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.ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Guiyi Circuit<br />Golden Mountain Kingdom of Western Han<br />Dunhuang Kingdom of Western Han</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">歸義軍</span></span> / <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">西漢金山國</span></span> / <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">西漢敦煌國</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">851–1036</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Guiyi_Circuit.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of Guiyi Circuit"><img alt="Location of Guiyi Circuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Guiyi_Circuit.png/250px-Guiyi_Circuit.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Guiyi_Circuit.png/375px-Guiyi_Circuit.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Guiyi_Circuit.png/500px-Guiyi_Circuit.png 2x" data-file-width="1044" data-file-height="721" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data">Circuit/Kingdom/Tributary to Tang dynasty</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data">Ganzhou (<a href="/wiki/Zhangye" title="Zhangye">Zhangye</a>)<br /> Shazhou (<a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Tibetan" title="Old Tibetan">Old Tibetan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data">Monarchy, Military</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">851</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1036</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Dingnan_Jiedushi" title="Dingnan Jiedushi">Dingnan Jiedushi</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Xiliangfu" title="Xiliangfu">Xiliangfu</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Ganzhou_Uyghur_Kingdom" title="Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom">Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Guiyi Circuit</b>, also known as the <b>Guiyi Army</b> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">歸義軍</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Guīyì Jūn</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Kui<sup>1</sup>-i<sup>4</sup> Chün<sup>1</sup></span></i>; <abbr title="Literal translation"><small>lit.</small></abbr> 'Returning-to-Righteousness Army', 848–1036 AD), <b>Golden Mountain Kingdom of Western Han</b> (<span lang="zh-Hant">西漢金山國</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Xīhàn Jīnshān guó</span></i>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Hsi-han Chin-shan kuo</span></i>, 909–911), and <b>Dunhuang Kingdom of Western Han</b> (<span lang="zh-Hant">西漢敦煌國</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Xīhàn Dūnhuáng guó</span></i>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Hsi-han Tun-huang kuo</span></i>, 911–914), was a Chinese regional military command and later an autonomous dynastic regime nominally subordinate to the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period#Five_Dynasties" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Song_(960%E2%80%931127)" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Song (960–1127)">Northern Song dynasty</a>. The Guiyi Circuit was controlled by the Zhang family from the second half of the 9th century to the 10th century and then the Cao family until the 11th century. The Guiyi Circuit was headquartered in Shazhou (沙州; modern-day <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tibetan_empire_greatest_extent_780s-790s_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Tibetan_empire_greatest_extent_780s-790s_CE.png/220px-Tibetan_empire_greatest_extent_780s-790s_CE.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Tibetan_empire_greatest_extent_780s-790s_CE.png/330px-Tibetan_empire_greatest_extent_780s-790s_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Tibetan_empire_greatest_extent_780s-790s_CE.png/440px-Tibetan_empire_greatest_extent_780s-790s_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="1792" data-file-height="1361" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a> at its greatest extent around the 780s and the 790s CE</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_army.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_army.jpg/400px-Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_army.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_army.jpg/600px-Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_army.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_army.jpg/800px-Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_army.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Section of a wall <a href="/wiki/Mural" title="Mural">mural</a> commemorating the victory of <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yichao" title="Zhang Yichao">Zhang Yichao</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Cave</a> 156, Late <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (9th century).</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_yichao_victory_procession.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Zhang_yichao_victory_procession.jpg/400px-Zhang_yichao_victory_procession.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Zhang_yichao_victory_procession.jpg/600px-Zhang_yichao_victory_procession.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Zhang_yichao_victory_procession.jpg/800px-Zhang_yichao_victory_procession.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1429" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>Section of a wall <a href="/wiki/Mural" title="Mural">mural</a> commemorating the victory of <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yichao" title="Zhang Yichao">Zhang Yichao</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hexi_Corridor" title="Hexi Corridor">Hexi Corridor</a> was an important part of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, connecting <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> with Northwest China. After the <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="An Lushan Rebellion">An Lushan Rebellion</a>, the Hexi Corridor was occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the 770s or the 780s, Shazhou, otherwise known as Dunhuang, was occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In respect to their political and social systems, the Tibetans made many changes in Dunhuang according to their own practice. As in many other conquered places, they sent a <i>rtse-rje</i> (Ch. Jieer ) to Dunhuang to be in charge of local administration. Since the Tang institutions in Dunhuang had totally broken down, all of the residents were reorganized into several <i>stong-sdes</i> (literally meaning "thousand households", equal to <i>buluo</i> in Chinese as seen from Dunhuang manuscripts) according to their professions or other standards. It is not very clear yet to what extent the previous social relations and structure were changed, but apparently the great families in Dunhuang remained influential in local affairs during the occupation period. Many members from the Zhang, Yin, Suo, Yan, and other clans were appointed by the Tibetan government to important positions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998101_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998101-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Yang Jidong</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zhang_family">Zhang family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Zhang family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_departure_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_departure_02.jpg/220px-Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_departure_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_departure_02.jpg/330px-Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_departure_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_departure_02.jpg/440px-Dunhuang_Zhang_Yichao_departure_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yichao" title="Zhang Yichao">Zhang Yichao</a> departing from a fortress</figcaption></figure> <p>After some 60 years of Tibetan rule, Tibet entered its <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Fragmentation" title="Era of Fragmentation">Era of Fragmentation</a> and was torn by civil war by 851. Tibetans in the Dunhuang region become part of a group known as wamo in Chinese historical sources. </p><p>In 848, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yichao" title="Zhang Yichao">Zhang Yichao</a>, a resident of Shazhou, led an uprising and captured Shazhou and <a href="/wiki/Guazhou_County" title="Guazhou County">Guazhou</a> from the Tibetans.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> There are some indications that Zhang Yichao's family was kept away from the political sphere of Dunhuang at that time. The surviving text of the famous stone tablet commemorating Zhang Huaishen's (Zhang Yichao's nephew) merits clearly shows that the property and land of the family were confiscated by the new government shortly after Dunhuang surrendered to the Tibetans. In another manuscript, P 3556, we find that Zhang Yichao's father, Zhang Qianyi, became a <i>xiaoyao zhike</i> ["a free man", a word usually used in traditional China to refer to an intellectual who refused to serve the government and lived in seclusion] and was kept out of political power during the Tibetan period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998106_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998106-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Yang Jidong</cite></div></blockquote> <p>By 850 Zhang had captured <a href="/wiki/Zhangye" title="Zhangye">Ganzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiuquan" title="Jiuquan">Suzhou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hami" title="Hami">Yizhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201340_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201340-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhang claimed the title of acting prefect of Shazhou and submitted a petition to <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xu%C4%81nzong_of_Tang" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Xuānzong of Tang">Emperor Xuānzong of Tang</a>, offering his loyalty and submission. </p><p>In 851 Zhang captured Xizhou (<a href="/wiki/Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Gaochang</a>). Envoys from Shazhou reached the Tang court and the emperor responded by naming Zhang's territory the Guiyi Circuit and made Zhang Yichao the Guiyi <a href="/wiki/Jiedushi" title="Jiedushi">Jiedushi</a> (歸義節度使, Governor of the Guiyi Circuit) and Cao Yijin his secretary general.