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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_and_early_dynastic_Wu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Ancient and early dynastic Wu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_and_early_dynastic_Wu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-Sinitic_strata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Sinitic_strata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Non-Sinitic strata </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Sinitic_strata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Wu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Wu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Medieval Wu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Wu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_and_Southern_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Northern and Southern dynasties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_and_Southern_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Golden_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Golden_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Second Golden Age </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Golden_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_dynastic_&_post-dynastic_Wu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_dynastic_&_post-dynastic_Wu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Late dynastic & post-dynastic Wu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_dynastic_&_post-dynastic_Wu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Yuan_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yuan_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Yuan dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yuan_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ming_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ming_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Ming dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ming_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_dynasty_and_Republican_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_dynasty_and_Republican_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Qing dynasty and Republican China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_dynasty_and_Republican_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wu_post-1949" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wu_post-1949"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.4 Wu post-1949 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wu_post-1949-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Classification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Classification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wu_subgroups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wu_subgroups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Wu subgroups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wu_subgroups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Tones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Morphology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Vocabulary </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Western_loanwords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_loanwords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Western loanwords </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_loanwords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_and_colloquial_pronunciations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_and_colloquial_pronunciations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Literary and colloquial pronunciations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_and_colloquial_pronunciations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Orthography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Orthography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Romanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Romanization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Resources_on_Wu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resources_on_Wu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Resources on Wu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resources_on_Wu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Wu Chinese</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" > 76 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu" title="Wu – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wu" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%89_%E1%89%BB%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%8A%9B" title="ዉ ቻይንኛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዉ ቻይንኛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%88_(%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9)" title="وو (صينية) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وو (صينية)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_%DC%95%DC%98%DC%98" title="ܠܫܢܐ ܕܘܘ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ ܕܘܘ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinu_wu" title="Chinu wu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Chinu wu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="वुव भाषा – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="वुव भाषा" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="উ চীনা ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উ চীনা ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B4%CD%98-g%C3%AD" title="Ngô͘-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ngô͘-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3_(%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB)" title="У (тел) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="У (тел)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woueg" title="Woueg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Woueg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_(llengua)" title="Wu (llengua) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Wu (llengua)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_(jazyk)" title="Wu (jazyk) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Wu (jazyk)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_(Sprache)" title="Wu (Sprache) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wu (Sprache)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chino_wu" title="Chino wu – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Chino wu" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vua_lingvo" title="Vua lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vua lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_txinera" title="Wu txinera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Wu txinera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%88%D9%88" title="چینی وو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چینی وو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Wu Chinese" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_(langue)" title="Wu (langue) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Wu (langue)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuish" title="Wuish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Wuish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_wu" title="Lingua wu – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua wu" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%B3%E8%AA%9E" title="吳語 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="吳語" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%B8g-ng%C3%AE" title="Ǹg-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ǹg-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EC%96%B4" title="우어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="우어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%81" title="वू चीनी भाषाएँ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वू चीनी भाषाएँ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_kineski" title="Wu kineski – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Wu kineski" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Wu" title="Rumpun bahasa Wu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa Wu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu-k%C3%ADnverska" title="Wu-kínverska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Wu-kínverska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_wu" title="Lingua wu – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua wu" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95_(%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA)" title="וו (סינית) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="וו (סינית)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Ngu" title="Basa Ngu – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Ngu" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kichina_cha_Wu" title="Kichina cha Wu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kichina cha Wu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Wu" title="Lingua Wu – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Wu" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vu_valoda" title="Vu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vu_kin%C5%B3_kalba" title="Vu kinų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vu kinų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%81_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="വു ചൈനീസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വു ചൈനീസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="वू चिनी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वू चिनी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%88" title="وو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="وو" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%88" title="وو – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="وو" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Wu" title="Bahasa Wu – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Wu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B9-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Ngù-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ngù-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Ү хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ү хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_(taal)" title="Wu (taal) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wu (taal)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="वु भाषा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="वु भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%91%89%E8%AA%9E" title="呉語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="呉語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_(spr%C3%A5k)" title="Wu (språk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Wu (språk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wukinesisk" title="Wukinesisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Wukinesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82" title="ਵੂ ਚੀਨੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵੂ ਚੀਨੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%88" title="وو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="وو" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Cin%C3%A8isa,_Wu" title="Lenga Cinèisa, Wu – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Cinèisa, Wu" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_wu" title="Język wu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język wu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_wu" title="Língua wu – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua wu" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_(limb%C4%83)" title="Wu (limbă) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Wu (limbă)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3_(%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA)" title="У (язык) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="У (язык)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A9_%E1%B1%AA%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%BD" title="ᱭᱩ ᱪᱟᱭᱱᱤᱡᱽ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱭᱩ ᱪᱟᱭᱱᱤᱡᱽ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_wu" title="Lingua wu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Lingua wu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Wu Chinese" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vu_kineski" title="Vu kineski – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Vu kineski" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_kineski" title="Wu kineski – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Wu kineski" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu-kiina" title="Wu-kiina – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Wu-kiina" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_(dialekt)" title="Wu (dialekt) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Wu (dialekt)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Wu" title="Wikang Wu – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Wu" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Ву теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ву теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%8B" title="ภาษาอู๋ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาอู๋" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_%C3%87incesi" title="Wu Çincesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Wu Çincesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="У (мова) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="У (мова)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%88_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="وو چینی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وو چینی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8B%DB%87%DA%86%DB%95" title="ۋۇچە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ۋۇچە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Ng%C3%B4" title="Tiếng Ngô – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Ngô" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%B3%E8%AA%9E" title="吳語 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="吳語" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%B4%E8%AF%AD" title="吴语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="吴语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%B3%E8%AA%9E" title="吳語 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="吳語" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%B4%E8%AF%AD" title="吴语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chinese varieties spoken at and south of the Yangtze delta</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Wu</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">吴语; 吳語</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> provinces; overseas and migrant communities</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu people">Wu</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">83 million (2021)<a href="#cite_note-e27-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Wu</li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Taizhou Wu dialects">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Oujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuzhou Wu dialects">Wuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuqu_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuqu Wu dialects">Chu–Qu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/wuu" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:wuu">wuu</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/wuch1236">wuch1236</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=79-AAA-d">79-AAA-d</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Idioma_wu.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Idioma_wu.png/320px-Idioma_wu.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Idioma_wu.png 1.5x" data-file-width="362" data-file-height="316" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Wu (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 吴语; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: 吳語; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Wúyǔ; <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>:6wu-gniu6 [ɦu˩.nʲy˦] (<a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>), 2ghou-gniu6 [ɦou˨.nʲy˧] (<a href="/wiki/Suzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhounese">Suzhounese</a>)) is a major group of <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a> spoken primarily in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang province</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu province</a>, especially south of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a> which makes up the cultural region of <a href="/wiki/Wu_(region)" title="Wu (region)">Wu</a>. The Wu languages are at times simply called <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, especially when introduced to foreigners. The <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhounese</a> variety was the <a href="/wiki/Prestige_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige dialect">prestige dialect</a> of Wu as of the 19th century, but had been replaced in status by Shanghainese by the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Shanghai" title="History of Shanghai">turn of the 20th century</a>, coinciding with a period of rapid language change in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2003a-3">[3]</a> The languages of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a> constitute a language family and are <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a> with each other, while those of <a href="#subdivision">Southern Wu</a> neither form a phylogenetic language family, nor are mutually intelligible with each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguists</a> view Wu of great significance due to its obviously distinct nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-4">[4]</a> The Wu languages typically preserve all <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced initials</a> of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">medieval Chinese</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">checked tone</a> in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988180-5">[5]</a> Wu varieties also have noticably unique <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> innovations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014-6">[6]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> exclusively found in the Wu grouping. It is also of note that the influential linguist <a href="/wiki/Chao_Yuen_Ren" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao Yuen Ren">Chao Yuen Ren</a> was a native speaker of <a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhounese</a>, a variety of Northern Wu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao1976-7">[7]</a> The Wu varieties, especially that of Suzhou, are traditionally perceived as soft in the ears of speakers of both Wu and non-Wu languages, leading to the idiom "the tender speech of Wu" (吴侬软语; 吳儂軟語). <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of Chinese</a></div> Speakers of Wu varieties are mostly unaware of this term for their speech, since the classificatory imposition of "Wu" used in linguistics today is a relatively recent coinage. Saying someone "speaks Wu" is therefore akin to saying someone "speaks a Romance language"; it is not a particularly defined entity like <a href="/wiki/Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Hochdeutsch</a>. Most speakers are only aware of their local variety's affinities with other similarly classified varieties, and will generally only refer to their local Wu variety rather than to the dialect family as a whole. This is typically done by affixing 話 ('speech') to a location's endonym. For example, 溫州話 (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Wu Chinese pronunciation: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Wu_Chinese" title="Help:IPA/Wu Chinese">[ʔy˧꜖ tɕiɤu˧꜖ ɦo˩꜒꜔]</a>) is used for <a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a>. Affixing 閒話 is also common, and more typical of Northern Wu, as in 嘉興閒話 (<a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a>: ka-shin ghae-o) for the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiaxing_variety&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jiaxing variety (page does not exist)">Jiaxing variety</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%98%89%E8%88%88%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:嘉興話">zh</a>]. Names for the group as a whole include: <ul><li>Wu language (吴语; 吳語; Wúyǔ; Shanghainese <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ɦu˨ ɲy˦]</a>; Suzhounese <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ɦoʊ˨ ɲy˦]</a>; Wuxinese <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ŋ˨˨˧ nʲy˨]</a>; 'Wu language'), the formal name and standard reference in <a href="/wiki/Dialectology" title="Dialectology">dialectology</a> literature.</li> <li>Wu <a href="/wiki/Topolect" class="mw-redirect" title="Topolect">topolect</a> (吴方言; 吳方言; Wú fāngyán), a common name that refers to Wu languages that appends 方言 ("dialect, topolect") instead of 語 ("language"), at times perceived as derogatory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair1991-8">[8]</a></li> <li>Wuyue language (吴越语; 吳越語; Wúyuèyǔ; 'the language of Wu–Yue'), a poetic and historical name, highlighting the roots of the language in antiquity, specifically the culture of the <a href="/wiki/Wu_(state)" title="Wu (state)">Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">Yue</a> states during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. <ul><li>Goetian, derived from the Japanese spelling of Wuyue (吳越; Go-etsu), is among the alternative names listed by <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Jiang–Zhe speech (江浙话; 江浙話; Jiāngzhè huà), a non-standard name meaning 'the speech of <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, occasionally used to highlight the fact that the language is spoken across two provinces.</li> <li>Jiangnan speech (江南话; 江南話; Jiāngnán huà), a non-standard, less common name linking the language to the cultural region of <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a>. This is not to be confused with the Jiangnan Industrial Groups Koiné spoken in <a href="/wiki/Xiangtan" title="Xiangtan">Xiangtan</a>, which is classified as a variety of Mandarin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOu2018-10">[10]</a> Contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Jianghuai" title="Jianghuai">Jiāngběihu</a>à (江北話), ie. <a href="/wiki/Huai_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Huai Chinese">Huai Chinese</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Migratory_routes_into_or_out_of_the_early_modern_limits_of_Wu_Chinese.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Migratory_routes_into_or_out_of_the_early_modern_limits_of_Wu_Chinese.png/220px-Migratory_routes_into_or_out_of_the_early_modern_limits_of_Wu_Chinese.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Migratory_routes_into_or_out_of_the_early_modern_limits_of_Wu_Chinese.png/330px-Migratory_routes_into_or_out_of_the_early_modern_limits_of_Wu_Chinese.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Migratory_routes_into_or_out_of_the_early_modern_limits_of_Wu_Chinese.png/440px-Migratory_routes_into_or_out_of_the_early_modern_limits_of_Wu_Chinese.png 2x" data-file-width="2085" data-file-height="3107" /></a><figcaption>Migratory routes into or out of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> limits of Wu Chinese</figcaption></figure> It is believed that <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> peoples first arrived at the area during <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">pre-dynastic history</a>. After the migrations proceeding the <a href="/wiki/Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians" title="Upheaval of the Five Barbarians">Upheaval of the Five Barbarians</a>, the vernacular that would later lead to modern Wu Chinese started taking shape, though the court language of <a href="/wiki/Jiankang" title="Jiankang">Jiankang</a> (today <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>) was still noticably different to that of the commonfolk. A second migration wave during the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty</a>, this time to <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Lin'an</a> (Hangzhou), led to the formation of the modern <a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings" title="Literary and colloquial readings">literary layer</a>, and during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasties</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">operatic traditions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vernacularism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacularism">vernacular texts</a> began to appear. Later, during the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> began translating <a href="/wiki/The_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bible">the Bible</a> into various local varieties, recording the exact pronunciations of many varieties for the first time. This was also when the economic boom of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> happened, leading to its urban variety becoming the prestige variety over that of <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a>. The 20th century marked a pivotal moment of Wu linguistic change, as <a href="/wiki/Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a> was <a href="/wiki/Promotion_of_Standard_Chinese" title="Promotion of Standard Chinese">promoted nation-wide</a>, though the 21st century is seeing <a href="/wiki/Language_revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Language revival">revival efforts</a> for many Wu Chinese varieties. