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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/60px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/80px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="1906" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Ottoman Empire">History of the Ottoman Empire</a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Social structure of the Ottoman Empire">Social structure</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Court and aristocracy</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_court" title="Ottoman court">Ottoman court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ethnoreligious communities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rum Millet">Greek Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_millet" title="Armenian millet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullah_millet" title="Ullah millet">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian Millet">Bulgarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_1660" title="Great Fire of 1660">Great Fire of 1660</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire">Rise of nationalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottomanism" title="Ottomanism">Ottomanism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Classes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Askeri" title="Askeri">Askeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayan_(class)" title="Ayan (class)">Ayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giaour" title="Giaour">Giaour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayah" title="Rayah">Rayah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlachs_(social_class)" title="Vlachs (social class)">Vlachs</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_structure_in_the_Ottoman_Empire_sidebar" title="Template:Social structure in the Ottoman Empire sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_structure_in_the_Ottoman_Empire_sidebar" title="Template talk:Social structure in the Ottoman Empire sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_structure_in_the_Ottoman_Empire_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social structure in the Ottoman Empire sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> was one of the most dominant empires in the Mediterranean region, having lasted ~600 years and controlling much of the eastern and southern portions of the Sea. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Hourani" title="Albert Hourani">Albert Hourani</a> described the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> as "a <a href="/wiki/Bureaucratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureaucratic">bureaucratic</a> state, holding different regions within a single administrative and fiscal system".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ottoman Empire lasted for over six hundred years (1299–1923) and encompassed present-day Turkey, the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>. Thus the Empire included an extremely diverse population ranging from the Muslim majority (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosniaks" title="Bosniaks">Bosniaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanians</a>, etc.) to various minority populations, specifically <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, whom Muslims referred to as "<a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">People of the Book</a>". As an <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperial</a>/<a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a> enterprise, the Ottoman system allowed some <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">kul and azad</a>, to attain high office as <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">soldiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Grand_Viziers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Grand Viziers">viziers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">members of the imperial family</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Askeri">Askeri</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Askeri"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Askeri" title="Askeri">Askeri</a></div> <p>They were a social class made up primarily of the military and all public servants and members of their households. This class depended on the <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a> for income and as such, were not included in taxation. They were not considered to be aristocrats however, as membership depended on the Sultan's desires.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The askeri held their class unless specifically dismissed by the Sultan or if they pursued a non-governmental role.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, according to some sources, only non-Muslims were allowed to join this class, as a means to ensure loyalty only to the Sultan.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The soldiers and their commander belonged to a subclass called the "<a href="/wiki/Kul_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kul (Ottoman Empire)">kul</a>" and were considered slaves of the Sultan.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, there was a political subclass called the "askeri kassam". Whose estates were often liable to confiscation by the Sultan.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some sources instead divide the askeri into multiple branches: the kalemiye, the seyfiye, and the <a href="/wiki/Ilmiye" title="Ilmiye">ilmiye</a>. </p><p>The kalemiye were the scribal branch, the ilmiye focused on religious and judicial services, and the seyfiye were the military and administrative branch.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the most notable roles to fall under the askeri class were people who performed: praying, preaching, scribal service, superintendancy, tax and rent collection, trusteeship, couriers, falconers, guardians of bridges and passes, tent-makers, dealers of oil and butter, tent-pitchers, copper miners, rice-growers, judges, circuit judges, and city wardens, along with the sons and wives of askeri members and freed slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rayah">Rayah</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rayah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rayah" title="Rayah">Rayah</a></div> <p>Alternatively spelled as "reaya".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considered to be the class that was ruled over. Made up of merchants, artisans, and peasants and were the taxed class.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This group was largely Muslim, though their Christian counterparts were also placed under the same label.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ottoman officials sought to disarm this class and prevent them from achieving any sort of military status in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were typically considered the lesser class and dubbed as non-governing.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rayah class was largely divided by religion, with each religious group being divided into an internally autonomous community called a <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millet</a>. These groups were allowed to maintain their own traditional laws and could have internal administrative organizations led by their own religious leader. </p><p>The Muslim millet was considered to be above the other millets due to their practicing of the same laws and religion as the ruling class of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Socioeconomic_divisions">Socioeconomic divisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Socioeconomic divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Ottoman system traditionally stood on a division between four socioeconomic groups: the military, the learned, the merchants, and the peasants.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each group had its own set of skills and societal roles that came with different privileges and social statuses: while the military and the intellectual classes were rather influential in politics, the peasantry was much more disenfranchised from the central power.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 19th century, this system had disintegrated with the progressive emergence of the <i><a href="/wiki/Ayan_(class)" title="Ayan (class)">ayans</a></i>,<sup>[3]</sup> a group of urban notables.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This was a class of local notables, who often had a role in governing to some degree, especially from the seventeenth century onward.