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id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Distribution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Distribution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hawaiian–Emperor_seamount_chain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hawaiian–Emperor_seamount_chain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hawaiian–Emperor_seamount_chain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galápagos_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galápagos_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Galápagos Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galápagos_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iceland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iceland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Iceland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iceland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Turkey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>East Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraterrestrial_shield_volcanoes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraterrestrial_shield_volcanoes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Extraterrestrial shield volcanoes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extraterrestrial_shield_volcanoes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Shield volcano</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skildvulkaan" title="Skildvulkaan – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Skildvulkaan" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="بركان درعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بركان درعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80" title="शील्ड ज्वालामुखी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="शील्ड ज्वालामुखी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volc%C3%A0_escut" title="Volcà escut – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Volcà escut" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0t%C3%ADtov%C3%A1_sopka" title="Štítová sopka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Štítová sopka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skjoldvulkan" title="Skjoldvulkan – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skjoldvulkan" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schildvulkan" title="Schildvulkan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schildvulkan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilpvulkaan" title="Kilpvulkaan – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kilpvulkaan" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B7%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Ασπιδοειδές ηφαίστειο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ασπιδοειδές ηφαίστειο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volc%C3%A1n_en_escudo" title="Volcán en escudo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Volcán en escudo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Cilda_vulkano" title="Ŝilda vulkano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ŝilda vulkano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezkutu-sumendi" title="Ezkutu-sumendi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ezkutu-sumendi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="آتشفشان سپری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آتشفشان سپری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcan_bouclier" title="Volcan bouclier – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Volcan bouclier" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%9C%EC%83%81_%ED%99%94%EC%82%B0" title="순상 화산 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="순상 화산" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AD" title="Վահանային հրաբուխ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վահանային հրաբուխ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80" title="ढाल ज्वालामुखी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ढाल ज्वालामुखी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunung_berapi_perisai" title="Gunung berapi perisai – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gunung berapi perisai" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyngja" title="Dyngja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Dyngja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcano_a_scudo" title="Vulcano a scudo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vulcano a scudo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Шашыранды жанартау – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Шашыранды жанартау" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B2lkan_an_boukliye" title="Vòlkan an boukliye – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Vòlkan an boukliye" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%ABldvulkan" title="Schëldvulkan – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Schëldvulkan" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pajzsvulk%C3%A1n" title="Pajzsvulkán – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pajzsvulkán" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Штитест вулкан – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Штитест вулкан" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schildvulkaan" title="Schildvulkaan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schildvulkaan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A5%AF%E7%8A%B6%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1" title="楯状火山 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="楯状火山" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skjoldvulkan" title="Skjoldvulkan – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skjoldvulkan" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skjoldvulkan" title="Skjoldvulkan – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Skjoldvulkan" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcan_bloquier" title="Volcan bloquier – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Volcan bloquier" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulkan_tarczowy" title="Wulkan tarczowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wulkan tarczowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulc%C3%A3o_em_escudo" title="Vulcão em escudo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vulcão em