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_and_early_dynastic_Wu">Ancient and early dynastic Wu</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient and early dynastic Wu">edit</a>]</div> Before the migration of the Han Chinese peoples, the <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a> region was inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai">Kra-Dai</a> or <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic">Austroasiatic</a> peoples, which were dubbed barbarians by the early Chinese. According to traditional history, <a href="/wiki/Taibo_of_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Taibo of Wu">Taibo of Wu</a> settled in the area during the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>, bringing along a large section of the population and Chinese administrative practices to form the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Wu">state of Wu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan200655-11">[11]</a> The majority population of the state would have been the ancient <a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Baiyue</a> peoples, who had very different customs and practices compared to the Chinese. It is said in <a href="/wiki/Master_L%C3%BC%27s_Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" class="mw-redirect" title="Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals">Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals</a> that the customs and languages of the states of <a href="/wiki/Wu_(state)" title="Wu (state)">Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">Yue</a> were the same.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> This refers not just to the <a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Baiyue</a> language of the area, but also of that of "Ancient Wu",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2008-13">[13]</a> a Sinitic language likely only used by the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou201047-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHe1993-15">[15]</a> The northern border of this Ancient Wu language is at the <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> rather than the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> like it is today,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2008-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiChen2002-16">[16]</a> and its southern limits may have reached as far as <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a> may have been a daughter language to Ancient Wu,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShenSheng2024-17">[17]</a> though this is not fully accepted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988214-18">[18]</a> As early as the time of <a href="/wiki/Guo_Pu" title="Guo Pu">Guo Pu</a> (275–324), speakers easily perceived differences between dialects in different parts of China, including the area where Ancient Wu was spoken. The language slowly receded from the north due to growing pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a>, until its northern limit was set near the Yangtze River towards the end of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin dynasty">Western Jin dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou201047-14">[14]</a> Note, however, that due to the fact that all modern Wu varieties work within the <a href="/wiki/Qieyun_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Qieyun system">Qieyun system</a>, this <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> dialect cannot be the primary origin of Wu Chinese today. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-Sinitic_strata">Non-Sinitic strata</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Non-Sinitic strata">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WuYue_State_Yi_Vessel_(26721050315).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/WuYue_State_Yi_Vessel_%2826721050315%29.jpg/220px-WuYue_State_Yi_Vessel_%2826721050315%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/WuYue_State_Yi_Vessel_%2826721050315%29.jpg/330px-WuYue_State_Yi_Vessel_%2826721050315%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/WuYue_State_Yi_Vessel_%2826721050315%29.jpg/440px-WuYue_State_Yi_Vessel_%2826721050315%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>A yi vessel from the <a href="/wiki/Wu_(state)" title="Wu (state)">Wu</a><a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">yue</a> state</figcaption></figure> It is known that Wu languages inherited a significant number of <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai">Kra-Dai</a> origin. A study of the variety spoken in <a href="/wiki/Minhang_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Minhang district">Maqiao</a>, a suburb of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, found that 126 out of around a thousand lexical items surveyed were of Kra-Dai origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2001-19">[19]</a> Terms such as 落蘇 (<a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a>: 8loq-su1 "<a href="/wiki/Aubergine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aubergine">aubergine</a>") are also shared between other <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a> (eg. <a href="/wiki/Teochew_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew language">Teochew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peng%27im" title="Peng'im">Peng'im</a>: lag8 sou1) as well as Kra-Dai languages (cf. <a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Standard Zhuang</a> lwggwz).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2002-20">[20]</a> Shared terms with <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic languages</a> have also been suggested, though many of them, such as <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C4%91%E1%BA%A7m" class="extiw" title="wikt:đầm">đầm</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/b%C3%A8o" class="extiw" title="wikt:bèo">bèo</a>, and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/k%C3%A8" class="extiw" title="wikt:kè">kè</a>, have also been argued to be <a href="/wiki/Areal_features" class="mw-redirect" title="Areal features">areal features</a>, Chinese words in disguise, or long shots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart2008153-21">[21]</a> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background-color:#CECEF2">Kra-Dai </th> <th style="background-color:#CECEF2">Maqiao Wu dialect </th> <th style="background-color:#CECEF2">Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="3">-m, -n become -ŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">tam33 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>təŋ354</td> <td>step 跺 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">fa:n31 (<a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a>)</td> <td>fəŋ55 du53</td> <td>snore/to snore 鼾 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ɕam21 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>pəʔ33 ɕhaŋ435</td> <td>to have fun (游) 玩 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="3">final consonant/vowel missing </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">va:n31li55 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>ɑ:31 li33</td> <td>still, yet 尚；还 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">tsai55 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>tsɔ:435</td> <td>to plow 犁(地) </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">thaŋ55 (Dai)</td> <td>dᴇ354</td> <td>hole/pit 坑 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">hai21 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>hɑ53</td> <td>filth 污垢 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">za:n11 (<a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a>)</td> <td>ɕhy55 zᴇ53</td> <td>building/room 房子 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">kăi13 (Dai)</td> <td>kᴇ435</td> <td>to draw close to 靠拢 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">fɤŋ13 (Dai)</td> <td>fɛ435</td> <td>to sway/to swing 摆动 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ɕa:ŋ33 (<a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a>)</td> <td>ɕhɑ55 tsɑ53</td> <td>capable/competent 能干 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">tjeu44 (<a href="/wiki/Maonan_language" title="Maonan language">Maonan</a>)</td> <td>thɛ435</td> <td>to crawl 爬 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="3">becoming final glottal stop -ʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">loŋ21 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>lɔʔ33</td> <td>below/down 下(雨) </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">kem55 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>tɕiʔ33 ku53</td> <td>cheek 腮 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">kam33 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>kheʔ55</td> <td>to press 按 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">kau33 son213 (<a href="/wiki/Ong_Be_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ong Be language">Lingao</a>)</td> <td>khəʔ55 tɕoŋ55</td> <td>to doze/to nap 瞌睡 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">tɯ11 (<a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a>)</td> <td>ʔdəʔ55</td> <td>end/extremity 端 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ka:u11 (<a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a>)</td> <td>kuaʔ55</td> <td>to split/to crack 裂 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">peu55 (<a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a>)</td> <td>pəʔ33 ɕaŋ435</td> <td>to have fun(游)玩 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background-color:#CECEF2">Kra-Dai </th> <th style="background-color:#CECEF2">Maqiao Wu dialect </th> <th style="background-color:#CECEF2">Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="3">-m, -n become -ŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">kam11 (Dai)</td> <td>kaŋ354</td> <td>to prop up/to brace 撑住 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">tsam13 (<a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a>)</td> <td>tshoŋ53</td> <td>to bow the head 低头 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="3">final consonant/vowel missing </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ve:n55 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>ve:55</td> <td>to hang/to suspend 悬挂；吊 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">lɒi55 (Dai)</td> <td>lu354</td> <td>mountain/hill 山(地名用) </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">xun—55 (Dai) ha:k55 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>xɔ55 lɔ53</td> <td>government official/official 官 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">məu53 (<a href="/wiki/Dong_language_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dong language (China)">Dong</a>)</td> <td>nɑ55 mo53</td> <td>tadpole 蝌蚪 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">pai21 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>pɛ435 fu53</td> <td>classifier for times 趟；次 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">la:m33 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>lɛ435</td> <td>to tie up 拴(牛) </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">tsam33 (<a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a>)</td> <td>tsɿ55</td> <td>to bow the head 低头 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">(ɣa:i42) ɕa:i42 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>ɕɑ:354</td> <td>very, quite, much 很 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center" colspan="3">becoming final glottal stop -ʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">sa:ŋ33 səu53 (<a href="/wiki/Dong_language_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dong language (China)">Dong</a>)</td> <td>seʔ33 zo55 ɦɯ11</td> <td>wizard/magician 巫师 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">tɕe31 (<a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a>)</td> <td>tɕiʔ55 ɕhiŋ55</td> <td>market/bazaar 集市 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">pleu55 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>pəʔ33</td> <td>to move 搬 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">wen55 (<a href="/wiki/Dong_language_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dong language (China)">Dong</a>)</td> <td>veʔ33</td> <td>to pour 倒(水) </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">thăi55 (Dai)</td> <td>theʔ55</td> <td>to weed 耘 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ta55 jɯ55 (Dai)</td> <td>teʔ55</td> <td>to narrow one's eyes 眯 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">lom24 (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>lɔʔ33 nɒn35</td> <td>pitfall/to sink 陷 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ɣa:i42 (ɕa:i42) (<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a>)</td> <td>ʔɔʔ55</td> <td>very/quite/much 很 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">tom13 (Dai)</td> <td>thoʔ55</td> <td>to cook/to boil 煮(肉) </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> Though <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan">Sino-Tibetan</a>, Kra-Dai, <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> and Austroasiatic are mostly considered to be unrelated to each other, <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Laurent Sagart</a> has proposed some possible phylogenetic affinities. Specifically, Tai–Kadai and Sino-Tibetan could possibly both belong to the Sino-Austronesian language family (not to be confused with Austroasiatic) due to a scattering of cognates between their ancestral forms,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart2005-22">[22]</a> and there is also some, albeit much more tenuous, evidence to suggest that Austroasiatic should also be included. However, his views are but one among competing hypotheses about the phylogeny of these languages, and is not widely accepted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrlandi2018-23">[23]</a> See the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Austronesian_languages" title="Sino-Austronesian languages">Sino-Austronesian languages</a> article for some further detail. It does appear that Wu varieties have had non-Sinitic influences, and many contain words cognate with those of other languages in various strata. These words however are few and far between, and Wu on the whole is most strongly influenced by other Chinese languages rather than any other linguistic influence. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Wu">Medieval Wu</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medieval Wu">edit</a>]</div> This period is bookended by two major migration waves into the Wu-speaking area. The first was in the <a href="/wiki/4th_century" title="4th century">4th century CE</a> from primarily the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, whereas the second happened during the <a href="/wiki/12th_century" title="12th century">12th century CE</a>, and originated from the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Heluo</a> region. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_and_Southern_dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Northern and Southern dynasties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:General_southward_migrations_during_the_Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/General_southward_migrations_during_the_Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians.svg/220px-General_southward_migrations_during_the_Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/General_southward_migrations_during_the_Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians.svg/330px-General_southward_migrations_during_the_Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/General_southward_migrations_during_the_Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians.svg/440px-General_southward_migrations_during_the_Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="337" /></a><figcaption>Migration routes into southern China during the <a href="/wiki/Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians" title="Upheaval of the Five Barbarians">Upheaval of the Five Barbarians</a></figcaption></figure> Due to events such as the <a href="/wiki/Wu_Hu_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu Hu uprising">Wu Hu uprising</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Disaster_of_Yongjia" title="Disaster of Yongjia">Disaster of Yongjia</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin dynasty">Western Jin dynasty</a>, collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians" title="Upheaval of the Five Barbarians">Upheaval of the Five Barbarians</a>, the imperial court from the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Heluo region</a>, along with a large migration wave from the North that lasted 150 years,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2002530-24">[24]</a> primarily northern <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> and much of <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, entered the <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiangnan region">Jiangnan region</a>, establishing a new capital at <a href="/wiki/Jiankang" title="Jiankang">Jiankang</a>, modern-day <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpasaka2010-25">[25]</a> Migrants went as far south as central <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2002530-24">[24]</a> though many settled in the geographically less challenging areas in the north, that is to say, the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_Delta" title="Yangtze Delta">Yangtze Delta</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hangjiahu_Plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Hangjiahu Plain">Hangjiahu Plain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhengzhangZheng2015-26">[26]</a> Early stages of this period of change was likely marked by <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>, with the commonfolk typically speaking Ancient Wu or their native Shandong or northern Jiangsu Chinese, and the nobility, both new migrants and old aristocracy, typically speaking a varity not dissimilar to that of early medieval <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHe1993-15">[15]</a> This linguistic situation eventually led to the formation of modern Wu, with many early coincidental strata that are hard to differentiate today. It is unclear as to when exactly the language of the <a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Baiyue</a> became extinct, though during the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han dynasty">Eastern Han dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai">Kra-Dai</a> words were recorded in the everyday vernacular of people in the region,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHe1993868-27">[27]</a> and by the end of the Western Jin, the common language of the region was Sinitic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChittick2014-28">[28]</a> as will be explained below. As early as the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Wu dynasty">Eastern Wu dynasty</a>, commentators criticized the speech of the Southern aristocracy (ie. that of the Wu-speaking areas), noting that it is neither Wu-sounding nor Northern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1936-29">[29]</a> However, evidence suggests that the primary language among the populace was, in fact, Sinitic, although not one that was perceived as "civilized".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChittick201412-30">[30]</a> This possible civilian language would be a common <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangdong</a> Sinitic language (古江東方言), as is seen in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wei" title="Book of Wei">Book of Wei</a>, which unflatteringly compares the speech of Jiangdong to the calls of wild animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHe1993868-27">[27]</a> The court language of Jiankang at this time would not have been the same as the civilian Wu language, though it would have been closely related.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChittick2014-28">[28]</a> This would also mark the time where <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Go-on" title="Go-on">Go-on</a> (呉音; <a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Hepburn</a>: go-on; <a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Wúyīn) readings were loaned, and it is accepted that these readings would have been loaned from the language variety of medieval Jiankang.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrellesvig2010275-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuan2002-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_Golden_Age">Second Golden Age</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Second Golden Age">edit</a>]</div> One prominent historical speaker of the medieval Wu language was Emperor <a href="/wiki/Yangdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangdi">Yangdi</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiao_(Sui_dynasty)" title="Empress Xiao (Sui dynasty)">Empress Xiao</a>. <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuan_of_Western_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Xuan of Western Liang">Emperor Xuan of Western Liang</a>, a member of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang" title="Emperor Wu of Liang">Emperor Wu of Liang</a>'s court, was Empress Xiao's grandfather and he most likely learned Wu at <a href="/wiki/Jiankang" title="Jiankang">Jiankang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiong200619,_266-33">[33]</a> It is also noted in the preface of the <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a>, a Sui dynasty <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rime dictionary</a>, that the speech of Wu, as well as that of <a href="/wiki/Huguang" title="Huguang">Chu</a>, is "at times too soft and light".<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> A "ballad–narrative" (說晿詞話) known as The Story of Xue Rengui Crossing the Sea and Pacifying Liao (薛仁貴跨海征遼故事), which is about the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> hero <a href="/wiki/Xue_Rengui" title="Xue Rengui">Xue Rengui</a>, is believed to have been written in the <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhounese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalravenBreuker2007341-342-35">[35]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan_rebellion" title="An Lushan rebellion">An Lushan rebellion</a>, significant migration into the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">northern Wu-speaking areas</a> occurred, which some believe created the north-south geographical divide we see today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2002532-36">[36]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjianese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjianese (page does not exist)">Yongjianese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B8%E5%98%89%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:永嘉話">zh</a>], a variety of <a href="/wiki/Oujiang_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Oujiang Wu">Oujiang Wu</a>, was first recorded during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhengzhang2010-37">[37]</a> Yongjianese is the variety in which the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liushugu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liushugu (page does not exist)">Liushugu</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AD%E6%9B%B8%E6%95%85" class="extiw" title="zh:六書故">zh</a>] (六書故) by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dai_Tong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dai Tong (page does not exist)">Dai Tong</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%B4%E4%BE%97" class="extiw" title="zh:戴侗">zh</a>] (戴侗, 1200-1285) is written. This treaty of calligraphy was published in 1320.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMa2020-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012-39">[39]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_cycle_of_Cathay,_or,_China,_south_and_north_(1897)_(14595658719).