Semiconductors

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<li> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230212235039/http://nistdigitalarchives.contentdm.oclc.org/" class="usa-nav__link">NIST Digital Archives</a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/nist-museum" class="usa-nav__link">NIST Museum</a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/nist-and-nobel" class="usa-nav__link">NIST and the Nobel</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="usa-nav__submenu-item"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/education" class="usa-nav__link">Educational Resources</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </nav> </header>  </div> <div class="grid-container"> <div data-drupal-messages-fallback class="hidden"></div> </div> <div id="block-nist-www-content" class="nist-block"> <section class="nist-page__content usa-section clearfix"> <a id="main-content" tabindex="-1"></a> <div> <div class="nist-section-header nist-section-header--topic nist-section-header--hero"> <div class="nist-section-header__hero-img"> <div class="nist-block nist-block--no-margin"> <div class="entity-reference"> <img src="/web/20230212235039im_/https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/images/2021/12/15/Semiconductur_Headers_1200x248C.png" width="1200" height="248" alt="A semiconductor chip is held in a metal frame while a device works on its surface." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </div> </div> </div> <div class="nist-section-header__top grid-container"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/electronics">Electronics</a> </div> <div class="nist-section-header__sub"> <div class="nist-section-header__main grid-container"> <div class="grid-row"> <div class="nist-section-header__title"> <h1 class="nist-page__title">Semiconductors</h1> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grid-container"> <div class="nist-page__region nist-page__region--topic-description padding-top-4 margin-top-1"> <div class="nist-region-heading"> <h2>Overview</h2> </div> <div class="grid-row"> <div class="tablet:grid-col-8 padding-right-5 margin-bottom-4"> <div class="text-with-summary"> <p><span><span><span>Semiconductors—materials such as silicon with tunable electrical conductivity—are the base for most electronics, enabling construction of complex integrated circuits, or chips, that power advanced technologies for healthcare, communications, computing, and transportation, among other applications. Demand for chips is already high, and that demand is growing because of uses in emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, the internet of things and quantum computing.</span></span></span> </p> <div class="nist-callout"> <p>In January 2022, the Department of Commerce <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230212235039/https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2022/01/commerce-department-requests-information-supporting-strong-us">issued a Request for Information</a> to help guide programs that would be funded by the CHIPS Act that would support a strong domestic semiconductor industry.</p> </div> <p><span><span><span>NIST has conducted research on semiconductors since the late 1940s, when the field was created by the development of semiconductor devices called crystal diodes for radar during World War II and the invention of the transistor. NIST, then called the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), set up a lab to investigate several related topics, including semiconductors’ electrical conductivity. </span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span>The NBS Semiconductor Technology Program was established in 1968 to improve measurement methods, data, reference artifacts, models and theory to enable higher device yields and reliability, lower costs, and improved fabrication and performance. This intensive focus lasted about 20 years.</span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span>Today, NIST continues its long history of supporting and collaborating with the semiconductor industry, making its own chips for cutting-edge NIST research and partner institutions, and fulfilling more than a century of commitment to responding to national needs.</span></span></span></p> </div> </div> <div class="tablet:grid-col-4"> <div class="nist-block nist-block--no-margin"> <h2 class="nist-block__title">Featured Content</h2> <div class="nist-field nist-field--label-hidden nist-field--link-list link font-sans-sm"> <div class="nist-field__items"> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/chips">CHIPS Act</a></div> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230212235039/https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/01/24/2022-01305/incentives-infrastructure-and-research-and-development-needs-to-support-a-strong-domestic">CHIPS Act RFI</a></div> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/chips/chips-america-webinars">CHIPS Act Events</a></div> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/chips/industrial-advisory-committee">Industrial Advisory Committee</a></div> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/cnst">NanoFab (Gaithersburg)</a></div> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/boulder-microfabrication-facility">Boulder Microfabrication Facility</a></div> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/industry-impacts/public-private-partnerships-semiconductor-research">Public-Private