escudo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A9%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Щитовой вулкан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Щитовой вулкан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield_volcano" title="Shield volcano – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Shield volcano" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0t%C3%ADtov%C3%BD_vulk%C3%A1n" title="Štítový vulkán – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Štítový vulkán" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0%C4%8Ditasti_vulkan" title="Ščitasti vulkan – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ščitasti vulkan" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Штитасти вулкан – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Штитасти вулкан" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0titasti_vulkan" title="Štitasti vulkan – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Štitasti vulkan" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilpitulivuori" title="Kilpitulivuori – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kilpitulivuori" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sk%C3%B6ldvulkan" title="Sköldvulkan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sköldvulkan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="கேடய எரிமலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கேடய எரிமலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%88" title="ภูเขาไฟรูปโล่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภูเขาไฟรูปโล่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mauna_Loa_Volcano.jpg/300px-Mauna_Loa_Volcano.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mauna_Loa_Volcano.jpg/450px-Mauna_Loa_Volcano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mauna_Loa_Volcano.jpg/600px-Mauna_Loa_Volcano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mauna_Loa" title="Mauna Loa">Mauna Loa</a>, a shield volcano in Hawaii</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_votive_shield.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Bronze_votive_shield.JPG/150px-Bronze_votive_shield.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Bronze_votive_shield.JPG/225px-Bronze_votive_shield.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Bronze_votive_shield.JPG/300px-Bronze_votive_shield.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="1783" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> warrior's <a href="/wiki/Shield" title="Shield">shield</a>—its circular shape and gently sloping surface, with a central raised area, is a shape shared by many shield volcanoes.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>shield volcano</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcano</a> named for its low profile, resembling a <a href="/wiki/Shield" title="Shield">shield</a> lying on the ground. It is formed by the eruption of highly fluid (low <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>) <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>, which travels farther and forms thinner flows than the more viscous lava erupted from a <a href="/wiki/Stratovolcano" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcano</a>. Repeated eruptions result in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield volcano's distinctive form. </p><p>Shield volcanoes are found wherever fluid, low-<a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> lava reaches the surface of a rocky planet. However, they are most characteristic of ocean <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_island" title="Volcanic island">island volcanism</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hot spots</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">continental rift</a> volcanism.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They include the largest active volcanoes on Earth, such as <a href="/wiki/Mauna_Loa" title="Mauna Loa">Mauna Loa</a>. Giant shield volcanoes are found on other planets of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Olympus_Mons" title="Olympus Mons">Olympus Mons</a> on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sapas_Mons" title="Sapas Mons">Sapas Mons</a> on <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term 'shield volcano' is taken from the German term <i>Schildvulkan</i>, coined by the Austrian geologist <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Suess" title="Eduard Suess">Eduard Suess</a> in 1888 and which had been <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calqued</a> into English by 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geology">Geology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="border:1px solid lightgray; float:right; margin-left:10px; margin-bottom:10px; background:#f9f9f9"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table style="border:1px solid lightgray; background:#fff" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div role="img" class="noresize" style="width: 400px; line-height: 1; text-align: center; background-color: #ffffff; position: relative;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Shield_volcano_unlabelled.svg/400px-Shield_volcano_unlabelled.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Shield_volcano_unlabelled.svg/600px-Shield_volcano_unlabelled.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Shield_volcano_unlabelled.svg/800px-Shield_volcano_unlabelled.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="490" /></span></span> <div style="position:absolute; left:61.6px; top:39.2px"><a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">Crust</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:186px; top:4.8px"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_eruption" title="Lateral eruption">Flank vent</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:234px; top:250px"><a href="/wiki/Magma_chamber" title="Magma chamber">Magma<br /> chamber</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:314px; top:226px"><a href="/wiki/Magma_conduit" class="mw-redirect" title="Magma conduit">Magma conduit</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:330px; top:54px"><a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">Caldera</a></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size:90%; padding-left:2px; padding-right:2px; text-align:center;">Diagram of the common structural features of a shield volcano </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Shield volcanoes