&rft.date=2024-03-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2Flive-news%2F20240318-scale-of-iran-rights-abuses-slammed-at-un&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTétrault-FarberMantovani2024" class="citation web cs1">Tétrault-Farber, Gabrielle; Mantovani, Cecile (4 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/un-rights-body-adopts-resolution-israel-accountability-possible-war-crimes-2024-04-05/">"UN body demands Israel be held accountable for possible war crimes"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=UN+body+demands+Israel+be+held+accountable+for+possible+war+crimes&rft.date=2024-04-04&rft.aulast=T%C3%A9trault-Farber&rft.aufirst=Gabrielle&rft.au=Mantovani%2C+Cecile&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fun-rights-body-adopts-resolution-israel-accountability-possible-war-crimes-2024-04-05%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/un-rights-council-calls-for-arms-embargo-on-israel-citing-risk-of-genocide/amp/">"UN rights council calls for arms embargo on Israel, citing 'risk of genocide'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Times of Israel</i>. 4 April 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+Israel&rft.atitle=UN+rights+council+calls+for+arms+embargo+on+Israel%2C+citing+%27risk+of+genocide%27&rft.date=2024-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Fun-rights-council-calls-for-arms-embargo-on-israel-citing-risk-of-genocide%2Famp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Crimes against humanity</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Crimes+against+humanity">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Crimes+against+humanity&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Genocide_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of Genocide studies">Bibliography of Genocide studies</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_R._Browning" title="Christopher R. Browning">Christopher R. Browning</a>, "The Two Different Ways of Looking at Nazi Murder" (review of <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Sands" title="Philippe Sands">Philippe Sands</a>, <i>East West Street: On the Origins of "Genocide" and "Crimes Against Humanity"</i>, Knopf, 425 pp. and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gerlach" title="Christian Gerlach">Christian Gerlach</a>, <i>The Extermination of the European Jews</i>, Cambridge University Press, 508 pp., <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (November 24, 2016), pp. 56–58. Discusses <a href="/wiki/Hersch_Lauterpacht" title="Hersch Lauterpacht">Hersch Lauterpacht</a>'s legal concept of "crimes against humanity", contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Lemkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafael Lemkin">Rafael Lemkin</a>'s legal concept of "<a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>". All genocides are crimes against humanity, but not all crimes against humanity are genocides; genocides require a higher standard of proof, as they entail <i>intent</i> to destroy a particular group.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacleod2010" class="citation journal cs1">Macleod, Christopher (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchq031">"Towards a Philosophical Account of Crimes Against Humanity"</a>. <i>European Journal of International Law</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 281–302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchq031">10.1093/ejil/chq031</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Towards+a+Philosophical+Account+of+Crimes+Against+Humanity&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=281-302&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchq031&rft.aulast=Macleod&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fejil%252Fchq031&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadat2013" class="citation journal cs1">Sadat, Leila Nadya (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141022225537/http://law.wustl.edu/scholarshipspotlight/documents/sadat-AJIL.pdf">"Crimes Against Humanity in the Modern Age"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_International_Law" title="American Journal of International Law">American Journal of International Law</a></i>. <b>107</b> (2): 334–377. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5305%2Famerjintelaw.107.2.0334">10.5305/amerjintelaw.107.2.0334</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229167103">229167103</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.wustl.edu/scholarshipspotlight/documents/sadat-AJIL.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 22 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Crimes+Against+Humanity+in+the+Modern+Age&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=334-377&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5305%2Famerjintelaw.107.2.0334&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229167103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sadat&rft.aufirst=Leila+Nadya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw.wustl.edu%2Fscholarshipspotlight%2Fdocuments%2Fsadat-AJIL.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchabas2000" class="citation book cs1">Schabas, William A. (2000). <i>Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521782623" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521782623"><bdi>978-0521782623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide+in+International+Law%3A+The+Crimes+of+Crimes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0521782623&rft.aulast=Schabas&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrimes+against+humanity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>(fr) Jean Albert (dir.), L'avenir de la justice pénale internationale, Institut Presage, Bruylant, 2018, 383 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2802753452" title="Special:BookSources/978-2802753452">978-2802753452</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crimes_against_humanity&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right 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dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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Crime Against Humanity?</i></a> – an online video</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080317083807/http://www.netnebraska.org/extras/humanrights/02gen/0200/0200_01.htm">Genocide & Crimes Against Humanity</a> – a learning resource, highlighting the cases of Myanmar, Bosnia, the DRC, and Darfur</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libraryresources.unog.ch/legal/ILC">Crimes Against Humanity – Bibliographies on the topics of the International Law Commission & International Law Seminar (UNOG Library)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_criminal_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">Customary international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">Peremptory norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_principles" title="Nuremberg principles">Nuremberg principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture" title="United Nations Convention Against Torture">Convention Against Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">Crimes against<br />international law</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crime of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_intent" title="Genocidal intent">Genocidal intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement to genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Slave trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_court" title="International court">International courts</a><br /><span class="nobold">(in order of foundation)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Panels_for_Serious_Crimes_(East_Timor)" title="Special Panels for Serious Crimes (East Timor)">Special Panels of the Dili District Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Tribunal_for_Lebanon" title="Special Tribunal for Lebanon">Special Tribunal for Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Residual_Mechanism_for_Criminal_Tribunals" title="International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals">International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_speech_crimes" title="International speech crimes">International speech crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">Universal jurisdiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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