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/A_cycle_of_Cathay%2C_or%2C_China%2C_south_and_north_%281897%29_%2814595658719%29.jpg/220px-A_cycle_of_Cathay%2C_or%2C_China%2C_south_and_north_%281897%29_%2814595658719%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/A_cycle_of_Cathay%2C_or%2C_China%2C_south_and_north_%281897%29_%2814595658719%29.jpg/330px-A_cycle_of_Cathay%2C_or%2C_China%2C_south_and_north_%281897%29_%2814595658719%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/A_cycle_of_Cathay%2C_or%2C_China%2C_south_and_north_%281897%29_%2814595658719%29.jpg/440px-A_cycle_of_Cathay%2C_or%2C_China%2C_south_and_north_%281897%29_%2814595658719%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1374" /></a><figcaption>A 19th century illustration of medieval <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a></figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Jingkang_incident" title="Jingkang incident">Jingkang incident</a>, the imperial capital of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> was moved from <a href="/wiki/Bianjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Bianjing">Bianjing</a> (modern-day Kaifeng) to <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Lin'an</a> (Hangzhou), starting the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song">Southern Song</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201341-43-40">[40]</a> This also coincided with a large migration wave mostly from the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Heluo</a> region, a strip of the Central Plains south of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> that roughly stretches from <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu201344-41">[41]</a> which also brought a language that was not only <a href="/wiki/Phonologically" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonologically">phonologically</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexically</a> different to the Wu Chinese of the time,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-4">[4]</a> but was <a href="/wiki/Syntactically" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactically">syntactically</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphologically</a> distinct as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014-6">[6]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a> influence manifested in the form of the modern <a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings" title="Literary and colloquial readings">literary layer</a>, as it was also the court language of the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Weldon_South_Coblin" class="mw-redirect" title="Weldon South Coblin">Coblin</a> believes that this literary layer is also the origin of <a href="/wiki/Jianghuai_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jianghuai Mandarin">Huai Chinese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2002-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_dynastic_&_post-dynastic_Wu">Late dynastic & post-dynastic Wu</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Late dynastic & post-dynastic Wu">edit</a>]</div> Unlike the previous sections, the historical state of Wu after the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">Mongol conquest of China</a> is surprisingly clear, due to the emergence of vernacular texts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yuan_dynasty">Yuan dynasty</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Yuan dynasty">edit</a>]</div> Following the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">Mongol conquest of China</a>, a period of relative stability followed, and vernacularism started being further embraced. This is evident in the fact that <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a> productions, including those of both the Northern and Southern Wu-speaking regions, started using their local varieties rather than <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>, as was the norm during and before the Song dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988162-43">[43]</a> The <a href="/wiki/T%C5%8D-on" title="Tō-on">Tō-on</a> (唐音; <a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Hepburn</a>: tō-on; <a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Pinyin</a>: Tángyīn) pronunciations introduced during the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kamakura_period" title="Kamakura period">Kamakura period</a> were largely rooted in the vernacular of northern <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> at around the end of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> or start of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, despite what its name may suggest. Analyses on texts of the time reveal stark phonetic differences between the Wu of today and that of the <a href="/wiki/13th_century" title="13th century">13th century</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirata2006-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ming_dynasty">Ming dynasty</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ming dynasty">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tea_House,_Tongli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Tea_House%2C_Tongli.jpg/220px-Tea_House%2C_Tongli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Tea_House%2C_Tongli.jpg/330px-Tea_House%2C_Tongli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Tea_House%2C_Tongli.jpg/440px-Tea_House%2C_Tongli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Two performers of <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_pingtan" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhou pingtan">Suzhou pingtan</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> saw continued development of local operas, such as <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_pingtan" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhou pingtan">Suzhou pingtan</a>, and more vernacular texts being written. In particular, the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Classic Chinese Novels</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Water_Margin" title="Water Margin">Water Margin</a>, are believed to have significant lexical and syntactic influence from <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhounese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2023-45">[45]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty#Decline_of_the_empire" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan-Ming transition</a> saw a tremendous loss of life in the <a href="/wiki/Jianghuai" title="Jianghuai">Jianghuai</a> area due to events such as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellions" title="Red Turban Rebellions">Red Turban Rebellions</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> ordered for people from <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a>, primarily in <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Songjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiaxing" title="Jiaxing">Jiaxing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a>-speaking areas, to resettle the now depopulated areas in modern central <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDongtai_Gazetteer1994-46">[46]</a> More migration happened several decades later to avoid <a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">wokou</a> pirates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELianyungang_Gazetteer2000-47">[47]</a> These migrations are believed to have contributed to the Wu-like features in western <a href="/wiki/Huai_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Huai Chinese">Huai Chinese</a> groups, such as <a href="/wiki/Tong-Tai_Mandarin" title="Tong-Tai Mandarin">Tongtai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2002538-539-48">[48]</a> Dialectal differences were not as obvious in textual sources until Ming times,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2006141-49">[49]</a> and thus regional linguistic distinctions were only seen in media after the fall of the Yuan. These differences are largely found in musical sources such as historical folk songs and <a href="/wiki/Tanci" title="Tanci">tanci</a> (a kind of ballad or lyric poem). For instance, the Shange (山歌; Shāngē; 'Mountain songs'), a collection of <a href="/wiki/Shan%27ge" title="Shan'ge">folk songs</a> gathered during the Ming dynasty by <a href="/wiki/Feng_Menglong" title="Feng Menglong">Feng Menglong</a> in southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang, where <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a> is today spoken, shows clear signs of modern Wu Chinese in its lexicon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeng2000-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOki2016-51">[51]</a> Other Ming documents that are either written in Wu or contain parts where Wu is used include: <ul><li>Sanyan (三言), a trilogy of collected stories also compiled by Feng Menglong</li> <li>Erpai (二拍), two short story collections by <a href="/wiki/Ling_Mengchu" title="Ling Mengchu">Ling Mengchu</a></li> <li>Xingshiyan (型世言), a novella recorded by Lu Renlong (陸人龍)</li> <li>Huanshaji (浣紗記), an opera by Liang Chenyu (梁辰魚)</li> <li>Mo Hanzhai Dingben Chuanqi (墨憨齋定本傳奇), by Feng Menglong</li> <li>Guzhang Juechen (鼓掌絕塵), a late Ming novel collection</li> <li>Bozhonglian (缽中蓮), written by an unknown author</li></ul> These works contain a small handful of unique grammatical features, some of which are not found in contemporary Mandarin, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>, or in contemporary Wu varieties. They do contain many of the unique features in its vocabulary present in contemporary Wu,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang1981-52">[52]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2013a-53">[53]</a> but clearly indicate that not all of the earlier unique features of these Wu varieties were carried into present varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu2006a-54">[54]</a> These works also possess a number of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">characters</a> uniquely formed to express features not found in the classical language and used some common characters as phonetic loans (see <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_classification" title="Chinese character classification">Chinese character classification</a>) to express other uniquely Wu vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheng2014-55">[55]</a> A 16th century text called the Wenqiji (问奇集; 問奇集; Wènqíjí) includes a chapter called Gedi Xiangyin (各地鄉音) that records the local pronunciations of terms in various areas. Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a> preface, it separates the early <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern Mandarin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Huguang" title="Huguang">Huguang</a>, ie. that of Chu, from Wu Chinese. The chapter records typical features of modern Wu, such as:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2013-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETang2013-57">[57]</a> <ul><li>the /ŋ/ coda in the term 打; 'to strike' (打為黨)</li> <li>the loss of the final glide in terms such as 解; 'to untie' (解為嫁)</li> <li>the apical rime -yu (<a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a>) (豬為知)</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> (potentially even the <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a> or "murmur" that Northern Wu is famous for) of historically voiced initials (辰為人, 范為萬, etc.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qing_dynasty_and_Republican_China">Qing dynasty and Republican China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Qing dynasty and Republican China">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Title_Page_of_A_Grammar_of_Colloquial_Chinese,_as_Exhibited_in_the_Shanghai_Dialect.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Title_Page_of_A_Grammar_of_Colloquial_Chinese%2C_as_Exhibited_in_the_Shanghai_Dialect.png/220px-Title_Page_of_A_Grammar_of_Colloquial_Chinese%2C_as_Exhibited_in_the_Shanghai_Dialect.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Title_Page_of_A_Grammar_of_Colloquial_Chinese%2C_as_Exhibited_in_the_Shanghai_Dialect.png/330px-Title_Page_of_A_Grammar_of_Colloquial_Chinese%2C_as_Exhibited_in_the_Shanghai_Dialect.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Title_Page_of_A_Grammar_of_Colloquial_Chinese%2C_as_Exhibited_in_the_Shanghai_Dialect.png/440px-Title_Page_of_A_Grammar_of_Colloquial_Chinese%2C_as_Exhibited_in_the_Shanghai_Dialect.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="2010" /></a><figcaption>Title Page of Joseph Edkins's 1868 book A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect</figcaption></figure> Texts in the early <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> remained much the same as that of the Ming dynasty. Works of the time include the Qingzhongpu (清忠譜) and Doupeng xianhua (豆棚閒話), an early Qing <a href="/wiki/Vernacularism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacularism">baihua</a> novel. During the <a href="/wiki/18th_century" title="18th century">18th century</a>, significant lexical shifts away from that seen in Shange took place; many sources we have of the period are operatic in nature. Representative works from this section include the <a href="/wiki/Operas" class="mw-redirect" title="Operas">operas</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Kunqu" title="Kunqu">kunqu</a> operas) by Qian Decang (錢德蒼) in the collection Zhuibaiqiu (綴白裘),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2006-58">[58]</a> and the legends written by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shen_Qifeng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shen Qifeng (page does not exist)">Shen Qifeng</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B2%88%E8%B5%B7%E9%B3%B3" class="extiw" title="zh:沈起鳳">zh</a>] or what are known as Shenshi Sizhong (沈氏四種), as well as huge numbers of <a href="/wiki/Tanci" title="Tanci">tanci</a> (彈詞) ballads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECai2018-59">[59]</a> From the late Qing period to <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republican China</a> (the 19th and early 20th centuries), long-form vernacular <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novels</a> (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E7%99%BD" class="extiw" title="zh:蘇白">蘇白小說</a> or 吳語小說) such as <a href="/wiki/The_Sing-song_Girls_of_Shanghai" title="The Sing-song Girls of Shanghai">The Sing-song Girls of Shanghai</a> (海上花列傳) and <a href="/wiki/The_Nine-tailed_Turtle" title="The Nine-tailed Turtle">The Nine-tailed Turtle</a> (九尾龜) started appearing. Both above examples are <a href="/wiki/Pornographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pornographic">pornographic</a> in nature. Other works include:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShiMiyata2005-60">[60]</a> <ul><li>Haitian Hongxue Ji (海天鴻雪記)</li> <li>The Nine-tailed Fox (九尾狐)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officialdom_Unmasked" title="Officialdom Unmasked">Officialdom Unmasked</a> (官場現形記)</li> <li>Wuge Jiaji (吳哥甲集)</li> <li>He Dian (何典)</li></ul> Wu-speaking writers who wrote in vernacular Mandarin often left traces of their native varieties in their works, as can be found in Guanchang Xianxing Ji and Fubao Xiantan (負曝閒談).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeng2021-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShan2017-62">[62]</a> Works in this period also saw an explosion of new vocabulary in Wu varieties to describe their changing world. This clearly reflects the great social changes which were occurring during the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2006141-149-63">[63]</a> At the same time, missionary <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Edkins" title="Joseph Edkins">Joseph Edkins</a> gathered large amounts of data and published several educational works on <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2003a8-64">[64]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bibles</a> in a few major Wu varieties, including Southern Wu varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhuanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Wenzhounese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao202351-65">[65]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a>, many migrants from <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>-speaking areas migrated into the Wu-speaking area. <a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu">Xuanzhou Wu</a> therefore significantly receded, which is reflected in the fact that it is now only spoken in the mountainous highlands of southern <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXue202220-66">[66]</a> Some territorial changes and <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">stratification</a> occurred, primarily near the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-4">[4]</a> The newly-arrived <a href="/wiki/Jianghuai_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jianghuai Mandarin">Huai Chinese</a> varieties have been slowly overtaking the suburban and rural Wu varieties. For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Lishui" title="Lishui">Lishui</a> county, <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> prefecture, the Huai variety was confined inside the town itself until the 1960s; at present, it is overtaking the Wu variety even in rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuo2006336-67">[67]</a> Several important proponents of <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular Chinese">vernacular Chinese</a> in official use, such as <a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chao_Yuen_Ren" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao Yuen Ren">Chao Yuen Ren</a>, were speakers of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a> varieties, in this case <a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxingese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhounese</a> respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYu2019-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao1976-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a> was used during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> to avoid Japanese interception.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wu_post-1949">Wu post-1949</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Wu post-1949">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%AA%AA%E5%A5%BD%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%A9%B1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/%E8%AA%AA%E5%A5%BD%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%A9%B1.png/220px-%E8%AA%AA%E5%A5%BD%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%A9%B1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/%E8%AA%AA%E5%A5%BD%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%A9%B1.png/330px-%E8%AA%AA%E5%A5%BD%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%A9%B1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/%E8%AA%AA%E5%A5%BD%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%A9%B1.png/440px-%E8%AA%AA%E5%A5%BD%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%A9%B1.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>A sign in <a href="/wiki/Lishui" title="Lishui">Lishui</a> urging people to speak Mandarin: "Speak Mandarin well — It's easier for all of us."</figcaption></figure> After the founding of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, the strong <a href="/wiki/Promotion_of_Standard_Chinese" title="Promotion of Standard Chinese">promotion of Mandarin</a> in the Wu-speaking region yet again influenced the development of Wu Chinese. Curiously, <a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a> was used again during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> to avoid enemy comprehensibility.<a href="#cite_note-70">[a]</a> Wu varieties were gradually excluded from most modern media and schools. With the influx of a migrant non-Wu-speaking population,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a> the near total conversion of public media and organizations to the exclusive use of Mandarin as well as certain Mandarin promotion measures, promotion and regularization of Wu languages became improbable and left them more prone to Mandarinization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2003a-3">[3]</a> In 1992, students in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> were banned from speaking Shanghainese at all times on campuses.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> As of now, Wu has no official status, no legal protection and there is no officially sanctioned <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Xinmin_Weekly_2012-72">[71]</a> It is not uncommon to encounter children who grew up with a regional variant of Mandarin as their parent tongue with little or no fluency in a Wu variety at all.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> This led to a step up in the preservation and documentation of Wu Chinese, with the first major attempt being the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Atlas_of_Chinese_Dialects" title="Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects">Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects</a>, which surveyed 2,791 locations across the nation, including 121 Wu locations (an increase from the two locations in PKU's earlier surveys). This also led to the formation of an elaborate database including digital recordings of all locations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008a-74">[73]</a> however, this database is not available to the general public. The atlas's editor, Cao Zhiyun, considers many of these languages "endangered" and has introduced the term 濒危方言 ('languages in danger' or 'endangered local languages') to raise people's attention to the issue,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008b39-75">[74]</a> although major international <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">databases</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a>, do not share similar sentiments.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shanghai_Bund_Jpg_(176185947)_(cropped).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Shanghai_Bund_Jpg_%28176185947%29_%28cropped%29.jpeg/220px-Shanghai_Bund_Jpg_%28176185947%29_%28cropped%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Shanghai_Bund_Jpg_%28176185947%29_%28cropped%29.jpeg/330px-Shanghai_Bund_Jpg_%28176185947%29_%28cropped%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Shanghai_Bund_Jpg_%28176185947%29_%28cropped%29.jpeg/440px-Shanghai_Bund_Jpg_%28176185947%29_%28cropped%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a> slogan clearly visible on the façade of Shanghai Citibank in <a href="/wiki/Lujiazui" title="Lujiazui">Lujiazui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a></figcaption></figure> Although more TV programs are appearing in Wu varieties,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang2019-78">[77]</a> they are no longer permitted to air during primetime.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> They are generally more playful than serious and many of these shows, such as <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>'s "阿六頭説新聞" ("Old Liutou tells you the news"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang2019-78">[77]</a> provide local or regional news in the variety, but most are limited to fifteen minutes of airtime. Popular video sites such as <a href="/wiki/Youku" title="Youku">Youku</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tudou" title="Tudou">Tudou</a> also host a variety of user-uploaded audio and visual media in many Wu varieties, most of which are regional TV shows, although some are user-created songs and the like. A number of books are also appearing to teach people how to speak Wu varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhounese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangChe2012-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQianWang2010-81">[80]</a> the latter of which even having international titles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnomotoFan2020-82">[81]</a> Today, popular support for the preservation of Wu languages is very strong,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuiZhou2021-83">[82]</a> while feature-length movies such as <a href="/wiki/B_for_Busy" class="mw-redirect" title="B for Busy">B for Busy</a> and highly successful TV shows such as <a href="/wiki/Blossoms_Shanghai" title="Blossoms Shanghai">Blossoms Shanghai</a> have been filmed in Wu varieties (in both aforementioned cases, <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>).<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> It is now not uncommon to see advertisements and billboards, as well as government media, using Wu Chinese written in non-<a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc" title="Ad hoc">ad hoc</a> orthographies.<a href="#cite_note-posters-86">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm/220px-seek%3D307-2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="3491" data-mwtitle="2011年8月14日下午巴黎温州教会主日证道_陈逸豪牧师,_温州话通译.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88,_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ce/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm.480p.vp9.webm#t=00:00:09" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm#t=00:00:09" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ce/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov#t=00:00:09" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ce/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm.240p.vp9.webm#t=00:00:09" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ce/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm.360p.vp9.webm#t=00:00:09" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ce/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm/2011%E5%B9%B48%E6%9C%8814%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%8B%E5%8D%88%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%95%99%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%81%E9%81%93_%E9%99%88%E9%80%B8%E8%B1%AA%E7%89%A7%E5%B8%88%2C_%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%91.webm.360p.webm#t=00:00:09" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>This video shows the difference between Wu and Mandarin. At a <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_France" title="Protestantism in France">church in Paris</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Beijing_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Beijing Mandarin">Beijing Mandarin</a> spoken by the pastor (left) was interpreted into <a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a>, a Southern Wu language.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm/220px-seek%3D105-WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="145" data-mwtitle="WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm.480p.vp9.webm#t=00:00:03" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm.720p.vp9.webm#t=00:00:03" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm#t=00:00:03" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm.240p.vp9.webm#t=00:00:03" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm.360p.vp9.webm#t=00:00:03" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm.360p.webm#t=00:00:03" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AWIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AWIKITONGUES-_Ivy_speaking_Shanghainese.webm&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>A video in <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, a Northern Wu language.