Partnerships for Semiconductor Research</a></div> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/semiconductors/semiconductor-glossary">Semiconductor Glossary</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="nist-page__region nist-page__region--main"> <div class="nist-block"> <div class="grid-container margin-y-5"> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--topic-text paragraph--view-mode--default"> <div class="nist-region-heading"> <h2> The State of the Industry </h2> </div> <div class="tablet-lg:grid-col-8 padding-right-5"> <div class="text-long"><p><span><span><span>According to the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA), the U.S. semiconductor industry employs over a quarter of a million workers and company sales totaled $208 billion in 2020. Advances in semiconductor technology have been, and continue to be, a linchpin of U.S. economic prosperity and national security.</span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span>But there is currently a global shortage of semiconductors due to several factors, including disruptions related to the COVID-19 pandemic and the increased use of semiconductors in cars. The industry is also facing the technical limits of conventional semiconductor materials. This portends the end of “Moore's Law,” which for more than 50 years has held that, thanks to miniaturization, the number of semiconductor devices called transistors that can be packed on a chip doubles about every two years.</span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span>There is also a supply chain problem. Americans invented semiconductors and lead the world in chip technology but provide only 12 percent of global semiconductor manufacturing capacity, according to the SIA. Most chip manufacturing occurs in Asia. </span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span>Moves are afoot to boost U.S. semiconductor manufacturing, research innovation and supply chain security. Advances in measurement science, standards, materials, instrumentation, testing, and manufacturing capabilities will be needed to help design, develop and manufacture next-generation microelectronics.</span></span></span></p></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grid-container margin-y-5"> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--topic-research paragraph--view-mode--default"> <div class="nist-region-heading"> <h2>The Research</h2> </div> <div class="grid-row"> <div class="tablet:grid-col-8 padding-right-5 margin-y-2"> <h2 class="nist-block__title">Projects & Programs</h2> <article role="article" about="/programs-projects/precision-materials-quantum-devices" class="nist-teaser"> <div class="nist-teaser__image"> <div class="entity-reference"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/precision-materials-quantum-devices" hreflang="en"><img src="/web/20230212235039im_/https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/images/2016/09/13/oxides_2.jpg?itok=zq6VIU9i" width="100" height="75" alt="A 3" wafer is seen concentric with the lower plasma electrode." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </a> </div> </div> <div class="nist-teaser__content-wrapper"> <header> <h3 class="nist-teaser__title"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/precision-materials-quantum-devices"><span>Precision Materials for Quantum Devices</span> </a></h3> <div class="nist-teaser__type"> <div class="nist-badge display-inline-block margin-y-1 nist-badge--blue boolean">Ongoing</div> </div> </header> <div class="nist-teaser__content"> <div class="text-long"> Tunnel junctions, single electron transistors and superconducting resonators are fabricated using ultra-high vacuum metals’ deposition and in situ low energy </div> </div> </div> </article> <article role="article" about="/programs-projects/nanostructure-synthesis" class="nist-teaser"> <div class="nist-teaser__image"> <div class="entity-reference"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/nanostructure-synthesis" hreflang="en"><img src="/web/20230212235039im_/https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/images/2018/04/25/nwarrays.png?itok=_4FM3sGv" width="100" height="75" alt="Four examples of GaN nanostructures grown with selective epitaxy by molecular beam epitaxy, illustrating different morphology for Ga-polar vs. N-polar crystals." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </a> </div> </div> <div class="nist-teaser__content-wrapper"> <header> <h3 class="nist-teaser__title"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/nanostructure-synthesis"><span>Nanostructure Synthesis</span> </a></h3> <div class="nist-teaser__type"> <div class="nist-badge display-inline-block margin-y-1 nist-badge--blue boolean">Ongoing</div> </div> </header> <div class="nist-teaser__content"> <div class="text-long"> We synthesize semiconductor nanostructures to serve both as test structures for measurement techniques and as building blocks for novel metrology tools and </div> </div> </div> </article> <article role="article" about="/programs-projects/micro-and-nanoelectromechanical-systems" class="nist-teaser"> <div class="nist-teaser__image"> <div class="entity-reference"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/micro-and-nanoelectromechanical-systems" hreflang="en"><img src="/web/20230212235039im_/https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/images/2017/07/13/fig1.jpg?itok=51xXtLAh" width="100" height="68" alt="A micromechanical bulk acoustic