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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The early period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_early_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Iconoclasm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Iconoclasm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The Iconoclasm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Iconoclasm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_and_Late_Byzantine_mosaics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_and_Late_Byzantine_mosaics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Middle and Late Byzantine mosaics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_and_Late_Byzantine_mosaics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item 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data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_musivum" title="Opus musivum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Opus musivum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaicos_bizantinos" title="Mosaicos bizantinos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mosaicos bizantinos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" 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href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Virgin_2007.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Virgin_2007.JPG/220px-Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Virgin_2007.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Virgin_2007.JPG/330px-Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Virgin_2007.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Virgin_2007.JPG/440px-Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Virgin_2007.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>10th century mosaic of Virgin and Child on a <a href="/wiki/Gold_ground" title="Gold ground">gold ground</a> in the former <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedral</a> <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> in Istanbul, Turkey</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Byzantine mosaics</b> are <a href="/wiki/Mosaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaics">mosaics</a> produced from the 4th to 15th<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> centuries in and under the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Mosaics were some of the most popular<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and historically significant art forms produced in the empire, and they are still studied extensively by art historians.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Byzantine mosaics evolved out of earlier <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> practices and styles,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> craftspeople within the Byzantine Empire made important technical advances<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and developed mosaic art into a unique and powerful form of personal and religious expression that exerted significant influence on <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a> produced in <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> Caliphates and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two main types of mosaic surviving from this period: wall mosaics in churches, and sometimes palaces, made using glass <a href="/wiki/Tessera" title="Tessera">tesserae</a>, sometimes backed by <a href="/wiki/Gold_leaf" title="Gold leaf">gold leaf</a> for a <a href="/wiki/Gold_ground" title="Gold ground">gold ground</a> effect, and floor mosaics that have mostly been found by archaeology. These often use stone pieces, and are generally less refined in creating their images. Survivals of secular wall-mosaics are few, but they show similar subject matter to floor mosaics, where many of the subjects are very similar in both churches and houses; it was not acceptable for images of sacred figures to be walked upon. Religious mosaics show similar subject matter to that found in other surviving religious <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a> in painted <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icons</a> and manuscript miniatures. Floor mosaics often have images of geometrical patterns, often interspersed with animals. Scenes of hunting and <a href="/wiki/Venatio" title="Venatio">venatio</a>, arena displays where animals are killed, are popular. </p><p>Byzantine mosaics went on to influence artists in the <a href="/wiki/Norman_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman dynasty">Norman</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a>, and, carried by the spread of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christianity</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the modern era, artists across the world have drawn inspiration from their focus on simplicity and symbolism, as well as their beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_context">Historical context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_and_medieval_mosaics_in_Italy" title="Late Antique and medieval mosaics in Italy">Late Antique and medieval mosaics in Italy</a></div> <p>Byzantine mosaics can trace their origin to the Greek tradition of road-building, since Greek roads were often made using small pebbles organized into patterns. By the Hellenistic Period, floor and wall art made of natural pebbles was common in both domestic and public spaces. Later, as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> expanded and became the dominant cultural force in the Mediterranean and Near East, Roman artists were heavily influenced by the Greek art they encountered and began installing mosaics in public buildings and private homes throughout the empire. They also added small clay or glass pieces called <a href="/wiki/Tessera" title="Tessera">tesserae</a>, material that was also in use during the Hellenistic period. The use of tesserae enabled artists to create more colorful and finely-detailed images.