</figcaption></figure> Wu's place within the greater scope of <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a> is less easily typified than prototypically northern Chinese varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> or prototypically southern Chinese varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>. Its original classification, along with the other Sinitic varieties, was established in 1937 by <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a>, whose boundaries more or less have remained the same,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988180-5">[5]</a> and were adopted by <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Jiahua" title="Yuan Jiahua">Yuan Jiahua</a> in his influential 1961 dialect primer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan200655-11">[11]</a> These limits were also adopted by <a href="/wiki/Chao_Yuen_Ren" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao Yuen Ren">Chao Yuen Ren</a>, and he even further created a potential <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-system</a> for Wu using the several varieties included in these boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao1956i-87">[86]</a> A similar attempt was attempted by William L. Ballard, <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallard1969-88">[87]</a> though with significantly fewer localities and a heavy skew towards the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">North</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallard1969122-123-89">[88]</a> The sole basis of <a href="/wiki/Li_Rong_(linguist)" title="Li Rong (linguist)">Li Rong</a>'s classification was the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Qieyun_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Qieyun system">Qieyun system</a> <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">stops</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988180-5">[5]</a> This was also Chao's only "necessary and sufficient" requirement for a variety to be Wu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao196794-90">[89]</a> This definition is problematic considering the devoicing process has occurred in many Southern Wu varieties and in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a> varieties situated near <a href="/wiki/Huai_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Huai Chinese">Huai Chinese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECai1995-91">[90]</a> It furthermore would place unrelated varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old Xiang</a> in this category,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons19994-92">[91]</a> and also includes <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhounese</a> despite its linguistically complex situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-4">[4]</a> Therefore, more elaborate systems have developed, but they still mostly delineate the same regions. Regardless of the justification, the Wu region has been clearly outlined, and Li's boundary in some ways has remained the de facto standard. In <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a>'s usage, Wu dialects can be considered "central dialects" or dialects that are clearly in a transition zone containing features that typify both northern and southern Chinese varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988197–198-93">[92]</a> Dialectologists traditionally establish linguistic boundaries based on several overlapping <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isoglosses</a> of linguistic features. One of the critical historical factors for these boundaries lies in the movement of the population of speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2008-13">[13]</a> This is often determined by the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_administrative_divisions_of_China" title="History of the administrative divisions of China">administrative boundaries established during imperial times</a>. As such, imperial boundaries are essential for delineating one variety from another, and many varieties' isogloss clusters line up perfectly with the county boundaries established in imperial times, although some counties contain more than one variety and others may span several <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_China" title="Counties of China">counties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> Another factor that influences movement and transportation, as well as the establishment of administrative boundaries, is geography.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2008-13">[13]</a> Northernmost <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> are very flat—being in the middle of a <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Delta">river delta</a>, and as such are more uniform than the more mountainous regions farther south towards <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Taihu</a> varieties, like Mandarin in the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">flat northern plains</a>, are more homogeneous than Southern Wu, which has a significantly greater diversity of linguistic forms, likely a direct result of the geography. Coastal varieties also share more featural affinities, likely because the East China Sea provides a means of transportation. The same phenomenon can be seen with <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min varieties</a>. It has also been noted that <a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou Chinese</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tong-Tai_Mandarin" title="Tong-Tai Mandarin">Tongtai</a> branch of <a href="/wiki/Huai_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Huai Chinese">Huai Chinese</a> share significant similarities with Wu Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuSzeto20234-95">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999142-96">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wu_subgroups">Wu subgroups</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Wu subgroups">edit</a>]</div> Wu is divided into two major groups: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 北部吳語; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Běibù Wúyǔ) and Southern Wu (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 南部吳語; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Nánbù Wúyǔ), which are not mutually intelligible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2003b-97">[96]</a> Individual words spoken in isolation may be comprehensible among these speakers, but the flowing discourse of everyday life mostly is not. Another lesser group, <a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu">Western Wu</a>, is synonymous with the Xuanzhou division, which not only has a larger influence from the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin varieties</a> than much of Northern Wu,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXue2022-98">[97]</a> but also has very unique phonetic innovations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan2019-99">[98]</a> making it typologically quite different to the rest of Wu. Southern Wu is well known among <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">sinologists</a> as being one of the most internally diverse among the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Sinitic groups</a>, with very little mutual intelligibility between varieties across subgroups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu20137-100">[99]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_(English).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png/220px-Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png/330px-Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png/440px-Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Map of the main subgroups of Wu in its core area. Note that this map does not align with that of the original Language Atlas of China, but instead with the second edition of the Atlas</figcaption></figure> In the first edition of <a href="/wiki/Li_Rong_(linguist)" title="Li Rong (linguist)">Li</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a>, Wu was divided into six groups (片):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a> (太湖片) (ie. varieties around <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tai" title="Lake Tai">Lake Tai</a>): Spoken in southern <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> provinces, namely in <a href="/wiki/Changzhou" title="Changzhou">Changzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Nantong" title="Nantong">Nantong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiaxing" title="Jiaxing">Jiaxing</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Huzhou" title="Huzhou">Huzhou</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaoxing" title="Shaoxing">Shaoxing</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zhoushan" title="Zhoushan">Zhoushan</a> prefectures, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> municipality, as well as parts of <a href="/wiki/Zhenjiang" title="Zhenjiang">Zhenjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taizhou,_Jiangsu" title="Taizhou, Jiangsu">Taizhou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> prefectures in Jiangsu. This group makes up the largest population among all Wu speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheng20055-101">[100]</a> The local varieties of this region are mostly mutually intelligible among each other. This group is also often referred to as Northern Wu (北部吳語),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005156-102">[101]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Yunhe</a> Wu (運河片).<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> The Atlas further divides this group into the following subgroups (小片): <ul><li>Suhujia (蘇滬嘉), referring to <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jiaxing" title="Jiaxing">Jiaxing</a>.</li> <li>Piling (毗陵; 'near <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>')</li> <li>Tiaoxi or Shaoxi (苕溪), referring to <a href="/wiki/Huzhou" title="Huzhou">Huzhou</a></li> <li>Hangzhou (杭州), which only includes <a href="/wiki/Hangzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hangzhounese">Hangzhounese</a></li> <li>Linshao (臨紹), referring to <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Lin'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaoxing" title="Shaoxing">Shaoxing</a></li> <li>Yongjiang (甬江), referring to <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Taizhou Wu dialects">Taizhou</a> (台州): A pluricentric variety, spoken in and around <a href="/wiki/Taizhou,_Zhejiang" title="Taizhou, Zhejiang">Taizhou</a> prefecture, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>. Taizhounese, as it is also called,<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> is the closest to Northern Wu among the Southern varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuan2010-105">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Oujiang</a> (甌江): Spoken in and around the <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a> prefecture, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>. This variety is the very distinctive and is both internally and externally highly mutually unintelligible. Some dialectologists even treat it as a variety separate from the rest of Wu by using the monosyllable Ou, the abbreviated form of Wenzhou, suffixed with the term "language", hence Ou Chinese (甌語).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDingShaoRao2015-106">[105]</a> It is also dubbed Dong'ou (東甌) by <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhang_Shangfang" title="Zhengzhang Shangfang">Zhengzhang Shangfang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhengzhangZheng2015189-107">[106]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuzhou Wu dialects">Wuzhou</a> (婺州): Spoken in and around <a href="/wiki/Jinhua" title="Jinhua">Jinhua</a> prefecture, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuqu_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuqu Wu dialects">Chu–Qu</a> (處衢): Spoken in and around <a href="/wiki/Lishui,_Zhejiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishui, Zhejiang">Lishui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quzhou" title="Quzhou">Quzhou</a> prefectures in <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> as well as in eastern parts of <a href="/wiki/Shangrao" title="Shangrao">Shangrao</a> prefecture in <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>. It is further subdivided into Longqu (龍衢) and Chuzhou (處州) subbranches in the Atlas.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a> (宣州): spoken in the linguistically highly diverse southern parts of <a href="/wiki/Anhui_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhui province">Anhui province</a>, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Gaochun" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaochun">Gaochun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lishui" title="Lishui">Lishui</a> counties, <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> prefecture. The Atlas divides the branch into Taigao (太高), Tongjing (銅涇), and Shiling (石陵) subbranches.</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Cao_Zhiyun" title="Cao Zhiyun">Cao Zhiyun</a> rearranged some of the Southern Wu divisions based on a larger corpus of data. According to Cao, it can be divided into three broad divisions:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao20022,_5-108">[107]</a> <ul><li>Jinqu (金衢), which contains much of <a href="/wiki/Jinhua" title="Jinhua">Jinhua</a> prefecture, eastern parts of <a href="/wiki/Quzhou" title="Quzhou">Quzhou</a> prefecture (including Quzhou itself), and <a href="/wiki/Jinyun" class="mw-redirect" title="Jinyun">Jinyun</a> county in <a href="/wiki/Lishui" title="Lishui">Lishui</a> prefecture</li> <li>Shangli (上麗), which has two subdivisions: <ul><li>Shangshan (上山), which contains the Wu-speaking parts of <a href="/wiki/Shangrao" title="Shangrao">Shangrao</a> prefecture and western <a href="/wiki/Quzhou" title="Quzhou">Quzhou</a> prefecture</li> <li>Lishui (麗水), which contains much of <a href="/wiki/Lishui" title="Lishui">Lishui</a> prefecture, <a href="/wiki/Taishun" class="mw-redirect" title="Taishun">Taishun</a> county in <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a> prefecture, and <a href="/wiki/Pucheng_County,_Fujian" title="Pucheng County, Fujian">Pucheng</a> county in <a href="/wiki/Nanping" title="Nanping">Nanping</a> prefecture, <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Oujiang</a> (甌江), which contains the remaining parts of <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a> prefecture (excluding the Min-speaking regions of <a href="/wiki/Pingyang_County" title="Pingyang County">Pingyang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cangnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Cangnan">Cangnan</a> counties).</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhounese</a> remained unchanged as it was not included in the study. This was later adopted by the second edition of Li's Atlas. Minor adjustments were also made regarding Northern Wu subdivisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu phonology</a></div> Wu varieties typically possess a larger <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological inventory</a> than many <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a>. Many varieties also have <a href="/wiki/Tone_(phonology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tone (phonology)">tone systems</a> known for highly complex <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994-109">[108]</a> Phonologies of Wu varieties are diverse and hard to generalize. As such, only typologically significant features will be discussed here. For more information, refer to individual varieties' pages. In terms of <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a>, those in <a href="/wiki/Onset_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onset (linguistics)">initial</a> positions are more plentiful than those in <a href="/wiki/Coda_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coda (linguistics)">finals</a>. Finals typically only permit two consonant <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>, a singular <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQianXuTang2007-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWugniu20164-111">[110]</a> Some varieties however, may deviate from this and have features such as the addition of -/k/, or the omission of the glottal stop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2003a-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYe200830–45-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemarco2024-113">[112]</a> Wu varieties typically preserve <a href="/wiki/Qieyun_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Qieyun system">Qieyun system</a> <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> initials (/b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /z/, /v/, etc.) though some varieties have lost this feature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2002100-114">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosive">Implosives</a> are also occasionally found in Wu varieties,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu2006b19–20-115">[114]</a> primarily in <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese#Classification" title="Shanghainese">suburban Shanghainese varieties</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu20157-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChuansha_Gazetteer897-117">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1988-118">[117]</a> as well as in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongkangese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongkangese (page does not exist)">Yongkangese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B8%E5%BA%B7%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:永康話">zh</a>].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2002295-296-119">[118]</a> Wu languages have typologically high numbers of <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> and are on par with <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> in having the largest <a href="/wiki/Vowel#Systems" title="Vowel">vowel quality inventories</a> in the world. The <a href="/wiki/Jinhui_dialect" title="Jinhui dialect">Jinhui variety</a>, spoken in Shanghai's <a href="/wiki/Fengxian_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengxian District">Fengxian District</a>, can be analyzed to have 20 vowel qualities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangDingTaoLi2012-120">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> The abnormal number of vowels in Wu is due in part to rimes ending in glottal stops may be analysed as a <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">short</a> vowel in many varieties,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888-122">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShiChen2022169-123">[122]</a> as well as unique sound shifts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">tensing</a> of Qieyun system shan (山) and xian (咸) rimes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao199812-124">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang1988116–117-125">[124]</a> among other factors. Both <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a> are also found in Wu varieties. Breathy voice appears in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a> and may act as a depressor that lowers the pitch of the entire syllable's realization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2021-127">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827-128">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLan201715-129">[128]</a> Creaky voice, on the other hand, is found in <a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhounese</a>, and is associated with the rising tone category (上聲).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu2006c-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu2004-131">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu">Xuanzhou Wu</a> is phonologically very unique and has a host of complex syllables, such as: <ul><li>/tʃɦʯəi35/ 水; 'water' (Yanchi township, <a href="/wiki/Xuancheng" title="Xuancheng">Xuancheng</a> prefecture 宣城雁翅)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShenHuang201558-132">[131]</a></li> <li>/ɾ̥ɦiɔ55/ 條; 'strip' (<a href="/wiki/Jing_County,_Anhui" title="Jing County, Anhui">Jingxian</a> 涇縣)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnhui_Gazetteer1997-133">[132]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tones">edit</a>]</div> Wu varieties typically have 7-8 <a href="/wiki/Toneme" class="mw-redirect" title="Toneme">tonemes</a> though varieties may have as many as 12 tones or as few as 5.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu20099-134">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQianXuTang2007386-135">[134]</a> Many merge the <a href="/wiki/Four_tones_(Middle_Chinese)" title="Four tones (Middle Chinese)">historical</a> light rising category (陽上) with the light departing (陽去).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2002100-103-136">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLan2017-137">[136]</a> The reflexes of the <a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">checked tone</a> categories (入聲) may be complex. <a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhuanese</a> irregularly merge it with other tone categories,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2002104-138">[137]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a> has <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">lengthened</a> tone contours rather than the typological norm of short, contourless tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2002105-139">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">Tone sandhi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a> can occur due to <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syntactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactic">syntactic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> reasons, though most varieties only employ it to a limited extent. This stands in stark contrast with Wu, in which all three can trigger tone sandhi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2002108-140">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2004-141">[140]</a> Examples of situations that can trigger unique tone sandhi chains include (but are not limited to): <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polysyllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysyllabic">Polysyllabic</a> terms</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%A3%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:結棍">結棍</a>; 'sturdy', 'awesome' /tɕiɪʔ44>33 kuəŋ334>44/ (<a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQianXuTang2007-110">[109]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a>-<a href="/wiki/Object_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (linguistics)">object</a> compounds</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AC%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:笑">笑</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%88%A5%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:別人">別人</a>; 'to laugh at others' /siæ523>51 bəʔ23>22 ȵin223>33/ (<a href="/wiki/Suzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhounese">Suzhounese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1996-142">[141]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a>-<a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">complementizer</a> compounds</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BC%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:弄">弄</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%8C%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:錯">錯</a>; 'to do incorrectly' /loŋ113>23 tsʰou45/ (<a href="/wiki/Hangzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hangzhounese">Hangzhounese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkitani198836-143">[142]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle (linguistics)">Particles</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Aspect_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspect (linguistics)">aspect</a> markers or <a href="/wiki/Sentence_final_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentence final particle">sentence final particles</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:老">老</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%81%8E" class="extiw" title="wikt:過">過</a>; 'have been old' /lɒ113 ku33>52/ (<a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxingese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2013b19-144">[143]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">Numeral</a>-<a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifier</a> compounds</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:九">九</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%96%A4" class="extiw" title="wikt:斤">斤</a>; 'nine pounds (of)' /tɕiɵ424>42 tɕin55>33/ (<a href="/wiki/Chongming_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Chongming dialect">Chongmingese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang1979293-145">[144]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">Reduplication</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A1%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:桶">桶</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A1%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:桶">桶</a>; 'every bucket' /dao113>341 dao113>0/ (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tangxinese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tangxinese (page does not exist)">Tangxinese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B9%AF%E6%BA%AA%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:湯溪話">zh</a>])<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2002119-146">[145]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contraction_(grammar)" title="Contraction (grammar)">Contractions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ellipsis_(linguistics)" title="Ellipsis (linguistics)">ellipsis</a></li> <li>Specification</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%BF%E5%87%B3" class="extiw" title="wikt:板凳">板凳</a>; '(plank) chair' /pɛ̃34>44 təŋ53/ (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiaoshanese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiaoshanese (page does not exist)">Xiaoshanese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%95%AD%E5%B1%B1%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:蕭山話">zh</a>])<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnishi199919-147">[146]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erhua" title="Erhua">Erhua</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BA%BB%E9%9B%80%E5%85%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:麻雀兒">麻雀兒</a>; 'sparrow' /mɤa313>33 tsiəʔ-i44>55/ (<a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhuanese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaoAkitaniHuangOta2016109-148">[147]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> The relevant changed tone is highlighted in bold. Tone sandhi in Sinitic languages can typically be classified as left- or right-dominant systems, depending on whether the leftmost or rightmost item keeps its tone. Both systems exist in Wu Chinese, with most varieties having both concurrently.