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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Early implementation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adoption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adoption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Adoption </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adoption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_specification_and_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_specification_and_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Formal specification and standards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formal_specification_and_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_architectural_principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_architectural_principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Key architectural principles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_architectural_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Link_layer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Link_layer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Link layer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Link_layer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_layer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_layer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Internet layer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_layer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport_layer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport_layer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Transport layer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport_layer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application_layer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application_layer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Application layer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Application_layer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Layering_evolution_and_representations_in_the_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layering_evolution_and_representations_in_the_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Layering evolution and representations in the literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layering_evolution_and_representations_in_the_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_of_TCP/IP_and_OSI_layering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_of_TCP/IP_and_OSI_layering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_of_TCP/IP_and_OSI_layering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Implementations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implementations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Internet protocol suite</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 78 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" > 78 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AA" title="حزمة بروتوكولات الإنترنت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حزمة بروتوكولات الإنترنت" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_de_protocolos_d%27internet" title="Familia de protocolos d'internet – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Familia de protocolos d'internet" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9F" title="ইন্টারনেট প্রোটোকল সুইট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইন্টারনেট প্রোটোকল সুইট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F" title="इंटरनेट प्रोटोकाल सूट – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इंटरनेट प्रोटोकाल सूट" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internetprotokol_(protokolfamilie)" title="Internetprotokol (protokolfamilie) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Internetprotokol (protokolfamilie)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internetprotokollfamilie" title="Internetprotokollfamilie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Internetprotokollfamilie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internetiprotokollistik" title="Internetiprotokollistik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Internetiprotokollistik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%B3%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%8D%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Πρωτόκολλο Ελέγχου Μετάδοσης/Πρωτόκολλο Διαδικτύου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρωτόκολλο Ελέγχου Μετάδοσης/Πρωτόκολλο Διαδικτύου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_de_protocolos_de_internet" title="Familia de protocolos de internet – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Familia de protocolos de internet" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP-IP" title="TCP-IP – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="TCP-IP" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP_eredu" title="TCP/IP eredu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="TCP/IP eredu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%87_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%DA%A9%D9%84_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AA" title="مجموعه پروتکل اینترنت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مجموعه پروتکل اینترنت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suite_des_protocoles_Internet" title="Suite des protocoles Internet – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Suite des protocoles Internet" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%88%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%9F_%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B2_%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%9F" title="ઈન્ટરનેટ પ્રોટોકોલ સ્યુટ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઈન્ટરનેટ પ્રોટોકોલ સ્યુટ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%ED%84%B0%EB%84%B7_%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%ED%86%A0%EC%BD%9C_%EC%8A%A4%EC%9C%84%ED%8A%B8" title="인터넷 프로토콜 스위트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인터넷 프로토콜 스위트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F" title="इंटरनेट प्रोटोकॉल सुइट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इंटरनेट प्रोटोकॉल सुइट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paket_protokol_internet" title="Paket protokol internet – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Paket protokol internet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suite_de_protocollo_Internet" title="Suite de protocollo Internet – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Suite de protocollo Internet" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isiwehle_segumelo_loxhakaxholo" title="Isiwehle segumelo loxhakaxholo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isiwehle segumelo loxhakaxholo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suite_di_protocolli_Internet" title="Suite di protocolli Internet – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Suite di protocolli Internet" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D2%A3_%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Интернет желісінің хаттамасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Интернет желісінің хаттамасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP-Protokollstapel" title="TCP/IP-Protokollstapel – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="TCP/IP-Protokollstapel" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF.%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF.%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF./%E0%B4%90.%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF._%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95" title="ടി.സി.പി./ഐ.പി. മാതൃക – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ടി.സി.പി./ഐ.പി. മാതൃക" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suit_protokol_Internet" title="Suit protokol Internet – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Suit protokol Internet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8D%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%83%88%E3%82%B3%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B9%E3%82%A4%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88" title="インターネット・プロトコル・スイート – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インターネット・プロトコル・スイート" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internett-protokollfamilien" title="Internett-protokollfamilien – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Internett-protokollfamilien" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_TCP/IP" title="Model TCP/IP – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Model TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paketa_e_protokolleve_t%C3%AB_internetit" title="Paketa e protokolleve të internetit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Paketa e protokolleve të internetit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Internet protocol suite" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bal%C3%ADk_internetov%C3%BDch_protokolov" title="Balík internetových protokolov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Balík internetových protokolov" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%95%D9%BE%DA%A9%DB%95_%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%86%D8%AA%DB%86%DA%A9%DB%86%DA%B5%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8E%D8%AA" title="چەپکە پرۆتۆکۆڵی ئینتەرنێت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چەپکە پرۆتۆکۆڵی ئینتەرنێت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%95" title="ชุดโพรโทคอลอินเทอร์เน็ต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชุดโพรโทคอลอินเทอร์เน็ต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nternet_ileti%C5%9Fim_kurallar%C4%B1_dizisi" title="İnternet iletişim kuralları dizisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İnternet iletişim kuralları dizisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%B9%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%B9_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%B9" title="انٹرنیٹ پروٹوکول سوٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انٹرنیٹ پروٹوکول سوٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E5%8D%8F%E8%AE%AE%E5%A5%97%E4%BB%B6" title="互联网协议套件 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="互联网协议套件" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="TCP/IP" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP%E5%8D%8F%E8%AE%AE%E6%97%8F" title="TCP/IP协议族 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="TCP/IP协议族" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q81414#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the protocols that make up the Internet architecture. For the IP network protocol only, see <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Internet protocol suite</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Application_layer" title="Application layer">Application layer</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol" title="Border Gateway Protocol">BGP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol" title="Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol">DHCP</a> (<a href="/wiki/DHCPv6" title="DHCPv6">v6</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">DNS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">FTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a> (<a href="/wiki/HTTP/3" title="HTTP/3">HTTP/3</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTTPS" title="HTTPS">HTTPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Message_Access_Protocol" title="Internet Message Access Protocol">IMAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRC" title="IRC">IRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol" title="Lightweight Directory Access Protocol">LDAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_Gateway_Control_Protocol" title="Media Gateway Control Protocol">MGCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MQTT" title="MQTT">MQTT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_News_Transfer_Protocol" title="Network News Transfer Protocol">NNTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_Time_Protocol" title="Network Time Protocol">NTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Shortest_Path_First" title="Open Shortest Path First">OSPF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_Office_Protocol" title="Post Office Protocol">POP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_Time_Protocol" title="Precision Time Protocol">PTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Network_Computing_Remote_Procedure_Call" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Network Computing Remote Procedure Call">ONC/RPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_Transport_Protocol" title="Real-time Transport Protocol">RTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Time_Streaming_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Time Streaming Protocol">RTSP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Routing_Information_Protocol" title="Routing Information Protocol">RIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Session_Initiation_Protocol" title="Session Initiation Protocol">SIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" title="Simple Mail Transfer Protocol">SMTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_Network_Management_Protocol" title="Simple Network Management Protocol">SNMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secure_Shell" title="Secure Shell">SSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telnet" title="Telnet">Telnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS/SSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XMPP" title="XMPP">XMPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Application_layer_protocols" title="Category:Application layer protocols">more...</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Transport_layer" title="Transport layer">Transport layer</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">TCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" title="User Datagram Protocol">UDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Datagram_Congestion_Control_Protocol" title="Datagram Congestion Control Protocol">DCCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol" title="Stream Control Transmission Protocol">SCTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_Reservation_Protocol" title="Resource Reservation Protocol">RSVP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QUIC" title="QUIC">QUIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Transport_layer_protocols" title="Category:Transport layer protocols">more...</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Internet_layer" title="Internet layer">Internet layer</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">IP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPv4" title="IPv4">v4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPv6" title="IPv6">v6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Control_Message_Protocol" title="Internet Control Message Protocol">ICMP</a> (<a href="/wiki/ICMPv6" title="ICMPv6">v6</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighbor_Discovery_Protocol" title="Neighbor Discovery Protocol">NDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_Congestion_Notification" title="Explicit Congestion Notification">ECN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Group_Management_Protocol" title="Internet Group Management Protocol">IGMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPsec" title="IPsec">IPsec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Internet_layer_protocols" title="Category:Internet layer protocols">more...</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Link_layer" title="Link layer">Link layer</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Address_Resolution_Protocol" title="Address Resolution Protocol">ARP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunneling_protocol" title="Tunneling protocol">Tunnels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocol" title="Point-to-Point Protocol">PPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_access_control" title="Medium access control">MAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Link_protocols" title="Category:Link protocols">more...</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Internet_protocol_suite" title="Template:Internet protocol suite"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Internet_protocol_suite" title="Template talk:Internet protocol suite"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Internet_protocol_suite" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Internet protocol suite"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Internet protocol suite, commonly known as TCP/IP, is a framework for organizing the set of <a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">communication protocols</a> used in the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> and similar <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a> according to functional criteria. The foundational protocols in the suite are the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> (TCP), the <a href="/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" title="User Datagram Protocol">User Datagram Protocol</a> (UDP), and the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> (IP). Early versions of this networking model were known as the Department of Defense (DoD) model because the research and development were funded by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> through <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>. The Internet protocol suite provides <a href="/wiki/End-to-end_principle" title="End-to-end principle">end-to-end data communication</a> specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, <a href="/wiki/Routed" class="mw-redirect" title="Routed">routed</a>, and received. This functionality is organized into four <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_layer" title="Abstraction layer">abstraction layers</a>, which classify all related protocols according to each protocol's scope of networking.