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201340_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201340-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 856 Zhang attacked the Tibetans and defeated them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2015188_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2015188-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The bandits [the Tibetan coalition] had not expected that the Chinese troops would arrive so suddenly and were totally unprepared. Our armies proceeded to line up in a “black-cloud formation,” swiftly striking from all four sides. The barbarian bandits were panic-stricken. Like stars they splintered, north and south. The Chinese armies having gained the advantage, they pursued them, pressing close at their backs. Within fifteen miles, they caught up with them. This is the place where their slain corpses were strewn everywhere across the plain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2015188_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2015188-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Zhang Yichao Transformation Text</i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>By 861 the Guiyi Circuit had extended its authority to Guazhou, Ganzhou, Suzhou, Yizhou, <a href="/wiki/Lanzhou" title="Lanzhou">Lanzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haidong" title="Haidong">Shanzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linxia_Hui_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture">Hezhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dingxi" title="Dingxi">Minzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wuwei,_Gansu" title="Wuwei, Gansu">Liangzhou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hualong_Hui_Autonomous_County" title="Hualong Hui Autonomous County">Kuozhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201341_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201341-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogao_Cave_61,_painting_of_Mount_Wutai_monasteries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Mogao_Cave_61%2C_painting_of_Mount_Wutai_monasteries.jpg/220px-Mogao_Cave_61%2C_painting_of_Mount_Wutai_monasteries.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Mogao_Cave_61%2C_painting_of_Mount_Wutai_monasteries.jpg/330px-Mogao_Cave_61%2C_painting_of_Mount_Wutai_monasteries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Mogao_Cave_61%2C_painting_of_Mount_Wutai_monasteries.jpg/440px-Mogao_Cave_61%2C_painting_of_Mount_Wutai_monasteries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A 10th-century mural painting in the <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> depicting monastic architecture at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wutai" title="Mount Wutai">Mount Wutai</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_2.jpg/250px-T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_2.jpg/330px-T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_2.jpg/500px-T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>Monastic architecture in a mural painting, <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_1.jpg/220px-T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_1.jpg/330px-T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_1.jpg/440px-T%27ang_Architecture_in_the_Mo-kao_Fresco_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Monastic architecture in a mural painting, <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 866 Zhang Yichao defeated the Tibetan general bLon Khrom brZhe (<a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1106655535">.mw-parser-output .uchen{font-family:"Jomolhari","Uchen","Noto Serif Tibetan Medium","Noto Serif Tibetan","BabelStone Tibetan Slim","Yagpo Tibetan Uni","Noto Sans Tibetan","Microsoft Himalaya","Kailash","DDC Uchen","TCRC Youtso Unicode","Tibetan Machine Uni","Qomolangma-Uchen Sarchen","Qomolangma-Uchen Sarchung","Qomolangma-Uchen Suring","Qomolangma-Uchen Sutung","Qomolangma-Title","Qomolangma-Subtitle","DDC Rinzin","Qomolangma-Woodblock","Qomolangma-Dunhuang"}.mw-parser-output .ume{font-family:"Qomolangma-Betsu","Qomolangma-Chuyig","Qomolangma-Drutsa","Qomolangma-Edict","Qomolangma-Tsumachu","Qomolangma-Tsuring","Qomolangma-Tsutong","TibetanSambhotaYigchung","TibetanTsugRing","TibetanYigchung"}</style><span lang="bo" class="uchen" style="font-size:1.25em; vertical-align:middle; word-wrap:break-word;">བློན་ཁྲོམ་བཞེར་</span> <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E6%81%90%E7%86%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:論恐熱">論恐熱</a> Lun Kongre) and seized Luntai (<a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi" title="Ürümqi">Ürümqi</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Jimsar_County" title="Jimsar County">Tingzhou</a>. However they were immediately captured by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Qocho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Qocho">Kingdom of Qocho</a> afterwards. Xizhou was also captured by the Uyghurs. BLon Khrom brZhe was an attack commissioner in the region. After <a href="/wiki/Langdarma" title="Langdarma">Langdarma</a>'s death in 842, he fought constantly with another commissioner, Shang Bibi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201340_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201340-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was captured by Shang Bibi's subordinate, Tuoba Huaiguang, in 866 and sent to the Tang court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2013189_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2013189-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>At the same time, the rivalry between the two Tibetan generals, Kongre and Bibi, in the Hexi region worsened in 850. Their troops clashed several times in the eighth and ninth months, and Bibi suffered heavy casualties. The pro-Tang Zhang Yichao seized this opportunity to exert more military pressure on Kongre in 851. Kongre’s followers started to betray him. Desperate to strengthen his position among his dispirited followers, he told them: “I shall pay tributes to the Tang and borrow 500,000 Chinese soldiers to punish those who dare disobey me. I shall then make Weizhou the capital of my state and request Tang to confer on me the title Zanpu.” Kongre came to Chang’an in the fifth month and requested the title Military Commissioner. Emperor Xuanzong, however, had no intention of accepting him as an outer subject. He accorded Kongre an audience but rejected his request. Kongre came back to Weizhou to rally his forces. Many of his former supporters, however, now refused to follow him. With only three hundred companions, Kongre moved farther northwest to Kuozhou and ceased to be a threat to China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2013189_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2013189-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Wang Zhenping</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In 867 Zhang Yichao departed for the Tang court after his brother Yitan, who had been staying in <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> as a hostage, died. His nephew Zhang Huaishen succeeded him as Guiyi Jiedushi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201342_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201342-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 869 the Kingdom of Qocho attacked the Guiyi Circuit but was repelled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 870 the Kingdom of Qocho attacked the Guiyi Circuit but was repelled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 872 Zhang Yichao died at court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201342_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201342-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 876 the Kingdom of Qocho seized Yizhou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201342_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201342-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In 867 Zhang Yichao extended his influence to Longyou and Xizhou, when his brother Zhang Yitan 張議潭, who had been sent to the Tang court as a hostage, died in Chang’an. Complying with the order of the court, Zhang Yichao traveled to the court in person. He never returned but eventually died in Chang’an in 872. In his absence, his nephew Zhang Huaishen 張淮深 took over the rule of the Guiyijun, yet the Tang court did not officially appoint him military commissioner. Thus while Zhang Huaishen received no support from the Tang, the Uighurs, as part of their westward expansion, deeply invaded the territories of Ganzhou and Suzhou, and even attacked Guazhou. Even though Zhang Huaishen successfully defeated their scattered attacks, in 876 the Xizhou Uighurs seized Yizhou and with this the Guiyijun lost one of its important garrisons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201342_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201342-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rong Xinjiang</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In 880, Qocho attacked Shazhou, but was repelled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumer2012314_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumer2012314-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around the years 881 and 882, Ganzhou and Liangzhou slipped from the control of the Guiyi Circuit. The Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom would establish itself in Ganzhou by 894.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Liangzhou, the Tibetan state of <a href="/wiki/Xiliangfu" title="Xiliangfu">Xiliangfu</a> established itself by 906.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyavec201583_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyavec201583-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In another memorial presented to the Emperor Tang Yizong, Zhang Yichao implored the court not to abandon Liangzhou. It seems that the Wamo and Tibetans were trying hard to recapture Liangzhou in the late 860s, and their attacks appear to have been very heavy so that Chang'an was planning to withdraw from Liangzhou. Apparently, weak Tang could not give the Returning to Righteousness Army any practical help.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998130_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998130-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Yang Jidong</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In 890 Zhang Huaishen was assassinated and his cousin Zhang Huaiding succeeded him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201343_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201343-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 892 Zhang Huaiding died and left his son in the care of Suo Xun (索勳), son-in-law of Zhang Yichao. Suo Xun declared himself Guiyi Jiedushi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201343_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201343-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 894 Suo Xun was killed by a local aristocrat by the name of Li Mingzhen and Zhang Yichao's daughter. Li's sons shared control of Guiyi Circuit afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201343_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201343-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 896 Li Mingzhen's sons were ousted and Zhang Chengfeng (張承奉), a grandson of Zhang Yichao, became jiedushi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201343_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201343-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 904, Zhang Chengfeng attacked <a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Qocho</a> and seized Yizhou (<a href="/wiki/Hami" title="Hami">Hami</a>) and Xizhou (<a href="/wiki/Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Gaochang</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumer2012312_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumer2012312-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 910 Zhang Chengfeng received news of the Tang dynasty's demise and declared himself Emperor Baiyi. The Guiyi Circuit was renamed Kingdom of Jinshan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201344_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201344-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom_of_Jinshan">Kingdom of Jinshan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Kingdom of Jinshan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rulers of Guiyi in Dunhuang briefly called themselves "emperors" for a short period after the final collapse of the Tang dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 910 Zhang Chengfeng established a kingdom known as the Xihan Jinshan (西漢金山國 <i>Xīhàn Jīnshānguó</i>), "The Golden Mountain Kingdom of the Western Han," and gave himself the title of "<a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-归义军史研究_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-归义军史研究-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-補唐書張議潮傳補正_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-補唐書張議潮傳補正-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed by an invasion by the Ganzhou Uyghurs. </p><p>In 911 the Ganzhou Uyghurs attacked again and the Kingdom of Jinshan was forced to become a lesser partner in an alliance with the Ganzhou Uyghurs. The Great Chancellor (大宰相) and the elders of Jinshan State made a treaty with the Ganzhou Uyghurs, recognizing their superiority. The relationship between the two was prescribed as </p><p>        <i>"...the Khan is the father, and the Son of Heaven is the son..." (...