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQianXuTang2007-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2002-149">[148]</a> Right-dominant is more associated with changes in <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">part of speech</a>, whereas left-dominant is typically seen in polysyllabic terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994-109">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1996-142">[141]</a> Minimal pairs between types of sandhi also exist, such as /tsʰɑ33 vɛ̃213/ 炒飯; 'to fry rice' and /tsʰɑ334 vɛ̃51/ 炒飯; 'fried rice' in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhenhainese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhenhainese (page does not exist)">Zhenhainese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8E%AE%E6%B5%B7%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:鎮海話">zh</a>],<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001160-150">[149]</a> or /tɕiɵ42 ʔʋ33/ 九壺; 'nine flasks' and /tɕiɵ42 ʔʋ55/ 酒壺; 'wine flask' in <a href="/wiki/Chongming_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Chongming dialect">Chongmingese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang1979293-145">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> Wu languages' grammar is largely similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Standard Chinese</a>, though they do diverge in quite striking ways, such as in <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>-<a href="/wiki/Object_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (linguistics)">object</a>-<a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">complementizer</a> phrases. Since differences exist between varieties, only general trends will be included below. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Syntax">edit</a>]</div> Much like other Chinese languages, Wu languages have <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifiers</a>, primarily mark <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> by <a href="/wiki/Aspect_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspect (linguistics)">aspect</a> (though it has been suggested that there is some evidence of <a href="/wiki/Tense_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense (grammar)">tenses</a> in Old <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>), have a great number of <a href="/wiki/Particle_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle (linguistics)">particles</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Sentence-final_particle" title="Sentence-final particle">sentence-final particles</a>), possess <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">SVO</a> word order with <a href="/wiki/Topic_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Topic (linguistics)">topic</a>-fronting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Topic_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Topic (linguistics)">Topic</a>-fronting is more common in Northern Wu than in most other Sinitic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014357-151">[150]</a> It is commonly seen in <a href="/wiki/Closed_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed question">closed questions</a>, in which the topic is dislocated in order to avoid confusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2001-152">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">昨-夜zo-yiyesterday-night</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">小張shiaeciXiaozhang</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">有yauhave</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">條diae<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">大-魚dou-ngeubig-fish</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">釣-牢。tiae-leocatch-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="particle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PTCL</abbr></div>昨-夜小張有條大-魚釣-牢。zo-yi shiaeci yau diae dou-ngeu tiae-leoyesterday-night Xiaozhang have CL big-fish catch-PTCLXiaozhang caught a big fish yesterday night. (<a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a>)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Word order at times differs between Wu and other Chinese varieties. In the aforementioned <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>-<a href="/wiki/Object_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (linguistics)">object</a>-<a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">complementizer</a> (VOC) phrases, VOC is common in Wu whereas VCO is dominant in Mandarin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014358-154">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian198751-156">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFu1978114-157">[156]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">我ngao<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">講konspeak</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">渠ge<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">弗-過。feq-ciue<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>-over</div>我講渠弗-過。ngao kon ge feq-ciue1S speak 3S NEG-overI can't help him. (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaihuanese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaihuanese (page does not exist)">Kaihuanese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E5%8C%96%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:開化話">zh</a>])<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Ditransitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ditransitive">ditransitive</a> constructions typically see the <a href="/wiki/Direct_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct object">direct object</a> placed in front of the <a href="/wiki/Indirect_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect object">indirect object</a>, whereas the opposite is true for Mandarin varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2006106-158">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian198749-159">[158]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">撥poeqgive</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">本-書pen-shiu<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr>-book</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">佢。him<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr></div>撥本-書佢。poeq pen-shiu himgive CL-book 3SGive me a book. (<a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantainese</a>)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The verb "to give", <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%92%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:撥">撥</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">checked tone</a> variant of 把 and is commonly found in Wu languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004-160">[159]</a> It is also used to mark the passive voice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFu1978117-161">[160]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">茶杯zopeteacup</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">撥peqby</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">俚li<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">敲-破-哉。khau-phu-tsestrike-shatter-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="particle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PTCL</abbr></div>茶杯撥俚敲-破-哉。zope peq li khau-phu-tseteacup by 3S strike-shatter-PTCLThe teacup was smashed by him. (<a href="/wiki/Suzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhounese">Suzhounese</a>)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">Reduplication</a> is common, and many varieties make greater use of it than Standard Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou2015-162">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu2019-163">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWan2019-164">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXie2014-165">[164]</a> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbal</a> reduplication can be used to indicate the <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative mood</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Perfect_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfect aspect">perfect aspect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014360-166">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFu1978115-116,119-120-167">[166]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">話waword</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">講講kan-kansay-say</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">靈清。lin-chinclear</div>話講講靈清。wa kan-kan lin-chinword say-say clearSpeak clearly. (<a href="/wiki/Hangzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hangzhounese">Hangzhounese</a>)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">飯vaerice</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">吃-吃kiq-kiqeat-eat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">再tsethen</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">過去。chigo</div>飯吃-吃再過去。vae kiq-kiq tse chirice eat-eat then goWe'll go after we finish our meal. (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiaoshanese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiaoshanese (page does not exist)">Xiaoshanese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%95%AD%E5%B1%B1%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:蕭山話">zh</a>])<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Elision of the <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">negation</a> particle in <a href="/wiki/Closed_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed question">closed question</a> constructions is also common in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a> but ungrammatical in Standard Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014358-154">[153]</a> In some varieties, this triggers its own tone sandhi patterns. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">儂non<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2S</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">要iau-want</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><s>勿</s><s>veq</s>-<s><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></s></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">要iauwant</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">吃飯？chiq-veeat.rice</div>儂要 <s>勿</s> 要吃飯？non iau- <s>veq</s>- iau chiq-ve2S want <s>NEG</s> want eat.riceDo you want to eat (a meal)? (<a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> 要要 in the above sentence is pronounced /iɔ334>34 iɔ334>22/ rather than the expected left-prominent pattern, which would be /iɔ334>33 iɔ334>44/. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Morphology">edit</a>]</div> Much like other Chinese languages, Wu languages are <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a>, lack <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, and most <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> are <a href="/wiki/Monosyllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monosyllabic">monosyllabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001160-150">[149]</a> Words in Wu are typically polysyllabic ciyu (詞語), which are composed of multiple morphemes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi20154-168">[167]</a> Common <a href="/wiki/Bound_morpheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Bound morpheme">bound morphemes</a> include:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian1992721-1007-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian198752-53-170">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFu1978121-123-171">[170]</a> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF" class="extiw" title="wikt:阿">阿～</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%AD%9A" class="extiw" title="wikt:阿魚">阿魚</a>; 'fish'; aq-ng (<a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>); <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%A3%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:阿飛">阿飛</a>; 'gangster'; aq-fi (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuyaonese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuyaonese (page does not exist)">Yuyaonese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A4%98%E5%A7%9A%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:餘姚話">zh</a>]); <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%88%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:阿爺">阿爺</a>; 'grandfather'; a-yi (<a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A0%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:頭">～頭</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BC%BB%E9%A0%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:鼻頭">鼻頭</a>; 'nose'; biq-dei (<a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhounese</a>), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E9%A0%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:外頭">外頭</a>; 'outside'; nga-deu (<a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxingese</a>); <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A3%9A%E9%A0%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:磚頭">磚頭</a>; 'brick'; ciuan-tieu (<a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhuanese</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90" class="extiw" title="wikt:子">～子</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E5%AD%90" class="extiw" title="wikt:角子">角子</a>; 'coin'; kau-tsy (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongkangese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongkangese (page does not exist)">Yongkangese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B8%E5%BA%B7%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:永康話">zh</a>]), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BB%8A%E5%AD%90" class="extiw" title="wikt:車子">車子</a>; 'automobile'; tsho-tsy (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kunshanese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kunshanese (page does not exist)">Kunshanese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B4%91%E5%B1%B1%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:崑山話">zh</a>])</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%89%87" class="extiw" title="wikt:則">～則</a>,<a href="#cite_note-172">[b]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">checked tone</a> variant of 子: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%89%99%E5%88%B7%E5%AD%90" class="extiw" title="wikt:牙刷子">牙刷則</a>; 'toothbrush'; ngo-shiuq-tseq (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yixingese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yixingese (page does not exist)">Yixingese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9C%E8%88%88%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:宜興話">zh</a>]); <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%89%87%E5%89%87" class="extiw" title="wikt:扇則">扇則</a>; 'fan'; shoe-tseq (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Changshunese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Changshunese (page does not exist)">Changshunese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E7%86%9F%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:常熟話">zh</a>])</li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:兒">～兒</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%A4%E5%85%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:攤兒">攤兒</a>; 'stall'; than-ng (<a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhounese</a>), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%93%8B%E5%85%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:蓋兒">蓋兒</a>; 'lid'; ken (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Huangyanese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Huangyanese (page does not exist)">Huangyanese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%83%E5%B7%96%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:黃巖話">zh</a>])</li></ul> ABB <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectival</a> <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>, where it has an intensive meaning as seen in terms such as 筆筆直; 'very straight', 石石硬; 'very firm', is more common in Wu than Standard Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014357-151">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFu1978120-173">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> For more terms, refer to the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wu_Swadesh_lists" class="extiw" title="wikt:Wu Swadesh lists">Wu Swadesh lists on Wiktionary</a>. Wu Chinese varieties share a number of lexical innovations and retentions, though it does also have a considerable number of loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a> via the literary layer from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheng2018-174">[172]</a> Wu Chinese common shared lexica include:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheng2018-174">[172]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal pronouns</a>, namely those cognate with 爾; 'you' and 佢; 'he/she/it', as well as 儂; 'person', 'plural'</li> <li>A large number of grammatical particles derived from 個, such as the <a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">possessive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004-160">[159]</a> and certain adverbs (eg. 'so, such')<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQi2020-175">[173]</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a>-<a href="/wiki/Onset_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onset (linguistics)">initial</a> <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">negator</a>, ie. 弗/勿</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (linguistics)">Substrate</a> words, such as 白相; 'to play', 活猻; 'monkey', 落蘇; 'aubergine'</li> <li>物事; 'thing' and 事體; 'matter'</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a> such as 呣媽; 'mother', 娘舅; 'maternal uncle'</li> <li>Basic <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> such as 汏; 'to wash', 縛; 'to tie', 撥; 'to give'</li></ul> Many of the above are also exhibited in <a href="/wiki/Hangzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hangzhounese">Hangzhounese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1992-176">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a> loanwords are often geographically distributed along trade routes out of <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>. Such terms include:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheng2018-174">[172]</a> <ul><li>立; 'to stand' (cf. native 徛)</li> <li>穿; 'to wear' (cf. native 着)</li> <li>多少; 'how many' (cf. native 幾)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_loanwords">Western loanwords</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Western loanwords">edit</a>]</div> Due to foreign influence in the port of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, Wu varieties, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">North</a>, gained a number of loanwords from languages such as <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> through <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Pidgin_English" title="Chinese Pidgin English">Chinese Pidgin English</a>. Some of these loanwords even entered mainstream Chinese, and thus can also be found in other Chinese languages. Such loanwords include:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQianTangXu2007-177">[175]</a> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E9%96%80%E6%B1%80" class="extiw" title="wikt:水門汀">水門汀</a>; '<a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>'; sy-men-thin, from English cement</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%81%95%E5%8F%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:違司">違司</a>; 'rag'; we-sy, from English waste</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E5%8A%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:阿拉加">阿拉加</a>; '<a href="/wiki/%C3%80_la_carte" title="À la carte">à la carte</a>'; aq-la-ka, from French à la carte</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%87%A1%E5%A3%AB%E6%9E%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:凡士林">凡士林</a>; '<a href="/wiki/Vaseline" title="Vaseline">vaseline</a>'; ve-zy-lin, from English vaseline</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AA%AF%E4%B8%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:骯三">骯三</a>; 'low-quality'; aon-se, from English on sale</li></ul> Terms above provided in <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_and_colloquial_pronunciations">Literary and colloquial pronunciations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Literary and colloquial pronunciations">edit</a>]</div> Wu, like other Chinese languages, have <a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings" title="Literary and colloquial readings">literary and colloquial readings</a> of many characters. The literary layer was brought to the region during the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty</a> when the imperial court was moved to <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Lin'an</a>, today Hangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheng2018440-441-178">[176]</a> Common features of literary sound changes include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">Palatalization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">dorsals</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:家">家</a>: /ko53/, /tɕia53/ (<a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbonese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangChenWu1997-179">[177]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:孝">孝</a>: /hau412/, /ɕiau412/ (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yixingese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yixingese (page does not exist)">Yixingese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9C%E8%88%88%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:宜興話">zh</a>])<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeGuo1991-180">[178]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%A4" class="extiw" title="wikt:交">交</a>: /kɔ334/, /tɕiɔ334/ (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanxinese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanxinese (page does not exist)">Lanxinese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%AD%E6%BA%AA%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:蘭溪話">zh</a>])<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao2003-181">[179]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raised_vowel" title="Raised vowel">Lowering</a> of <a href="/wiki/High_back_rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="High back rounded vowel">high back rounded vowels</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:馬">馬</a>: /mo214/, /ma214/ (<a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantainese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2006-182">[180]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a>: /do212/, /da212/ (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shangraonese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shangraonese (page does not exist)">Shangraonese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E9%A5%92%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:上饒話">zh</a>])<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShangrao_Gazetteer1995-183">[181]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frication" class="mw-redirect" title="Frication">Frication</a> of historical ri-initial (日) syllables</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BB%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:仁">仁</a>: /ȵin213/, /zən213/ (<a href="/wiki/Shanghainese#Classification" title="Shanghainese">Chuanshanese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2004-184">[182]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:日">日</a>: /ȵieʔ22/, /zeʔ22/ (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cixinese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cixinese (page does not exist)">Cixinese</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%85%88%E6%BA%AA%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:慈溪話">zh</a>])<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECixi_Gazetteer1992-185">[183]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%86%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:熱">熱</a>: /ȵiəʔ212/, /ʑyəʔ212/ (<a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhuanese</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaoAkitaniHuangOta2016-186">[184]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> Words do not necessarily have to use only literary or only colloquial pronunciations, eg. 大學; 'university'; da-ghoq /da11 ɦoʔ44/ (<a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>): da is literary, whereas ghoq is colloquial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQianXuTang2007-110">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Orthography">edit</a>]</div> Wu Chinese is primarily written in <a href="/wiki/Sinograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinograph">Sinographs</a>. Due to most speakers being located within the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified Chinese">Simplified Chinese</a> characters are often used. Phonetic matching is often used due to the lack of knowledge regarding the etymologies of many terms,<a href="#cite_note-rolia-187">[185]</a> though texts such as the Great Dictionary of Shanghainese (上海話大詞典)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQianTangXu2007-177">[175]</a> serve as de facto recommended standardized forms,<a href="#cite_note-observer-188">[186]</a> as is seen in government media.