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also played the role of warlords at times, appearing most often in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid-18th century, in <a href="/wiki/Rumelia" title="Rumelia">Rumelia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, this became a title for district nobles who were elected by their community to negotiate in its name and handle taxes and security.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 19th century also saw the rise of a new political and socioeconomic class: the modern bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1826, Mahmud II shut down the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a>, abolished the <i>tulumbacı</i>, and merged the <i><a href="/wiki/Bektashi_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Bektashi Order">Bektaşi</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi">Nakşibendi</a></i> religious orders together.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the Sultan’s point of view, that meant the loss of many supporting foundations: quickly, a new bureaucracy emerged as a symbol of Ottoman modernity, the <i><a href="/wiki/Effendi" title="Effendi">effendis</a></i>, whom could not be criticized and eventually came to assume government control.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethno-religious_divides">Ethno-religious divides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ethno-religious divides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslims">Muslims</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Muslims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> were granted a higher social status than other religious groups in the Ottoman Empire: they were considered “first-class subjects,” in opposition to non-Muslims who were granted the label of “second-class subjects.”<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several privileges came with the status of Muslim: many high-ranking positions were reserved for Muslims, Muslims were frequently privileged by the law, one could not be enslaved by a non-Muslim, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Muslim category was a flexible one: many members of other religious groups converted to Islam in order to access certain benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, Muslims were not a homogenous group: many different ethnic groups such as Arabs, Kurds, Albanians, Bosniaks, and Turks practiced Sunni Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even among Muslims, different groups enjoyed different levels of privilege: Turks, as the “conquering” population, enjoyed some degree of superiority over Arabs, Kurds, Albanians, and Bosniaks who were all conquered against their will.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, conquered groups retained a great deal of agency: for instance, Muslim Bosniaks and Albanians were involved in the governance of the empire and were a part of the Janissary units.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Millet_system">The Millet system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The Millet system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> to the nineteenth century, ethnoreligious divisions were embodied by the <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millets</a>, a system of autonomous religious communities that allowed rulers to organize the population into ethnoreligious groups and devolve power to local elites and leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were three basic Millets: the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Millet">Greek</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Millet">Jewish</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_millet" title="Armenian millet">Armenian</a> communities: though many other ethnic and religious existed, most were incorporated into and ruled by one of the three major Millets.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were notably three domains in which autonomy was important to non-Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first one was that of religious theory and practice: though Muslims did not directly interfere in theological matters, they still imposed religious restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, non-Muslims religious buildings could not tower over <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a>, the availability of specific commodities such as wine, kosher meat, or communion wafer was determined at the discretion of Muslim authorities, and non-Muslims were forbidden from wearing green clothes and white turbans.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second important domain of autonomy was that of administration and taxation: lay leaders, generally elected by their community, were in charge of administrative matters such as making arrangements with regards to the collection of taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third domain concerned non-Muslims’ legal jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews and Christians were notably allowed to adjudicate legal disputes between members of their group: in Jewish communities, rabbinical courts could rule on criminal cases.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Millets developed internal class structures: the upper layers of this strata were composed of merchant elites residing in Istanbul as well as of the high clergy, while the lower classes were made of new type merchants and craftsmen.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethnic and religious differences within the Millet did not matter to the central Ottoman authorities: within the Greek Millet, Romanians, Albanians, Serbs, etc. could shift from one identity to another without changing their status vis-à-vis the metropole.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the Millet authorities however, such ethnic and religious differences were important and even instrumental in highlighting divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Divisions between Millets were reflected in the organization of cities such as Istanbul: until the beginning of the nineteench century, religious groups inhabitied their traditional quarters.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Istanbul, Greeks lived in <a href="/wiki/Fener" title="Fener">Fener</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samatya" title="Samatya">Samatya</a>, Cibal, and in villages along the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosporus</a>; Armenians inhabited <a href="/wiki/Kumkap%C4%B1" title="Kumkapı">Kumkapi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samatya" title="Samatya">Samatya</a>; Jews lived in <a href="/wiki/Balat,_Fatih" title="Balat, Fatih">Balat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hask%C3%B6y,_Beyo%C4%9Flu" title="Hasköy, Beyoğlu">Hasköy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kas%C4%B1mpa%C5%9Fa,_Beyo%C4%9Flu" title="Kasımpaşa, Beyoğlu">Kasımpaşa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Millet as a system of social divisions along ethno-religious lines lost its vigor throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries with the rise of liberation and nationalist movements, especially in the Greek Millet.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the second half of the eighteenth century, Western enlightened ideals and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> started to inspired a growing intelligentsia among the Greek Millet until the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some historians argue such a revolt was of a nationalist nature, others have claimed that it was a religious movement eager to liberate itself from Muslim oppression rather than a rebellion driven by the will to form a nation.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the rebellion, religious divisions were transformed as Greeks lost many of their privileges and came to be seen as a group to fear rather than as a community to respect and accommodate.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople">Orthodox patriarchate</a>, though he did not participate in the uprising, was hanged; the post of <a href="/wiki/Dragoman" title="Dragoman">dragoman</a> (interpreter), who since the mid-seventeenth century had been reserved to Greeks, was given to a Turk.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Conveniencia_model">The <i>Conveniencia</i> model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Conveniencia model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to historian Baki Tezcan, the millet system did not stay static overtime. Drawing from Brian Catlos’s analysis of intercommunal relationships in the medieval Mediterranean as “the consequence of a series of relationships born of a perceived mutual benefit among majority and minority ethno-religious groups, reinforced by formal agreements set in law, and grounded in a mutually-conceded, if limited, legitimacy,”<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tezcan explains that religious divisions functioned around “convenience” and the ability of each group to occupy administrative and economic niches in the empire’s affairs, wherein a group that performed well in its niche tasks would gain more status than another, less effective group.