are distinguished from the three other major volcanic types—<a href="/wiki/Stratovolcano" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcanoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lava_dome" title="Lava dome">lava domes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cinder_cone" title="Cinder cone">cinder cones</a>—by their structural form, a consequence of their particular <a href="/wiki/Magmatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Magmatic">magmatic</a> composition. Of these four forms, shield volcanoes erupt the least <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> lavas. Whereas stratovolcanoes and lava domes are the product of highly viscous flows, and cinder cones are constructed of <a href="/wiki/Explosive_eruption" title="Explosive eruption">explosively eruptive</a> <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a>, shield volcanoes are the product of gentle <a href="/wiki/Effusive_eruption" title="Effusive eruption">effusive eruptions</a> of highly fluid lavas that produce, over time, a broad, gently sloped eponymous "shield".<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-types_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-types-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the term is generally applied to <a href="/wiki/Basaltic" class="mw-redirect" title="Basaltic">basaltic</a> shields, it has also at times been applied to rarer <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scutiform" class="extiw" title="wikt:scutiform">scutiform</a> volcanoes of differing magmatic composition—principally <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_shield" title="Pyroclastic shield">pyroclastic shields</a>, formed by the accumulation of fragmentary material from particularly powerful explosive eruptions, and rarer <a href="/wiki/Felsic" title="Felsic">felsic</a> lava shields formed by unusually fluid felsic magmas. Examples of pyroclastic shields include <a href="/wiki/Billy_Mitchell_(volcano)" title="Billy Mitchell (volcano)">Billy Mitchell</a> volcano in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Purico_complex" title="Purico complex">Purico complex</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an example of a felsic shield is the <a href="/wiki/Ilgachuz_Range" title="Ilgachuz Range">Ilgachuz Range</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shield volcanoes are similar in origin to vast <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_plateau#Lava_plateau" title="Volcanic plateau">lava plateaus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">flood basalts</a> present in various parts of the world. These are eruptive features which occur along linear <a href="/wiki/Fissure_vent" title="Fissure vent">fissure vents</a> and are distinguished from shield volcanoes by the lack of an identifiable primary eruptive center.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-types_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-types-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Volcano#Active" title="Volcano">Active</a> shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over extremely long periods of time, resulting in the gradual build-up of edifices that can reach extremely large dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the exclusion of flood basalts, mature shields are the largest volcanic features on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-volcworld_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volcworld-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The summit of the largest <a href="/wiki/Subaerial" title="Subaerial">subaerial</a> volcano in the world, <a href="/wiki/Mauna_Loa" title="Mauna Loa">Mauna Loa</a>, lies 4,169 m (13,678 ft) above <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>, and the volcano, over 60 mi (100 km) wide at its base, is estimated to contain about 80,000 km<sup>3</sup> (19,000 cu mi) of basalt.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-shield-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mass of the volcano is so great that it has slumped the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">crust</a> beneath it a further 8 km (5 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-gspp_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gspp-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accounting for this subsidence and for the height of the volcano above the <a href="/wiki/Sea_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea floor">sea floor</a>, the "true" height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about 17,170 m (56,000 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mount_Everest" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a>, by comparison, is 8,848 m (29,029 ft) in height.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, a team led by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Houston" title="University of Houston">University of Houston</a>'s <a href="/wiki/William_Sager" title="William Sager">William Sager</a> announced the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Tamu_Massif" title="Tamu Massif">Tamu Massif</a>, an enormous extinct <a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">submarine</a> volcano, approximately 450 by 650 km (280 by 400 mi) in area, which dwarfs all previously known volcanoes on Earth. However, the extents of the volcano have not been confirmed.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Tamu Massif was initially believed to be a shield volcano, Sanger and his colleagues acknowledged in 2019 that Tamu Massif is not a shield volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanger_et_al_2019_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanger_et_al_2019-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shield volcanoes feature a gentle (usually 2° to 3°) slope that gradually steepens with elevation (reaching approximately 10°) before flattening near the summit, forming an overall upwardly convex shape. These slope characteristics have a <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> with age of the forming lava, with in the case of the Hawaiian chain, steepness increasing with age, as later lavas tend to be more alkali so are more viscous, with thicker flows, that travel less distance from the summit vents. <sup id="cite_ref-Moore1992_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore1992-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In height they are typically about one twentieth their width.