<a href="#cite_note-posters-86">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanization">Romanization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Romanization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization of Wu Chinese</a></div> Wu Chinese does not have any government-recognized <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a> system. Adapted forms of <a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a> are commonly seen due to the relative familiarity of the system among the Wu Chinese speakerbase.<a href="#cite_note-rolia-187">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-observer-188">[186]</a> Online communities such as Wu-Chinese and Wugniu have created pluricentric romanization systems, largely based on 19th and 20th century Western textual sources.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> The genres of <a href="/wiki/Kunqu" title="Kunqu">kunqu</a> opera and <a href="/wiki/Tanci" title="Tanci">tanci</a> song, appearing in the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, were the first instances of the use of Wu dialect in literature. By the turn of the 20th century it was used in several novels that had prostitution as a subject.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow200433-191">[189]</a> In many of these novels, Wu is mainly used as dialogue of prostitute characters. In one work, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Flowers" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai Flowers">Shanghai Flowers</a> by <a href="/wiki/Han_Bangqing" title="Han Bangqing">Han Bangqing</a>, all of the dialogue is in Wu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow200434-192">[190]</a> Wu originally developed in genres related to oral performance. It was used in manners related to oral performance when it proliferated in written literature and it was widely used in fiction about prostitutes, a particular genre, and not in other genres. Donald B. Snow, author of Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular, compared the development of Wu in this manner to the patterns of <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Baihua</a> and Japanese vernacular writing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow200434-192">[190]</a> According to Jean Duval, author of "The Nine-Tailed Turtle: Pornography or 'fiction of exposure", at the time <a href="/wiki/The_Nine-tailed_Turtle" title="The Nine-tailed Turtle">The Nine-tailed Turtle</a> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Chunfan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Chunfan (page does not exist)">Zhang Chunfan</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B5%E6%98%A5%E5%B8%86_(%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D)" class="extiw" title="zh:張春帆 (清朝)">zh</a>] (張春帆) was published, it was one of the most popular novels written in the Wu dialect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow2004261-193">[191]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Magnificent_Dreams_in_Shanghai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magnificent Dreams in Shanghai (page does not exist)">Magnificent Dreams in Shanghai</a> (海上繁華夢) by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sun_Jiazhen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sun Jiazhen (page does not exist)">Sun Jiazhen</a> (孫家振) was another example of a prostitute novel with Wu dialogue from the turn of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow200434-192">[190]</a> Snow wrote that Wu literature "achieved a certain degree of prominence" by 1910. After 1910 there had been no novels which were as popular as The Nine-tailed Turtle or the critical acclaim garnered by Shanghai Flowers. In the popular fiction of the early 20th century the usage of Wu remained in use in prostitute dialogue but, as asserted by Snow, "apparently" did not extend beyond that. In 1926 <a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a> stated that of all of the Chinese dialects, within literature, Wu had the brightest future. Snow concluded that instead Wu dialect writing became "a transient phenomenon that died out not long after its growth gathered steam."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow200434-192">[190]</a> Snow argued that the primary reason was the increase of prestige and importance in Baihua, and that one other contributing reason was changing market factors since Shanghai's publishing industry, which grew, served all of China and not just Shanghai. Duval argued that many Chinese critics had a low opinion of Wu works, mainly originating from the eroticism within them, and that contributed to the decline in Wu literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow200434-192">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization of Wu Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou Chinese</a>, a group of Sinitic languages that has similarities with Wu</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinatowns_in_Queens#Flushing" title="Chinatowns in Queens">Chinatowns in Queens § Flushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wo_Bau-Sae" title="Wo Bau-Sae">Hua Baoshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wu_(region)" title="Wu (region)">Wu (region)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speakers_of_Wu_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Speakers of Wu Chinese">Speakers of Wu Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuyue" title="Wuyue">Wuyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuyue_culture" title="Wuyue culture">Wuyue culture</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> On PRC codebreaking during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, some state that the tongue used was not urban <a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a>, but specifically the variety of the town of <a href="/wiki/Qianku" title="Qianku">Qianku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cangnan_County" title="Cangnan County">Cangnan County</a> (then part of <a href="/wiki/Pingyang_County" title="Pingyang County">Pingyang County</a>). See <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cngdj.net/msql/show1.php?bt=%B7%C3%BD%F1%D1%B0%B9%C5%D6%AE%C8%FD%A3%BA%C6%CB%CB%B7%C3%D4%C0%EB%CB%B5%C2%F9%BB%B0&lb=%B1%BE%B5%D8%D0%C2%CE%C5"><bdi lang="zh">访今寻古之三：扑朔迷离说蛮话</bdi></a>. <bdi lang="zh">苍南广电网</bdi> (in Simplified Chinese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E8%AE%BF%E4%BB%8A%E5%AF%BB%E5%8F%A4%E4%B9%8B%E4%B8%89%EF%BC%9A%E6%89%91%E6%9C%94%E8%BF%B7%E7%A6%BB%E8%AF%B4%E8%9B%AE%E8%AF%9D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cngdj.net%2Fmsql%2Fshow1.php%3Fbt%3D%25B7%25C3%25BD%25F1%25D1%25B0%25B9%25C5%25D6%25AE%25C8%25FD%25A3%25BA%25C6%25CB%25CB%25B7%25C3%25D4%25C0%25EB%25CB%25B5%25C2%25F9%25BB%25B0%26lb%3D%25B1%25BE%25B5%25D8%25D0%25C2%25CE%25C5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> This is not the etymological spelling (本字) of the term, but instead is a very common phonetic match. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e27-1"><a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wuu">Wu</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (27th ed., 2024) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFLi2012">Li (2012)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2003a-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2003a_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2003a_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2003a_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFQian2003a">Qian (2003a)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_4-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFVanNess_Simmons1999">VanNess Simmons (1999)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988180-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988180_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988180_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988180_5-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2014_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2014_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2014_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2014_6-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2014">Wang (2014)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao1976-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChao1976_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChao1976_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChao1976">Chao (1976)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair1991-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair1991_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair1991">Mair (1991)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEberhardSimonsFennig2019" class="citation book cs1">Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2019). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (22nd ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Chinese, Wu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnologue%3A+Languages+of+the+World&rft.place=Dallas%2C+Texas&rft.pages=Chinese%2C+Wu&rft.edition=22nd&rft.pub=SIL+International&rft.date=2019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOu2018-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOu2018_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOu2018">Ou (2018)</a>. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFOu2018 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan200655-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYuan200655_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYuan200655_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYuan2006">Yuan (2006)</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLü" class="citation book cs1">Lü. 呂氏春秋 [Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals]. <q>習俗同，語言通</q> [Their traditions are the same, and their languages are mutually intelligible.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%91%82%E6%B0%8F%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.au=L%C3%BC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2008-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2008_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2008_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2008_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2008_13-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2008">Wang (2008)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou201047-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou201047_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou201047_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFZhou2010">Zhou (2010)</a>, p. 47. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZhou2010 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHe1993-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHe1993_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHe1993_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHe1993">He (1993)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiChen2002-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiChen2002_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiChen2002">Li & Chen (2002)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShenSheng2024-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShenSheng2024_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShenSheng2024">Shen & Sheng (2024)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988214-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988214_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2001-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2001_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLi2001">Li (2001)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2002-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2002_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLi2002">Li (2002)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart2008153-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart2008153_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSagart2008">Sagart (2008)</a>, p. 153. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSagart2008 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart2005-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart2005_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSagart2005">Sagart (2005)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrlandi2018-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrlandi2018_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrlandi2018">Orlandi (2018)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2002530-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2002530_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2002530_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2002">Coblin (2002)</a>, p. 530. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpasaka2010-25"><a 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Yubao. Retrieved 1 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yubao&rft.atitle=%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F+%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E+%E9%B9%BF%E5%9F%8E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzhongguoyuyan.cn%2Fpoint%2F08210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014358-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2014358_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2014358_154-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2014">Wang (2014)</a>, p. 358. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zhongguoyuyan.cn/point/08F67"><bdi lang="zh">浙江衢州开化</bdi></a>. Yubao. 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXie2014-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXie2014_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFXie2014">Xie (2014)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2014360-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2014360_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2014">Wang (2014)</a>, p. 360. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFu1978115-116,119-120-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFu1978115-116,119-120_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFu1978">Fu (1978)</a>, p. 115-116,119-120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi20154-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChappellLi20154_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChappellLi2015">Chappell & Li (2015)</a>, p. 4. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFChappellLi2015 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian1992721-1007-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian1992721-1007_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQian1992">Qian (1992)</a>, p. 721-1007. </li> <li 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errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaoAkitaniHuangOta2016-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaoAkitaniHuangOta2016_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCaoAkitaniHuangOta2016">Cao et al. 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class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2012" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Li_Rong_(linguist)" title="Li Rong (linguist)">Li, Rong</a> (2012), 中國語言地圖集 [Language Atlas of China] (in Chinese) (2 ed.), The Commercial Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-100-07054-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-100-07054-6"><bdi>978-7-100-07054-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%9C%B0%E5%9C%96%E9%9B%86%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=The+Commercial+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-7-100-07054-6&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Rong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQian2003a" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Qian_Nairong" title="Qian Nairong">Qian, Nairong</a> (2003a), 上海語言發展史 [A History on Language Evolution in Shanghai] (in Chinese) (1 ed.), Shanghai People's Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-208-04554-2" title="Special:BookSources/7-208-04554-2"><bdi>7-208-04554-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E5%8F%B2%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Shanghai+People%27s+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=7-208-04554-2&rft.aulast=Qian&rft.aufirst=Nairong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanNess_Simmons1999" class="citation cs2">VanNess Simmons, Richard (1999), Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn and Common Northern Wu, John Benjamins Publishing Co., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-3694-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-3694-1"><bdi>90-272-3694-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Dialect+Classification%3A+A+comparative+approach+to+Harngjou%2C+Old+Jintarn+and+Common+Northern+Wu&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=90-272-3694-1&rft.aulast=VanNess+Simmons&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2014" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wang, Huayun (2014), "从语法看杭州方言的性质" [On the nature of Hangzhou Dialect from Grammatical Perspectives], 方言 [Fangyan] (in Chinese) (4), Hangzhou: Zhejiang University of Finance & Economics: 356–364.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%BB%8E%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E7%9C%8B%E6%9D%AD%E5%B7%9E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E7%9A%84%E6%80%A7%E8%B4%A8%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=356-364&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Huayun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChao1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Chao_Yuen_Ren" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao Yuen Ren">Chao, Yuen Ren</a> (1976), "My Linguistic Autobiography", First Person Singular II, Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, vol. 61, Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 47, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fsihols.61.04cha">10.1075/sihols.61.04cha</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4548-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4548-9"><bdi>978-90-272-4548-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=My+Linguistic+Autobiography&rft.btitle=First+Person+Singular+II&rft.place=Stanford&rft.series=Studies+in+the+History+of+the+Language+Sciences&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fsihols.61.04cha&rft.isbn=978-90-272-4548-9&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=Yuen+Ren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuiZhou2021" class="citation journal cs1">Gui, Tianao; Zhou, Yan (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.47611%2Fjsrhs.v10i2.1505">"A Survey of Shanghainese Dialect: Its Current Situation and Future"</a>. Journal of Student Research. 10 (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.47611%2Fjsrhs.v10i2.1505">10.47611/jsrhs.v10i2.1505</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238224165">238224165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Student+Research&rft.atitle=A+Survey+of+Shanghainese+Dialect%3A+Its+Current+Situation+and+Future&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.47611%2Fjsrhs.v10i2.1505&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A238224165%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gui&rft.aufirst=Tianao&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Yan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.47611%252Fjsrhs.v10i2.1505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Mair" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (1991). "What is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic Terms". Sino-Platonic Papers (29). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=What+is+a+Chinese+%22Dialect%2FTopolect%22%3F+Reflections+on+Some+Key+Sino-English+Linguistic+Terms&rft.issue=29&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQiao2018" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Qiao, Ou (2018), 湘潭楠竹山镇湖北方言岛江南话研究 [The study of Hubei dialect island Jiangnan [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] diaclec,in Nanzhushan ,Xiangtan] (in Chinese), Hunan Normal University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%B9%98%E6%BD%AD%E6%A5%A0%E7%AB%B9%E5%B1%B1%E9%95%87%E6%B9%96%E5%8C%97%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%B2%9B%E6%B1%9F%E5%8D%97%E8%AF%9D%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Hunan+Normal+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Qiao&rft.aufirst=Ou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhouYou2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Zhenhe" title="Zhou Zhenhe">Zhou, Zhenhe</a>; You, Rujie (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o142DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA51">Chinese Dialects and Culture</a>. 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class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-80126-474-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-80126-474-9"><bdi>978-7-80126-474-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E6%A6%82%E8%A6%81%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Language+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-7-80126-474-9&rft.aulast=Yuan&rft.aufirst=Jiahua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2001" class="citation cs2">Li, Hui (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://loca.fudan.edu.cn/lh/Doc/D02.pdf">"Daic Background Vocabulary in Shanghai Maqiao Dialect"</a> 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方言 [Fangyan] (in Chinese) (3), Beijing: 201–216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%BB%8E%E3%80%8C%E6%B8%AF%E3%80%8D%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%8D%E4%B9%89%E6%BC%94%E5%8F%98%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%B0%E5%9F%9F%E5%88%86%E5%B8%83%E7%9C%8B%E5%8F%A4%E5%90%B4%E8%AF%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%8C%97%E7%95%8C%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=201-216&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Xiaofan&rft.au=Chen%2C+Baoxian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2008" class="citation 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Retrieved 10 March 2012. <q>A prosimetrical rendition, entitled Xue Rengui kuahai zheng Liao gushi 薛仁貴跨海征遼故事 (The story of Xue Rengui crossing the sea and Pacifying Liao), which shares its opening prose paragraph with the Xue Rengui zheng Liao shilüe, is preserved in a printing of 1471; it is one of the shuochang cihua [說晿詞話] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |access-date= (<a href="/wiki/Category:Lang_and_lang-xx_template_errors" title="Category:Lang and lang-xx template errors">help</a>) (ballad-narratives) [...] for telling and singing) which were discovered in the suburbs of Shanghai in 1967.3 While these shuochang cihua had been printed in modern-day Beijing, their language suggests that they had been composed in the Wu-dialect area of Suzhou and surroundings</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea+in+the+Middle%3A+Korean+Studies+and+Area+Studies%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Boudewijn+Walraven&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=CNWS+Publications&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-5789-153-3&rft.aulast=Walraven&rft.aufirst=Boudewijn&rft.au=Breuker%2C+Remco+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyCDZtFu_1UIC%26pg%3DPA342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossabi1988" class="citation cs2">Rossabi, Morris (1988), Kubilai Khan: His Life and Times, Berkeley: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-05913-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-05913-1"><bdi>0-520-05913-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kubilai+Khan%3A+His+Life+and+Times&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-520-05913-1&rft.aulast=Rossabi&rft.aufirst=Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoblin2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Weldon_South_Coblin" class="mw-redirect" title="Weldon South Coblin">Coblin, W. 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Beijing: The Commercial Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-100-05774-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-100-05774-5"><bdi>978-7-100-05774-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%9C%B0%E5%9B%BE%E9%9B%86%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=The+Commercial+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-7-100-05774-5&rft.aulast=Cao&rft.aufirst=Zhiyun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCao2008b" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Cao_Zhiyun" title="Cao Zhiyun">Cao, Zhiyun</a> (2008b). 汉语语言文字学论丛：方言卷 (in Chinese). 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Wang, Xiaoming (2010), 跟我说上海话 [Follow me to Say Shanghai Dialect] (in Chinese), 上海文化出版社.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%B7%9F%E6%88%91%E8%AF%B4%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E8%AF%9D%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Qian&rft.aufirst=Nairong&rft.au=Wang%2C+Xiaoming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnomotoFan2020" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Enomoto, Hideo; Fan, Xiao (2020), ニューエクスプレスプラス　上海語 [New Express Shanghainese] (in Japanese), Hakusuisha, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9784560088791" title="Special:BookSources/9784560088791"><bdi>9784560088791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Japanese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22ja%22%3E%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%A8%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9%E3%83%97%E3%83%AC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%97%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B9%E3%80%80%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E8%AA%9E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Japanese-language+text&rft.pub=Hakusuisha&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9784560088791&rft.aulast=Enomoto&rft.aufirst=Hideo&rft.au=Fan%2C+Xiao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangChe2012" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wang, Ping; Che, Yuqian (2012), 学说苏州话 (in Chinese), Soochow University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5672-0008-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5672-0008-1"><bdi>978-7-5672-0008-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%AD%A6%E8%AF%B4%E8%8B%8F%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Soochow+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-7-5672-0008-1&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Ping&rft.au=Che%2C+Yuqian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuo2006" class="citation journal cs1">Guo, Jun (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2d9mAAAAMAAJ&q=zaicheng">"An Analysis of the (U)-Variation in the "Town Speech" of Lishui"</a>. 