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the early 18th century, the convenience model broke down such that administrative and military posts were mostly occupied by upper-middle class Muslim citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender">Gender</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_as_legal_entities">Women as legal entities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Women as legal entities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike many European societies of the same period, <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Women in the Ottoman Empire">women in the Ottoman Empire</a> were considered legal entities and subjects distinct from their husbands or fathers. They had the ability to maintain control over their property and assets after marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women had the ability to inherit property from male relatives and could claim property in the instance of divorce.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many instances, however, male relatives interfered with a woman’s control over her assets, thereby limiting legal autonomy. The extent to which women controlled property varied in different areas of the empire as well. The central government tended to confiscate and redistribute the land of widowed peasants without sons to maintain agricultural productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage">Marriage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Marriage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Islamic tradition viewed women’s sexuality as a force that needed to be controlled by a man, typically a father or husband.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marriages were typically arranged by the parents of young men and women. The process of arranged marriage was initiated by a young man’s father, who sought out young women or girls who could enhance the family’s socioeconomic status.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prospective bride had little to no agency regarding marriage. Even in the acceptance of a dowry, the bride was represented by a male relative.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon marriage, a wife’s “duty” was to show her husband obedience, while the husband took responsibility for all the household’s finances and public relations.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While a woman in the Ottoman Empire could not initiate the legal process of divorce without the permission of her husband, she did have the ability to seek an annulment.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Divorced individuals typically remarried, however women had more restrictions in this process, including having to wait “three menstrual courses” before entering a new marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_and_private_spaces">Public and private spaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Public and private spaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Ottoman Empire was patriarchal in structure, and separation of the sexes was common in public places.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, men in the Ottoman Empire controlled public spaces, while women could hold power in private spaces, such as the home.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outside the home, men did not walk beside their female relatives, and women could not leave the home between sunset and sunrise.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most public spaces, different clothing was used to delineate between social groups; the differences in clothing were especially prominent between men and women. Notably, women wore veils starting from the onset of puberty in public places.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the privacy of the home, women were responsible for nearly all domestic activities. The ability to perform household duties well was a marker of obedient and faithful wives.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Family structure was highly patriarchal for peasants, with the husband viewed as the head and taxpayer of the family unit.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men were responsible for working the land and acting as representatives for their families in public settings, while child-rearing and domestic work were the responsibility of peasant women.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prostitution">Prostitution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Prostitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Prostitution in the Ottoman Empire">Prostitution</a> was one way women had increased visibility and power in public spaces. The history of prostitution in Ottoman society is complex, with various attempts by the government to regulate or ban the profession. Prostitutes were more likely to be women of lower socioeconomic status or women from less prominent family lineages.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there were laws that dictated harsh punishments for convicted prostitutes, the most common consequence for a prostitute was removal from the neighborhood.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Urban_and_rural_areas">Urban and rural areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Urban and rural areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ottoman society was divided into two major classes. The <i><a href="/wiki/Askeri" title="Askeri">askeri</a></i> was the ruling class, while the <i><a href="/wiki/Rayah" title="Rayah">reaya</a></i>, or “the flock,” was composed of the lower classes. The <i>reaya</i> included craftsmen and merchants in urban areas; however, the largest social group in the Ottoman Empire were rural farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While nomadic groups existed throughout the empire’s entire existence, the central government often attempted to get such groups to settle and farm land. In doing so, they would be required to pay taxes to the central government and were eligible to be recruited to the Ottoman military.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_areas_and_cities">Urban areas and cities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Urban areas and cities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Large urban centers within the Ottoman Empire held the best educational opportunities. The <i><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasa</a></i> system in the empire provided young Muslim men with education, providing a potential opportunity to have a high ranking position in the legal, religious, educational or bureaucratic fields.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those educated in <i>madrasas</i> outside of a major city were often ranked lower than those educated in cities, therefore the internal provinces tended to attract the majority of Ottoman students.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In cities, merchants and craftsmen were ranked below the ruling class and divided into guilds to manage the local commercial industry. City life outside of the sultan’s palace centered around marketplaces and bazaars, in which people of many religions, ethnicities, and financial classes would interact.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While guilds were originally organized to benefit artisans and merchants, the government wished to control the production and distribution of goods. Therefore, the state had a relatively large amount of control over urban guilds and even viewed them as a “means of controlling” a city’s population and activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While craftsmanship and commerce was centered in cities, these industries relied on peasant farmers to provide raw materials and other necessary goods. However, it was rare that crafted goods were exported to rural towns and villages, as most peasants could not afford to travel or purchase them.