resonator that uses phononic crystal tethers to achieve a quality factor approaching the fundamental dissipation limit (fxQ can be as large as 1.2 x 1013 Hz)" loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </a> </div> </div> <div class="nist-teaser__content-wrapper"> <header> <h3 class="nist-teaser__title"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/micro-and-nanoelectromechanical-systems"><span>Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical Systems</span> </a></h3> <div class="nist-teaser__type"> <div class="nist-badge display-inline-block margin-y-1 nist-badge--green boolean">Completed</div> </div> </header> <div class="nist-teaser__content"> <div class="text-long"> Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are integrated devices with critical applications in sensing, timing, signal processing, and biomedical diagnostics, and </div> </div> </div> </article> <div class="link-list"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/laboratories/projects-programs/topic/248511">View All Projects/Programs</a></div> </div> <div class="tablet:grid-col-4 margin-y-2"> <h2 class="nist-block__title">Additional Resources Links</h2> <div class="nist-field nist-field--label-hidden nist-field--link-list link nist-field--link-list font-sans-sm"> <div class="nist-field__items"> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/publications/search?k=&d%5Bmin%5D=&d%5Bmax%5D=&t=&a=&s=All&ta%5B0%5D=248511&ta%5B1%5D=248511&n=">Publications</a></div> <div class="nist-field__item"><a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/laboratories/tools-instruments?k=&a%5B0%5D=248511&a%5B1%5D=248511&o=All&tag=">Tools & Instruments</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grid-container margin-y-5"> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--topic-text paragraph--view-mode--default"> <div class="nist-region-heading"> <h2> Key Accomplishments </h2> </div> <div class="tablet-lg:grid-col-8 padding-right-5"> <div class="text-long"><ul><li>As chips shrink in size, the semiconductor industry needs increasingly tiny rulers for measuring the widths of circuit features. NIST created an entirely new measurement method to meet this need and in 1979 issued its first photomask linewidth standard, which became an instant best seller. This standard reduced measurement discrepancies among companies tenfold, stimulated the production of new commercial instruments, extended the range of use of optical microscopes, and saved the industry millions of dollars annually.</li> <li>NIST is working with the semiconductor industry to overcome approaching physical limitations to chip improvement. NIST partnered with semiconductor companies through the <a data-entity-substitution="canonical" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="466e7df8-9aec-4886-ae6f-b163a3bbb95d" href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/industry-impacts/public-private-partnerships-semiconductor-research" title="Public-Private Partnerships for Semiconductor Research">Nanoelectronics Research Initiative</a> (NRI) to identify and tackle the biggest research challenges facing the industry. More than 700 students trained for high-tech professions through the NRI and 60 patent applications were filed based on work leveraging NRI.</li> <li>NIST operates two nanofabrication facilities to produce custom microfabricated devices for its research and measurements to support electrical standards, homeland security, and quantum computing and communications experiments. NIST also makes custom devices for partner institutions. The facilities each house about 50 instruments that lay down very thin layers of materials on silicon wafers, transfer patterns to the wafers, and precisely remove bits of material to make custom chips.</li> <li>NIST awarded funds for a research consortium focused on the development of new materials to enable novel computing and storage technologies. <a data-entity-substitution="canonical" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="a66033a1-0023-4777-b10a-7ae279340fe9" href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2018/02/nist-partners-university-effort-cutting-edge-semiconductor-technology" title="NIST Partners with University Effort for Cutting-Edge Semiconductor Technology">NEW LIMITS</a>, for NEW materials for LogIc, Memory, and InTerconnectS, seeks to create innovative solutions that will allow U.S. semiconductor producers to remain on the cutting edge. NEW LIMITS is funded through the Nanoelectronics Computing Research (nCORE) consortium, established in 2017 by NIST and SRCco, a not-for-profit subsidiary of the Semiconductor Research Corporation. </li> <li>Among recent research advances, NIST researchers and an industry colleague adapted a novel, <a data-entity-substitution="canonical" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="e15d6e23-b1f2-4f6f-bcd0-18425aedcbd9" href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2020/10/novel-low-cost-method-detects-nanoscale-contaminants-during-manufacture" title="A novel, low-cost method detects nanoscale contaminants during manufacture of semiconductor devices">low-cost microscopy method</a> to detect nanoscale contaminants during manufacture of semiconductor devices. As chips shrink in size, they become ever more sensitive to contamination, but detecting these flaws is challenging. The Through-Focus Scanning Optical Microscopy (TSOM) technique could easily be incorporated into the manufacturing process for semiconductor devices.