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(2004), Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular, Hong Kong University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789622097094" title="Special:BookSources/9789622097094"><bdi>9789622097094</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cantonese+as+Written+Language%3A+The+Growth+of+a+Written+Chinese+Vernacular&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9789622097094&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=Donald+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFu1978" class="citation cs2">Fu, Guotong (1978), "浙江方言语法的一些特点", 杭州大学学报 (2): 112–123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%9D%AD%E5%B7%9E%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%A5%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%9B%E7%89%B9%E7%82%B9%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=112-123&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Fu&rft.aufirst=Guotong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQian1987" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Qian_Nairong" title="Qian Nairong">Qian, Nairong</a> (1987), "也谈吴语的语法、词汇特征", 温州师院学报（社会科学版） (3): 48–55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%88%E9%99%A2%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%A5%EF%BC%88%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%89%88%EF%BC%89%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%B9%9F%E8%B0%88%E5%90%B4%E8%AF%AD%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E3%80%81%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87%E7%89%B9%E5%BE%81%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=48-55&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Qian&rft.aufirst=Nairong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallard1969" class="citation book cs1">Ballard, William Lewis (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt8ss0r6dv/qt8ss0r6dv_noSplash_a564c6150df0707c0933876012bef12c.pdf">Phonological History of Wu</a> (PDF). University of Berkeley.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonological+History+of+Wu&rft.pub=University+of+Berkeley&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Ballard&rft.aufirst=William+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fcontent%2Fqt8ss0r6dv%2Fqt8ss0r6dv_noSplash_a564c6150df0707c0933876012bef12c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMa2020" class="citation cs2">Ma, Huili (2020), 《六书故》注音研究 [The study on the phonetic annotation of Liushugu], North Minzu University</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E3%80%8A%E5%85%AD%E4%B9%A6%E6%95%85%E3%80%8B%E6%B3%A8%E9%9F%B3%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=North+Minzu+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Ma&rft.aufirst=Huili&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2012" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script">Chen, Yuanyuan (2012), <bdi lang="zh">戴侗《六书故》所见宋代温州方音三例</bdi> [Three Examples of Song Dynasty's Wenzhou Dialects in Dai Tong's Liushugu (《六書故》)], Journal of Wenzhou University · Social Sciences, 25 (6), Wenzhou: Wenzhou University</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Wenzhou+University+%C2%B7+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=%E6%88%B4%E4%BE%97%E3%80%8A%E5%85%AD%E4%B9%A6%E6%95%85%E3%80%8B%E6%89%80%E8%A7%81%E5%AE%8B%E4%BB%A3%E6%B8%A9%E5%B7%9E%E6%96%B9%E9%9F%B3%E4%B8%89%E4%BE%8B&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Yuanyuan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="wuu:"> Wu Chinese edition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wu_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Wu Chinese">Wu Chinese</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has content for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Wu_phrasebook#Q34290" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Wu phrasebook">Wu phrasebook</a>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resources_on_Wu">Resources on Wu</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Resources on Wu">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wugniu.com/">Wugniu.com</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wugniu.com/dict">Wu Dictionary</a>– Wu dictionary available in 8 varieties.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wugniu.com/">Wu Character Pronunciation</a> Shows how character(s) are pronounced in Wu, data available for many localities.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wugniu.com/map">Wu Pronunciation Map</a> How a character is pronounced in Wu depending on the region.</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glossika.com">glossika.com</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/wu/index.php">Shanghainese Wu Dictionary</a>– Search in <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>, or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121203203408/http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/wu/index.php">Archived</a> 3 December 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/classification/wu/index.php">Classification of Wu Dialects</a> – By James Campbell</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/tones/wu.htm">Tones in Wu Dialects</a> – Compiled by James Campbell</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080503055955/http://sinolect.org/bbs/"><bdi lang="zh">吴语论坛</bdi></a> [Linguistic Forum of Wu Chinese]. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sinolect.org/bbs/">the original</a> on 3 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%90%B4%E8%AF%AD%E8%AE%BA%E5%9D%9B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsinolect.org%2Fbbs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> A BBS set up in 2004, in which topics such as phonology, grammar, orthography and romanization of Wu Chinese are widely talked about. The cultural and linguistic diversity within China is also a significant concerning of this forum. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100501162846/http://wu-chinese.com/"><bdi lang="zh">吴语协会</bdi></a> [Wu Chinese Online Association] (in Wu). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wu-chinese.com">the original</a> on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%90%B4%E8%AF%AD%E5%8D%8F%E4%BC%9A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwu-chinese.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWu+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> A website aimed at modernization of Wu Chinese, including basics of Wu, Wu romanization scheme, pronunciation dictionaries of different dialects, Wu input method development, Wu research literatures, written Wu experiment, Wu orthography, a discussion forum etc. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tatoeba.org/eng/sentences/show_all_in/wuu/none/none/indifferent">Tatoeba Project Tatoeba.org</a> - Examples sentences in Shanghainese and Suzhounese.</li> <li><a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125/38799" class="extiw" title="hdl:10125/38799">Wu wordlist</a> available through <a href="/wiki/Kaipuleohone" title="Kaipuleohone">Kaipuleohone</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wu-chinese.com/minidict/index.php">Pronunciation dictionary</a> - with audio from various Chinese cities.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Template:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Template talk:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sino-Tibetan_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Himalayish_languages" title="West Himalayish languages">West Himalayish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newaric_languages" title="Newaric languages">Newaric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baram%E2%80%93Thangmi_languages" title="Baram–Thangmi languages">Baram–Thangmi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiranti_languages" title="Kiranti languages">Kiranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimalish_languages" title="Dhimalish languages">Dhimalish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhimal_language" title="Dhimal language">Dhimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toto_language" title="Toto language">Toto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhokpu_language" title="Lhokpu language">Lhokpu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Magaric" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magaric_languages" title="Greater Magaric languages">Greater Magaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magaric_languages" title="Magaric languages">Magaric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kham language">Kham</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepangic_languages" title="Chepangic languages">Chepangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chepang_language" title="Chepang language">Chepang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhujel_language" title="Bhujel language">Bhujel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raji%E2%80%93Raute_languages" title="Raji–Raute languages">Raji–Raute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dura_language" title="Dura language">Dura</a>–<a href="/wiki/Tandrange_language" title="Tandrange language">Tandrange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages"><img alt="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/200px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/300px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/400px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="2115" data-file-height="2792" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Bodish_languages" title="East Bodish languages">East Bodish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshangla_language" title="Tshangla language">Tshangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam_language" title="Nam language">Nam</a>?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongduk_language" title="Gongduk language">Gongduk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCOle_language" title="ʼOle language">ʼOle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tani_languages" title="Tani languages">Tani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamdo_languages" title="Chamdo languages">Chamdo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and Indo- Burmese border</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mruic_languages" title="Mruic languages">Mruic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Hkongso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Pyu language (Sino-Tibetan)">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taman_language_(Myanmar)" title="Taman language (Myanmar)">Taman</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Naga_languages" title="Naga languages">Naga</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_languages" title="Ao languages">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angami%E2%80%93Pochuri_languages" title="Angami–Pochuri languages">Angami–Pochuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhulic_languages" title="Tangkhulic languages">Tangkhulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boro%E2%80%93Garo_languages" title="Boro–Garo languages">Boro–Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_languages" title="Konyak languages">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpho%E2%80%93Luish_languages" title="Jingpho–Luish languages">Jingpho–Luish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nungish_languages" title="Nungish languages">Nungish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karenic_languages" title="Karenic languages">Karenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gong_language" title="Gong language">Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai–Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Burmo-Qiangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmo-Qiangic_languages" title="Burmo-Qiangic languages">Burmo-Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyalrongic_languages" title="Gyalrongic languages">Gyalrongic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersuic_languages" title="Ersuic languages">Ersuic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naic_languages" title="Naic languages">Naic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Dubious</a> (possible <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hruso_language" title="Hruso language">Hruso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju–Meyor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songlin_language" title="Songlin language">Songlin</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Siangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koro_language_(India)" title="Koro language (India)">Koro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milang_language" title="Milang language">Milang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Idu–Taraon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Central Tibeto-Burman languages">Central Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin%E2%80%93Naga_languages" title="Kuki-Chin–Naga languages">Kuki-Chin–Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahakiranti_languages" title="Mahakiranti languages">Mahakiranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rung_languages" title="Rung languages">Rung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Tibeto-Kanauri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan language">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Loloish_language" title="Proto-Loloish language">Proto-Loloish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Karenic_language" title="Proto-Karenic language">Proto-Karenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_language" title="Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_language" title="Template talk:Chinese language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taz_dialect" title="Taz dialect">Taz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renshou%E2%80%93Fushun_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renshou–Fushun Mandarin (page does not exist)">Renshou–Fushun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gui%E2%80%93Liu_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gui–Liu Mandarin (page does not exist)">Gui–Liu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Lanzhou dialect</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:兰州话">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urumqi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urumqi dialect (page does not exist)">Urumqi dialect</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:乌鲁木齐话">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junjiahua" title="Junjiahua">Junjiahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinjiang_Mandarin" title="Qinjiang Mandarin">Qinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyami language">Gyami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect" title="Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect">Zhangjiakou–Hohhot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi-Yan_dialect" title="Zhi-Yan dialect">Zhi–Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui%27an_dialect" title="Rui'an dialect">Rui'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ji-She&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ji-She (page does not exist)">Ji-She</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%A9%E6%AD%99%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:绩歙片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiu-Yi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiu-Yi (page does not exist)">Xiu-Yi</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E9%BB%9F%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:休黟片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi-De&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi-De (page does not exist)">Qi-De</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%81%E5%A9%BA%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:祁婺片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yanzhou</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8C%E5%8D%A0%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:旌占片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jing-Zhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jing-Zhan (page does not exist)">Jing-Zhan</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A5%E5%B7%9E%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:严州片">zh</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi%E2%80%93Liu_Gan" title="Yi–Liu Gan">Yi–Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying%E2%80%93Yi_Gan" title="Ying–Yi Gan">Ying–Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%E2%80%93Tong_Gan" title="Da–Tong Gan">Da–Tong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%E2%80%93Xu_Xiang" title="Ji–Xu Xiang">Ji–Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Quan_Xiang" title="Yong–Quan Xiang">Yong–Quan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Houguan_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Houguan language group (page does not exist)">Houguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fu%E2%80%93Ning_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fu–Ning language group (page does not exist)">Fu–Ning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Pedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Malaysian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Banqiao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banqiao dialect (page does not exist)">Banqiao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yuehai_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuehai dialects">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinhui_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinhui dialect (page does not exist)">Xinhui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gao%E2%80%93Yang_Yue" title="Gao–Yang Yue">Gao–Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Hua_Yue" title="Wu–Hua Yue">Wu–Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Xun_Yue" title="Yong–Xun Yue">Yong–Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Lian_Yue" title="Qin–Lian Yue">Qin–Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Yongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guandao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guandao dialect (page does not exist)">Guandao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Rongjiang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai-Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/350px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="785" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/525px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/700px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="920" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_methods_for_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese input methods for computers">Input</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li> <li>Boshiamy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CKC_Chinese_Input_System" title="CKC Chinese Input System">CKC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayi_method" title="Dayi method">Dayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Pinyin_IME" title="Microsoft Pinyin IME">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi (Wang Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Logographic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Phonetic_Symbols_II" title="Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II">MPS II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription" title="EFEO Chinese transcription">EFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_China" title="Template:Languages of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_China" title="Template talk:Languages of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages of China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_regions_of_China" title="Autonomous regions of China">ARs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">SARs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">HK</a>/MC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_English" title="Hong Kong English">English</a>HK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia">Mongolian</a>NM</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macanese_Portuguese" title="Macanese Portuguese">Portuguese</a>MC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a>XZ</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a>XJ</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a>GX</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_prefectures_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous prefectures of China">Prefecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language_in_China" title="Korean language in China">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_people#Language" title="Yi people">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Nuea_language" title="Tai Nuea language">Tai Nüa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_counties_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous counties of China">Counties</a>/<a href="/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia#Autonomous_banner" title="Banners of Inner Mongolia">Banners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">numerous</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sino-Tibetan_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo- Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maang_language" title="Maang language">Maang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manga_language_(China)" title="Manga language (China)">Manga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_language_(China)" title="Mango language (China)">Mango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maza_language" title="Maza language">Maza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantsi_language" title="Mantsi language">Mondzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muangphe_language" title="Muangphe language">Muangphe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achang_language" title="Achang language">Achang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiandao_dialect" title="Xiandao dialect">Xiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pela_language" title="Pela language">Pela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashi_language" title="Lashi language">Lashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chashan_language" title="Chashan language">Chashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhao_Vo_language" title="Lhao Vo language">Lhao Vo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Loloish_languages" title="Southern Loloish languages">Hanoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akeu_language" title="Akeu language">Akeu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amu_language" title="Amu language">Amu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angluo_language" title="Angluo language">Angluo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asuo_language" title="Asuo language">Asuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baihong_language" title="Baihong language">Baihong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisu_language" title="Bisu language">Bisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budu_language_(China)" title="Budu language (China)">Budu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukong_language" title="Bukong language">Bukong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosao_language" title="Cosao language">Cosao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duoni_language" title="Duoni language">Duoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duota_language" title="Duota language">Duota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enu_language" title="Enu language">Enu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habei_language" title="Habei language">Habei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honi_language" title="Honi language">Honi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jino_language" title="Jino language">Jino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khabi_language" title="Khabi language">Kabie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaduo_language" title="Kaduo language">Kaduo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lami_language" title="Lami language">Lami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laomian_language" title="Laomian language">Laomian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laopin_language" title="Laopin language">Laopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpi_language" title="Mpi language">Mpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muda_language" title="Muda language">Muda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuobi_language" title="Nuobi language">Nuobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuomei_language" title="Nuomei language">Nuomei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phana%CA%BC_language" title="Phanaʼ language">Phana’</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyo_language" title="Piyo language">Piyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qidi_language" title="Qidi language">Qidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadu_language" title="Sadu language">Sadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangkong_language" title="Sangkong