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Justinian_and_his_retinue._Detail_of_the_mosaic_in_the_Basilica_of_San_Vitale._Ravena,_Italy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Emperor_Justinian_and_his_retinue._Detail_of_the_mosaic_in_the_Basilica_of_San_Vitale._Ravena%2C_Italy.jpg/220px-Emperor_Justinian_and_his_retinue._Detail_of_the_mosaic_in_the_Basilica_of_San_Vitale._Ravena%2C_Italy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Emperor_Justinian_and_his_retinue._Detail_of_the_mosaic_in_the_Basilica_of_San_Vitale._Ravena%2C_Italy.jpg/330px-Emperor_Justinian_and_his_retinue._Detail_of_the_mosaic_in_the_Basilica_of_San_Vitale._Ravena%2C_Italy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Emperor_Justinian_and_his_retinue._Detail_of_the_mosaic_in_the_Basilica_of_San_Vitale._Ravena%2C_Italy.jpg/440px-Emperor_Justinian_and_his_retinue._Detail_of_the_mosaic_in_the_Basilica_of_San_Vitale._Ravena%2C_Italy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3679" data-file-height="5721" /></a><figcaption>Justinian I, as depicted in mosaic in the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a>, Ravenna, Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>In 330 AD, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> moved the empire's capital from Rome to <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>), renaming it <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> after himself. Historians generally use this date for the beginning of the Byzantine Empire and divide Byzantine art into three historical periods: Early (c. 330–750), Middle (c. 850–1204) and Late (c. 1261–1453).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_early_period">The early period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The early period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mosaic#Ravenna" title="Mosaic">Mosaic § Ravenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Byzantine_mosaics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East">Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">History of Roman and Byzantine domes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_Lamb_of_God_mosaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_Lamb_of_God_mosaic.jpg/220px-Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_Lamb_of_God_mosaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_Lamb_of_God_mosaic.jpg/330px-Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_Lamb_of_God_mosaic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_Lamb_of_God_mosaic.jpg/440px-Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_Lamb_of_God_mosaic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4309" data-file-height="3443" /></a><figcaption>Sixth century mosaic ceiling of the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a> in Ravenna, Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>Constantine's conversion to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> lead to extensive building of Christian <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a> in the late 4th century, in which floor, wall, and ceiling mosaics were adopted for Christian uses. The earliest examples of Christian basilicas have not survived, but the mosaics of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Constanza" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Constanza">Santa Constanza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Santa_Pudenziana" title="Santa Pudenziana">Santa Pudenziana</a>, both from the 4th century, still exist. In another great Constantinian basilica, the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Nativity" title="Church of the Nativity">Church of the Nativity</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem" title="Bethlehem">Bethlehem</a>, the original mosaic floor with typical Roman geometric motifs is partially preserved. </p><p>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> in the 6th century coincided with the first golden age of the Byzantine Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 537, he completed the construction of a new <a href="/wiki/Patriarchate" title="Patriarchate">patriarchal cathedral</a> in the capital city of Constantinople that would be the global center of the Orthodox Church: the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>. At the time, it was the world's largest building and considered the epitome of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine architecture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cathedral was decorated throughout with what were undoubtedly some of the most incredible figurative mosaics of this time period, but unfortunately these were all destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasms</a> that followed. The oldest mosaics that exist today in Hagia Sophia date from the 10th through the 12th centuries, not this earlier period.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Rome was sacked</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> became the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> from 402 until 476, when the empire collapsed after being conquered by <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>. While Ravenna was under Gothic control, <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian</a> patrons had embarked upon a notable building program of <a href="/wiki/Chapel" title="Chapel">chapels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baptistery" title="Baptistery">baptisteries</a> in Ravenna. In 535, the city was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>, who created the <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a>, effectively making Ravenna the seat of Byzantine power on the Italian Peninsula. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> bishops under Justinian continued and expanded the construction of <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a> to the adjacent port city of <a href="/wiki/Classe,_ancient_port_of_Ravenna" title="Classe, ancient port of Ravenna">Classe</a>, commissioning some of the finest mosaics anywhere in the world. Surviving monuments, some of which predate Exarchate, include the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop%27s_Chapel,_Ravenna" title="Archbishop's Chapel, Ravenna">Archiepiscopal Chapel</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arian_Baptistery" title="Arian Baptistery">Arian Baptistry</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ravenna_Baptistery_of_Neon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ravenna Baptistery of Neon">Neonian Baptistry</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia" title="Mausoleum of Galla Placidia">Mausoleum of Galla Placidia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo">Basilica Sant’Apollinare Nuovo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric" title="Mausoleum of Theodoric">Mausoleum of Theodoric</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe">Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe</a>. All eight of these monuments have been inscribed on the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage</a> list as superb examples of early Christian mosaic art.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thessaloniki,_Rotunde_des_Galerius,_Georgsrotunde_(%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1,_%CE%86%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82)_(306_A.D.)_(47061870574).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Thessaloniki%2C_Rotunde_des_Galerius%2C_Georgsrotunde_%28%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%2C_%CE%86%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82%29_%28306_A.D.%29_%2847061870574%29.jpg/220px-Thessaloniki%2C_Rotunde_des_Galerius%2C_Georgsrotunde_%28%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%2C_%CE%86%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82%29_%28306_A.D.%29_%2847061870574%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Thessaloniki%2C_Rotunde_des_Galerius%2C_Georgsrotunde_%28%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%2C_%CE%86%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82%29_%28306_A.D.%29_%2847061870574%29.jpg/330px-Thessaloniki%2C_Rotunde_des_Galerius%2C_Georgsrotunde_%28%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%2C_%CE%86%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82%29_%28306_A.D.%29_%2847061870574%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Thessaloniki%2C_Rotunde_des_Galerius%2C_Georgsrotunde_%28%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%2C_%CE%86%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82%29_%28306_A.D.%29_%2847061870574%29.jpg/440px-Thessaloniki%2C_Rotunde_des_Galerius%2C_Georgsrotunde_%28%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%2C_%CE%86%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82%29_%28306_A.D.%29_%2847061870574%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>4th century mosaics in the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Galerius_and_Rotunda" title="Arch of Galerius and Rotunda">Rotunda</a> in <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>, Greece, which are some of the earliest remaining examples of early Christian mosaic art</figcaption></figure> <p>Although it might be the most famous, Ravenna is by no means the only place where Early Byzantine mosaics are well-preserved today. The city of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> in Greece was the second most important city in the empire in terms of both wealth and size,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and like Ravenna its early Christian monuments have been designated UNESCO World Heritage sites. Masterpieces of early mosaic art in Thessaloniki include the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Hosios_David" title="Church of Hosios David">Church of Hosios David</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hagios_Demetrios" title="Hagios Demetrios">Hagios Demetrios</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Galerius_and_Rotunda" title="Arch of Galerius and Rotunda">Rotunda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, archeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries unearthed many <a href="/wiki/Early_Byzantine_mosaics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East">Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Madaba_Map" title="Madaba Map">Madaba Map</a> in Jordan as well as other examples in Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Palestine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Iconoclasm">The Iconoclasm</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Iconoclasm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/220px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/330px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/440px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3132" data-file-height="2007" /></a><figcaption>10th century mosaic in the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> in Istanbul, Turkey</figcaption></figure> <p>The events that mark the division between early and middle Byzantine art are called the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclastic Controversies</a>, which took place from 726 to 842. This period is defined by a deep skepticism towards <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icons</a>; in fact, <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Emperor Leo III</a> placed an outright ban on the creation of religious images, and authorities within the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Church</a> encouraged the widespread destruction of religious art, including mosaics. As a result, the iconoclastic period drastically reduced the number of surviving examples of Byzantine art from the early period, especially large religious mosaics.