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the general form of a "typical" shield volcano varies little worldwide, there are regional differences in their size and morphological characteristics. Typical shield volcanoes found in California and Oregon measure 3 to 4 mi (5 to 6 km) in diameter and 1,500 to 2,000 ft (500 to 600 m) in height,<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-types_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-types-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while shield volcanoes in the central Mexican <a href="/wiki/Michoac%C3%A1n%E2%80%93Guanajuato_volcanic_field" title="Michoacán–Guanajuato volcanic field">Michoacán–Guanajuato volcanic field</a> average 340 m (1,100 ft) in height and 4,100 m (13,500 ft) in width, with an average slope angle of 9.4° and an average volume of 1.7 km<sup>3</sup> (0.4 cu mi).<sup id="cite_ref-jvgr-1994_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jvgr-1994-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rift_zone" title="Rift zone">Rift zones</a> are a prevalent feature on shield volcanoes that is rare on other volcanic types. The large, decentralized shape of Hawaiian volcanoes as compared to their smaller, symmetrical Icelandic cousins<sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be attributed to rift eruptions. Fissure venting is common in Hawaiʻi; most Hawaiian eruptions begin with a so-called "wall of fire" along a major fissure line before centralizing to a small number of points. This accounts for their asymmetrical shape, whereas Icelandic volcanoes follow a pattern of central eruptions dominated by <a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">summit calderas</a>, causing the lava to be more evenly distributed or symmetrical.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-shield-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hvw-Hawaiian_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-Hawaiian-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-worldbook_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldbook-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eruptive_characteristics">Eruptive characteristics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Eruptive characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hawaiian_Eruption-numbers.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Hawaiian_Eruption-numbers.svg/300px-Hawaiian_Eruption-numbers.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Hawaiian_Eruption-numbers.svg/450px-Hawaiian_Eruption-numbers.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Hawaiian_Eruption-numbers.svg/600px-Hawaiian_Eruption-numbers.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Diagram of a <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_eruption" title="Hawaiian eruption">Hawaiian eruption</a>. (key: 1. <a href="/wiki/Ash_plume" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash plume">Ash plume</a> 2. <a href="/wiki/Lava_fountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava fountain">Lava fountain</a> 3. <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_crater" title="Volcanic crater">Crater</a> 4. <a href="/wiki/Lava_lake" title="Lava lake">Lava lake</a> 5. <a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">Fumaroles</a> 6. <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">Lava flow</a> 7. Layers of <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">ash</a> 8. <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">Stratum</a> 9. <a href="/wiki/Sill_(geology)" title="Sill (geology)">Sill</a> 10. <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">Magma</a> conduit 11. <a href="/wiki/Magma_chamber" title="Magma chamber">Magma chamber</a> 12. <a href="/wiki/Dike_(geology)" title="Dike (geology)">Dike</a>) <a href="/wiki/File:Hawaiian_Eruption-numbers.svg" title="File:Hawaiian Eruption-numbers.svg">Click for larger version</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Most of what is currently known about shield volcanic eruptive character has been gleaned from studies done on the volcanoes of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawaiʻi Island</a>, by far the most intensively studied of all shields because of their scientific accessibility;<sup id="cite_ref-epsl-2013_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epsl-2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the island lends its name to the slow-moving, effusive eruptions typical of shield volcanism, known as <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_eruption" title="Hawaiian eruption">Hawaiian eruptions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford-2003_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-2003-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These eruptions, the least explosive of volcanic events, are characterized by the effusive emission of highly fluid basaltic lavas with low <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">gaseous content</a>. These lavas travel a far greater distance than those of other eruptive types before solidifying, forming extremely wide but relatively thin magmatic sheets often less than 1 m (3 ft) thick.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-shield-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hvw-Hawaiian_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-Hawaiian-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low volumes of such lavas layered over long periods of time are what slowly constructs the characteristically low, broad profile of a mature shield volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-shield-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also unlike other eruptive types, Hawaiian eruptions often occur at decentralized <a href="/wiki/Fissure_vent" title="Fissure vent">fissure vents</a>, beginning with large "curtains of fire" that quickly die down and concentrate at specific locations on the volcano's rift zones. Central-vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains (both continuous and sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of cindery <a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">scoria</a> fragments; however, when the air is especially thick with <a href="/wiki/Pyroclast" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyroclast">pyroclasts</a>, they cannot cool off fast enough because of the surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, accumulating into <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_cone#Spatter_cone" title="Volcanic cone">spatter cones</a>. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long-lived; <a href="/wiki/Pu%CA%BBu_%CA%BB%C5%8C%CA%BB%C5%8D" title="Puʻu ʻŌʻō">Puʻu ʻŌʻō</a>, a cinder cone of <a href="/wiki/K%C4%ABlauea" title="Kīlauea">Kīlauea</a>, erupted continuously from January 3, 1983, until April 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw-Hawaiian_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-Hawaiian-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flows from Hawaiian eruptions can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics: <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81hoehoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāhoehoe">pāhoehoe</a> lava which is relatively smooth and flows with a ropey texture, and <a href="/wiki/%CA%BBa%CA%BB%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="ʻaʻā">ʻaʻā</a> flows which are denser, more viscous (and thus slower moving) and blockier. These lava flows can be anywhere between 2 and 20 m (10 and 70 ft) thick. ʻAʻā lava flows move through pressure— the partially solidified front of the flow steepens because of the mass of flowing lava behind it until it breaks off, after which the general mass behind it moves forward. Though the top of the flow quickly cools down, the molten underbelly of the flow is buffered by the solidifying rock above it, and by this mechanism, ʻaʻā flows can sustain movement for long periods of time. Pāhoehoe flows, in contrast, move in more conventional sheets, or by the advancement of lava "toes" in snaking lava columns. Increasing viscosity on the part of the lava or <a href="/wiki/Shear_(geology)" title="Shear (geology)">shear stress</a> on the part of local topography can morph a pāhoehoe flow into an ʻaʻā one, but the reverse never occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw-basaltic_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-basaltic-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although most shield volcanoes are by volume almost entirely Hawaiian and basaltic in origin, they are rarely exclusively so. Some volcanoes, such as <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wrangell" title="Mount Wrangell">Mount Wrangell</a> in Alaska and <a href="/wiki/Cofre_de_Perote" title="Cofre de Perote">Cofre de Perote</a> in Mexico, exhibit large enough swings in their historical magmatic eruptive characteristics to cast strict categorical assignment in doubt; one geological study of de Perote went so far as to suggest the term "compound shield-like volcano" instead.<sup id="cite_ref-jvgr-2010_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jvgr-2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most mature shield volcanoes have multiple cinder cones on their flanks, the results of tephra ejections common during incessant activity and markers of currently and formerly active sites on the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-volcworld_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volcworld-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hvw-Hawaiian_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-Hawaiian-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of these parasitic cones is at Puʻu ʻŌʻō on Kīlauea<sup id="cite_ref-worldbook_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldbook-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—continuous activity ongoing since 1983 has built up a 2,290 ft (698 m) tall cone at the site of one of the longest-lasting rift eruptions in known history.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Hawaiian shield volcanoes are not located near any <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate boundaries</a>; the volcanic activity of this island chain is distributed by the movement of the oceanic plate over an upwelling of magma known as a <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspot</a>. Over millions of years, the tectonic movement that moves continents also creates long volcanic trails across the seafloor. The Hawaiian and Galápagos shields, and other hotspot shields like them, are constructed of oceanic island basalt. Their lavas are characterized by high levels of <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-uoo-galapagos_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uoo-galapagos-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Features common in shield volcanism include <a href="/wiki/Lava_tube" title="Lava tube">lava tubes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vhp-shield_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vhp-shield-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lava tubes are cave-like volcanic straights formed by the hardening of overlaying lava. These structures help further the propagation of lava, as the walls of the tube <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">insulate</a> the lava within.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-lava_tubes_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-lava_tubes-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lava tubes can account for a large portion of shield volcano activity; for example, an estimated 58% of the lava forming Kīlauea comes from lava tubes.<sup id="cite_ref-vhp-shield_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vhp-shield-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some shield volcano eruptions, basaltic lava pours out of a long fissure instead of a central vent, and shrouds the countryside with a long band of volcanic material in the form of a broad <a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">plateau</a>. Plateaus of this type exist in Iceland, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho; the most prominent ones are situated along the <a href="/wiki/Snake_River" title="Snake River">Snake River</a> in Idaho and the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> in Washington and Oregon, where they have been measured to be over 1 mi (2 km) in thickness.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-shield-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calderas are a common feature on shield volcanoes. They are formed and reformed over the volcano's lifespan. Long eruptive periods form cinder cones, which then collapse over time to form calderas. The calderas are often filled up by progressive eruptions, or formed elsewhere, and this cycle of collapse and regeneration takes place throughout the volcano's lifespan.