<a href="#cite_note-rfc1122-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-rfc1123-2">[2]</a> An implementation of the layers for a particular application forms a <a href="/wiki/Protocol_stack" title="Protocol stack">protocol stack</a>. From lowest to highest, the layers are the <a href="/wiki/Link_layer" title="Link layer">link layer</a>, containing communication methods for data that remains within a single network segment (link); the <a href="/wiki/Internet_layer" title="Internet layer">internet layer</a>, providing <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a> between independent networks; the <a href="/wiki/Transport_layer" title="Transport layer">transport layer</a>, handling host-to-host communication; and the <a href="/wiki/Application_layer" title="Application layer">application layer</a>, providing process-to-process data exchange for applications. The <a href="/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">technical standards</a> underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols are maintained by the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (IETF). The Internet protocol suite predates the <a href="/wiki/OSI_model" title="OSI model">OSI model</a>, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></div> <table cellpadding="1" class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 220px; float: right; clear: right; border: 1px solid #8888aa; padding: 5px; margin: 0 0 15px 15px; text-align: left;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background: #ccf; text-align: center;">Internet history timeline </td></tr> <tr> <td> Early research and development: <ul><li>1960–4 (1960–4): <a href="/wiki/RAND" class="mw-redirect" title="RAND">RAND</a> networking concepts developed</li> <li>1962–4 (1962–4): <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">ARPA</a> networking ideas</li> <li>1965 (1965): <a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a> concepts conceived</li> <li>1966 (1966): <a href="/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit Network</a> founded</li> <li>1967 (1967): <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> planning begins</li> <li>1967 (1967): <a href="/wiki/Symposium_on_Operating_Systems_Principles" title="Symposium on Operating Systems Principles">Symposium on Operating Systems Principles</a></li> <li>1969 (1969): NPL followed by the ARPANET carry their first packets</li> <li>1970 (1970): <a href="/wiki/InterNIC#History" title="InterNIC">Network Information Center</a> (NIC)</li> <li>1971 (1971): <a href="/wiki/Tymnet" title="Tymnet">Tymnet</a> switched-circuit network</li> <li>1972 (1972): Merit Network's packet-switched network operational</li> <li>1972 (1972): <a href="/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority" title="Internet Assigned Numbers Authority">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority</a> (IANA) established</li> <li>1973 (1973): <a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a> network demonstrated</li> <li>1973 (1973): <a href="/wiki/PARC_Universal_Packet" title="PARC Universal Packet">PARC Universal Packet</a> development begins</li> <li>1974 (1974): <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission Control Program">Transmission Control Program</a> specification published</li> <li>1975 (1975): <a href="/wiki/Telenet" title="Telenet">Telenet</a> commercial packet-switched network</li> <li>1976 (1976): <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> protocol approved and deployed on <a href="/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">public data networks</a></li> <li>1978 (1978): <a href="/wiki/Minitel" title="Minitel">Minitel</a> introduced</li> <li>1979 (1979): <a href="/wiki/Internet_Architecture_Board" title="Internet Architecture Board">Internet Activities Board</a> (IAB)</li> <li>1980 (1980): <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">USENET</a> news using <a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li>1980 (1980): <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> standard introduced</li> <li>1981 (1981): <a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a> established</li></ul> Merging the networks and creating the Internet: <ul><li>1981 (1981): <a href="/wiki/CSNET" title="CSNET">Computer Science Network</a> (CSNET)</li> <li>1982 (1982): <a class="mw-selflink selflink">TCP/IP</a> protocol suite formalized</li> <li>1982 (1982): <a href="/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" title="Simple Mail Transfer Protocol">Simple Mail Transfer Protocol</a> (SMTP)</li> <li>1983 (1983): <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a> (DNS)</li> <li>1983 (1983): <a href="/wiki/MILNET" title="MILNET">MILNET</a> split off from ARPANET</li> <li>1984 (1984): <a href="/wiki/OSI_model" title="OSI model">OSI Reference Model</a> released</li> <li>1985 (1985): <a href="/wiki/Domain_names#Domain_name_registration" class="mw-redirect" title="Domain names">First .COM domain name registered</a></li> <li>1986 (1986): <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation_Network" title="National Science Foundation Network">NSFNET</a> with 56 kbit/s links</li> <li>1986 (1986): <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (IETF)</li> <li>1987 (1987): <a href="/wiki/UUNET" title="UUNET">UUNET</a> founded</li> <li>1988 (1988): <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation_Network" title="National Science Foundation Network">NSFNET</a> upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s (T1)</li> <li>1988 (1988): <a href="/wiki/Morris_worm" title="Morris worm">Morris worm</a></li> <li>1988 (1988): Complete <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Internet protocol suite</a></li> <li>1989 (1989): <a href="/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol" title="Border Gateway Protocol">Border Gateway Protocol</a> (BGP)</li> <li>1989 (1989): <a href="/wiki/PSINet" title="PSINet">PSINet</a> founded, allows commercial traffic</li> <li>1989 (1989): <a href="/wiki/Federal_Internet_Exchange" title="Federal Internet Exchange">Federal Internet Exchanges (FIX East|FIXes)</a></li> <li>1990 (1990): <a href="/wiki/Government_Open_Systems_Interconnection_Profile" title="Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile">GOSIP</a> (without <a class="mw-selflink selflink">TCP/IP</a>)</li> <li>1990 (1990): ARPANET decommissioned</li> <li>1990 (1990): <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Network_and_Services" title="Advanced Network and Services">Advanced Network and Services</a> (ANS)</li> <li>1990 (1990): <a href="/wiki/UUNET#Early_existence" title="UUNET">UUNET/Alternet</a> allows commercial traffic</li> <li>1990 (1990): <a href="/wiki/Archie_(search_engine)" title="Archie (search engine)">Archie search engine</a></li> <li>1991 (1991): <a href="/wiki/Wide_area_information_server" title="Wide area information server">Wide area information server</a> (WAIS)</li> <li>1991 (1991): <a href="/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)" title="Gopher (protocol)">Gopher</a></li> <li>1991 (1991): <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Internet_eXchange" title="Commercial Internet eXchange">Commercial Internet eXchange</a> (CIX)</li> <li>1991 (1991): <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Network_and_Services" title="Advanced Network and Services">ANS CO+RE</a> allows commercial traffic</li> <li>1991 (1991): <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> (WWW)</li> <li>1992 (1992): <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation_Network" title="National Science Foundation Network">NSFNET</a> upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3)</li> <li>1992 (1992): <a href="/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">Internet Society</a> (ISOC) established</li> <li>1993 (1993): <a href="/wiki/Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing" title="Classless Inter-Domain Routing">Classless Inter-Domain Routing</a> (CIDR)</li> <li>1993 (1993): <a href="/wiki/InterNIC" title="InterNIC">InterNIC</a> established</li> <li>1993 (1993): <a href="/wiki/AOL" title="AOL">AOL</a> added <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">USENET</a> access</li> <li>1993 (1993): <a href="/wiki/NCSA_Mosaic" title="NCSA Mosaic">Mosaic web browser</a> released</li> <li>1994 (1994): <a href="/wiki/Search_engine" title="Search engine">Full text web search engines</a></li> <li>1994 (1994): <a href="/wiki/North_American_Network_Operators%27_Group" title="North American Network Operators' Group">North American Network Operators' Group</a> (NANOG) established</li></ul> Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet: <ul><li>1995 (1995): New Internet architecture with commercial <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">ISPs</a> connected at <a href="/wiki/Network_Access_Point" class="mw-redirect" title="Network Access Point">NAPs</a></li> <li>1995 (1995): <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation_Network" title="National Science Foundation Network">NSFNET</a> decommissioned</li> <li>1995 (1995): <a href="/wiki/GOSIP" class="mw-redirect" title="GOSIP">GOSIP</a> updated to allow <a class="mw-selflink selflink">TCP/IP</a></li> <li>1995 (1995): <a href="/wiki/Very_high-speed_Backbone_Network_Service" title="Very high-speed Backbone Network Service">very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)</a></li> <li>1995 (1995): <a href="/wiki/IPv6" title="IPv6">IPv6</a> proposed</li> <li>1996 (1996): <a href="/wiki/AOL" title="AOL">AOL</a> changes pricing model from hourly to monthly</li> <li>1998 (1998): <a href="/wiki/ICANN" title="ICANN">Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)</a></li> <li>1999 (1999): <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.11" title="IEEE 802.11">IEEE 802.11b</a> wireless networking</li> <li>1999 (1999): <a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a>/<a href="/wiki/Abilene_Network" title="Abilene Network">Abilene Network</a></li> <li>1999 (1999): <a href="/wiki/VBNS" class="mw-redirect" title="VBNS">vBNS+</a> allows broader access</li> <li>2000 (2000): <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">Dot-com bubble</a> bursts</li> <li>2001 (2001): <a href="/wiki/Top-level_domain#Proposed_domains" title="Top-level domain">New top-level domain names activated</a></li> <li>2001 (2001): <a href="/wiki/Code_Red_(computer_worm)" title="Code Red (computer worm)">Code Red I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Code_Red_II" title="Code Red II">Code Red II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nimda" title="Nimda">Nimda</a> worms</li> <li>2003 (2003): <a href="/wiki/World_Summit_on_the_Information_Society" title="World Summit on the Information Society">UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) phase I</a></li></ul> <ul><li>2003 (2003): <a href="/wiki/National_LambdaRail" title="National LambdaRail">National LambdaRail</a> founded</li> <li>2004 (2004): <a href="/wiki/Working_Group_on_Internet_Governance" title="Working Group on Internet Governance">UN Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG)</a></li> <li>2005 (2005): <a href="/wiki/World_Summit_on_the_Information_Society" title="World Summit on the Information Society">UN WSIS phase II</a></li> <li>2006 (2006): <a href="/wiki/Internet_Governance_Forum" title="Internet Governance Forum">First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum</a></li> <li>2010 (2010): <a href="/wiki/Top-level_domain#Internationalized_country_code_TLDs" title="Top-level domain">First internationalized country code top-level domains</a> registered</li> <li>2012 (2012): <a href="/wiki/Generic_top-level_domain#New_top-level_domains" title="Generic top-level domain">ICANN begins accepting applications for new generic top-level domain names</a></li> <li>2013 (2013): <a href="/wiki/Montevideo_Statement_on_the_Future_of_Internet_Cooperation" title="Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation">Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation</a></li> <li>2014 (2014): <a href="/wiki/NetMundial_Initiative" title="NetMundial Initiative">NetMundial international Internet governance proposal</a></li> <li>2016 (2016): <a href="/wiki/ICANN" title="ICANN">ICANN</a> contract with U.S. Dept. of Commerce ends, <a href="/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority" title="Internet Assigned Numbers Authority">IANA</a> oversight passes to the global Internet community on October 1st</li></ul> Examples of Internet services: <ul><li>1989 (1989): <a href="/wiki/AOL" title="AOL">AOL</a> dial-up service provider, email, instant messaging, and web browser</li> <li>1990 (1990): <a href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</a> Internet movie database</li> <li>1994 (1994): <a href="/wiki/Yahoo" title="Yahoo">Yahoo!</a> web directory</li> <li>1995 (1995): <a href="/wiki/Amazon_(company)" title="Amazon (company)">Amazon</a> online retailer</li> <li>1995 (1995): <a href="/wiki/EBay" title="EBay">eBay</a> online auction and shopping</li> <li>1995 (1995): <a href="/wiki/Craigslist" title="Craigslist">Craigslist</a> classified advertisements</li> <li>1995 (1995): <a href="/wiki/AltaVista" title="AltaVista">AltaVista</a> search engine</li> <li>1996 (1996): <a href="/wiki/Outlook.com" title="Outlook.com">Outlook (formerly Hotmail)</a> free web-based e-mail</li> <li>1996 (1996): <a href="/wiki/Baidu" title="Baidu">RankDex</a> search engine</li> <li>1997 (1997): <a href="/wiki/Google_Search" title="Google Search">Google Search</a></li> <li>1997 (1997): <a href="/wiki/Babel_Fish_(website)" title="Babel Fish (website)">Babel Fish</a> automatic translation</li> <li>1998 (1998): <a href="/wiki/Yahoo_Groups" title="Yahoo Groups">Yahoo Groups (formerly Yahoo! Clubs)</a></li> <li>1998 (1998): <a href="/wiki/PayPal" title="PayPal">PayPal</a> Internet payment system</li> <li>1998 (1998): <a href="/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes" title="Rotten Tomatoes">Rotten Tomatoes</a> review aggregator</li> <li>1999 (1999): <a href="/wiki/2channel" title="2channel">2ch</a> Anonymous textboard</li> <li>1999 (1999): <a href="/wiki/I-mode" title="I-mode">i-mode</a> mobile internet service</li> <li>1999 (1999): <a href="/wiki/Napster" title="Napster">Napster</a> peer-to-peer file sharing</li> <li>2000 (2000): <a href="/wiki/Baidu" title="Baidu">Baidu</a> search engine</li> <li>2001 (2001): <a href="/wiki/Futaba_Channel" title="Futaba Channel">2chan</a> Anonymous imageboard</li> <li>2001 (2001): <a href="/wiki/BitTorrent_(software)" title="BitTorrent (software)">BitTorrent</a> peer-to-peer file sharing</li> <li>2001 (2001): <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</li> <li>2003 (2003): <a href="/wiki/LinkedIn" title="LinkedIn">LinkedIn</a> business networking</li> <li>2003 (2003): <a href="/wiki/Myspace" title="Myspace">Myspace</a> social networking site</li> <li>2003 (2003): <a href="/wiki/Skype" title="Skype">Skype</a> Internet voice calls</li> <li>2003 (2003): <a href="/wiki/ITunes_Store" title="ITunes Store">iTunes Store</a></li> <li>2003 (2003): <a href="/wiki/4chan" title="4chan">4chan</a> Anonymous imageboard</li> <li>2003 (2003): <a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torrent_file" title="Torrent file">torrent file</a> host</li> <li>2004 (2004): <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> social networking site</li> <li>2004 (2004): <a href="/wiki/Podcast" title="Podcast">Podcast</a> media file series</li> <li>2004 (2004): <a href="/wiki/Flickr" title="Flickr">Flickr</a> image hosting</li> <li>2005 (2005): <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> video sharing</li> <li>2005 (2005): <a href="/wiki/Reddit" title="Reddit">Reddit</a> link voting</li> <li>2005 (2005): <a href="/wiki/Google_Earth" title="Google Earth">Google Earth</a> virtual globe</li> <li>2006 (2006): <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> microblogging</li> <li>2007 (2007): <a href="/wiki/WikiLeaks" title="WikiLeaks">WikiLeaks</a> anonymous news and information leaks</li> <li>2007 (2007): <a href="/wiki/Google_Street_View" title="Google Street View">Google Street View</a></li> <li>2007 (2007): <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Kindle" title="Amazon Kindle">Kindle</a>, <a href="/wiki/E-reader" title="E-reader">e-reader</a> and virtual bookshop</li> <li>2008 (2008): <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Elastic_Compute_Cloud" title="Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud">Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud</a> (EC2)</li> <li>2008 (2008): <a href="/wiki/Dropbox" title="Dropbox">Dropbox</a> cloud-based file hosting</li> <li>2008 (2008): <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">Encyclopedia of Life</a>, a collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all living species</li> <li>2008 (2008): <a href="/wiki/Spotify" title="Spotify">Spotify</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">DRM-based</a> music streaming service</li> <li>2009 (2009): <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Bing" title="Microsoft Bing">Bing</a> search engine</li> <li>2009 (2009): <a href="/wiki/Google_Docs" title="Google Docs">Google Docs</a>, Web-based word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, form, and data storage service</li> <li>2009 (2009): <a href="/wiki/Kickstarter" title="Kickstarter">Kickstarter</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Threshold_pledge_system" title="Threshold pledge system">threshold pledge system</a></li> <li>2009 (2009): <a href="/wiki/Bitcoin" title="Bitcoin">Bitcoin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Digital_currency" title="Digital currency">digital currency</a></li> <li>2010 (2010): <a href="/wiki/Instagram" title="Instagram">Instagram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photo_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Photo sharing">photo sharing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networking">social networking</a></li> <li>2011 (2011): <a href="/wiki/Google%2B" title="Google+">Google+</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networking">social networking</a></li> <li>2011 (2011): <a href="/wiki/Snapchat" title="Snapchat">Snapchat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photo_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Photo sharing">photo sharing</a></li> <li>2012 (2012): <a href="/wiki/Coursera" title="Coursera">Coursera</a>, massive open online courses</li> <li>2016 (2016): <a href="/wiki/TikTok" title="TikTok">TikTok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Video sharing">video sharing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networking">social networking</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_research">Early research</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early research">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SRI_First_Internetworked_Connection_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/SRI_First_Internetworked_Connection_diagram.jpg/220px-SRI_First_Internetworked_Connection_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/SRI_First_Internetworked_Connection_diagram.jpg/330px-SRI_First_Internetworked_Connection_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/SRI_First_Internetworked_Connection_diagram.jpg/440px-SRI_First_Internetworked_Connection_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the first internetworked connection</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SRI_Packet_Radio_Van.