可汗是父,天子是子...)<sup id="cite_ref-归义军史研究_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-归义军史研究-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>In 914 Cao Yijin usurped the throne and abolished the kingdom, reverting the name to Guiyi Army. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>During the Zhang family’s rule, the Guiyijun basically controlled the entire Hexi region but by the end of the 10th century it was only able to keep the prefectures of Guazhou and Shazhou. During the Cao family’s rule which began in 914, the Guiyijun maintained friendly relations with the Xizhou Uighurs in the west and the kingdom of Khotan. With Khotan they even entered into a marriage alliance, as the Khotanese king Li Shengtian 李聖天 married the daughter of Cao Yijin, and Cao Yanlu also married the third daughter of the king of Khotan. Hence there were very close contacts between the two states. We can even say that in the eyes of the Khotanese people the Hexi-based Guiyijun came to represent China proper. During the late 10th century, as a result of the holy war launched by the Islamic Karakhanid Khanate against Khotanese Buddhists, Khotan increasingly relied on its eastern neighbors to resist hostile invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013327-8_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013327-8-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rong Xinjiang</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cao_family">Cao family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cao family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YuTian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/YuTian.jpg/220px-YuTian.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/YuTian.jpg/330px-YuTian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/YuTian.jpg/440px-YuTian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="1109" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vi%C5%9Ba%27_Sa%E1%B9%83bhava" title="Viśa' Saṃbhava">Viśa' Saṃbhava</a> (r. 912–966), the king of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotan</a> and his queen, the daughter of Cao Yijin</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2021-12-17_21h00_46_(51754738440).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/2021-12-17_21h00_46_%2851754738440%29.png/220px-2021-12-17_21h00_46_%2851754738440%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/2021-12-17_21h00_46_%2851754738440%29.png/330px-2021-12-17_21h00_46_%2851754738440%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/2021-12-17_21h00_46_%2851754738440%29.png/440px-2021-12-17_21h00_46_%2851754738440%29.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="897" /></a><figcaption>Viśa' Saṃbhava and Cao Yijin, <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a> mural</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg/220px-Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg/330px-Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg/440px-Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="757" /></a><figcaption>Daughter of <a href="/wiki/Vi%C5%9Ba%27_Sa%E1%B9%83bhava" title="Viśa' Saṃbhava">Viśa' Saṃbhava</a>, the wife of Cao Yanlu (r. 976–1002)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 914 Cao Yijin (曹議金) usurped the throne and restored the name Guiyi Circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In 914, Cao Yijin 曹議金 (also called Cao Rengui 曹仁貴) took over the throne from Zhang Chengfeng, abolished the Jinshan state and the title of king, calling himself once again military commissioner of the Guiyijun. Cao Yijin improved the relationship with neighboring peoples, sent envoys to Ganzhou and married the daughter of the Uighur Khagan, thus reinforcing a positive relationship with the Uighurs. In 918 Cao Yijin, with the support of the Uighur Khagan, the puye 僕射 of Liangzhou and the xianggong 相公 of Lingzhou, sent envoys to the Later Liang and was conferred by the court the title of military commissioner of the Guiyijun. Cao Yijin constructed a large cave (Cave 98) at Mogao in celebration of being acknowledged by the central dynasty. He strengthened his rear by sending envoys to the Yizhou and Xizhou Uighurs, and in 925, took advantage of the change of khagans among the Ganzhou Uighurs and led a military campaign against them, defeating them after heavy fighting. The newly established khagan took Cao Yijin’s daughter as his wife and thus became the military commissioner’s son-in-law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201344_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201344-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rong Xinjiang</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In 916 Cao Yijin married a Ganzhou Uyghur princess and sent delegations to the <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Liang (Five Dynasties)">Later Liang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 924 the Ganzhou Uyghur Khagan died and his successors Renmei and Diyin declared war on each other, with Diyin coming out victorious.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 925 Cao Yijin defeated the Ganzhou Uyghurs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 926, Diyin died, and Aduoyu (阿咄欲) became the Khan of the Ganzhou Uyghurs. Aduoyu married a daughter of Cao Yijin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom_of_Guiyi">Kingdom of Guiyi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Kingdom of Guiyi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 931 Cao Yijin declared himself as Lord (令公) and Great King-reclaiming-the-west (拓西大王).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201344_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201344-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cao rulers continued using the Chinese reign era names, and maintained cordial relations with the Chinese heartland and its socio-political system.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 934 Cao Yijin married his daughter to the king of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotan</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Cao family of Dunhuang and the royal family of Khotan had close ties. The Khotanese king Visa Sambhava, who ruled Khotan from 912 to 966, also used the Chinese name Li Shengtian. Sometime before 936 he married the daughter of Cao Yijin. The Khotanese royal family maintained a residence in Dunhuang where Visa Sambhava’s wife often stayed and where the heir to the Khotanese throne lived. The crown prince’s residence functioned as a representative office for the Khotanese, and it is very possible that the Khotanese language documents found in cave 17 were an archive donated by the crown prince’s residence to the Three Realms Monastery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2015222_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2015222-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Valerie Hansen</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In 935 Cao Yijin died and was succeeded by his son, Cao Yuande.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200564_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200564-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 939 Cao Yuande (曹元德) died and was succeeded by his brother Yuanshen (曹元深).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200564_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200564-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 944 Cao Yuanshen died and his brother Yuanzhong (曹元忠) succeeded him. Cao Yuanzhong's reign was characterized by progress in agriculture, transportation, and printing.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relationship with the Ganzhou Uyghurs remained relatively stable during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 950 the first depiction of <a href="/wiki/Fire_lances" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire lances">fire lances</a> appeared in Shazhou. </p><p>In 974 Cao Yuanzhong died and his nephew Cao Yangong (曹延恭) succeeded him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200565_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200565-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 976 Cao Yangong died and his brother Yanlu (曹延祿) succeeded him. Yanlu married a Khotanese princess.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200523,_65_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200523,_65-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>During the Cao family’s rule of the Guiyijun in the Five Dynasties and early Song periods, the Yulin caves were also frequently visited by members of the Cao family, as it is attested by the many surviving donor images. For example, in Cave 16 the “Lady Li from Longxi 隴西, Princess Shengtian 聖天公主 of the Northern Uighurs” is the Uighur wife of Cao Yijin 曹議金. Donor figures and inscriptions of Guiyijun military commissioners Cao Yuande 曹元德, Cao Yuanzhong or Cao Yanlu can also be found in the Yulin caves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013477_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013477-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rong Xinjiang</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In 1002 Cao Yanlu's nephew Cao Zongshou rebelled in Shazhou. Cao Yanlu and his brother Cao Yanrui (曹延瑞) committed suicide. Cao Zongshou became ruler of Guiyi.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1014 Cao Zongshou died and his son Cao Xianshun (曹賢順) succeeded him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200546_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200546-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1028 the <a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tanguts</a> defeated the Ganzhou Uyghurs.<sup id="cite_ref-西夏紀_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-西夏紀-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1030 Cao Xianshun surrendered to the Tanguts.<sup id="cite_ref-西夏紀_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-西夏紀-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1036 the <a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tanguts</a>, who later established the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a>, annexed the Kingdom of Guiyi.<sup id="cite_ref-西夏紀_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-西夏紀-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg/250px-FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg/330px-FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg/500px-FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2413" data-file-height="1935" /></a><figcaption>Earliest known representation of a <a href="/wiki/Fire_lance" title="Fire lance">fire lance</a> (upper right), <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, 950 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogao_Christian_painting_(original_version).