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural_areas">Rural areas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Rural areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All farmland in the empire was deemed to belong to the current ruler, therefore the central government organized and controlled peasant land and the agricultural economy. While they did not own their land, peasant farmers were considered “hereditary tenants” of the land they worked. Peasant land was passed from father to son as an inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All rural communities had a <i><a href="/wiki/Sipahi" title="Sipahi">sipahi</a></i>, a representative of the government to whom peasant households paid taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>sipahi</i> did not live in the village he represented. Rather, a local village headman served as the main connection between his village and the urban government.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery">Slavery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The status of “<a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave</a>” in the Ottoman Empire was a very broad category and could encompass many different kinds of activities and social positions.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though generally defined in Islamic terms as a person being granted ownership over another person and their labor, property, and sexuality, slavery in the Ottoman context was more complex than a simple divide between free men and women and enslaved people.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, slavery did not equate a lower status than the rest of the population: not only did male slaves in the bureaucratic and military spheres and the females in elite <i><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harems</a></i> have much more influence over the state’s affairs than most people did, but even some common domestic workers were better fed, clothed, and protected than many freed men.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery, much like other social divisions, evolved overtime.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Kul_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kul (Ottoman Empire)">kul</a></i> system for instance, a class of enslaved people doing administrative work, was challenged by the increasing number of free Muslims entering government service: having to accommodate, the <i>kuls</i> began recruiting rather than enslaving and could thus not be referred to as an enslaved class anymore.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1855, slavery was even abolished to appease liberal concerns in Europe, though in practice, the institution persisted until 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Opportunities for social mobility were more numerous within the Ottoman Empire as opposed to many European societies during the time. Possibilities existed for those of modest origin to rise in sociopolitical rank and even enter the ruling class.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manumission of enslaved men was normalized in the empire after an individual had served his owner for a predetermined period of time. The <i><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">devshirme</a></i> system was another aspect of slavery that enabled social mobility for a small group of individuals. In this system, young Christian boys would be sold into slavery, converted to Islam, and educated, all with the goal of assuming a high government post upon the completion of their training.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHourani1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Habib_Hourani" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Habib Hourani">Hourani, Albert Habib</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C"><i>A History of the Arab Peoples</i></a> (revised ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (published 2002). p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674010178" title="Special:BookSources/9780674010178"><bdi>9780674010178</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 July</span> 2020</span>. <q>The empire was a bureaucratic state, holding different regions within a single administrative and fiscal system. It was also, however, the last great expression of the universality of the world of Islam. [...] It was also a multi-religious state, giving a recognized status to christian and Jewish communities.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Arab+Peoples&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=207&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780674010178&rft.aulast=Hourani&rft.aufirst=Albert+Habib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DegbOb0mewz4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInalcik1954" class="citation journal cs1">Inalcik, Halil (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595144">"Ottoman Methods of Conquest"</a>. <i>Studia Islamica</i> (2): 112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1595144">10.2307/1595144</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595144">1595144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Islamica&rft.atitle=Ottoman+Methods+of+Conquest&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=112&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1595144&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595144%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Inalcik&rft.aufirst=Halil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInalcik1954" class="citation journal cs1">Inalcik, Halil (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595144">"Ottoman Methods of Conquest"</a>. <i>Studia Islamica</i> (2): 113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1595144">10.2307/1595144</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0585-5292">0585-5292</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595144">1595144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Islamica&rft.atitle=Ottoman+Methods+of+Conquest&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=113&rft.date=1954&rft.issn=0585-5292&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595144%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1595144&rft.aulast=Inalcik&rft.aufirst=Halil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHubbardKane2013" class="citation book cs1">Hubbard, Glenn; Kane, Tim (2013-05-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NicQFSFz7RkC&q=askeri"><i>Balance: The Economics of Great Powers from Ancient Rome to Modern America</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-0025-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-0025-0"><bdi>978-1-4767-0025-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Balance%3A+The+Economics+of+Great+Powers+from+Ancient+Rome+to+Modern+America&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2013-05-21&rft.isbn=978-1-4767-0025-0&rft.aulast=Hubbard&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft.au=Kane%2C+Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNicQFSFz7RkC%26q%3Daskeri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi1997" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (1997-04-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c00jmTrjzAoC&q=askeri&pg=PA365"><i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">435–</span>436. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57455-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57455-6"><bdi>978-0-521-57455-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E435-%3C%2Fspan%3E436&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997-04-28&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57455-6&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc00jmTrjzAoC%26q%3Daskeri%26pg%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi1997" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (1997-04-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c00jmTrjzAoC&q=reaya&pg=PA365"><i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 550. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57455-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57455-6"><bdi>978-0-521-57455-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=550&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997-04-28&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57455-6&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc00jmTrjzAoC%26q%3Dreaya%26pg%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkey" class="citation book cs1">Barkey, Karen. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03363-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03363-4"><bdi>978-1-107-03363-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1516-1918%3A+A+Social+and+Cultural+History&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013-04-29&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03363-4&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4x09OvMBMmgC%26q%3Daskeri%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuluveli2005" class="citation journal cs1">Tuluveli, Guclu (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/303/article/677392">"State and Classes in the Ottoman Empire: Local Notables in Historical Perspective"</a>. <i>Journal of Mediterranean Studies</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 123, 125. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2523-9465">2523-9465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mediterranean+Studies&rft.atitle=State+and+Classes+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Local+Notables+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=123%2C+125&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=2523-9465&rft.aulast=Tuluveli&rft.aufirst=Guclu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fpub%2F303%2Farticle%2F677392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuluveli2005" class="citation journal cs1">Tuluveli, Guclu (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/303/article/677392">"State and Classes in the Ottoman Empire: Local Notables in Historical Perspective"</a>. <i>Journal of Mediterranean Studies</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 139. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2523-9465">2523-9465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mediterranean+Studies&rft.atitle=State+and+Classes+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Local+Notables+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=139&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=2523-9465&rft.aulast=Tuluveli&rft.aufirst=Guclu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fpub%2F303%2Farticle%2F677392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJelavichJelavichStudies" class="citation book cs1">Jelavich, Charles; Jelavich, Barbara; Studies, University of California Center for Slavic and East European. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A0mWfovlJ9cC&q=rayah&pg=PA56"><i>The Balkans in Transition</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Balkans+in+Transition&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.aulast=Jelavich&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Jelavich%2C+Barbara&rft.au=Studies%2C+University+of+California+Center+for+Slavic+and+East+European&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA0mWfovlJ9cC%26q%3Drayah%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpat2002" class="citation book cs1">Karpat, Kemal H. (2002). <i>Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays</i>. Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia. Leiden, The Netherlands; Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12101-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12101-0"><bdi>978-90-04-12101-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+Ottoman+social+and+political+history%3A+selected+articles+and+essays&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands%3B+Boston&rft.series=Social%2C+economic%2C+and+political+studies+of+the+Middle+East+and+Asia&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12101-0&rft.aulast=Karpat&rft.aufirst=Kemal+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi1997" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (1997-04-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c00jmTrjzAoC&q=reaya&pg=PA365"><i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 565. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57455-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57455-6"><bdi>978-0-521-57455-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=565&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997-04-28&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57455-6&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc00jmTrjzAoC%26q%3Dreaya%26pg%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi1997" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (1997-04-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c00jmTrjzAoC&q=reaya&pg=PA365"><i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 663. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57455-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57455-6"><bdi>978-0-521-57455-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=663&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997-04-28&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57455-6&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc00jmTrjzAoC%26q%3Dreaya%26pg%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA_́gostonMasters2010" class="citation book cs1">A ́goston, Ga ́bor; Masters, Bruce Alan (2010-05-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&q=ayan&pg=PA64"><i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1025-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2010-05-21&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7&rft.aulast=A+%CC%81goston&rft.aufirst=Ga+%CC%81bor&rft.au=Masters%2C+Bruce+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjzYdCxumFcC%26q%3Dayan%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi2019" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (2019). <i>The Ottoman and Mughal Empires: social history in the early modern world</i>. 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Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78831-366-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78831-366-7"><bdi>978-1-78831-366-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+and+Mughal+Empires%3A+social+history+in+the+early+modern+world&rft.place=London+%28GB%29&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-78831-366-7&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaer2004" class="citation journal cs1">Baer, Marc (August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00347.x">"Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul"</a>. <i>Gender & History</i>. <b>16</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">425–</span>458. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0953-5233.2004.00347.x">10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00347.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0953-5233">0953-5233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+%26+History&rft.atitle=Islamic+Conversion+Narratives+of+Women%3A+Social+Change+and+Gendered+Religious+Hierarchy+in+Early+Modern+Ottoman+Istanbul&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E425-%3C%2Fspan%3E458&rft.date=2004-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0953-5233.2004.00347.x&rft.issn=0953-5233&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0953-5233.2004.00347.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasters2013" class="citation book cs1">Masters, Bruce Alan (2013). <i>The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: a social and cultural history</i>. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03363-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03363-4"><bdi>978-1-107-03363-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1516-1918%3A+a+social+and+cultural+history&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03363-4&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasters2013" class="citation book cs1">Masters, Bruce Alan (2013). <i>The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: a social and cultural history</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03363-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03363-4"><bdi>978-1-107-03363-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1516-1918%3A+a+social+and+cultural+history&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03363-4&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkeyGavrilis2016" class="citation journal cs1">Barkey, Karen; Gavrilis, George (January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17449057.2015.1101845">"The Ottoman Millet System: Non-Territorial Autonomy and its Contemporary Legacy"</a>. <i>Ethnopolitics</i>. <b>15</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">24–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17449057.2015.1101845">10.1080/17449057.2015.1101845</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1744-9057">1744-9057</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnopolitics&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Millet+System%3A+Non-Territorial+Autonomy+and+its+Contemporary+Legacy&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17449057.2015.1101845&rft.issn=1744-9057&rft.aulast=Barkey&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Gavrilis%2C+George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F17449057.2015.1101845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongvaRoald2012" class="citation book cs1">Longva, Anh Nga; Roald, Anne Sofie (2012). <i>Religious minorities in the Middle East: domination, self-empowerment, accommodation</i>. Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia. Leiden Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20742-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20742-4"><bdi>978-90-04-20742-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+minorities+in+the+Middle+East%3A+domination%2C+self-empowerment%2C+accommodation&rft.place=Leiden+Boston&rft.series=Social%2C+economic%2C+and+political+studies+of+the+Middle+East+and+Asia&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20742-4&rft.aulast=Longva&rft.aufirst=Anh+Nga&rft.au=Roald%2C+Anne+Sofie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoudometof1998" class="citation journal cs1">Roudometof, Victor (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/21830">"From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453-1821"</a>. <i>Journal of Modern Greek Studies</i>. <b>16</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">11–</span>48. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3265">1086-3265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+Greek+Studies&rft.atitle=From+Rum+Millet+to+Greek+Nation%3A+Enlightenment%2C+Secularization%2C+and+National+Identity+in+Ottoman+Balkan+Society%2C+1453-1821&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=1086-3265&rft.aulast=Roudometof&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fpub%2F1%2Farticle%2F21830&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatlos2009" class="citation journal cs1">Catlos, Brian (8 July 2009). 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Şükrü (2010). <i>A brief history of the late Ottoman empire</i> (4. pr., 1. pbk. pr ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14617-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14617-1"><bdi>978-0-691-14617-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+brief+history+of+the+late+Ottoman+empire&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.edition=4.+pr.%2C+1.+pbk.+pr&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14617-1&rft.aulast=Hanio%C4%9Flu&rft.aufirst=M.+%C5%9E%C3%BCkr%C3%BC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi2019" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (2019). <i>The Ottoman and Mughal Empires: Social History in the Early Modern World</i>. London: Bloomsbury Academic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+and+Mughal+Empires%3A+Social+History+in+the+Early+Modern+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHourani1991" class="citation book cs1">Hourani, Albert Habib (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo00hour"><i>A History of the Arab Peoples</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press">Belknap Press</a> of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674395657" title="Special:BookSources/9780674395657"><bdi>9780674395657</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Arab+Peoples&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780674395657&rft.aulast=Hourani&rft.aufirst=Albert+Habib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofarabpeo00hour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+class+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ottoman_Empire323" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Template:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Template talk:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ottoman_Empire323" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Ottoman Empire">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osman%27s_Dream" title="Osman's Dream">Osman's Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_era" title="Köprülü era">Köprülü</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Stagnation and reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulip period">Tulip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline and modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">1st Constitutional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">2nd Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">Abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Ottoman Muslims</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire)">Foreign Affairs Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_relations" title="Ottoman–Safavid relations">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Ottoman Empire–United States relations">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of treaties of the Ottoman Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire">Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_constitution_of_1876" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman constitution of 1876">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_National_Constitution" title="Armenian National Constitution">Armenian Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_electoral_law" title="Ottoman electoral law">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_family_law" title="Ottoman family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCstur" title="Düstur">Düstur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Civil codes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Mecelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_Office_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Translation Office (Ottoman Empire)">Translation Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State organisation of the Ottoman Empire">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House of Osman</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">List of Ottoman sultans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Roman succession claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques" title="Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques">Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">Valide sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haseki_sultan" title="Haseki sultan">Haseki sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kad%C4%B1n_(title)" title="Kadın (title)">Kadınefendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikbal_(title)" title="Ikbal (title)">Hanımefendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mothers_of_the_Ottoman_sultans" title="List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans">List of Ottoman sultans' mothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_consorts_of_the_Ottoman_sultans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of consorts of the Ottoman sultans">List of Ottoman sultans' consorts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizlar_Agha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kizlar Agha">Kizlar Agha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ender%C3%BBn" title="Enderûn">Inner Palace Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapi_Agha" title="Kapi Agha">Kapi Agha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_School" title="Palace School">Palace Schools</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central (<a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Porte</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Council_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire)">Imperial Council</a> <br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(classic period)</i></span> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Grand_Viziers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Grand Viziers">Grand Vizier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">Viziers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazasker" title="Kazasker">Kazaskers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Ministers_of_Finance" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Ministers of Finance">Defterdars/Ministers of Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%9Fanc%C4%B1" title="Nişancı">Nişancı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reis_%C3%BCl-K%C3%BCttab" title="Reis ül-Küttab">Reis ül-Küttab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoman_of_the_Porte" title="Dragoman of the Porte">Dragoman of the Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bir%C3%BBn" title="Birûn">Outer Palace Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Government_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)">Imperial Government</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(reform and constitutional period)</i></span> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire">Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Senate of the Ottoman Empire">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)">Chamber of Deputies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_al-Isl%C4%81m" title="Shaykh al-Islām">Shaykh al-Islām</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rum Millet">Rūm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullah_millet" title="Ullah