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/SRI_Packet_Radio_Van.jpg/220px-SRI_Packet_Radio_Van.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/SRI_Packet_Radio_Van.jpg/330px-SRI_Packet_Radio_Van.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/SRI_Packet_Radio_Van.jpg/440px-SRI_Packet_Radio_Van.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a> <a href="/wiki/Packet_Radio_Van" title="Packet Radio Van">Packet Radio Van</a>, used for the first three-way <a href="/wiki/Internetworked" class="mw-redirect" title="Internetworked">internetworked</a> transmission</figcaption></figure> Initially referred to as the DOD Internet Architecture Model, the Internet protocol suite has its roots in research and development sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (<a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>) in the late 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-Cerf_DoD-3">[3]</a> After DARPA initiated the pioneering <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> in 1969, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Crocker" title="Steve Crocker">Steve Crocker</a> established a "Networking Working Group" which developed a host-host protocol, the <a href="/wiki/Network_Control_Program_(ARPANET)" class="mw-redirect" title="Network Control Program (ARPANET)">Network Control Program</a> (NCP).<a href="#cite_note-rfc1000-4">[4]</a> In the early 1970s, DARPA started work on several other data transmission technologies, including mobile packet radio, packet satellite service, local area networks, and other data networks in the public and private domains. In 1972, <a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a> joined the DARPA <a href="/wiki/Information_Processing_Technology_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Processing Technology Office">Information Processing Technology Office</a>, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, <a href="/wiki/Vinton_Cerf" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinton Cerf">Vinton Cerf</a> joined Kahn with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET to enable <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a> They drew on the experience from the ARPANET research community, the <a href="/wiki/International_Network_Working_Group" title="International Network Working Group">International Network Working Group</a>, which Cerf chaired, and researchers at <a href="/wiki/Xerox_PARC" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerox PARC">Xerox PARC</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ZVVpe-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between local network protocols were hidden by using a common <a href="/wiki/Internetwork_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Internetwork protocol">internetwork protocol</a>, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the existing ARPANET protocols, this function was delegated to the hosts. Cerf credits <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pouzin" title="Louis Pouzin">Louis Pouzin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Zimmermann" title="Hubert Zimmermann">Hubert Zimmermann</a>, designers of the <a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a> network, with important influences on this design.<a href="#cite_note-YSZAX-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-MevuR-11">[11]</a> The new protocol was implemented as the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission Control Program">Transmission Control Program</a> in 1974 by Cerf, <a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a> and Carl Sunshine.<a href="#cite_note-rfc675-12">[12]</a> Initially, the Transmission Control Program (the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> did not then exist as a separate protocol) provided only a <a href="/wiki/Reliable_byte_stream" title="Reliable byte stream">reliable byte stream</a> service to its users, not <a href="/wiki/Datagram" title="Datagram">datagrams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TCP2-13">[13]</a> Several versions were developed through the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Experiment_Note" title="Internet Experiment Note">Internet Experiment Note</a> series.<a href="#cite_note-:30-14">[14]</a> As experience with the protocol grew, collaborators recommended division of functionality into layers of distinct protocols, allowing users direct access to datagram service. Advocates included <a href="/wiki/Bob_Metcalfe" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Metcalfe">Bob Metcalfe</a> and Yogen Dalal at Xerox PARC;<a href="#cite_note-BpyJd-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-2J9cz-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Danny_Cohen_(computer_scientist)" title="Danny Cohen (computer scientist)">Danny Cohen</a>, who needed it for his <a href="/wiki/Packet_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Packet voice">packet voice</a> work; and <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Postel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Postel">Jonathan Postel</a> of the University of Southern California's <a href="/wiki/Information_Sciences_Institute" title="Information Sciences Institute">Information Sciences Institute</a>, who edited the <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a> (RFCs), the technical and strategic document series that has both documented and catalyzed Internet development.<a href="#cite_note-i1TtW-17">[17]</a> Postel stated, "We are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering."<a href="#cite_note-xgruR-18">[18]</a> Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the upper layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues. In <a href="/wiki/IPv4" title="IPv4">version 4</a>, written in 1978, Postel split the Transmission Control Program into two distinct protocols, the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> as connectionless layer and the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> as a reliable <a href="/wiki/Connection-oriented_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Connection-oriented service">connection-oriented service</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[nb 1]</a> The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. This <a href="/wiki/End-to-end_principle" title="End-to-end principle">end-to-end principle</a> was pioneered by Louis Pouzin in the CYCLADES network,<a href="#cite_note-Bennett2009-23">[22]</a> based on the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pelkey2-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-25">[24]</a> Using this design, it became possible to connect other networks to the ARPANET that used the same principle, irrespective of other local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial internetworking problem. A popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, can run over "two tin cans and a string."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Years later, as a <a href="/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day" title="April Fools' Day">joke</a> in 1999, the <a href="/wiki/IP_over_Avian_Carriers" title="IP over Avian Carriers">IP over Avian Carriers</a> formal protocol specification was created<a href="#cite_note-rfc1149-26">[25]</a> and successfully tested two years later. 10 years later still, it was adapted for IPv6.<a href="#cite_note-rfc6214-27">[26]</a> DARPA contracted with <a href="/wiki/BBN_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="BBN Technologies">BBN Technologies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> to develop operational versions of the protocol on several hardware platforms.<a href="#cite_note-IjTdeF-28">[27]</a> During development of the protocol the version number of the packet routing layer progressed from version 1 to version 4, the latter of which was installed in the ARPANET in 1983. It became known as <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_version_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol version 4">Internet Protocol version 4</a> (IPv4) as the protocol that is still in use in the Internet, alongside its current successor, <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_version_6" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol version 6">Internet Protocol version 6</a> (IPv6). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_implementation">Early implementation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early implementation">edit</a>]</div> In 1975, a two-network IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London. In November 1977, a three-network IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>. Several other IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983.<a href="#cite_note-:30-14">[14]</a> A computer called a <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">router</a> is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards <a href="/wiki/Network_packet" title="Network packet">network packets</a> back and forth between them.<a href="#cite_note-rfc1812-29">[28]</a> Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of <a href="/wiki/Gateway_(telecommunications)" title="Gateway (telecommunications)">gateways</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DXqFd-30">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adoption">Adoption</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Adoption">edit</a>]</div> In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking.<a href="#cite_note-EMuq6-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> In the same year, <a href="/wiki/NORSAR" title="NORSAR">NORSAR</a>/<a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Defence_Research_Establishment" title="Norwegian Defence Research Establishment">NDRE</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_T._Kirstein" title="Peter T. Kirstein">Peter Kirstein</a>'s research group at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> adopted the protocol.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> The migration of the ARPANET from <a href="/wiki/Network_Control_Protocol_(ARPANET)" title="Network Control Protocol (ARPANET)">NCP</a> to TCP/IP was officially completed on <a href="/wiki/Flag_day_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flag day (software)">flag day</a> January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.<a href="#cite_note-EMuq6-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-LuqX7-35">[34]</a> In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later <a href="/wiki/Internet_Architecture_Board" title="Internet Architecture Board">Internet Architecture Board</a>) held a three-day TCP/IP workshop for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use. In 1985, the first <a href="/wiki/Interop" title="Interop">Interop</a> conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting.<a href="#cite_note-HPAsn-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, this despite having competing <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_protocol" title="Proprietary protocol">proprietary protocols</a>. In IBM, from 1984, <a href="/wiki/Barry_Appelman" title="Barry Appelman">Barry Appelman</a>'s group did TCP/IP development. They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including <a href="/wiki/MVS" title="MVS">MVS</a>, <a href="/wiki/VM_(operating_system)" title="VM (operating system)">VM</a>, and <a href="/wiki/OS/2" title="OS/2">OS/2</a>. At the same time, several smaller companies, such as <a href="/wiki/FTP_Software" title="FTP Software">FTP Software</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wollongong_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Wollongong Group">Wollongong Group</a>, began offering TCP/IP stacks for <a href="/wiki/DOS" title="DOS">DOS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TtEPm-38">[37]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/VM/CMS" class="mw-redirect" title="VM/CMS">VM/CMS</a> TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.<a href="#cite_note-BZHnU-39">[38]</a> Some of the early TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few programmers. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1984 Donald Gillies at MIT wrote a ntcp multi-connection TCP which runs atop the IP/PacketDriver layer maintained by John Romkey at MIT in 1983–84. Romkey leveraged this TCP in 1986 when FTP Software was founded.<a href="#cite_note-j7VeG-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-vss61-41">[40]</a> Starting in 1985, Phil Karn created a multi-connection TCP application for ham radio systems (KA9Q TCP).<a href="#cite_note-vCamZ-42">[41]</a> The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for <a href="/wiki/BSD_UNIX" class="mw-redirect" title="BSD UNIX">BSD UNIX</a> into the public domain. Various corporate vendors, including IBM, included this code in commercial TCP/IP software releases. For Windows 3.1, the dominant PC operating system among consumers in the first half of the 1990s, Peter Tattam's release of the <a href="/wiki/Trumpet_Winsock" title="Trumpet Winsock">Trumpet Winsock</a> TCP/IP stack was key to bringing the Internet to home users. Trumpet Winsock allowed TCP/IP operations over a serial connection (<a href="/wiki/Serial_Line_Internet_Protocol" title="Serial Line Internet Protocol">SLIP</a> or <a href="/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocol" title="Point-to-Point Protocol">PPP</a>). The typical home PC of the time had an external Hayes-compatible modem connected via an RS-232 port with an <a href="/wiki/8250" class="mw-redirect" title="8250">8250</a> or <a href="/wiki/16550" class="mw-redirect" title="16550">16550</a> UART which required this type of stack. Later, Microsoft would release their own TCP/IP add-on stack for <a href="/wiki/Windows_for_Workgroups" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows for Workgroups">Windows for Workgroups</a> 3.11 and a native stack in Windows 95. These events helped cement TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols on Microsoft-based networks, which included IBM's <a href="/wiki/Systems_Network_Architecture" title="Systems Network Architecture">Systems Network Architecture</a> (SNA), and on other platforms such as <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a>'s <a href="/wiki/DECnet" title="DECnet">DECnet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_Systems_Interconnection" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Systems Interconnection">Open Systems Interconnection</a> (OSI), and <a href="/wiki/Xerox_Network_Systems" title="Xerox Network Systems">Xerox Network Systems</a> (XNS). Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were <a href="/wiki/Protocol_Wars" title="Protocol Wars">polarized over the issue of which standard</a>, the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite, would result in the best and most robust computer networks.<a href="#cite_note-I2M49-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-vfIkT-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-IuDfGrr-45">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formal_specification_and_standards">Formal specification and standards</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formal specification and standards">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">technical standards</a> underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols have been delegated to the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (IETF).