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg/250px-Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg/330px-Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1908" data-file-height="3118" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">Mogao Christian painting</a> dating back to the Guiyi era, a multicultural-influenced representation of Jesus Christ or a saint.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Buddhism</a> was prevalent in <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> (Shazhou) during the Guiyi period, and had been before as well under Tibetan rule. Under Tibetan rule, the number of Buddhist temples increased from 6 to 19 and more than 40 new caves were created. <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> classics were also taught in Buddhist monasteries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998101_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998101-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of Zhang Yichao's family converted to Buddhism. He also studied Buddhism in his youth. A manuscript from Dunhuang contains a signature that reads, "written by Buddha's secular disciple Zhang Yichao."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998108_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998108-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Zhang Yichao took over, the Buddhists of Dunhuang reconnected with the Tang court and he presented the work of Cheng'en, a monk from the <a href="/wiki/Hexi_Corridor" title="Hexi Corridor">Hexi Corridor</a>, to the Tang court to support the Buddhist restoration movement of emperors <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Xuanzong of Tang">Xuanzong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yizong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Yizong of Tang">Yizong</a>. Texts that had been lost in Dunhuang due to warfare were reproduced using Tang copies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013346-7_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013346-7-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite Zhang's association with Buddhism, due to a shortage of manpower, he made many temple households independent peasants to satisfy the demands of recruitment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998124_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998124-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the Tang dynasty collapsed and entered the <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period</a>, Buddhism in Dunghuang gravitated towards lay Buddhism and <a href="/wiki/Post-canonical_Buddhist_texts" title="Post-canonical Buddhist texts">apocryphal sūtras</a> rather than scripture-based tradition. At the beginning of the Guiyi period, the Buddhist master Faheng and his disciples Fajing and Fahai delivered lectures in Dunhuang. After 883, lectures by monks are no longer mentioned in manuscript colophons and only lay devotional practices such as building caves, erecting statues, and addresses to common people are recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013346-7_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013346-7-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to Buddhism, discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Nestorian Christian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> documents and other artifacts at Mogao Caves dating back to the Guiyi era reveal their coexistence in a multi-religious world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201373–5_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201373–5-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sogdians_of_Dunhuang">Sogdians of Dunhuang</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sogdians of Dunhuang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sogdian-Zoroastrian_Deities,_Tunhwang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Sogdian-Zoroastrian_Deities%2C_Tunhwang.jpg/240px-Sogdian-Zoroastrian_Deities%2C_Tunhwang.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Sogdian-Zoroastrian_Deities%2C_Tunhwang.jpg/360px-Sogdian-Zoroastrian_Deities%2C_Tunhwang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Sogdian-Zoroastrian_Deities%2C_Tunhwang.jpg/480px-Sogdian-Zoroastrian_Deities%2C_Tunhwang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1886" data-file-height="1372" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_Da%C4%93n%C4%81s" title="Sogdian Daēnās">Sogdian Daēnās</a></i>, a 10th-century line drawing uncovered at the <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a>, which is probably associated with the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)" title="Cult (religious practice)">cult</a> of the Sogdian people.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Tang and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Five Dynasties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, large communities of <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdians</a> lived in China, especially in the multicultural <i><a href="/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Entrepôt">entrepôt</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, a major center of Buddhist learning and home to the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the region occasionally fell under the rule of different states (the Tang, the Tibetan Empire, and later the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> led by the <a href="/wiki/Tanguts" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanguts">Tanguts</a>), it retained its multilingual nature as evidenced by an abundance of manuscripts (religious and secular) in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Khotanese</a> (another <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Iranian language">Eastern Iranian language</a> native to <a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">the region</a>), <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To the east of the Returning to Righteousness Army alone, names of some ten ethnic groups appear in both Chinese literature and Dunhuang manuscripts. Some of them had never been seen before in previous histories, such as the Wamo, the offsprings of the Chinese residents who were totally assimilated to the Tibetans during the century of Tibetan rule, and the Tokharian Longjia who came from Agni (Karashahr) and settled in many oases in the Gansu Corridor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998124_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998124-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Yang Jidong</cite></div></blockquote> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_surname" title="Chinese surname">Chinese surnames</a> listed in the <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">Tang-era Dunhuang manuscript</a> Pelliot chinois 3319V (containing the following text: 石定信右全石丑子石定奴福延福全保昌張丑子李千子李定信), the names of the Nine Zhaowu Clans (昭武九姓), the prominent ethnic Sogdian families of China, have been deduced.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these the most common Sogdian surname throughout China was <a href="/wiki/Sh%C3%AD_(surname)" title="Shí (surname)">Shi</a> (i.e. 石), whereas the surnames Shi (i.e. 史), <a href="/wiki/An_(surname)" class="mw-redirect" title="An (surname)">An</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mi_(surname)" title="Mi (surname)">Mi</a> (i.e. 米), <a href="/wiki/Kang_(Chinese_surname)" title="Kang (Chinese surname)">Kang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cao_(Chinese_surname)" title="Cao (Chinese surname)">Cao</a>, and <a href="/wiki/He_(surname)" title="He (surname)">He</a> appear frequently in Dunhuang manuscripts and registers.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhang Yichao appointed An Jingmin as vice commissioner of Guiyi, Kang Shijun as prefect of Guazhou, and Kang Tongxin as magistrate of some towns to the east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998121_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998121-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence of <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">Sinicized</a> and multilingual Sogdians during this <i>Guiyijun</i> (歸義軍) period (c. 850 - c. 1000 AD) of Dunhuang is evident in a large number of manuscripts written in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> from left to right instead of vertically, mirroring the direction of how the <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian alphabet</a> is read.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sogdians of Dunhuang also commonly formed and joined lay associations among their local communities, convening at Sogdian-owned <a href="/wiki/Tavern" title="Tavern">taverns</a> in scheduled meetings mentioned in their <a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">epistolary letters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>From the beginning of Tibetan rule over Dunhuang (786) through the Guiyijun period (848–1036), descendants of Sogdians were still active in Dunhuang. Zheng Binglin 鄭炳林 has published in succession a series of articles on the Sogdians in the Guiyijun, and on manuscripts written by Sogdians. Although these articles provide a detailed analysis of Sogdians in Dunhuang during this period, it is still questionable whether the sources he utilized indeed refer to Sogdians. Because of the continuous presence of Sogdians in Dunhuang and the substantial influence of Sogdian culture, I have raised the possibility that the Cao family who ruled Dunhuang during part of the Guiyijun period may have also been Sogdian descendants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013331_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013331-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rong Xinjiang</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mogao_Caves">Mogao Caves</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mogao Caves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tang-4_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dunhuang woman in Tang dress"><img alt="Dunhuang woman in Tang dress" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Tang-4_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Tang-4_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Tang-4_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Tang-4_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="790" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dunhuang woman in <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty#Status_in_clothing" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dress</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Female_figure_from_Bodhisattva_Who_Leads_the_Way,_from_Cave_17_at_Mo-kao,_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dunhuang Buddhist woman"><img alt="Dunhuang Buddhist woman" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Female_figure_from_Bodhisattva_Who_Leads_the_Way%2C_from_Cave_17_at_Mo-kao%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet.jpg/100px-Female_figure_from_Bodhisattva_Who_Leads_the_Way%2C_from_Cave_17_at_Mo-kao%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Female_figure_from_Bodhisattva_Who_Leads_the_Way%2C_from_Cave_17_at_Mo-kao%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet.jpg/150px-Female_figure_from_Bodhisattva_Who_Leads_the_Way%2C_from_Cave_17_at_Mo-kao%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Female_figure_from_Bodhisattva_Who_Leads_the_Way%2C_from_Cave_17_at_Mo-kao%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet.jpg/201px-Female_figure_from_Bodhisattva_Who_Leads_the_Way%2C_from_Cave_17_at_Mo-kao%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="269" data-file-height="482" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dunhuang Buddhist woman</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Full_Portrait_of_Lady_Liang-kuo.