millet">Ullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian Millet">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_millet" title="Armenian millet">Armenian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hakham_Bashi" title="Hakham Bashi">Hakham Bashi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Provincial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eyalet" title="Eyalet">Eyalets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beylerbey" title="Beylerbey">Beylerbeys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilayet" title="Vilayet">Vilayets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">Sanjaks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanjakbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanjakbey">Sanjakbeys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutasarr%C4%B1f" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutasarrıf">Mutasarrifates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaza" title="Kaza">Kazas</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kadiluk" title="Kadiluk">Kadiluks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">Vassal and tributary states</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_army_in_the_15th%E2%80%9319th_centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman army in the 15th–19th centuries">Classic period army</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">Janissaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agha_of_the_Janissaries" title="Agha of the Janissaries">Agha of the Janissaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Divisions_of_Cavalry" title="Six Divisions of Cavalry">Six Divisions of Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timariots" title="Timariots">Timariots</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_reforms" title="Ottoman military reforms">Reform period</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Nizam-i_Djedid_Army" title="Nizam-i Djedid Army">Nizam-i Djedid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekban-i_Djedid_Army" title="Sekban-i Djedid Army">Sekban-i Djedid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asakir-i_Mansure-i_Muhammediye" title="Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye">Mansure Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidieh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamidieh">Hamidieh</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Modernized army</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapudan_Pasha" title="Kapudan Pasha">Kapudan Pasha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kapudan_Pashas" title="List of Kapudan Pashas">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoman_of_the_Fleet" title="Dragoman of the Fleet">Dragoman of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Arsenal" title="Imperial Arsenal">Imperial Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ottoman_Empire_admirals" title="Category:Ottoman Empire admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Ottoman Empire">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_ships_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Naval ships of the Ottoman Empire">Ships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Aviation_Squadrons" title="Ottoman Aviation Squadrons">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Conscription in the Ottoman Empire">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_weapons" title="Ottoman weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Economic history of the Ottoman Empire">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By era <ul><li>Enlargement</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomics_of_the_Ottoman_reformation_era&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Socioeconomics of the Ottoman reformation era (page does not exist)">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_agriculture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman agriculture (page does not exist)">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Bank" title="Ottoman Bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_currency&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman currency (page does not exist)">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e" title="Akçe">Akçe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para_(currency)" title="Para (currency)">Para</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultani" title="Sultani">Sultani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuru%C5%9F" title="Kuruş">Kuruş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_lira" title="Ottoman lira">Lira</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Taxation in the Ottoman Empire">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the Ottoman Empire">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Society of the Ottoman Empire">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Social structure of the Ottoman Empire">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottomanism" title="Ottomanism">Ottomanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_court" title="Ottoman court">Ottoman court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Languages of the Ottoman Empire">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Culture of the Ottoman Empire">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosques_commissioned_by_the_Ottoman_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosques commissioned by the Ottoman dynasty">Mosques</a></li></ul></li> <li>Art <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_music" title="Ottoman music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat" title="Karagöz and Hacivat">Shadow play</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_clothing" title="Ottoman clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prose_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Prose of the Ottoman Empire">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_poetry" title="Ottoman poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Education in the Ottoman Empire">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of schools in the Ottoman Empire">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenian education in the Ottoman Empire">of Armenians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Media of the Ottoman Empire">Media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Demographics of the Ottoman Empire">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Women in the Ottoman Empire">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#Religion" title="Ottoman Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism in the Ottoman Empire">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_anthems_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Flags of the Ottoman Empire">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">Tughra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_and_crescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Star and crescent">Star and crescent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Outline of the Ottoman Empire">Outline</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire">Bibliography</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Ottoman Empire">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_class321" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_class" title="Template:Social class"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_class" title="Template talk:Social class"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_class" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social class"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_class321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Status</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Stratum</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic classes">Economic classes</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_model" title="Gilbert model">Gilbert model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_class" title="New class">New class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoon_class_theory" title="Spoon class theory">Spoon class theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">Weberian (three-component)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Related<wbr /> topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattering_classes" title="Chattering classes">Chattering classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Class society">Class society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_traitor" title="Class traitor">Class traitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_society" title="High