<a href="#cite_note-introduction-to-the-ietf-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> The characteristic architecture of the Internet protocol suite is its broad division into operating scopes for the protocols that constitute its core functionality. The defining specifications of the suite are RFC 1122 and 1123, which broadly outlines four <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_layer" title="Abstraction layer">abstraction layers</a> (as well as related protocols); the link layer, IP layer, transport layer, and application layer, along with support protocols.<a href="#cite_note-rfc1122-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-rfc1123-2">[2]</a> These have stood the test of time, as the IETF has never modified this structure. As such a model of networking, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems.<a href="#cite_note-IuDfGrr-45">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_architectural_principles">Key architectural principles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Key architectural principles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol#Software_layering" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol § Software layering</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IP_stack_connections.drawio.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/IP_stack_connections.drawio.png/350px-IP_stack_connections.drawio.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="414" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/IP_stack_connections.drawio.png/525px-IP_stack_connections.drawio.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/IP_stack_connections.drawio.png/699px-IP_stack_connections.drawio.png 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="2320" /></a><figcaption>Conceptual data flow in a simple network topology of two hosts (A and B) connected by a link between their respective routers. The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe. After establishment of this pipe, most details of the communication are hidden from each process, as the underlying principles of communication are implemented in the lower protocol layers. In a common application analogy, Host A's web browser appears directly connected to Host B's web server via an <a href="/wiki/HTTP#HTTP_application_session" title="HTTP">Application Layer HTTP session</a> identified by an address like a cookie. At the transport layer the communication appears as process-to-process communication,<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a> each process addressed by a port number, without knowledge of the application data structures and the connecting routers. Finally, at the internetworking layer using the Internet Protocol (IP), packets of bytes traverse individual network boundaries as each router forwards a packet towards its destination IP address.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UDP_encapsulation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/UDP_encapsulation.svg/350px-UDP_encapsulation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/UDP_encapsulation.svg/525px-UDP_encapsulation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/UDP_encapsulation.svg/700px-UDP_encapsulation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Encapsulation of application data descending through the layers described in RFC 1122</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/End-to-end_principle" title="End-to-end principle">end-to-end principle</a> has evolved over time. Its original expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.<a href="#cite_note-pTfJe-48">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Robustness_principle" title="Robustness principle">robustness principle</a> states: "In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior. That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still clear)."<a href="#cite_note-rfc791-49">[48]</a>: 23  "The second part of the principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features."<a href="#cite_note-rfc1122-1">[1]</a>: 13  <a href="/wiki/Encapsulation_(networking)" title="Encapsulation (networking)">Encapsulation</a> is used to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers. The data is further encapsulated at each level. An early pair of architectural documents, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/RFC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="RFC (identifier)">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1122">1122</a> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123">1123</a>, titled Requirements for Internet Hosts, emphasizes architectural principles over layering.<a href="#cite_note-rfc1958-50">[49]</a> RFC 1122/23 are structured in sections referring to layers, but the documents refer to many other architectural principles, and do not emphasize layering. They loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows:<a href="#cite_note-rfc1122-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-rfc1123-2">[2]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Application_layer" title="Application layer">application layer</a> is the scope within which applications, or <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">processes</a>, create user data and communicate this data to other applications on another or the same host. The applications make use of the services provided by the underlying lower layers, especially the transport layer which provides <a href="/wiki/Reliability_(computer_networking)" title="Reliability (computer networking)">reliable or unreliable</a> pipes to other processes. The communications partners are characterized by the application architecture, such as the <a href="/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model" title="Client–server model">client–server model</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">peer-to-peer</a> networking. This is the layer in which all application protocols, such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, operate. Processes are addressed via ports which essentially represent <a href="/wiki/Service_(systems_architecture)" title="Service (systems architecture)">services</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Transport_layer" title="Transport layer">transport layer</a> performs host-to-host communications on either the local network or remote networks separated by routers.<a href="#cite_note-AoJD3-51">[50]</a> It provides a channel for the communication needs of applications. UDP is the basic transport layer protocol, providing an unreliable <a href="/wiki/Connectionless" class="mw-redirect" title="Connectionless">connectionless</a> datagram service. The Transmission Control Protocol provides flow-control, connection establishment, and reliable transmission of data.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Internet_layer" title="Internet layer">internet layer</a> exchanges datagrams across network boundaries. It provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. It is therefore also the layer that establishes internetworking. Indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet. This layer defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP addresses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]<a href="#cite_note-kz-53">[52]</a> Its function in routing is to transport datagrams to the next host, functioning as an IP router, that has the connectivity to a network closer to the final data destination.<a href="#cite_note-kz-53">[52]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Link_layer" title="Link layer">link layer</a> defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer includes the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces needed to effect the transmission of internet layer datagrams to next-neighbor hosts.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Link_layer">Link layer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Link layer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Link_layer" title="Link layer">Link layer</a></div> The protocols of the link layer operate within the scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in TCP/IP parlance and is the lowest component layer of the suite. The link includes all hosts accessible without traversing a router. The size of the link is therefore determined by the networking hardware design. In principle, TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent and may be implemented on top of virtually any link-layer technology. This includes not only hardware implementations but also virtual link layers such as <a href="/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">virtual private networks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tunneling_protocol" title="Tunneling protocol">networking tunnels</a>. The link layer is used to move packets between the internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on the link can be controlled in the <a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">device driver</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Network_card" class="mw-redirect" title="Network card">network card</a>, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Firmware" title="Firmware">firmware</a> or by specialized <a href="/wiki/Chipsets" class="mw-redirect" title="Chipsets">chipsets</a>. These perform functions, such as framing, to prepare the internet layer packets for transmission, and finally transmit the frames to the <a href="/wiki/Physical_layer" title="Physical layer">physical layer</a> and over a <a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">transmission medium</a>. The TCP/IP model includes specifications for translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to link-layer addresses, such as <a href="/wiki/Media_access_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Media access control">media access control</a> (MAC) addresses. All other aspects below that level, however, are implicitly assumed to exist and are not explicitly defined in the TCP/IP model. The link layer in the TCP/IP model has corresponding functions in Layer 2 of the OSI model. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internet_layer">Internet layer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Internet layer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internet_layer" title="Internet layer">Internet layer</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">Internetworking</a> requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called <a href="/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing</a> and is supported by host addressing and identification using the hierarchical <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP addressing</a> system. The internet layer provides an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further relaying to its destination. The internet layer has the responsibility of sending packets across potentially multiple networks. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet. The internet layer does not distinguish between the various transport layer protocols. IP carries data for a variety of different <a href="/wiki/Upper_layer_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper layer protocol">upper layer protocols</a>. These protocols are each identified by a unique <a href="/wiki/List_of_IP_protocol_numbers" title="List of IP protocol numbers">protocol number</a>: for example, <a href="/wiki/Internet_Control_Message_Protocol" title="Internet Control Message Protocol">Internet Control Message Protocol</a> (ICMP) and <a href="/wiki/Internet_Group_Management_Protocol" title="Internet Group Management Protocol">Internet Group Management Protocol</a> (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively. The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts and to locate them on the network. The original address system of the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> and its successor, the Internet, is <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_version_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol version 4">Internet Protocol version 4</a> (IPv4). It uses a 32-bit <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a> and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts. This limitation was eliminated in 1998 by the standardization of <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_version_6" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol version 6">Internet Protocol version 6</a> (IPv6) which uses 128-bit addresses. IPv6 production implementations emerged in approximately 2006. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transport_layer">Transport layer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Transport layer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transport_layer" title="Transport layer">Transport layer</a></div> The transport layer establishes basic data channels that applications use for task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes host-to-host connectivity in the form of end-to-end message transfer services that are independent of the underlying network and independent of the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information. Connectivity at the transport layer can be categorized as either <a href="/wiki/Connection-oriented" class="mw-redirect" title="Connection-oriented">connection-oriented</a>, implemented in TCP, or <a href="/wiki/Connectionless" class="mw-redirect" title="Connectionless">connectionless</a>, implemented in UDP. The protocols in this layer may provide <a href="/wiki/Error_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Error control">error control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Network_segmentation" title="Network segmentation">segmentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flow_control_(data)" title="Flow control (data)">flow control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Network_congestion" title="Network congestion">congestion control</a>, and application addressing (<a href="/wiki/Port_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Port numbers">port numbers</a>). For the purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels for applications, the layer establishes the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Network_port" class="mw-redirect" title="Network port">network port</a>. This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs. For many types of services, these port numbers have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without the involvement of <a href="/wiki/Service_discovery" title="Service discovery">service discovery</a> or <a href="/wiki/Directory_service" title="Directory service">directory services</a>. Because IP provides only a <a href="/wiki/Best-effort_delivery" title="Best-effort delivery">best-effort delivery</a>, some transport-layer protocols offer reliability. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a <a href="/wiki/Reliable_byte_stream" title="Reliable byte stream">reliable byte stream</a>: <ul><li>data arrives in-order</li> <li>data has minimal error (i.e., correctness)</li> <li>duplicate data is discarded</li> <li>lost or discarded packets are resent</li> <li>includes traffic congestion control</li></ul> The newer <a href="/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol" title="Stream Control Transmission Protocol">Stream Control Transmission Protocol</a> (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is message-stream-oriented, not byte-stream-oriented like TCP, and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides <a href="/wiki/Multihoming" title="Multihoming">multihoming</a> support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport <a href="/wiki/Signaling_System_7" class="mw-redirect" title="Signaling System 7">SS7</a> over IP). Reliability can also be achieved by running IP over a reliable data-link protocol such as the <a href="/wiki/High-Level_Data_Link_Control" title="High-Level Data Link Control">High-Level Data Link Control</a> (HDLC). The <a href="/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" title="User Datagram Protocol">User Datagram Protocol</a> (UDP) is a connectionless <a href="/wiki/Datagram" title="Datagram">datagram</a> protocol. Like IP, it is a best-effort, unreliable protocol. Reliability is addressed through <a href="/wiki/Error_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Error detection">error detection</a> using a checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, <a href="/wiki/Voice_over_IP" title="Voice over IP">Voice over IP</a>, etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like <a href="/wiki/DNS" class="mw-redirect" title="DNS">DNS</a> lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. <a href="/wiki/Real-time_Transport_Protocol" title="Real-time Transport Protocol">Real-time Transport Protocol</a> (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is used over UDP and is designed for real-time data such as <a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming media</a>. The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention, certain <a href="/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbers" title="List of TCP and UDP port numbers"> well-known ports</a> are associated with specific applications. The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds roughly to the fourth layer in the OSI model, also called the transport layer. <a href="/wiki/QUIC" title="QUIC">QUIC</a> is rapidly emerging as an alternative transport protocol. Whilst it is technically carried via UDP packets it seeks to offer enhanced transport connectivity relative to TCP. <a href="/wiki/HTTP/3" title="HTTP/3">HTTP/3</a> works exclusively via QUIC. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application_layer">Application layer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Application layer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Application_layer#Internet_protocol_suite" title="Application layer">Application layer § Internet protocol suite</a></div> The application layer includes the protocols used by most applications for providing user services or exchanging application data over the network connections established by the lower-level protocols. This may include some basic network support services such as <a href="/wiki/Routing_protocol" title="Routing protocol">routing protocols</a> and host configuration. Examples of application layer protocols include the <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">Hypertext Transfer Protocol</a> (HTTP), the <a href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">File Transfer Protocol</a> (FTP), the <a href="/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" title="Simple Mail Transfer Protocol">Simple Mail Transfer Protocol</a> (SMTP), and the <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol" title="Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol">Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol</a> (DHCP).<a href="#cite_note-RxqD0-55">[54]</a> Data coded according to application layer protocols are <a href="/wiki/Encapsulation_(networking)" title="Encapsulation (networking)">encapsulated</a> into transport layer protocol units (such as TCP streams or UDP datagrams), which in turn use <a href="/wiki/Lower_layer_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower layer protocol">lower layer protocols</a> to effect actual data transfer. The TCP/IP model does not consider the specifics of formatting and presenting data and does not define additional layers between the application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers). According to the TCP/IP model, such functions are the realm of <a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">libraries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">application programming interfaces</a>. The application layer in the TCP/IP model is often compared to a combination of the fifth (session), sixth (presentation), and seventh (application) layers of the OSI model. Application layer protocols are often associated with particular <a href="/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server" class="mw-redirect" title="Client–server">client–server</a> applications, and common services have well-known port numbers reserved by the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority" title="Internet Assigned Numbers Authority">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority</a> (IANA). For example, the <a href="/wiki/HyperText_Transfer_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="HyperText Transfer Protocol">HyperText Transfer Protocol</a> uses server port 80 and <a href="/wiki/Telnet" title="Telnet">Telnet</a> uses server port 23. <a href="/wiki/Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)">Clients</a> connecting to a service usually use <a href="/wiki/Ephemeral_port" title="Ephemeral port">ephemeral ports</a>, i.e., port numbers assigned only for the duration of the transaction at random or from a specific range configured in the application. At the application layer, the TCP/IP model distinguishes between user protocols and support protocols.<a href="#cite_note-rfc1122-1">[1]</a>: §1.1.3  Support protocols provide services to a system of network infrastructure. User protocols are used for actual user applications. For example, FTP is a user protocol and DNS is a support protocol. Although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the endpoint IP addresses and port numbers, application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as <a href="/wiki/Black_box" title="Black box">black boxes</a> which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate. The transport layer and lower-level layers are unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and <a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">switches</a> do not typically examine the encapsulated traffic, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some <a href="/wiki/Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">firewall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_throttling" title="Bandwidth throttling">bandwidth throttling</a> applications use <a href="/wiki/Deep_packet_inspection" title="Deep packet inspection">deep packet inspection</a> to interpret application data. An example is the <a href="/wiki/Resource_Reservation_Protocol" title="Resource Reservation Protocol">Resource Reservation Protocol</a> (RSVP).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It is also sometimes necessary for <a href="/wiki/Network_address_translation#Applications_affected_by_NAT" title="Network address translation">Applications affected by NAT</a> to consider the application payload. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Layering_evolution_and_representations_in_the_literature">Layering evolution and representations in the literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Layering evolution and representations in the literature">edit</a>]</div> The Internet protocol suite evolved through research and development funded over a period of time. In this process, the specifics of protocol components and their layering changed. In addition, parallel research and commercial interests from industry associations competed with design features. In particular, efforts in the <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> led to a similar goal, but with a wider scope of networking in general. Efforts to consolidate the two principal schools of layering, which were superficially similar, but diverged sharply in detail, led independent textbook authors to formulate abridging teaching tools. The following table shows various such networking models. The number of layers varies between three and seven. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#adb">Arpanet Reference Model (RFC 871) </th> <th style="background:#adb">Internet Standard (RFC 1122) </th> <th style="background:#adb">Internet model (Cisco Academy<a href="#cite_note-5VTuU-56">[55]</a>) </th> <th style="background:#adb">TCP/IP 5-layer reference model (Kozierok,<a href="#cite_note-6zcxM-57">[56]</a> Comer<a href="#cite_note-lkPs4-58">[57]</a>) </th> <th style="background:#adb">TCP/IP 5-layer reference model (Tanenbaum<a href="#cite_note-1Hpdo-59">[58]</a>) </th> <th style="background:#adb">TCP/IP protocol suite or Five-layer Internet model (Forouzan,<a href="#cite_note-bOyR7-60">[59]</a> Kurose<a href="#cite_note-aCpZD-61">[60]</a>) </th> <th style="background:#adb">TCP/IP model (Stallings<a href="#cite_note-IRA2X-62">[61]</a>) </th> <th style="background:#adb">OSI model (ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a>) </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#cfc">Three layers </td> <td style="background:#cfc">Four layers </td> <td style="background:#cfc">Four layers </td> <td style="background:#cfc">Four+one layers </td> <td style="background:#cfc">Five layers </td> <td style="background:#cfc">Five layers </td> <td style="background:#cfc">Five layers </td> <td style="background:#cfc">Seven layers </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Application/ Process </td> <td rowspan="3">Application </td> <td rowspan="3">Application </td> <td rowspan="3">Application </td> <td rowspan="3">Application </td> <td rowspan="3">Application </td> <td rowspan="3">Application </td> <td>Application </td></tr> <tr> <td>Presentation </td></tr> <tr> <td>Session </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Host-to-host </td> <td>Transport </td> <td>Transport </td> <td>Transport </td> <td>Transport </td> <td>Transport </td> <td>Host-to-host or transport </td> <td>Transport </td></tr> <tr> <td>Internet </td> <td>Internetwork </td> <td>Internet </td> <td>Internet </td> <td>Network </td> <td>Internet </td> <td>Network </td></tr> <tr> <td>Network interface </td> <td>Link </td> <td>Network interface </td> <td>Data link (Network interface) </td> <td>Data link </td> <td>Data link </td> <td>Network access </td> <td>Data link </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>(Hardware) </td> <td>Physical </td> <td>Physical </td> <td>Physical </td> <td>Physical </td></tr></tbody></table> Some of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may conflict with the intent of RFC 1122 and other <a href="/wiki/IETF" class="mw-redirect" title="IETF">IETF</a> primary sources.<a href="#cite_note-rfc3439-64">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_of_TCP/IP_and_OSI_layering">Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/OSI_model#Comparison_with_TCP/IP_model" title="OSI model">OSI model § Comparison with TCP/IP model</a></div> The three top layers in the OSI model, i.e. the application layer, the presentation layer and the session layer, are not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model which only has an application layer above the transport layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as <a href="/wiki/X.400" title="X.400">X.400</a>, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture above the transport layer. For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the <a href="/wiki/External_Data_Representation" title="External Data Representation">External Data Representation</a> (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called <a href="/wiki/Remote_Procedure_Call" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Procedure Call">Remote Procedure Call</a> (RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can safely use the best-effort UDP transport. Different authors have interpreted the TCP/IP model differently, and disagree whether the link layer, or any aspect of the TCP/IP model, covers OSI layer 1 (<a href="/wiki/Physical_layer" title="Physical layer">physical layer</a>) issues, or whether TCP/IP assumes a hardware layer exists below the link layer. Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model since these are commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by <a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a> and <a href="/wiki/ITU" class="mw-redirect" title="ITU">ITU</a>). This often results in a model with five layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering. Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has repeatedly stated<a href="#cite_note-introduction-to-the-ietf-46">[45]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] that Internet Protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, referring to the internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful".<a href="#cite_note-rfc3439-64">[63]</a> For example, the session and presentation layers of the OSI suite are considered to be included in the application layer of the TCP/IP suite. The functionality of the session layer can be found in protocols like <a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a> and <a href="/wiki/SMTP" class="mw-redirect" title="SMTP">SMTP</a> and is more evident in protocols like <a href="/wiki/Telnet" title="Telnet">Telnet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Session_Initiation_Protocol" title="Session Initiation Protocol">Session Initiation Protocol</a> (SIP). Session-layer functionality is also realized with the port numbering of the TCP and UDP protocols, which are included in the transport layer of the TCP/IP suite. Functions of the presentation layer are realized in the TCP/IP applications with the <a href="/wiki/MIME" title="MIME">MIME</a> standard in data exchange. Another difference is in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Routing_protocol" title="Routing protocol">routing protocols</a>. The OSI routing protocol <a href="/wiki/IS-IS" title="IS-IS">IS-IS</a> belongs to the network layer, and does not depend on <a href="/wiki/CLNS" class="mw-redirect" title="CLNS">CLNS</a> for delivering packets from one router to another, but defines its own layer-3 encapsulation. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/OSPF" class="mw-redirect" title="OSPF">OSPF</a>, <a href="/wiki/Routing_Information_Protocol" title="Routing Information Protocol">RIP</a>, <a href="/wiki/BGP" class="mw-redirect" title="BGP">BGP</a> and other routing protocols defined by the IETF are transported over IP, and, for the purpose of sending and receiving routing protocol packets, routers act as hosts. As a consequence, routing protocols are included in the application layer.<a href="#cite_note-rfc1812-29">[28]</a> Some authors, such as Tanenbaum in Computer Networks, describe routing protocols in the same layer as IP, reasoning that routing protocols inform decisions made by the forwarding process of routers. IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunnelling protocols such as <a href="/wiki/Generic_Routing_Encapsulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Generic Routing Encapsulation">Generic Routing Encapsulation</a> (GRE). GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunnelling at the network layer. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementations">Implementations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Implementations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Special:EditPage/Internet protocol suite">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (March 2014) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Internet protocol suite does not presume any specific hardware or software environment. It only requires that hardware and a software layer exists that is capable of sending and receiving packets on a computer network. As a result, the suite has been implemented on essentially every computing platform. A minimal implementation of TCP/IP includes the following: <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> (IP), <a href="/wiki/Address_Resolution_Protocol" title="Address Resolution Protocol">Address Resolution Protocol</a> (ARP), <a href="/wiki/Internet_Control_Message_Protocol" title="Internet Control Message Protocol">Internet Control Message Protocol</a> (ICMP), <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> (TCP), <a href="/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" title="User Datagram Protocol">User Datagram Protocol</a> (UDP), and <a href="/wiki/Internet_Group_Management_Protocol" title="Internet Group Management Protocol">Internet Group Management Protocol</a> (IGMP). In addition to IP, ICMP, TCP, UDP, Internet Protocol version 6 requires <a href="/wiki/Neighbor_Discovery_Protocol" title="Neighbor Discovery Protocol">Neighbor Discovery Protocol</a> (NDP), <a href="/wiki/ICMPv6" title="ICMPv6">ICMPv6</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Multicast_Listener_Discovery" title="Multicast Listener Discovery">Multicast Listener Discovery</a> (MLD) and is often accompanied by an integrated <a href="/wiki/IPSec" class="mw-redirect" title="IPSec">IPSec</a> security layer. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BBN_Report_1822" class="mw-redirect" title="BBN Report 1822">BBN Report 1822</a>, an early layered network model</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Local_Internet_Protocol" title="Fast Local Internet Protocol">Fast Local Internet Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_automation_protocols" title="List of automation protocols">List of automation protocols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_information_technology_initialisms" title="List of information technology initialisms">List of information technology initialisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IP_protocol_numbers" title="List of IP protocol numbers">List of IP protocol numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_network_protocols" title="Lists of network protocols">Lists of network protocols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbers" title="List of TCP and UDP port numbers">List of TCP and UDP port numbers</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> For records of discussions leading up to the TCP/IP split, see the series of <a href="/wiki/Internet_Experiment_Notes" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Experiment Notes">Internet Experiment Notes</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/ien/ien-index.html">the Internet Experiment Notes Index</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-rfc1122-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1122_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1122_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1122_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1122_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1122_1-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Braden1989" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bob_Braden" title="Bob Braden">R. Braden</a>, ed. (October 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1122">Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1122">10.17487/RFC1122</a>. STD 3. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1122">1122</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Requirements+for+Internet+Hosts+--+Communication+Layers&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=1989-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC1122&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc1122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Internet Standard 3. Updated by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1349">1349</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4379">4379</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5884">5884</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6093">6093</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6298">6298</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6633">6633</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6864">6864</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8029">8029</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9293">9293</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc1123-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1123_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1123_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1123_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Braden1989" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bob_Braden" title="Bob Braden">R. Braden</a>, ed. (October 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123">Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Application and Support</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1123">10.17487/RFC1123</a>. STD 3. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123">1123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Requirements+for+Internet+Hosts+--+Application+and+Support&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=1989-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC1123&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc1123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Internet Standard 3. Updated by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1349">1349</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2181">2181</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321">5321</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5966">5966</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7766">7766</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cerf_DoD-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Cerf_DoD_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCerfCain1983" class="citation journal cs1">Cerf, Vinton G. & Cain, Edward (October 1983). "The DoD Internet Architecture Model". Computer Networks. 7 (5). North-Holland: 307–318. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0376-5075%2883%2990042-9">10.1016/0376-5075(83)90042-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+Networks&rft.atitle=The+DoD+Internet+Architecture+Model&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=307-318&rft.date=1983-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0376-5075%2883%2990042-9&rft.aulast=Cerf&rft.aufirst=Vinton+G.&rft.au=Cain%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc1000-4"><a href="#cite_ref-rfc1000_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._ReynoldsJ._Postel1987" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joyce_K._Reynolds" title="Joyce K. Reynolds">J. Reynolds</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jon_Postel" title="Jon Postel">J. Postel</a> (November 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1000">THE REQUEST FOR COMMENTS REFERENCE GUIDE</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1000">10.17487/RFC1000</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1000">1000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=THE+REQUEST+FOR+COMMENTS+REFERENCE+GUIDE&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=1987-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC1000&rft.au=J.+Reynolds&rft.au=J.+Postel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc1000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Status Unknown. Obsoletes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc84">84</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc100">100</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc160">160</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc170">170</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc200">200</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc598">598</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc699">699</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc800">800</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc899">899</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc999">999</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafnerLyon1996" class="citation book cs1">Hafner, Katie; Lyon, Matthew (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/wherewizardsstay00haf_vgj">Where wizards stay up late : the origins of the Internet</a>. Internet Archive. New York : Simon & Schuster. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81201-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81201-4"><bdi>978-0-684-81201-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+wizards+stay+up+late+%3A+the+origins+of+the+Internet&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-684-81201-4&rft.aulast=Hafner&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft.au=Lyon%2C+Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwherewizardsstay00haf_vgj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2014" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Andrew L. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqroAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196">Open standards and the digital age: history, ideology, and networks</a>. New York: Cambridge Univ Press. p. 196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107039193" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107039193"><bdi>978-1107039193</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228072845/https://books.google.com/books?id=jqroAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196">Archived</a> from the original on December 28, 2022. Retrieved December 20, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Open+standards+and+the+digital+age%3A+history%2C+ideology%2C+and+networks&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Cambridge+Univ+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1107039193&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Andrew+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjqroAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ZVVpe-7"><a href="#cite_ref-ZVVpe_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbate2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Janet_Abbate" title="Janet Abbate">Abbate, Janet</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E2BdY6WQo4AC&pg=PA123">Inventing the Internet</a>. MIT Press. pp. 123–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51115-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51115-5"><bdi>978-0-262-51115-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117175132/https://books.google.com/books?id=E2BdY6WQo4AC&pg=PA123">Archived</a> from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved May 15, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Internet&rft.pages=123-4&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51115-5&rft.aulast=Abbate&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE2BdY6WQo4AC%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2008" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Taylor, Bob (October 11, 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2013/05/102702015-05-01-acc.pdf">"Oral History of Robert (Bob) W. Taylor"</a> (PDF), Computer History Museum Archive, CHM Reference number: X5059.2009: 28</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum+Archive&rft.atitle=Oral+History+of+Robert+%28Bob%29+W.+Taylor&rft.volume=CHM+Reference+number%3A+X5059.2009&rft.pages=28&rft.date=2008-10-11&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.computerhistory.org%2Fresources%2Faccess%2Ftext%2F2013%2F05%2F102702015-05-01-acc.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaacson2014" class="citation book cs1">Isaacson, Walter (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/innovatorshowgro0000isaa_p2p3">The innovators : how a group of hackers, geniuses, and geeks created the digital revolution</a>. Internet Archive. New York : Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-0869-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-0869-0"><bdi>978-1-4767-0869-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+innovators+%3A+how+a+group+of+hackers%2C+geniuses%2C+and+geeks+created+the+digital+revolution&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4767-0869-0&rft.aulast=Isaacson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finnovatorshowgro0000isaa_p2p3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-YSZAX-10"><a href="#cite_ref-YSZAX_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCerfKahn1974" class="citation journal cs1">Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf">"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication"</a> (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications. 22 (5): 637–648. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCOM.1974.1092259">10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1558-0857">1558-0857</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/https://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 10, 2022. Retrieved October 18, 2015. <q>The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Communications&rft.atitle=A+Protocol+for+Packet+Network+Intercommunication&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=637-648&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTCOM.1974.1092259&rft.issn=1558-0857&rft.aulast=Cerf&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Kahn%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.princeton.edu%2Fcourses%2Farchive%2Ffall06%2Fcos561%2Fpapers%2Fcerf74.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MevuR-11"><a href="#cite_ref-MevuR_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/technology-quarterly/21590765-louis-pouzin-helped-create-internet-now-he-campaigning-ensure-its">"The internet's fifth man"</a>. Economist. December 13, 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200419230318/https://www.economist.com/news/technology-quarterly/21590765-louis-pouzin-helped-create-internet-now-he-campaigning-ensure-its">Archived</a> from the original on April 19, 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2017. <q>In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economist&rft.atitle=The+internet%27s+fifth+man&rft.date=2013-12-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Ftechnology-quarterly%2F21590765-louis-pouzin-helped-create-internet-now-he-campaigning-ensure-its&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc675-12"><a href="#cite_ref-rfc675_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRFC_675" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vinton_Cerf" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinton Cerf">V. Cerf</a>; <a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Y. Dalal</a>; C. Sunshine (December 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc675">SPECIFICATION OF INTERNET TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROGRAM</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC0675">10.17487/RFC0675</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc675">675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SPECIFICATION+OF+INTERNET+TRANSMISSION+CONTROL+PROGRAM&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=1974-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC0675&rft.au=V.+Cerf&rft.au=Y.+Dalal&rft.au=C.+Sunshine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc675&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Obsolete. Obsoleted by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7805">7805</a>. NIC 2. INWG 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-TCP2-13"><a href="#cite_ref-TCP2_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCerf1977" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Cerf, Vinton</a> (March 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/ien/ien5.pdf">"Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol TCP (Version 2)"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220525061950/https://www.rfc-editor.org/ien/ien5.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on May 25, 2022. Retrieved August 4, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Specification+of+Internet+Transmission+Control+Protocol+TCP+%28Version+2%29&rft.date=1977-03&rft.aulast=Cerf&rft.aufirst=Vinton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfc-editor.org%2Fien%2Fien5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:30-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:30_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:30_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCerf1980" class="citation web cs1">Cerf, Vinton G. (April 1, 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/ien/ien151.txt">"Final Report of the Stanford University TCP Project"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Final+Report+of+the+Stanford+University+TCP+Project&rft.date=1980-04-01&rft.aulast=Cerf&rft.aufirst=Vinton+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfc-editor.org%2Fien%2Fien151.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BpyJd-15"><a href="#cite_ref-BpyJd_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanzaris2008" class="citation book cs1">Panzaris, Georgios (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9yMhAQAAIAAJ">Machines and romances: the technical and narrative construction of networked computing as a general-purpose platform, 1960–1995</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. p. 128. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117175134/https://books.google.com/books?id=9yMhAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved September 5, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Machines+and+romances%3A+the+technical+and+narrative+construction+of+networked+computing+as+a+general-purpose+platform%2C+1960%E2%80%931995&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Panzaris&rft.aufirst=Georgios&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9yMhAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2J9cz-16"><a href="#cite_ref-2J9cz_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelkey2007" class="citation book cs1">Pelkey, James L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historyofcomputercommunications.info/interviews/yogen-dalal/">"Yogen Dalal"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historyofcomputercommunications.info/">Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications, 1968–1988</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221008232443/https://historyofcomputercommunications.info/">Archived</a> from the original on October 8, 2022. Retrieved October 8, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yogen+Dalal&rft.btitle=Entrepreneurial+Capitalism+and+Innovation%3A+A+History+of+Computer+Communications%2C+1968%E2%80%931988&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Pelkey&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistoryofcomputercommunications.info%2Finterviews%2Fyogen-dalal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-i1TtW-17"><a href="#cite_ref-i1TtW_17-0">^</a> Internet Hall of Fame </li> <li id="cite_note-xgruR-18"><a href="#cite_ref-xgruR_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPostel1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jon_Postel" title="Jon Postel">Postel, Jon</a> (August 15, 1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/ien/ien2.txt">2.3.3.2 Comments on Internet Protocol and TCP</a>, IEN 2, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190516055704/http://www.rfc-editor.org/ien/ien2.txt">archived</a> from the original on May 16, 2019, retrieved June 11, 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2.3.3.2+Comments+on+Internet+Protocol+and+TCP&rft.date=1977-08-15&rft.aulast=Postel&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfc-editor.org%2Fien%2Fien2.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 129–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinton_G._Cerf1980" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vinton G. Cerf</a> (October 1980). "Protocols for Interconnected Packet Networks". ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review. 10 (4): 10–11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGCOMM+Computer+Communication+Review&rft.atitle=Protocols+for+Interconnected+Packet+Networks&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=10-11&rft.date=1980-10&rft.au=Vinton+G.+Cerf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Russell, Andrew L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/bitstream/handle/1774.2/32576/alr-diss-08012007-CBO-opt.pdf">"Industrial Legislatures": Consensus Standardization in the Second and Third Industrial Revolutions</a> (PDF) (PhD thesis). Johns Hopkins University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228000055/https://jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/bitstream/handle/1774.2/32576/alr-diss-08012007-CBO-opt.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on December 28, 2022. Retrieved December 28, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%22Industrial+Legislatures%22%3A+Consensus+Standardization+in+the+Second+and+Third+Industrial+Revolutions&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Johns+Hopkins+University&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Andrew+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjscholarship.library.jhu.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1774.2%2F32576%2Falr-diss-08012007-CBO-opt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bennett2009-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Bennett2009_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett2009" class="citation web cs1">Bennett, Richard (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itif.org/files/2009-designed-for-change.pdf">"Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate"</a> (PDF). Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. pp. 7, 11. Retrieved September 11, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Designed+for+Change%3A+End-to-End+Arguments%2C+Internet+Innovation%2C+and+the+Net+Neutrality+Debate&rft.pages=7%2C+11&rft.pub=Information+Technology+and+Innovation+Foundation&rft.date=2009-09&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itif.org%2Ffiles%2F2009-designed-for-change.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pelkey2-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Pelkey2_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelkey" class="citation book cs1">Pelkey, James. "8.3 CYCLADES Network and Louis Pouzin 1971-1972". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210617093154/https://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/section/8.3/cyclades-network-and-louis-pouzin-1971-1972/">Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968-1988</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/section/8.3/cyclades-network-and-louis-pouzin-1971-1972/">the original</a> on June 17, 2021. Retrieved November 21, 2021. <q>The inspiration for datagrams had two sources. One was Donald Davies' studies. He had done some simulation of datagram networks, although he had not built any, and it looked technically viable. The second inspiration was I like things simple. I didn't see any real technical motivation to overlay two levels of end-to-end protocols. I thought one was enough.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8.3+CYCLADES+Network+and+Louis+Pouzin+1971-1972&rft.btitle=Entrepreneurial+Capitalism+and+Innovation%3A+A+History+of+Computer+Communications+1968-1988&rft.aulast=Pelkey&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofcomputercommunications.info%2Fsection%2F8.3%2Fcyclades-network-and-louis-pouzin-1971-1972%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-25"><a href="#cite_ref-:5_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesBartlettScantleburyWilkinson1967" class="citation conference cs1">Davies, Donald; Bartlett, Keith; Scantlebury, Roger; Wilkinson, Peter (October 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.mpi-sws.org/~gummadi/teaching/sp07/sys_seminar/how_did_erope_blow_this_vision.pdf">A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at remote Terminals</a> (PDF). ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/https://people.mpi-sws.org/~gummadi/teaching/sp07/sys_seminar/how_did_erope_blow_this_vision.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 10, 2022. Retrieved September 15, 2020. <q>all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=A+Digital+Communication+Network+for+Computers+Giving+Rapid+Response+at+remote+Terminals&rft.date=1967-10&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Bartlett%2C+Keith&rft.au=Scantlebury%2C+Roger&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.mpi-sws.org%2F~gummadi%2Fteaching%2Fsp07%2Fsys_seminar%2Fhow_did_erope_blow_this_vision.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc1149-26"><a href="#cite_ref-rfc1149_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Waitzman1990" class="citation cs1">D. Waitzman (April 1, 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1149">A Standard for the Transmission of IP Datagrams on Avian Carriers</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1149">10.17487/RFC1149</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1149">1149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Standard+for+the+Transmission+of+IP+Datagrams+on+Avian+Carriers&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=1990-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC1149&rft.au=D.+Waitzman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc1149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Experimental. This is an <a href="/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day_Request_for_Comments" title="April Fools' Day Request for Comments">April Fools' Day Request for Comments</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc6214-27"><a href="#cite_ref-rfc6214_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._CarpenterR._Hinden2011" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Carpenter_(engineer)" title="Brian Carpenter (engineer)">B. Carpenter</a>; R. Hinden (April 1, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6214">Adaptation of RFC 1149 for IPv6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC6214">10.17487/RFC6214</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2070-1721">2070-1721</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6214">6214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adaptation+of+RFC+1149+for+IPv6&rft.pub=Internet+Engineering+Task+Force&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC6214&rft.issn=2070-1721&rft.au=B.+Carpenter&rft.au=R.+Hinden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc6214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Informational. This is an <a href="/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day_Request_for_Comments" title="April Fools' Day Request for Comments">April Fools' Day Request for Comments</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-IjTdeF-28"><a href="#cite_ref-IjTdeF_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFby_Vinton_Cerf,_as_told_to_Bernard_Aboba1993" class="citation web cs1">by Vinton Cerf, as told to Bernard Aboba (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170926042220/http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html">"How the Internet Came to Be"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html">the original</a> on September 26, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017. <q>We began doing concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN, and University College London. So effort at developing the Internet protocols was international from the beginning.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+Internet+Came+to+Be&rft.date=1993&rft.au=by+Vinton+Cerf%2C+as+told+to+Bernard+Aboba&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de%2Ftmp%2Fcdrom-oss%2FCerfHowInternetCame2B.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc1812-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1812_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc1812_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._Baker1995" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Baker_(IETF_chair)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Baker (IETF chair)">F. Baker</a>, ed. (June 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1812">Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1812">10.17487/RFC1812</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1812">1812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Requirements+for+IP+Version+4+Routers&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=1995-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC1812&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc1812&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Proposed Standard. Obsoletes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1716">1716</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1009">1009</a>. Updated by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2644">2644</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6633">6633</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-DXqFd-30"><a href="#cite_ref-DXqFd_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowellContosDeRodeff2011" class="citation book cs1">Crowell, William; Contos, Brian; DeRodeff, Colby (2011). Physical and Logical Security Convergence: Powered By Enterprise Security Management. 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-32710-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-32710-2"><bdi>978-3-527-32710-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117175133/https://books.google.com/books?id=DN-t8MpZ0-wC&q=%22protocol+wars%22&pg=PA106">Archived</a> from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved November 7, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+International+Research+Networking%3A+The+People+who+Made+it+Happen&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010-04-26&rft.isbn=978-3-527-32710-2&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft.au=Bressan%2C+Beatrice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDN-t8MpZ0-wC%26q%3D%2522protocol%2Bwars%2522%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-introduction-to-the-ietf-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-introduction-to-the-ietf_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introduction-to-the-ietf_46-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ietf.org/about/introduction/">"Introduction to the IETF"</a>. IETF. Retrieved February 27, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IETF&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+IETF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ietf.org%2Fabout%2Fintroduction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorabitoJimenez2020" class="citation journal cs1">Morabito, Roberto; Jimenez, Jaime (June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mcomstd.001.1900014">"IETF Protocol Suite for the Internet of Things: Overview and Recent Advancements"</a>. IEEE Communications Standards Magazine. 4 (2): 41–49. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2003.10279">2003.10279</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fmcomstd.001.1900014">10.1109/mcomstd.001.1900014</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2471-2825">2471-2825</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Communications+Standards+Magazine&rft.atitle=IETF+Protocol+Suite+for+the+Internet+of+Things%3A+Overview+and+Recent+Advancements&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=41-49&rft.date=2020-06&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2003.10279&rft.issn=2471-2825&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fmcomstd.001.1900014&rft.aulast=Morabito&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rft.au=Jimenez%2C+Jaime&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1109%2Fmcomstd.001.1900014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pTfJe-48"><a href="#cite_ref-pTfJe_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumenthalClark2001" class="citation web cs1">Blumenthal, Marjory S.; <a href="/wiki/David_D._Clark" title="David D. Clark">Clark, David D.</a> (August 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csd.uoc.gr/~hy558/papers/Rethinking_2001.pdf">"Rethinking the design of the Internet: The end-to-end arguments vs. the brave new world"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221008213500/https://www.csd.uoc.gr/~hy558/papers/Rethinking_2001.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 8, 2022. Retrieved October 8, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+design+of+the+Internet%3A+The+end-to-end+arguments+vs.+the+brave+new+world&rft.date=2001-08&rft.aulast=Blumenthal&rft.aufirst=Marjory+S.&rft.au=Clark%2C+David+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csd.uoc.gr%2F~hy558%2Fpapers%2FRethinking_2001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc791-49"><a href="#cite_ref-rfc791_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Postel1981" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jon_Postel" title="Jon Postel">J. Postel</a>, ed. (September 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc791">INTERNET PROTOCOL - DARPA INTERNET PROGRAM PROTOCOL SPECIFICATION</a>. <a href="/wiki/IETF" class="mw-redirect" title="IETF">IETF</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC0791">10.17487/RFC0791</a>. STD 5. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc791">791</a>. IEN 128, 123, 111, 80, 54, 44, 41, 28, 26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=INTERNET+PROTOCOL+-+DARPA+INTERNET+PROGRAM+PROTOCOL+SPECIFICATION&rft.pub=IETF&rft.date=1981-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC0791&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Internet Standard 5. Obsoletes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc760">760</a>. Updated by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1349">1349</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2474">2474</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6864">6864</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc1958-50"><a href="#cite_ref-rfc1958_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Carpenter1996" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Carpenter_(engineer)" title="Brian Carpenter (engineer)">B. Carpenter</a>, ed. (June 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1958">Architectural Principles of the Internet</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1958">10.17487/RFC1958</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1958">1958</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architectural+Principles+of+the+Internet&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=1996-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc1958&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Informational. Updated by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3439">3439</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-AoJD3-51"><a href="#cite_ref-AoJD3_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2002" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Craig (2002). TCP/IP Network Administration (3rd ed.). O'Reilly. pp. 9–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781449390785" title="Special:BookSources/9781449390785"><bdi>9781449390785</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=TCP%2FIP+Network+Administration&rft.pages=9-10&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=O%27Reilly&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781449390785&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuttman1999" class="citation journal cs1">Guttman, E. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/4236.780963">"Service location protocol: automatic discovery of IP network services"</a>. IEEE Internet Computing. 3 (4): 71–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F4236.780963">10.1109/4236.780963</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1089-7801">1089-7801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Internet+Computing&rft.atitle=Service+location+protocol%3A+automatic+discovery+of+IP+network+services&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=71-80&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F4236.780963&rft.issn=1089-7801&rft.aulast=Guttman&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1109%2F4236.780963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kz-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kz_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kz_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheng2017" class="citation journal cs1">Zheng, Kai (July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mic.2017.4180845">"Enabling "Protocol Routing": Revisiting Transport Layer Protocol Design in Internet Communications"</a>. IEEE Internet Computing. 21 (6): 52–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fmic.2017.4180845">10.1109/mic.2017.4180845</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1089-7801">1089-7801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Internet+Computing&rft.atitle=Enabling+%22Protocol+Routing%22%3A+Revisiting+Transport+Layer+Protocol+Design+in+Internet+Communications&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=52-57&rft.date=2017-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fmic.2017.4180845&rft.issn=1089-7801&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Kai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1109%2Fmic.2017.4180845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuang2009" class="citation journal cs1">Huang, Jing-lian (April 7, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1087.2009.00518">"Cross layer link adaptation scheme in wireless local area network"</a>. Journal of Computer Applications. 29 (2): 518–520. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3724%2Fsp.j.1087.2009.00518">10.3724/sp.j.1087.2009.00518</a> (inactive November 1, 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1001-9081">1001-9081</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Computer+Applications&rft.atitle=Cross+layer+link+adaptation+scheme+in+wireless+local+area+network&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=518-520&rft.date=2009-04-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3724%2Fsp.j.1087.2009.00518&rft.issn=1001-9081&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Jing-lian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.3724%2Fsp.j.1087.2009.00518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-RxqD0-55"><a href="#cite_ref-RxqD0_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevens1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Richard_Stevens" title="W. Richard Stevens">Stevens, W. Richard</a> (February 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kohala.com/start/tcpipiv1.html">TCP/IP Illustrated: the protocols</a>. Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-63346-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-63346-9"><bdi>0-201-63346-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120422024917/http://www.kohala.com/start/tcpipiv1.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 22, 2012. Retrieved April 25, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=TCP%2FIP+Illustrated%3A+the+protocols&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1994-02&rft.isbn=0-201-63346-9&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=W.+Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kohala.com%2Fstart%2Ftcpipiv1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5VTuU-56"><a href="#cite_ref-5VTuU_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyeMcDonaldRufi2007" class="citation book cs1">Dye, Mark; McDonald, Rick; Rufi, Antoon (October 29, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JVAk7r6jHF4C">Network Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide</a>. Cisco Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780132877435" title="Special:BookSources/9780132877435"><bdi>9780132877435</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 12, 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Network+Fundamentals%2C+CCNA+Exploration+Companion+Guide&rft.pub=Cisco+Press&rft.date=2007-10-29&rft.isbn=9780132877435&rft.aulast=Dye&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=McDonald%2C+Rick&rft.au=Rufi%2C+Antoon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJVAk7r6jHF4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6zcxM-57"><a href="#cite_ref-6zcxM_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKozierok2005" class="citation book cs1">Kozierok, Charles M. (January 1, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pm4RgYV2w4YC">The TCP/IP Guide: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Internet Protocols Reference</a>. No Starch Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781593270476" title="Special:BookSources/9781593270476"><bdi>9781593270476</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 12, 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+TCP%2FIP+Guide%3A+A+Comprehensive%2C+Illustrated+Internet+Protocols+Reference&rft.pub=No+Starch+Press&rft.date=2005-01-01&rft.isbn=9781593270476&rft.aulast=Kozierok&rft.aufirst=Charles+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPm4RgYV2w4YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lkPs4-58"><a href="#cite_ref-lkPs4_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComer2006" class="citation book cs1">Comer, Douglas (January 1, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jonyuTASbWAC">Internetworking with TCP/IP: Principles, protocols, and architecture</a>. Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-187671-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-187671-6"><bdi>0-13-187671-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 12, 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internetworking+with+TCP%2FIP%3A+Principles%2C+protocols%2C+and+architecture&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft.isbn=0-13-187671-6&rft.aulast=Comer&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjonyuTASbWAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1Hpdo-59"><a href="#cite_ref-1Hpdo_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanenbaum2003" class="citation book cs1">Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (January 1, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computernetworks00tane_2">Computer Networks</a>. Prentice Hall PTR. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computernetworks00tane_2/page/42">42</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-066102-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-066102-3"><bdi>0-13-066102-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 12, 2016 – via Internet Archive. <q>networks.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Networks&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall+PTR&rft.date=2003-01-01&rft.isbn=0-13-066102-3&rft.aulast=Tanenbaum&rft.aufirst=Andrew+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputernetworks00tane_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bOyR7-60"><a href="#cite_ref-bOyR7_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForouzanFegan2003" class="citation book cs1">Forouzan, Behrouz A.; Fegan, Sophia Chung (August 1, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U3Gcf65Pu9IC">Data Communications and Networking</a>. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780072923544" title="Special:BookSources/9780072923544"><bdi>9780072923544</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 12, 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Communications+and+Networking&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Higher+Education&rft.date=2003-08-01&rft.isbn=9780072923544&rft.aulast=Forouzan&rft.aufirst=Behrouz+A.&rft.au=Fegan%2C+Sophia+Chung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU3Gcf65Pu9IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aCpZD-61"><a href="#cite_ref-aCpZD_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuroseRoss2008" class="citation book cs1">Kurose, James F.; Ross, Keith W. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pearsonhighered.com/educator/academic/product/0,,0321497708,00%2ben-USS_01DBC.html">Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach</a>. Pearson/Addison Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-49770-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-49770-3"><bdi>978-0-321-49770-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160123195916/http://www.pearsonhighered.com/educator/academic/product/0,,0321497708,00%2ben-USS_01DBC.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 23, 2016. Retrieved July 16, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Networking%3A+A+Top-Down+Approach&rft.pub=Pearson%2FAddison+Wesley&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-321-49770-3&rft.aulast=Kurose&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rft.au=Ross%2C+Keith+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pearsonhighered.com%2Feducator%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2F0%2C%2C0321497708%2C00%252ben-USS_01DBC.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IRA2X-62"><a href="#cite_ref-IRA2X_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallings2007" class="citation book cs1">Stallings, William (January 1, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_AWmhkovR0C">Data and Computer Communications</a>. Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-243310-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-243310-5"><bdi>978-0-13-243310-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 12, 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+and+Computer+Communications&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-13-243310-5&rft.aulast=Stallings&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc_AWmhkovR0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/standard/20269.html">ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994 Information technology — Open Systems Interconnection — Basic Reference Model: The Basic Model</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+7498-1%3A1994+Information+technology+%E2%80%94+Open+Systems+Interconnection+%E2%80%94+Basic+Reference+Model%3A+The+Basic+Model&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F20269.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rfc3439-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rfc3439_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc3439_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._BushD._Meyer2002" class="citation cs1">R. Bush; D. Meyer (December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3439">Some Internet Architectural Guidelines and Philosophy</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC3439">10.17487/RFC3439</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3439">3439</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Internet+Architectural+Guidelines+and+Philosophy&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC3439&rft.au=R.+Bush&rft.au=D.+Meyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc3439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Informational. Updates <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1958">1958</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas_E._Comer2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Comer" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas E. Comer">Douglas E. Comer</a> (2001). Internetworking with TCP/IP – Principles, Protocols and Architecture. CET [i. e.] Computer Equipment and Trade. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/86-7991-142-9" title="Special:BookSources/86-7991-142-9"><bdi>86-7991-142-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internetworking+with+TCP%2FIP+%E2%80%93+Principles%2C+Protocols+and+Architecture&rft.pub=CET+%5Bi.+e.%5D+Computer+Equipment+and+Trade&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=86-7991-142-9&rft.au=Douglas+E.+Comer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_G._DaviesThomas_F._Lee2003" class="citation book cs1">Joseph G. Davies; Thomas F. Lee (2003). Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services. Microsoft Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7356-1291-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7356-1291-9"><bdi>0-7356-1291-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microsoft+Windows+Server+2003+TCP%2FIP+Protocols+and+Services&rft.pub=Microsoft+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7356-1291-9&rft.au=Joseph+G.+Davies&rft.au=Thomas+F.+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForouzan2003" class="citation book cs1">Forouzan, Behrouz A. (2003). TCP/IP Protocol Suite (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-246060-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-246060-5"><bdi>978-0-07-246060-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=TCP%2FIP+Protocol+Suite&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-07-246060-5&rft.aulast=Forouzan&rft.aufirst=Behrouz+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig_Hunt1998" class="citation book cs1">Craig Hunt (1998). TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56592-322-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56592-322-7"><bdi>1-56592-322-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=TCP%2FIP+Network+Administration&rft.pub=O%27Reilly&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-56592-322-7&rft.au=Craig+Hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaufer1999" class="citation book cs1">Maufer, Thomas A. (1999). IP Fundamentals. Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-975483-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-975483-8"><bdi>978-0-13-975483-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IP+Fundamentals&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-13-975483-8&rft.aulast=Maufer&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_McLean2000" class="citation book cs1">Ian McLean (2000). Windows 2000 TCP/IP Black Book. Coriolis Group Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57610-687-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-57610-687-X"><bdi>1-57610-687-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Windows+2000+TCP%2FIP+Black+Book&rft.pub=Coriolis+Group+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-57610-687-X&rft.au=Ian+McLean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAjit_Mungale2004" class="citation book cs1">Ajit Mungale (September 29, 2004). Pro .NET 1.1 Network Programming. Apress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59059-345-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-59059-345-6"><bdi>1-59059-345-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pro+.NET+1.1+Network+Programming&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2004-09-29&rft.isbn=1-59059-345-6&rft.au=Ajit+Mungale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Richard_Stevens1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Richard_Stevens" title="W. Richard Stevens">W. Richard Stevens</a> (April 24, 1994). TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-63346-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-63346-9"><bdi>0-201-63346-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=TCP%2FIP+Illustrated%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Protocols&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1994-04-24&rft.isbn=0-201-63346-9&rft.au=W.+Richard+Stevens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Richard_StevensGary_R._Wright1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Richard_Stevens" title="W. Richard Stevens">W. Richard Stevens</a>; Gary R. Wright (1994). TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-63354-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-63354-X"><bdi>0-201-63354-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=TCP%2FIP+Illustrated%2C+Volume+2%3A+The+Implementation&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-201-63354-X&rft.au=W.+Richard+Stevens&rft.au=Gary+R.+Wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Richard_Stevens1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Richard_Stevens" title="W. Richard Stevens">W. Richard Stevens</a> (1996). TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP, and the UNIX Domain Protocols. Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-63495-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-63495-3"><bdi>0-201-63495-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=TCP%2FIP+Illustrated%2C+Volume+3%3A+TCP+for+Transactions%2C+HTTP%2C+NNTP%2C+and+the+UNIX+Domain+Protocols&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-201-63495-3&rft.au=W.+Richard+Stevens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_S._Tanenbaum2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_S._Tanenbaum" title="Andrew S. Tanenbaum">Andrew S. Tanenbaum</a> (2003). Computer Networks. Prentice Hall PTR. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-066102-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-066102-3"><bdi>0-13-066102-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Networks&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall+PTR&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-13-066102-3&rft.au=Andrew+S.+Tanenbaum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1988" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_D._Clark" title="David D. Clark">Clark, D.</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~jrex/teaching/spring2005/reading/clark88.pdf">"The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols"</a> (PDF). Proceedings of the Sigcomm '88 Symposium on Communications Architectures and Protocols. <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a>. pp. 106–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F52324.52336">10.1145/52324.52336</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0897912792" title="Special:BookSources/978-0897912792"><bdi>978-0897912792</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6156615">6156615</a>. Retrieved October 16, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+Design+Philosophy+of+the+DARPA+Internet+Protocols&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+Sigcomm+%2788+Symposium+on+Communications+Architectures+and+Protocols&rft.pages=106-114&rft.pub=ACM&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6156615%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F52324.52336&rft.isbn=978-0897912792&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.princeton.edu%2F~jrex%2Fteaching%2Fspring2005%2Freading%2Fclark88.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCerfKahn1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Cerf, Vinton G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Kahn, Robert E.</a> (May 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf">"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Transactions_on_Communications" title="IEEE Transactions on Communications">IEEE Transactions on Communications</a>. 22 (5): 637–648. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCOM.1974.1092259">10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Communications&rft.atitle=A+Protocol+for+Packet+Network+Intercommunication&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=637-648&rft.date=1974-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTCOM.1974.1092259&rft.aulast=Cerf&rft.aufirst=Vinton+G.&rft.au=Kahn%2C+Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.princeton.edu%2Fcourses%2Farchive%2Ffall06%2Fcos561%2Fpapers%2Fcerf74.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_protocol_suite&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" class="extiw" title="v:Internet protocol suite"> Internet protocol suite</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm">Internet History</a> – Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._SocolofskyC._Kale1991" class="citation cs1">T. Socolofsky; C. Kale (January 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1180">A TCP/IP Tutorial</a>. Network Working Group. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1180">10.17487/RFC1180</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1180">1180</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+TCP%2FIP+Tutorial&rft.pub=Network+Working+Group&rft.date=1991-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC1180&rft.au=T.+Socolofsky&rft.au=C.+Kale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc1180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"> Informational.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itprc.com/tcpipfaq/">The Ultimate Guide to TCP/IP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/">The TCP/IP Guide</a> – A comprehensive look at the protocols and the procedure and processes involved</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211204202600/http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt">A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt">the original</a> on December 4, 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+the+ARPANET+TCP%2FIP+Digest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2F~rh120%2Fother%2Ftcpdigest_paper.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+protocol+suite" class="Z3988"></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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