</li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--topic-featured paragraph--view-mode--default nist-content-row--width-full bg-base-lightest margin-y-5"> <div class="grid-container"> <div class="nist-card nist-card--horizontal nist-card--horizontal-full nist-card--base-lightest"> <div class="nist-card__inner"> <div class="nist-card__image"> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230212235039/https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2022/01/commerce-department-requests-information-supporting-strong-us"> <div class="entity-reference"> <figure class="nist-image"> <img src="/web/20230212235039im_/https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/800w_x_400h/public/images/2021/11/23/5649209.jpg?itok=ICOZfEGQ" width="800" height="400" alt="Semiconductor" loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image"/> <figcaption class="nist-image__caption"> <div data-caption-editable="true" class="nist-image__caption-content"> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </a> </div> <div class="nist-card__title"> <h3> Commerce Department Requests Information on Supporting a Strong U.S. Semiconductor Industry </h3> </div> <div class="nist-card__content"> <div class="text-long"><p>The U.S. Department of Commerce is calling for information that will guide programs designed to support a strong domestic semiconductor industry. The Request for Information published on January 24 in the Federal Register asks for input to inform the planning and design of potential programs to incentivize investment in semiconductor manufacturing facilities and associated ecosystems; provide for shared infrastructure to accelerate semiconductor research, development, and prototyping; and support research related to advanced packaging and advanced metrology to ensure a robust domestic semiconductor industry. </p></div> </div> <div class="nist-card__links"> <div class="nist-card__button"> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230212235039/https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2022/01/commerce-department-requests-information-supporting-strong-us" class="usa-button ">Read the Department of Commerce press release</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grid-container margin-y-4"> <div class="nist-region-heading"> <h2>News</h2> </div> <div class="margin-bottom-5"> <div class="entity-reference"> <div class="nist-card nist-card--horizontal nist-card--horizontal-full"> <div class="nist-card__inner"> <div class="nist-card__image"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/blogs/taking-measure/my-first-semiconductor-standards-were-bust-or-were-they"> <div class="entity-reference"> <img src="/web/20230212235039im_/https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/600w_x_360h/public/images/2021/12/22/MBE_KB_closeup1.JPG?itok=k-PHjlIh" width="600" height="360" alt="A woman stands smiling in front of a large device with many metal parts and wires." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </div> </a> </div> <div class="nist-card__title"> <h3><span>My First Semiconductor Standards Were a Bust … or Were They?</span> </h3> </div> <div class="nist-card__content"> <div class="text-with-summary">Silicon is the most important semiconductor in the world. It forms the chips that are used for memory and processors in high-end computers, everyday consumer electronics and now in tiny little gadgets that do amazing things. But there is one thing that silicon cannot do well: produce light. For those devices that emit light, we use a class of materials called compound semiconductors. These</div> </div> <div class="nist-card__links"> <div class="nist-card__button"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/blogs/taking-measure/my-first-semiconductor-standards-were-bust-or-were-they" class="usa-button ">Read more</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--dynamic-news-list-topic paragraph--view-mode--default"> <div class="views-element-container"><div class="js-view-dom-id-87e6687fadd3c573315d73076d98579df7b064328e46e5106db57a0084840f1d"> <div class="grid-row grid-gap-2"> <div class="nist-card tablet:grid-col-4 nist-card--topic "> <div class="nist-card__inner"> <div class="nist-card__image"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2023/01/new-dna-biosensor-could-unlock-powerful-low-cost-clinical-diagnostics"> <div class="entity-reference"> <img src="/web/20230212235039im_/https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/800w_x_400h/public/images/2023/01/24/DNA-biosensor-draft.png?itok=ZpO2QDAF" width="800" height="400" alt="A graphical representation of a DNA biosensor device for clinical diagnostics that is the size and shape of a smartphone." loading="lazy" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </div> </a> </div> <div class="nist-card__title padding-y-5"> <h3><span property="schema:name">New DNA Biosensor Could Unlock Powerful, Low-Cost Clinical Diagnostics</span> </h3> </div> <div class="nist-card__links"> <div class="nist-card__button"> <a href="/web/20230212235039/https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2023/01/new-dna-biosensor-could-unlock-powerful-low-cost-clinical-diagnostics" class="usa-button ">Read more</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="nist-card tablet:grid-col-4 nist-card--topic "> <div class="nist-card__inner"> <div class="nist-card__image"> <a 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