language">Sangkong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suobi_language" title="Suobi language">Suobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsukong_language" title="Tsukong language">Tsukong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woni_language" title="Woni language">Woni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiche_language" title="Yiche language">Yiche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lisoish_languages" title="Lisoish languages">Lisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eka_language" title="Eka language">Eka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hlersu_language" title="Hlersu language">Hlersu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kua-nsi_language" title="Kua-nsi language">Kua-nsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuamasi_language" title="Kuamasi language">Kuamasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laizisi_language" title="Laizisi language">Laizisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalo_language" title="Lalo language">Lalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamu_language" title="Lamu language">Lamu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavu_language" title="Lavu language">Lavu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawu_language" title="Lawu language">Lawu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limi_language" title="Limi language">Limi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipo_language" title="Lipo language">Lipo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolopo_language" title="Lolopo language">Lolopo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangdi_language" title="Mangdi language">Mangdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha_language" title="Micha language">Micha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mili_language" title="Mili language">Mili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonaga_language" title="Sonaga language">Sonaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholo_language" title="Tholo language">Toloza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhang_language" title="Xuzhang language">Xuzhang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangliu_language" title="Yangliu language">Yangliu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zibusi_language" title="Zibusi language">Zibusi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nisoish_languages" title="Nisoish languages">Nisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alingpo_language" title="Alingpo language">Alingpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Alugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluo_language" title="Aluo language">Aluo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axi_language" title="Axi language">Axi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azha_language" title="Azha language">Azha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azhe_language" title="Azhe language">Azhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Bokha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepo_language" title="Gepo language">Gepo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khlula_language" title="Khlula language">Khlula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lope_language" title="Lope language">Lope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moji_language" title="Moji language">Moji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Muji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzi_language" title="Muzi language">Muzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasu_language" title="Nasu language">Nasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisu_language" title="Nisu language">Nisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuosu_language" title="Nuosu language">Nuosu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phowa_language" title="Phowa language">Phowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Phukha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phuma_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Phuma language">Phuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phupha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phuza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samei_language" title="Samei language">Samei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sani_language" title="Sani language">Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thopho_language" title="Thopho language">Thopho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zokhuo_language" title="Zokhuo language">Zokhuo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gokhy_language" title="Gokhy language">Gokhy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katso_language" title="Katso language">Katso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucong_language" title="Kucong language">Kucong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahu_language" title="Lahu language">Lahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naruo_language" title="Naruo language">Naruo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namuyi_language" title="Namuyi language">Namuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxi_language" title="Naxi language">Naxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusu_language" title="Nusu language">Nusu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samu_language" title="Samu language">Samu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanie_language" title="Sanie language">Sanie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zauzou_language" title="Zauzou language">Zauzou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choyo_language" title="Choyo language">Choyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_language" title="Ersu language">Ersu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiqiong_language" title="Guiqiong language">Guiqiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horpa_language" title="Horpa language">Horpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhug_language" title="Japhug language">Japhug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khroskyabs_language" title="Khroskyabs language">Khroskyabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laze_language" title="Laze language">Laze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizu_language" title="Lizu language">Lizu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na_language" title="Na language">Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muya_language" title="Muya language">Muya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namuyi_language" title="Namuyi language">Namuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxi_language" title="Naxi language">Naxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumi_language" title="Pumi language">Pumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Qiang_language" title="Northern Qiang language">Northern Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Qiang_language" title="Southern Qiang language">Southern Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shixing_language" title="Shixing language">Shixing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situ_language" title="Situ language">Situ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshobdun_language" title="Tshobdun language">Tshobdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zbu_language" title="Zbu language">Zbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhaba_language" title="Zhaba language">Zhaba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amdo_Tibetan" title="Amdo Tibetan">Amdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibetan" title="Central Tibetan">Central Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choni_language" title="Choni language">Choni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dao_language_(China)" title="Dao language (China)">Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongwang_Tibetan_language" title="Dongwang Tibetan language">Dongwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugchu_language" title="Drugchu language">Drugchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groma_language" title="Groma language">Groma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gserpa_language" title="Gserpa language">Gserpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalong_Tibetan_language" title="Khalong Tibetan language">Khalong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khams_Tibetan" title="Khams Tibetan">Khams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tseku_language" title="Tseku language">Tseku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongu_Tibetan_language" title="Zhongu Tibetan language">Zhongu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zitsadegu_language" title="Zitsadegu language">Zitsadegu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derung_language" title="Derung language">Derung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpo_language" title="Jingpo language">Jingpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nung_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Nung language (Sino-Tibetan)">Nung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxianghua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other languages</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bit_language" title="Bit language">Bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blang_language" title="Blang language">Blang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolyu_language" title="Bolyu language">Bolyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bugan_language" title="Bugan language">Bugan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumang_language" title="Bumang language">Bumang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_language" title="Hu language">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuan_language" title="Kuan language">Kuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A3ng_language" title="Mảng language">Mang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_Met_language" title="Man Met language">Man Met</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muak_language" title="Muak language">Muak Sa-aak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riang_language" title="Riang language">Riang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_language" title="U language">U</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Va_language" title="Va language">Va</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa_language" title="Wa language">Wa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hmong-Mien_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong-Mien languages">Hmong-Mien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Hmao_language" title="A-Hmao language">A-Hmao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bu-Nao_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bu-Nao languages">Bu-Nao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gejia_language" title="Gejia language">Gejia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiyang_Miao_language" title="Guiyang Miao language">Guiyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hm_Nai_language" title="Hm Nai language">Hm Nai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmu_language" title="Hmu language">Hmu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huishui_Miao_language" title="Huishui Miao language">Huishui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiong_Nai_language" title="Kiong Nai language">Kiong Nai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luobohe_Miao_language" title="Luobohe Miao language">Luobohe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashan_Miao_language" title="Mashan Miao language">Mashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa-Hng_language" title="Pa-Hng language">Pa-Hng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa_Na_language" title="Pa Na language">Pa Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingtang_Miao_language" title="Pingtang Miao language">Pingtang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xong_language" title="Xong language">Qo Xiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raojia_language" title="Raojia language">Raojia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_language" title="She language">She</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gha-Mu_language" title="Gha-Mu language">Small Flowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xixiu_Miao_language" title="Xixiu Miao language">Xixiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younuo_language" title="Younuo language">Younuo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mienic_languages" title="Mienic languages">Mienic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biao_Min_language" title="Biao Min language">Biao Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzao_Min_language" title="Dzao Min language">Dzao Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iu_Mien_language" title="Iu Mien language">Iu Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Mun_language" title="Kim Mun language">Kim Mun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonan_language" title="Bonan language">Bonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buryat_language" title="Buryat language">Buryat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagur_language" title="Dagur language">Daur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yugur_language" title="Eastern Yugur language">Eastern Yugur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangjia_language" title="Kangjia language">Kangjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamnigan_Mongol" title="Khamnigan Mongol">Khamnigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monguor_language" title="Monguor language">Monguor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_language" title="Oirat language">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordos_Mongolian" title="Ordos Mongolian">Ordos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_language" title="Santa language">Santa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torgut_Oirat" title="Torgut Oirat">Torgut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhuang_language" title="Dai Zhuang language">Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Zhuang_language" title="Min Zhuang language">Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Ningming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nong_Zhuang_language" title="Nong Zhuang language">Nong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_language" title="Tai Dam language">Tai Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_D%C3%B3n_language" title="Tai Dón language">Tai Dón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Ya_language" title="Tai Ya language">Tai Hongjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Nuea_language" title="Tai Nuea language">Tai Nüa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Ya_language" title="Tai Ya language">Tai Ya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhuang_language" title="Yang Zhuang language">Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yei_Zhuang_language" title="Yei Zhuang language">Yei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Cham_language" title="Ai-Cham language">Ai-Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biao_language" title="Biao language">Biao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyang_language" title="Buyang language">Buyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Miao_language" title="Cao Miao language">Cao Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadong_language" title="Chadong language">Chadong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cun_language" title="Cun language">Cun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelao_languages" title="Gelao languages">Gelao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hlai_languages" title="Hlai languages">Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiamao_language" title="Jiamao language">Jiamao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakkia_language" title="Lakkia language">Lakkja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mak_language" title="Mak language">Mak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maonan_language" title="Maonan language">Maonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulam_language" title="Mulam language">Mulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuoxi_language" title="Nuoxi language">Naxi Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be_languages" title="Be languages">Ong Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paha_language" title="Paha language">Paha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qabiao_language" title="Qabiao language">Qabiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Then_language" title="Then language">Then</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanai_language" title="Nanai language">Nanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oroqen_language" title="Oroqen language">Oroqen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xibe_language" title="Xibe language">Xibe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%84ynu_language" title="Äynu language">Äynu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuyu_Kyrgyz_language" title="Fuyu Kyrgyz language">Fuyu Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Turki_language" title="Ili Turki language">Ili Turki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lop_dialect" title="Lop dialect">Lop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salar_language" title="Salar language">Salar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yugur_language" title="Western Yugur language">Western Yugur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarikoli_language" title="Sarikoli language">Sarikoli</a> (Indo-European)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsat_language" title="Tsat language">Tsat</a> (Austronesian)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> (Austronesian)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_in_China" title="Esperanto in China">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvan_language" title="Tuvan language">Tuvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> (Kinh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Ji-Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiao-Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Zhongyuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lan-Yin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Southeastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teoswa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Puxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shaojiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Auish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Ping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Creole/Mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E_language" title="E language">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezhou_language" title="Hezhou language">Hezhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linglinghua" title="Linglinghua">Lingling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macanese_Patois" title="Macanese Patois">Macanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maojia_dialect" title="Maojia dialect">Maojia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoqmon%C4%8Daq_language" title="Qoqmončaq language">Qoqmončaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanqiao_language" title="Sanqiao language">Sanqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangwang_language" title="Tangwang language">Tangwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wutun_language" title="Wutun language">Wutun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extinct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jie_language" title="Jie language">Jie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_language" title="Khitan language">Khitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yue_language" title="Old Yue language">Old Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_language" title="Rouran language">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_language" title="Tangut language">Tangut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuoba_language" title="Tuoba language">Tuoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuyuhun_language" title="Tuyuhun language">Tuyuhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei#Language" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang-Zhung_language" title="Zhang-Zhung language">Zhangzhung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese Sign</a> <ul><li>Northern (Beijing) Sign</li> <li>Southern (Shanghai) Sign <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Sign_Language" title="Hong Kong Sign Language">Hong Kong Sign</a>HK/MC</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Sign_Language" title="Tibetan Sign Language">Tibetan Sign</a>XZ</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li>GX = Guangxi</li> <li>HK = Hong Kong</li> <li>MC = Macau</li> <li>NM = Inner Mongolia</li> <li>XJ = Xinjiang</li> <li>XZ = Tibet</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/19px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/29px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/38px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&oldid=1258756993">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wu_Chinese&oldid=1258756993</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wu_Chinese" title="Category:Wu Chinese">Wu Chinese</a></li><li><a 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title="Category:Articles containing Japanese-language text">Articles containing Japanese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Chinese-language_sources_(zh)" title="Category:CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)">CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2020" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2020">Use dmy dates from October 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_simplified_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text">Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a 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[\"CITEREFDingShaoRao2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEberhardSimonsFennig2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnomotoFan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeng2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeng2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrellesvig2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFu1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuiZhou2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuo2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHe1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirata2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHu2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKurpasaka2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiChen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiuKula2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLu\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLuSzeto2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLü\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMa2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMair1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOki2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnishi1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrlandi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian2003a\"] = 1,\n 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= 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangChe2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangDingTaoLi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWugniu2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXie2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXiong2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXu2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXu2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXu2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXuTang1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXue2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYe2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYeGuo1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYu2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuen_Ren_Society\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaoming2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhengzhang2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhengzhangZheng2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhou2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhouYou2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu2006a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu2006b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu2006c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF沈栖2020\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Chinese language\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 109,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 20,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Fs interlinear\"] = 7,\n [\"IPA\"] = 44,\n [\"IPA-all\"] = 3,\n [\"IPA-wuu\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 22,\n [\"Image reference needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"InterWiki\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 265,\n [\"Languages of China\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Section link\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 214,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 2,\n [\"Sigfig\"] = 1,\n [\"Sino-Tibetan languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 4,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikivoyage\"] = 1,\n [\"Zh\"] = 87,\n [\"Zhi\"] = 49,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 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