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Lady Liangguo, a Buddhist donor"><img alt="Lady Liangguo, a Buddhist donor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Full_Portrait_of_Lady_Liang-kuo.png/120px-Full_Portrait_of_Lady_Liang-kuo.png" decoding="async" width="115" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Full_Portrait_of_Lady_Liang-kuo.png/250px-Full_Portrait_of_Lady_Liang-kuo.png 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="784" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Lady Liangguo, a Buddhist donor</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_donors,_Guiyi_era.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Buddhist donor and her retinue, 983 AD"><img alt="Buddhist donor and her retinue, 983 AD" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Buddhist_donors%2C_Guiyi_era.jpg/250px-Buddhist_donors%2C_Guiyi_era.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Buddhist_donors%2C_Guiyi_era.jpg/330px-Buddhist_donors%2C_Guiyi_era.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Buddhist_donors%2C_Guiyi_era.jpg/500px-Buddhist_donors%2C_Guiyi_era.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="541" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Buddhist donor and her retinue, 983 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">AD</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_late_T%27ang_dynasty_Buddhist_donatress.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dunhuang Buddhist donor"><img alt="Dunhuang Buddhist donor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/A_late_T%27ang_dynasty_Buddhist_donatress.jpg/104px-A_late_T%27ang_dynasty_Buddhist_donatress.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/A_late_T%27ang_dynasty_Buddhist_donatress.jpg/155px-A_late_T%27ang_dynasty_Buddhist_donatress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/A_late_T%27ang_dynasty_Buddhist_donatress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="192" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dunhuang Buddhist donor</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Khotanese donors"><img alt="Khotanese donors" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg/124px-Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg/185px-Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg/247px-Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2289" data-file-height="3329" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotanese</a> donors</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_donors_from_Cave_98_at_Mo-kao.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dunhuang Buddhist women"><img alt="Dunhuang Buddhist women" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Buddhist_donors_from_Cave_98_at_Mo-kao.jpg/158px-Buddhist_donors_from_Cave_98_at_Mo-kao.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Buddhist_donors_from_Cave_98_at_Mo-kao.jpg/237px-Buddhist_donors_from_Cave_98_at_Mo-kao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Buddhist_donors_from_Cave_98_at_Mo-kao.jpg/316px-Buddhist_donors_from_Cave_98_at_Mo-kao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="982" data-file-height="1118" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dunhuang Buddhist women</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"补唐书张议潮传" by 罗振玉</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"吐蕃和平占領沙州城的宗教因素" by 張延清</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998101-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998101_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998101_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYang1998">Yang 1998</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lMZKDwAAQBAJ&dq=zhang+yichao+848&pg=PA122"><i>Maṇḍalas in the Making: The Visual Culture of Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang</i></a>. BRILL. December 18, 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004360402" title="Special:BookSources/9789004360402"><bdi>9789004360402</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dalas+in+the+Making%3A+The+Visual+Culture+of+Esoteric+Buddhism+at+Dunhuang&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2017-12-18&rft.isbn=9789004360402&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlMZKDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dzhang%2Byichao%2B848%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998106-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998106_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYang1998">Yang 1998</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201340-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201340_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201340_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201340_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2015188-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2015188_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2015188_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2015">Hansen 2015</a>, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201341-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201341_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2013189-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2013189_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2013189_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang2013">Wang 2013</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201342-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201342_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201342_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201342_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201342_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200557_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell-Smith2005">Russell-Smith 2005</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumer2012314-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumer2012314_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaumer2012">Baumer 2012</a>, p. 314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyavec201583-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyavec201583_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyavec2015">Ryavec 2015</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998130-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998130_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYang1998">Yang 1998</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201343-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201343_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201343_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201343_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201343_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumer2012312-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumer2012312_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaumer2012">Baumer 2012</a>, p. 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201344-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201344_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201344_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201344_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXin_Wen2023" class="citation book cs1">Xin Wen (2023). <i>The King's Road: Diplomacy and the Remaking of the Silk Road</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691237831" title="Special:BookSources/9780691237831"><bdi>9780691237831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King%27s+Road%3A+Diplomacy+and+the+Remaking+of+the+Silk+Road&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780691237831&rft.au=Xin+Wen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-归义军史研究-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-归义军史研究_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-归义军史研究_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"归义军史研究——唐宋时代敦煌历史考索" by 荣新江</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-補唐書張議潮傳補正-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-補唐書張議潮傳補正_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"羅叔言《補唐書張議潮傳》補正" by 向達</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013327-8-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013327-8_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 327-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200563_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell-Smith2005">Russell-Smith 2005</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0SdXEVaFTJ0C&dq=guiyi+cao+yijin&pg=PA189"><i>Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie</i></a>. Abhinav Publications. 1994. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170173137" title="Special:BookSources/9788170173137"><bdi>9788170173137</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dunhuang+Art%3A+Through+the+Eyes+of+Duan+Wenjie&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9788170173137&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0SdXEVaFTJ0C%26dq%3Dguiyi%2Bcao%2Byijin%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLilla_Russell-Smith2021" class="citation book cs1">Lilla Russell-Smith (2021). <i>Uygur Patronage in Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres on the Northern Silk Road in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries</i>. BRILL. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789047415695" title="Special:BookSources/9789047415695"><bdi>9789047415695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uygur+Patronage+in+Dunhuang%3A+Regional+Art+Centres+on+the+Northern+Silk+Road+in+the+Tenth+and+Eleventh+Centuries&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9789047415695&rft.au=Lilla+Russell-Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWenjie_Duan1994" class="citation book cs1">Wenjie Duan (1994). <i>Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie</i>. Abhinav Publications. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170173137" title="Special:BookSources/9788170173137"><bdi>9788170173137</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dunhuang+Art%3A+Through+the+Eyes+of+Duan+Wenjie&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9788170173137&rft.au=Wenjie+Duan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2015222-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2015222_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2015">Hansen 2015</a>, p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200564-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200564_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200564_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell-Smith2005">Russell-Smith 2005</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"中国古代印刷史" by 罗树宝</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"敦煌历史上的曹元忠时代" by 荣新江</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200565-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200565_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell-Smith2005">Russell-Smith 2005</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200523,_65-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200523,_65_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell-Smith2005">Russell-Smith 2005</a>, p. 23, 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013477-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013477_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 477.