<sup id="cite_ref-volcworld_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volcworld-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Interactions between water and lava at shield volcanoes can cause some eruptions to become <a href="/wiki/Phreatic_eruption" title="Phreatic eruption">hydrovolcanic</a>. These explosive eruptions are drastically different from the usual shield volcanic activity<sup id="cite_ref-volcworld_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volcworld-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are especially prevalent at the waterbound volcanoes of the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian%E2%80%93Emperor_seamount_chain" title="Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain">Hawaiian Isles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw-Hawaiian_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-Hawaiian-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aa_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="ʻAʻa advances over solidified pāhoehoe on Kīlauea, Hawaiʻi"><img alt="ʻAʻa advances over solidified pāhoehoe on Kīlauea, Hawaiʻi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aa_large.jpg/150px-Aa_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aa_large.jpg/225px-Aa_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aa_large.jpg/300px-Aa_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/A%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="A'a">ʻAʻa</a> advances over solidified pāhoehoe on <a href="/wiki/K%C4%ABlauea" title="Kīlauea">Kīlauea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawaiʻi</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A pāhoehoe lava fountain on Kīlauea erupts"><img alt="A pāhoehoe lava fountain on Kīlauea erupts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg/150px-Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg/225px-Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg/300px-Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A pāhoehoe <a href="/wiki/Lava_fountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava fountain">lava fountain</a> on <a href="/wiki/K%C4%ABlauea" title="Kīlauea">Kīlauea</a> erupts</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Erta-ale_lac-de-lave_2001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A lava lake in the caldera of Erta Ale, an active shield volcano in Ethiopia"><img alt="A lava lake in the caldera of Erta Ale, an active shield volcano in Ethiopia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Erta-ale_lac-de-lave_2001.jpg/150px-Erta-ale_lac-de-lave_2001.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Erta-ale_lac-de-lave_2001.jpg/225px-Erta-ale_lac-de-lave_2001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Erta-ale_lac-de-lave_2001.jpg/300px-Erta-ale_lac-de-lave_2001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Lava_lake" title="Lava lake">lava lake</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">caldera</a> of <a href="/wiki/Erta_Ale" title="Erta Ale">Erta Ale</a>, an active shield volcano in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P%C4%81hoehoe_lava_meets_Pacific.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pāhoehoe flows enter the Pacific Ocean on Hawaiʻi island"><img alt="Pāhoehoe flows enter the Pacific Ocean on Hawaiʻi island" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/P%C4%81hoehoe_lava_meets_Pacific.jpg/150px-P%C4%81hoehoe_lava_meets_Pacific.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/P%C4%81hoehoe_lava_meets_Pacific.jpg/225px-P%C4%81hoehoe_lava_meets_Pacific.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/P%C4%81hoehoe_lava_meets_Pacific.jpg/300px-P%C4%81hoehoe_lava_meets_Pacific.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2824" data-file-height="1772" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pāhoehoe flows enter the Pacific Ocean on <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawaiʻi island</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a parasitic cinder cone on Kīlauea, lava fountaining at dusk in June 1983, near the start of its eruptive cycle"><img alt="Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a parasitic cinder cone on Kīlauea, lava fountaining at dusk in June 1983, near the start of its eruptive cycle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/146px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/220px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/293px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="578" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pu%CA%BBu_%CA%BB%C5%8C%CA%BB%C5%8D" title="Puʻu ʻŌʻō">Puʻu ʻŌʻō</a>, a parasitic <a href="/wiki/Cinder_cone" title="Cinder cone">cinder cone</a> on <a href="/wiki/K%C4%ABlauea" title="Kīlauea">Kīlauea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lava_fountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava fountain">lava fountaining</a> at dusk in June 1983, near the start of its eruptive cycle</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thurston_Lava_Tube,_Big_Island.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nāhuku, a lava tube on Hawaiʻi island, now a tourist attraction in the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park"><img alt="Nāhuku, a lava tube on Hawaiʻi island, now a tourist attraction in the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thurston_Lava_Tube%2C_Big_Island.jpg/150px-Thurston_Lava_Tube%2C_Big_Island.