society">High society</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">Nouveau riche</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Parvenu" title="Parvenu">Parvenu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranked_society" title="Ranked society">Ranked society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_orphan" title="Social orphan">Social orphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_position" title="Social position">Social position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">Subaltern</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Status_Anxiety" title="Status Anxiety">Status Anxiety</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_demographic321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="demographic">By demographic</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_detention" title="Administrative detention">Administrative detainee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)">Alien</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">illegal immigrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">dual or multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">native-born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clique" title="Clique">Clique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_clique" title="Adolescent clique">adolescent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_rights_due_to_conviction_for_criminal_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of rights due to conviction for criminal offense">Convicted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">Migrant worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">Political prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Stateless</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By "<a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">collar</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_worker" title="Blue-collar worker">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-collar_worker" title="Green-collar worker">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-collar" title="Grey-collar">Grey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New-collar_worker" title="New-collar worker">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-collar_worker" title="Pink-collar worker">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoi" title="Aristoi">Aristoi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanseaten_(class)" title="Hanseaten (class)">Hanseaten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">Magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian oligarch">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Patrician <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(post-Roman_Europe)" title="Patrician (post-Roman Europe)">Post-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_class" title="Political class">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_family" title="Political family">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_families" title="List of political families">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_politicians" title="Hereditary politicians">Hereditary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">Royal family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">Intellectual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhetri" title="Chhetri">Chhetri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_warrior" title="Eagle warrior">Cuāuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Hashashin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nair_castes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nair castes">Nair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaguar_warrior" title="Jaguar warrior">Ocēlōtl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendekar" title="Pendekar">Pendekar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">Samurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanniyar" title="Vanniyar">Vanniyar</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vanniar_(Chieftain)" title="Vanniar (Chieftain)">Vanniar (Chieftain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">Business magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landed_nobility" title="Landed nobility">Landed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">Petty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_money" title="Old money">Old money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overclass" title="Overclass">Overclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robber_baron_(industrialist)" title="Robber baron (industrialist)">Robber baron</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Seigneur" title="Seigneur">Seigneur</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Superclass_(book)" title="Superclass (book)">Superclass</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Creative_class" title="Creative class">Creative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">Middle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgher_(social_class)" title="Burgher (social class)">Burgher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">Lower middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">Upper middle class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commoner" title="Commoner">Commoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazzaroni_(Naples)" title="Lazzaroni (Naples)">Lazzaroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">Pea-pickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Underclass" title="Underclass">Under</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_tribe" title="Ant tribe">Ant tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rat_tribe" title="Rat tribe">Rat tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slave</a> / <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="country">By country or region</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States92" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_mobility_in_the_United_States" title="Socioeconomic mobility in the United States">Mobility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Social class in the United States">Classes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_upper_class" title="American upper class">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="Donor Class">Donor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_gentry" title="American gentry">Gentry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican-American_middle_class" title="Mexican-American middle class">Mexican-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class_in_the_United_States" title="Upper middle class in the United States">Upper Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Underprivileged</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_lower_class" title="American lower class">Lower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Under</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_States" title="Income in the United States">Income</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home-ownership_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Home-ownership in the United States">Home-ownership</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other regions<wbr /> or countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_society" title="Belizean society">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Cambodia" title="Social class in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Colombia" title="Social class in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Haiti" title="Social class in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Iran" title="Social class in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Luxembourg" title="Social class in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_New_Zealand" title="Social class in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_Romania" title="Social structure of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Social class in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Tibet" title="Social class in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_18th-century_Spain" title="Social class in 18th-century Spain">18th-century Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_classes_in_ancient_Greece" title="Category:Social classes in ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Aztec_society" title="Social class in Aztec society">Aztec</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Pre-industrial East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Pre-industrial Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Soviet Union</a></li></ul> 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