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_and_Late_Byzantine_mosaics">Middle and Late Byzantine mosaics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Middle and Late Byzantine mosaics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">Macedonian Renaissance</a></div> <p>Following the Iconoclasm, Byzantine artists were able to resume creating religious images, which people accepted not as idols to be worshiped, but as symbolic and ceremonial elements of religious ritual spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first part of this period, from 867 to 1056, is sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">Macedonian Renaissance</a> and is seen as the second golden age of the Byzantine Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Churches throughout the empire, and especially the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> in Constantinople, were redecorated with some of the finest examples of Byzantine art ever created. For instance, the monasteries at <a href="/wiki/Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nea_Moni_of_Chios" title="Nea Moni of Chios">Nea Moni of Chios</a> have all been recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they contain some of the most magnificent Byzantine mosaics from this period.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torcello_Cathedral_-_Last_Judgement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Torcello_Cathedral_-_Last_Judgement.jpg/220px-Torcello_Cathedral_-_Last_Judgement.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Torcello_Cathedral_-_Last_Judgement.jpg/330px-Torcello_Cathedral_-_Last_Judgement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Torcello_Cathedral_-_Last_Judgement.jpg/440px-Torcello_Cathedral_-_Last_Judgement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4864" data-file-height="8117" /></a><figcaption>11th century mosaic by Byzantine artists in <a href="/wiki/Torcello_Cathedral" title="Torcello Cathedral">Torcello Cathedral</a>, Venice, Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>Until the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">sack of Constantinople</a> in 1204 at the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusader Army</a>, Byzantium was seen by many in Europe as the last light of civilization due to its inherited legacy of Rome and continued cultural sophistication. So during the 10th and 11th centuries, even states that were at odds with the Byzantine Empire imitated Byzantine style and sought out Greek artists to create religious mosaic cycles. For instance, the Norman King <a href="/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicily" title="Roger II of Sicily">Roger II of Sicily</a> was actively hostile to Byzantium, but he imported Greek craftspeople to create the mosaics for <a href="/wiki/Cefal%C3%B9_Cathedral" title="Cefalù Cathedral">Cefalù Cathedral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the earliest surviving mosaics in <a href="/wiki/St_Mark%27s_Basilica" title="St Mark's Basilica">St. Mark's Basilica</a> in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> were probably created by artists who had left Constantinople in the mid-11th century and also worked at <a href="/wiki/Torcello_Cathedral" title="Torcello Cathedral">Torcello Cathedral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other mosaics, Byzantine mosaics are made of small pieces of glass, stone, ceramic, or other material, which are called <a href="/wiki/Tessera" title="Tessera">tesserae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Byzantine period, craftsmen expanded the materials that could be turned into tesserae, beginning to include gold leaf and precious stones, and perfected their construction. Before the tesserae could be laid, a careful foundation was prepared with multiple layers, the last of which was a fine mix of crushed lime and brick powder. On this moist surface, artists drew images and used tools like strings, compasses, and calipers to outline geometric shapes before the tesserae were carefully cemented into position to create the final image.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anastasi_Dafnis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anastasi_Dafnis.jpg/220px-Anastasi_Dafnis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anastasi_Dafnis.jpg/330px-Anastasi_Dafnis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anastasi_Dafnis.jpg/440px-Anastasi_Dafnis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>11th century Byzantine mosaic of <a href="/wiki/Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni Monastery</a> in Haidari, a suburb of Athens, Greece</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aesthetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Byzantine religious art, unlike the Classical Greek and Roman art that preceded it, symbolism became more important than realism. Instead of concentrating on making the most realistic images possible, mosaic artists of this time wanted to create idealized and sometimes exaggerated images of what existed inside the soul of a person. In addition, when used in a religious space, the overall effect created by a sea of glittering, brightly colored and <a href="/wiki/Gilding" title="Gilding">gilded</a> <a href="/wiki/Tessera" title="Tessera">tesserae</a> took precedence over literal realism. The goal of the artist was to create an overall feeling of awe, of being in a spiritual realm,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or even the sense of being in the presence of God.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Details were not supposed to distract from the main themes.