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thurston_Lava_Tube%2C_Big_Island.jpg/225px-Thurston_Lava_Tube%2C_Big_Island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thurston_Lava_Tube%2C_Big_Island.jpg/299px-Thurston_Lava_Tube%2C_Big_Island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Nāhuku, a <a href="/wiki/Lava_tube" title="Lava tube">lava tube</a> on <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawaiʻi island</a>, now a tourist attraction in the <a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBi_Volcanoes_National_Park" title="Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park">Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park</a> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_shield_volcanoes" title="List of shield volcanoes">List of shield volcanoes</a></div> <p>Shield volcanoes are found worldwide. They can form over hotspots (points where magma from below the surface wells up), such as the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian%E2%80%93Emperor_seamount_chain" title="Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain">Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Islands</a>, or over more conventional rift zones, such as the <a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Iceland" title="Volcanism of Iceland">Icelandic shields</a> and the shield volcanoes of East Africa. Although shield volcanoes are not usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>, they can occur over subduction zones. Many examples are found in California and Oregon, including Prospect Peak in <a href="/wiki/Lassen_Volcanic_National_Park" title="Lassen Volcanic National Park">Lassen Volcanic National Park</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Pelican_Butte" title="Pelican Butte">Pelican Butte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Crater" title="Belknap Crater">Belknap Crater</a> in Oregon. Many shield volcanoes are found in <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">ocean basins</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/K%C4%ABlauea" title="Kīlauea">Kīlauea</a> in Hawaii, although they can be found inland as well—East Africa being one example of this.<sup id="cite_ref-bk-2009_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bk-2009-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hawaiian–Emperor_seamount_chain"><span id="Hawaiian.E2.80.93Emperor_seamount_chain"></span>Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The largest and most prominent shield volcano chain in the world is the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a chain of hotspot volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean. The volcanoes follow a distinct <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes" title="Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes">evolutionary pattern</a> of growth and death.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chain contains at least 43 major volcanoes, and <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Seamount" title="Meiji Seamount">Meiji Seamount</a> at its terminus near the <a href="/wiki/Kuril%E2%80%93Kamchatka_Trench" title="Kuril–Kamchatka Trench">Kuril–Kamchatka Trench</a> is 85 million years old.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The youngest part of the chain is Hawaii, where the volcanoes are characterized by frequent rift eruptions, their large size (thousands of km<sup>3</sup> in volume), and their rough, decentralized shape. Rift zones are a prominent feature on these volcanoes and account for their seemingly random volcanic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are fueled by the movement of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Plate">Pacific Plate</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_hotspot" title="Hawaii hotspot">Hawaii hotspot</a> and form a long chain of volcanoes, <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">atolls</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">seamounts</a> 2,600 km (1,616 mi) long with a total volume of over 750,000 km<sup>3</sup> (179,935 cu mi).<sup id="cite_ref-lt_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lt-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chain includes Mauna Loa, a shield volcano which stands 4,170 m (13,680 ft) above sea level and reaches a further 13 km (8 mi) below the waterline and into the crust, approximately 80,000 km<sup>3</sup> (19,000 cu mi) of rock.<sup id="cite_ref-vhp-shield_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vhp-shield-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/K%C4%ABlauea" title="Kīlauea">Kīlauea</a>, another Hawaiian shield volcano, is one of the most active volcanoes on Earth, with its most recent eruption occurring in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-shield-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Galápagos_Islands"><span id="Gal.C3.A1pagos_Islands"></span>Galápagos Islands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Galápagos Islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Islands</a> are an isolated set of volcanoes, consisting of shield volcanoes and lava plateaus, about 1,100 km (680 mi) west of Ecuador. They are driven by the <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_hotspot" title="Galápagos hotspot">Galápagos hotspot</a>, and are between approximately 4.2 million and 700,000 years of age.<sup id="cite_ref-uoo-galapagos_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uoo-galapagos-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest island, <a href="/wiki/Isabela_Island_(Gal%C3%A1pagos)" title="Isabela Island (Galápagos)">Isabela</a>, consists of six coalesced shield volcanoes, each delineated by a large summit caldera. <a href="/wiki/Espa%C3%B1ola_Island" title="Española Island">Española</a>, the oldest island, and <a href="/wiki/Fernandina_Island" title="Fernandina Island">Fernandina</a>, the youngest, are also shield volcanoes, as are most of the other islands in the chain.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vsa_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vsa-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Galápagos Islands are perched on a large lava plateau known as the Galápagos Platform. This platform creates a shallow water depth of 360 to 900 m (1,181 to 2,953 ft) at the base of the islands, which stretch over a 174 mi (280 km) diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-uog_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uog-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s visit to the islands in 1835 during the <a href="/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle" title="Second voyage of HMS Beagle">second voyage of HMS <i>Beagle</i></a>, there have been over 60 recorded eruptions in the islands, from six different shield volcanoes.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vsa_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vsa-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the 21 emergent volcanoes, 13 are considered active.