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"宋会要辑稿" by 徐松</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"续资治通鉴长编" by 李焘</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200546-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200546_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell-Smith2005">Russell-Smith 2005</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-西夏紀-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-西夏紀_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-西夏紀_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-西夏紀_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"西夏紀" by 戴锡章</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Genius of China", Robert Temple</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998108-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998108_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYang1998">Yang 1998</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013346-7-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013346-7_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013346-7_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 346-7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang1998124-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998124_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang1998124_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYang1998">Yang 1998</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong201373–5-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong201373–5_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 73–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galambos, Imre (2015), "<i>She</i> Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, <i>A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture</i>, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870-71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galambos, Imre (2015), "<i>She</i> Association Circulars from 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</li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galambos, Imre (2015), "<i>She</i> Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, <i>A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture</i>, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870, 873.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galambos, Imre (2015), "<i>She</i> Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, <i>A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture</i>, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 872-73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013331-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013331_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guiyi_Circuit&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAsimov1998" class="citation cs2">Asimov, M.S. (1998), <i>History of civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century Part One The historical, social and economic setting</i>, UNESCO Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+civilizations+of+Central+Asia+Volume+IV+The+age+of+achievement%3A+A.D.+750+to+the+end+of+the+fifteenth+century+Part+One+The+historical%2C+social+and+economic+setting&rft.pub=UNESCO+Publishing&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Asimov&rft.aufirst=M.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarfield1989" class="citation cs2">Barfield, Thomas (1989), <i>The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China</i>, Basil Blackwell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Perilous+Frontier%3A+Nomadic+Empires+and+China&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Barfield&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaumer2012" class="citation cs2">Baumer, Christoph (2012), <i>The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Central+Asia%3A+The+Age+of+the+Steppe+Warriors&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Baumer&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenson1998" class="citation cs2">Benson, Linda (1998), <i>China's last Nomads: the history and culture of China's Kazaks</i>, M.E. Sharpe</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+last+Nomads%3A+the+history+and+culture+of+China%27s+Kazaks&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Benson&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBiran2005" class="citation cs2">Biran, Michal (2005), <i>The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+of+the+Qara+Khitai+in+Eurasian+History%3A+Between+China+and+the+Islamic+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Biran&rft.aufirst=Michal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBregel2003" class="citation cs2">Bregel, Yuri (2003), <i>An Historical Atlas of Central Asia</i>, Brill</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Historical+Atlas+of+Central+Asia&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Bregel&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBosworth2000" class="citation cs2">Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2000), <i>The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century - Vol. 4, Part II : The Achievements (History of Civilizations of Central Asia)</i>, UNESCO Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Achievement%3A+A.D.+750+to+the+End+of+the+Fifteenth+Century+-+Vol.+4%2C+Part+II+%3A+The+Achievements+%28History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia%29&rft.pub=UNESCO+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=Clifford+Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBughra1983" class="citation cs2">Bughra, Imin (1983), <i>The history of East Turkestan</i>, Istanbul: Istanbul publications</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+East+Turkestan&rft.pub=Istanbul%3A+Istanbul+publications&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Bughra&rft.aufirst=Imin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrompp2005" class="citation cs2">Drompp, Michael Robert (2005), <i>Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documentary History</i>, Brill</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tang+China+And+The+Collapse+Of+The+Uighur+Empire%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Drompp&rft.aufirst=Michael+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGolden2011" class="citation cs2">Golden, Peter B. (2011), <i>Central Asia in World History</i>, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Asia+in+World+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Peter+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHansen2015" class="citation cs2">Hansen, Valerie (2015), <i>The Silk Road: A New History</i>, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+A+New+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaywood1998" class="citation cs2">Haywood, John (1998), <i>Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600-1492</i>, Barnes & Noble</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Atlas+of+the+Medieval+World%2C+AD+600-1492&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLatourette1964" class="citation cs2">Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1964), <i>The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1-2</i>, Macmillan</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese%2C+their+history+and+culture%2C+Volumes+1-2&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Latourette&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMackerras1990" class="citation cs2">Mackerras, Colin (1990), "Chapter 12 - The Uighurs", in Sinor, Denis (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">317–</span>342, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521243049" title="Special:BookSources/9780521243049"><bdi>9780521243049</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+12+-+The+Uighurs&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Early+Inner+Asia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E317-%3C%2Fspan%3E342&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780521243049&rft.aulast=Mackerras&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMillward2007" class="citation cs2">Millward, James A. (2007), <i>Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang</i>, Columbia University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eurasian+Crossroads%3A+A+History+of+Xinjiang&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Mackerras, Colin, The Uighur Empire: According to the T'ang Dynastic Histories, A Study in Sino-Uighur Relations, 744–840. Publisher: Australian National University Press, 1972. 226 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7081-0457-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7081-0457-6">0-7081-0457-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRong2013" class="citation cs2">Rong, Xinjiang (2013), <i>Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang</i>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004252332">10.1163/9789004252332</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004250420" title="Special:BookSources/9789004250420"><bdi>9789004250420</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eighteen+Lectures+on+Dunhuang&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004252332&rft.isbn=9789004250420&rft.aulast=Rong&rft.aufirst=Xinjiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRussell-Smith2005" class="citation cs2">Russell-Smith, Lilla (2005), <i>Uygur Patronage in Dunhuang</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uygur+Patronage+in+Dunhuang&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Russell-Smith&rft.aufirst=Lilla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRyavec2015" class="citation cs2">Ryavec, Karl E. (2015), <i>A Historical Atlas of Tibet</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+Atlas+of+Tibet&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Ryavec&rft.aufirst=Karl+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSinor1990" class="citation cs2">Sinor, Denis (1990), <i>The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24304-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24304-9"><bdi>978-0-521-24304-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Early+Inner+Asia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24304-9&rft.aulast=Sinor&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWang2013" class="citation cs2">Wang, Zhenping (2013), <i>Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War</i>, University of Hawaii Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tang+China+in+Multi-Polar+Asia%3A+A+History+of+Diplomacy+and+War&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Zhenping&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXiong2008" class="citation cs2">Xiong, Victor (2008), <i>Historical Dictionary of Medieval China</i>, United States of America: Scarecrow Press, Inc., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810860537" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810860537"><bdi>978-0810860537</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Medieval+China&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0810860537&rft.aulast=Xiong&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXue1992" class="citation cs2">Xue, Zongzheng (1992), <i>Turkic peoples</i>, 中国社会科学出版社</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkic+peoples&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Xue&rft.aufirst=Zongzheng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYang1998" class="citation cs2">Yang, Jidong (1998), <i>Zhang Yichao and Dunhuang in the 9th Century</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zhang+Yichao+and+Dunhuang+in+the+9th+Century&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Jidong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGuiyi+Circuit" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Central_Asian_history" title="Template:Central