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, not all Byzantine mosaics were religious in nature. In fact, mosaic art was commonly used to decorate the floors and walls of public and private spaces with geometric patterns and secular figurative subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_and_legacy">Influence and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Influence and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J%C3%A9rusalem_-_D%C3%B4me_du_Rocher_-_mosa%C3%AFque_int%C3%A9rieure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/J%C3%A9rusalem_-_D%C3%B4me_du_Rocher_-_mosa%C3%AFque_int%C3%A9rieure.jpg/220px-J%C3%A9rusalem_-_D%C3%B4me_du_Rocher_-_mosa%C3%AFque_int%C3%A9rieure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/J%C3%A9rusalem_-_D%C3%B4me_du_Rocher_-_mosa%C3%AFque_int%C3%A9rieure.jpg/330px-J%C3%A9rusalem_-_D%C3%B4me_du_Rocher_-_mosa%C3%AFque_int%C3%A9rieure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/J%C3%A9rusalem_-_D%C3%B4me_du_Rocher_-_mosa%C3%AFque_int%C3%A9rieure.jpg/440px-J%C3%A9rusalem_-_D%C3%B4me_du_Rocher_-_mosa%C3%AFque_int%C3%A9rieure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The mosaics in the <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in Jerusalem show the influence of Byzantine designs</figcaption></figure> <p>Some Western art historians have dismissed or overlooked Byzantine art in general. For example, the deeply influential painter and historian <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a> defined the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> as a rejection of "that clumsy Greek style" (<i>"quella greca goffa maniera")</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Byzantine artists and their mosaics in particular were highly influential on the rapidly expanding Islamic decorative arts, on <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and modern and contemporary artists across the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a> began in the 7th century with artists and craftsmen mostly trained in Byzantine styles, and though figurative content was greatly reduced, Byzantine decorative styles remained a great influence on Islamic art. </p><p>As Eastern Orthodox Christianity spread northward and eastward, the Byzantine empire became economically and culturally tied to <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. In the late 10th century, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_the_Great" title="Vladimir the Great">Vladimir the Great</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">introduced Christianity</a> with his own baptism and, by decree, extended it to all inhabitants of Kiev. By the 1040s, Byzantine mosaic artists were working in the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sophia%27s_Cathedral,_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Sophia's Cathedral, Kiev">Hagia Sophia</a> at Kiev, leaving a lasting legacy not only on Russian decorative arts but also medieval painting.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Fragment_with_Man_Leading_a_Giraffe_(Art_Institute_of_Chicago)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Fragment with Man Leading a Giraffe (Art Institute of Chicago)">Mosaic Fragment with Man Leading a Giraffe (Art Institute of Chicago)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon_of_Christ_of_Latomos" title="Icon of Christ of Latomos">Icon of Christ of Latomos</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes<span class="metadata coord-missing"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_mosaics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-europe-and-colonial-americas/medieval-europe-islamic-world/a/byzantine-artintro">"A beginner's guide to Byzantine Art"</a>. <i>Khan Academy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Khan+Academy&rft.atitle=A+beginner%27s+guide+to+Byzantine+Art&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fhumanities%2Fap-art-history%2Fearly-europe-and-colonial-americas%2Fmedieval-europe-islamic-world%2Fa%2Fbyzantine-artintro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+mosaics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-history/medieval-history-periods/byzantine-empire/byzantine-mosaics/">"Byzantine Mosaics"</a>. <i>www.medievalchronicles.com</i>. 13 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.medievalchronicles.com&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Mosaics&rft.date=2016-03-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medievalchronicles.com%2Fmedieval-history%2Fmedieval-history-periods%2Fbyzantine-empire%2Fbyzantine-mosaics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+mosaics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpencer1976" class="citation book cs1">Spencer, Harold (1976). <i>Readings in Art History</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=My+Modern+Met&rft.atitle=Learn+the+Ancient+History+of+Mosaics+and+How+to+Make+Your+Own+Colorful+Creation&rft.date=2018-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmymodernmet.com%2Fhow-to-make-a-mosaic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+mosaics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpencer,_Harold.1983" class="citation book cs1">Spencer, Harold. (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/readingsinarthis0000unse_i3t1"><i>Readings in art history</i></a></span>. Scribner's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-414390-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-414390-1"><bdi>0-02-414390-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/810641848">810641848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+art+history.&rft.pub=Scribner%27s&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F810641848&rft.isbn=0-02-414390-1&rft.au=Spencer%2C+Harold.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freadingsinarthis0000unse_i3t1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+mosaics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.torch.ox.ac.uk/article/byzantium-and-italian-renaissance-art">"Byzantium and Italian Renaissance Art | TORCH | The Oxford Research Centre in the Humanities"</a>. <i>www.torch.ox.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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