Asian history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Central_Asian_history" title="Template talk:Central Asian history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Central_Asian_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Central Asian history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Central_Asia62" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">History of Central Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Polities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mal%27ta%E2%80%93Buret%27_culture" title="Mal'ta–Buret' culture">Mal'ta–Buret' culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vakhsh_culture" title="Vakhsh culture">Vakhsh culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagar_culture" title="Tagar culture">Tagar culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyuk_culture" title="Uyuk culture">Uyuk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_culture" title="Pazyryk culture">Pazyryk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Guiyi Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ushrusana" title="Principality of Ushrusana">Ustrushana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Khuttal" title="Principality of Khuttal">Khuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferghana_Kingdom" title="Ferghana Kingdom">Ferghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Anxi Protectorate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshids_of_Sogdia" title="Ikhshids of Sogdia">Ikhshids of Sogdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Tokhara Yabghus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz Yabgus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27munids" title="Ma'munids">Ma'munids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farighunids" title="Farighunids">Farighunids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Great Seljuq Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_dynasty" title="Sufi dynasty">Sufi dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Fergana" title="Principality of Fergana">Principality of Fergana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Khanate of Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Central Asia">Chinese Central Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_art" title="Central Asian art">Central Asian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_art" title="Silk Road transmission of art">Silk Road transmission of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serindian_art" title="Serindian art">Serindian art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">Southern Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta" title="Sintashta">Sintashta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arzhan_culture" title="Arzhan culture">Arzhan kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_burials" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk burials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salbyk_kurgan" title="Salbyk kurgan">Salbyk kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filippovka_kurgans" title="Filippovka kurgans">Filippovka kurgans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulay%C3%AFq" title="Bulayïq">Bulayïq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizilgaha_caves" title="Kizilgaha caves">Kizilgaha caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumtura_Caves" title="Kumtura Caves">Kumtura Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subashi_Temple" title="Subashi Temple">Subashi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miran_(Xinjiang)" title="Miran (Xinjiang)">Miran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niya_ruins" title="Niya ruins">Niya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawak_Stupa" title="Rawak Stupa">Rawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumxuk" title="Tumxuk">Tumshuq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bezeklik_Caves" title="Bezeklik Caves">Bezeklik Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunhuang Caves">Dunhuang Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loulan_Kingdom" title="Loulan Kingdom">Loulan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beshbalik" title="Beshbalik">Beshbalik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noin-Ula_burial_site" title="Noin-Ula burial site">Noin-Ula burial site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Begash" title="Begash">Begash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issyk_kurgan" title="Issyk kurgan">Issyk kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jankent" title="Jankent">Jankent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karsakpay_inscription" title="Karsakpay inscription">Karsakpay inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerderi" title="Kerderi">Kerderi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krasnyi_Yar_(Kazakhstan)" title="Krasnyi Yar (Kazakhstan)">Krasnyi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merke_Turkic_Sanctuaries" title="Merke Turkic Sanctuaries">Merke Turkic Sanctuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyphs_of_Arpa-Uzen" title="Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen">Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrovka_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrovka settlement">Petrovka settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boralday_(archaeological_site)" title="Boralday (archaeological site)">Boralday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawran_(Kazakhstan)" title="Sawran (Kazakhstan)">Sawran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilikty" title="Shilikty">Shilikty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe_Geoglyphs" title="Steppe Geoglyphs">Steppe Geoglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumbe_(ancient_settlement)" title="Sumbe (ancient settlement)">Sumbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talapty_Settlement" title="Talapty Settlement">Talapty Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkistan_(city)" title="Turkistan (city)">Turkistan (city)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urpek" title="Urpek">Urpek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi" title="Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi">Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araltobe_kurgan" title="Araltobe kurgan">Araltobe kurgan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aigyr-Zhal_2" title="Aigyr-Zhal 2">Aigyr-Zhal 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balasagun" title="Balasagun">Balasagun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burana_Tower" title="Burana Tower">Burana Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issyk-Kul" title="Issyk-Kul">Issyk-Kul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koshoy_Korgon" title="Koshoy Korgon">Koshoy Korgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manas_Ordo" title="Manas Ordo">Manas Ordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navekat" title="Navekat">Navekat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96zg%C3%B6n" title="Özgön">Özgön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakh_Fazil" title="Shakh Fazil">Shakh Fazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suyab" title="Suyab">Suyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tash_Rabat" title="Tash Rabat">Tash Rabat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_(Samarkand)" title="Afrasiyab (Samarkand)">Afrasiyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akchakhan-Kala" title="Akchakhan-Kala">Akchakhan-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhsikath" title="Akhsikath">Akhsikath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Pap" title="Ancient Pap">Ancient Pap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayaz-Kala" title="Ayaz-Kala">Ayaz-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balalyk_Tepe" title="Balalyk Tepe">Balalyk Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burchmulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Burchmulla">Burchmulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalverzin_Tepe" title="Dalverzin Tepe">Dalverzin Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_castles_of_ancient_Khorezm" title="Desert castles of ancient Khorezm">Desert castles of ancient Khorezm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayaz_Tepe" title="Fayaz Tepe">Fayaz Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guldursun-Kala" title="Guldursun-Kala">Guldursun-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazorasp" title="Hazorasp">Hazorasp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itchan_Kala" title="Itchan Kala">Itchan Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafir-kala_(Uzbekistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Uzbekistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kampir_Tepe" title="Kampir Tepe">Kampir Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Tepe" title="Kara Tepe">Kara Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalchayan" title="Khalchayan">Khalchayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiva" title="Khiva">Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koi_Krylgan_Kala" title="Koi Krylgan Kala">Koi Krylgan Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koktepe" title="Koktepe">Koktepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyzyl-Kala" title="Kyzyl-Kala">Kyzyl-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obi-Rakhmat_Grotto" title="Obi-Rakhmat Grotto">Obi-Rakhmat Grotto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poykent" class="mw-redirect" title="Poykent">Poykent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmishsay" title="Sarmishsay">Sarmishsay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahrukhiya" title="Shahrukhiya">Shahrukhiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siypantosh_Rock_Paintings" title="Siypantosh Rock Paintings">Siypantosh Rock Paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavka_Kurgan" title="Tavka Kurgan">Tavka Kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toprak-Kala" title="Toprak-Kala">Toprak-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varakhsha" title="Varakhsha">Varakhsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarautsoy_Rock_Paintings" title="Zarautsoy Rock Paintings">Zarautsoy Rock Paintings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunjikat_(archeological_site)" title="Bunjikat (archeological site)">Bunjikat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penjikent" class="mw-redirect" title="Penjikent">Penjikent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajina_tepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajina tepe">Ajina tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyropolis" title="Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafir-kala_(Tajikistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Tajikistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarazm" title="Sarazm">Sarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-i_Kuwad" title="Takht-i Kuwad">Takht-i Kuwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-i_Sangin" title="Takht-i Sangin">Takht-i Sangin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalai_Kafirnigan" title="Kalai Kafirnigan">Kalai Kafirnigan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Dzhebel" title="Cave of Dzhebel">Cave of Dzhebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiward" title="Abiward">Abiward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altyndepe" title="Altyndepe">Altyndepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anau_culture" title="Anau culture">Anau culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anau,_Turkmenistan" title="Anau, Turkmenistan">Anau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dev-Kesken" class="mw-redirect" title="Dev-Kesken">Dev-Kesken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonur_Depe" title="Gonur Depe">Gonur Depe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeitun" title="Jeitun">Jeitun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Konye-Urgench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutlug_Timur_Minaret" title="Kutlug Timur Minaret">Kutlug Timur Minaret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monjukli_Depe" title="Monjukli Depe">Monjukli Depe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namazga-Tepe" title="Namazga-Tepe">Namazga-Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togolok" title="Togolok">Togolok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulug_Depe" title="Ulug Depe">Ulug Depe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilberjin_Tepe" title="Dilberjin Tepe">Dilberjin Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadda,_Afghanistan" title="Hadda, Afghanistan">Hadda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_Shotor" title="Tapa Shotor">Tapa Shotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shotorak_monastery" title="Shotorak monastery">Shotorak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paitava" title="Paitava">Paitava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaran" title="Bimaran">Bimaran</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tapa-i_Kafariha_Monastery" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tapa-i Kafariha Monastery">Tapa-i Kafariha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mes_Aynak" title="Mes Aynak">Mes Aynak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fondukistan_monastery" title="Fondukistan monastery">Fondukistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_Sardar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapa Sardar">Tapa Sardar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Narenj" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepe Narenj">Tepe Narenj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-e_Rostam" title="Takht-e Rostam">Takht-e Rostam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillya_Tepe" title="Tillya Tepe">Tillya Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemshi_Tepe" title="Yemshi Tepe">Yemshi Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Prophthasia" title="Alexandria Prophthasia">Alexandria Prophthasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Kupruk" title="Aq Kupruk">Aq Kupruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asqalan,_Afghanistan" title="Asqalan, Afghanistan">Asqalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darra-e_Kur" title="Darra-e Kur">Darra-e Kur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Nawar" title="Dasht-e Nawar">Dasht-e Nawar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan" title="Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan">Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firozkoh" title="Firozkoh">Firozkoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gawhar_Shad_Mausoleum" title="Gawhar Shad Mausoleum">Gawhar Shad Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Piyada" title="Haji Piyada">Haji Piyada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musalla_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Musalla Complex">Musalla Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagara_(ancient_city)" title="Nagara (ancient city)">Nagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qala-i-Jangi" title="Qala-i-Jangi">Qala-i-Jangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rag-i-Bibi" title="Rag-i-Bibi">Rag-i-Bibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surkh_Kotal" title="Surkh Kotal">Surkh Kotal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandian_complex" title="Bandian complex">Bandian complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Khajeh" title="Mount Khajeh">Mount Khajeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh" title="Shahr-e Sukhteh">Shahr-e Sukhteh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artifacts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sokh_snakes" title="Sokh snakes">Sokh snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlat_plaques" title="Orlat plaques">Orlat plaques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_silver_bowl" title="Hephthalite silver bowl">Hephthalite silver bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilek_silver_bowl" title="Chilek silver bowl">Chilek silver bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardez_Ganesha" title="Gardez Ganesha">Gardez Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">Mogao Christian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho" title="Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho">Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penjikent_murals" title="Penjikent murals">Penjikent murals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampul tapestry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_Da%C4%93n%C4%81s" title="Sogdian Daēnās">Sogdian Daēnās</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaran_Casket" class="mw-redirect" title="Bimaran Casket">Bimaran Casket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabul_hoard" title="Kabul hoard">Kabul hoard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_Inscription_of_Laghman" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic Inscription of Laghman">Aramaic Inscription of Laghman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Aramaic_inscription" title="Kandahar Aramaic inscription">Kandahar Aramaic inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pul-i-Darunteh_Aramaic_inscription" title="Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription">Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Bilingual_Rock_Inscription" title="Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription">Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Greek_Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka">Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrasiab_murals" title="Afrasiab murals">Afrasiab murals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal_(BM_119999)" title="Stamp seal (BM 119999)">Stamp seal (BM 119999)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_of_Khingila" title="Seal of Khingila">Seal of Khingila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Ice_Maiden" title="Siberian Ice Maiden">Siberian Ice Maiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum_plaque" title="Ai-Khanoum plaque">Ai-Khanoum plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saksanokhur_gold_buckle" title="Saksanokhur gold buckle">Saksanokhur gold buckle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boar_hunter_(Hermitage_Museum)" title="Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)">Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Collection_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Siberian Collection of Peter the Great">Siberian Collection of Peter the Great</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period_(Timeline)216" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:5d10k" title="Template:5d10k"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:5d10k" title="Template talk:5d10k"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:5d10k" title="Special:EditPage/Template:5d10k"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period_(Timeline)216" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" title="Timeline of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Five Dynasties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Liang (Five Dynasties)">Later Liang</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Jin_(Later_Tang_precursor)" title="Jin (Later Tang precursor)">Jin</a>) / <a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Later Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Later Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ten Kingdoms (Ten States)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Wu" title="Yang Wu">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Shu" title="Former Shu">Former Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Chu" title="Ma Chu">Chu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuyue" title="Wuyue">Wuyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_(Ten_Kingdoms)" title="Min (Ten Kingdoms)">Min</a> / (<a href="/wiki/Yin_(Five_Dynasties_period)" title="Yin (Five Dynasties period)">Yin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Han" title="Southern Han">Southern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingnan" title="Jingnan">Jingnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Shu" title="Later Shu">Later Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Tang" title="Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Han" title="Northern Han">Northern Han</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qi_(Li_Maozhen%27s_state)" title="Qi (Li Maozhen's state)">Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_(Five_Dynasties_period)" title="Zhao (Five Dynasties period)">Zhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_(Five_Dynasties_period)" title="Yan (Five Dynasties period)">Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>De facto</i> independent entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chuzhi" title="Wang Chuzhi">Yiwu Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dingnan_Jiedushi" title="Dingnan Jiedushi">Dingnan Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingyuan_Circuit" title="Qingyuan Circuit">Qingyuan Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%A9nh_H%E1%BA%A3i_qu%C3%A2n" title="Tĩnh Hải quân">Jinghai Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wuping_Circuit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wuping Circuit (page does not exist)">Wuping Circuit</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E5%B9%B3%E5%86%9B%E8%8A%82%E5%BA%A6%E4%BD%BF" class="extiw" title="zh:武平军节度使">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Guiyi Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youzhou_Jiedushi" title="Youzhou Jiedushi">Lulong Circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Neighboring states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balhae" title="Balhae">Balhae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganzhou_Uyghur_Kingdom" title="Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom">Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Fragmentation" title="Era of Fragmentation">Tibetan kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Đại Việt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Histories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_History_of_the_Five_Dynasties" title="Old History of the Five Dynasties">Old History of the Five Dynasties</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Records_of_the_Five_Dynasties" title="Historical Records of the Five Dynasties">Historical Records of the Five Dynasties</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals_of_the_Ten_Kingdoms" title="Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms">Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wudai_Huiyao" title="Wudai Huiyao">Wudai Huiyao</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="metadata coord-missing"></span> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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