<sup id="cite_ref-uoo-galapagos_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uoo-galapagos-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cerro_Azul_(Ecuador_volcano)" title="Cerro Azul (Ecuador volcano)">Cerro Azul</a> is a shield volcano on the southwestern part of Isabela Island and is one of the most active in the Galapagos, with the last eruption between May and June 2008. The Geophysics Institute at the <a href="/wiki/National_Polytechnic_School_(Ecuador)" title="National Polytechnic School (Ecuador)">National Polytechnic School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quito" title="Quito">Quito</a> houses an international team of <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">volcanologists</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose responsibility is to monitor Ecuador's numerous active volcanoes in the Andean Volcanic Belt and the Galapagos Islands. <a href="/wiki/La_Cumbre_(Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands)" title="La Cumbre (Galápagos Islands)">La Cumbre</a> is an active shield volcano on Fernandina Island that has been erupting since April 11, 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Galápagos islands are geologically young for such a big chain, and the pattern of their rift zones follows one of two trends, one north-northwest, and one east–west. The composition of the lavas of the Galápagos shields are strikingly similar to those of the Hawaiian volcanoes. Curiously, they do not form the same volcanic "line" associated with most hotspots. They are not alone in this regard; the <a href="/wiki/Cobb%E2%80%93Eickelberg_Seamount_chain" title="Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain">Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain</a> in the North Pacific is another example of such a delineated chain. In addition, there is no clear pattern of age between the volcanoes, suggesting a complicated, irregular pattern of creation. How the islands were formed remains a geological mystery, although several theories have been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-galapagos_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-galapagos-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iceland">Iceland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Iceland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skjaldbreidur_Herbst_2004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Skjaldbreidur_Herbst_2004.jpg/220px-Skjaldbreidur_Herbst_2004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Skjaldbreidur_Herbst_2004.jpg/330px-Skjaldbreidur_Herbst_2004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Skjaldbreidur_Herbst_2004.jpg/440px-Skjaldbreidur_Herbst_2004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="458" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Skjaldbrei%C3%B0ur" title="Skjaldbreiður">Skjaldbreiður</a> is a shield volcano in <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, whose name means <i>broad shield</i> in Icelandic.</figcaption></figure> <p>Located over the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">divergent</a> <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic plate</a> boundary in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, Iceland is the site of about 130 volcanoes of various types.<sup id="cite_ref-worldbook_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldbook-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Icelandic shield volcanoes are generally of <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> age, between 5,000 and 10,000 years old. The volcanoes are also very narrow in distribution, occurring in two bands in the West and North Volcanic Zones. Like Hawaiian volcanoes, their formation initially begins with several eruptive centers before centralizing and concentrating at a single point. The main shield then forms, burying the smaller ones formed by the early eruptions with its lava.<sup id="cite_ref-uog_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uog-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Icelandic shields are mostly small (~15 km<sup>3</sup> (4 cu mi)), symmetrical (although this can be affected by surface topography), and characterized by eruptions from summit calderas.<sup id="cite_ref-uog_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uog-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are composed of either <a href="/wiki/Tholeiitic_magma_series" title="Tholeiitic magma series">tholeiitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Picrite_basalt" title="Picrite basalt">picritic basalt</a>. The tholeiitic shields tend to be wider and shallower than the picritic shields.<sup id="cite_ref-1996-iceland_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1996-iceland-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They do not follow the pattern of caldera growth and destruction that other shield volcanoes do; caldera may form, but they generally do not disappear.<sup id="cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uog_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uog-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Turkey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bing%C3%B6l_Mountains" title="Bingöl Mountains">Bingöl Mountains</a> are one of the shield volcanoes in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Africa">East Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: East Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In East Africa, volcanic activity is generated by the development of the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">East African Rift</a> and from nearby hotspots. Some volcanoes interact with both. Shield volcanoes are found near the rift and off the coast of Africa, although stratovolcanoes are more common. Although sparsely studied, the fact that all of its volcanoes are of Holocene age reflects how young the volcanic center is. One interesting characteristic of East African volcanism is a penchant for the formation of <a href="/wiki/Lava_lake" title="Lava lake">lava lakes</a>; these semi-permanent lava bodies, extremely rare elsewhere, form in about 9% of African eruptions.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-africa_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-africa-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most active shield volcano in Africa is <a href="/wiki/Nyamuragira" title="Nyamuragira">Nyamuragira</a>. Eruptions at the shield volcano are generally centered within the large summit caldera or on the numerous fissures and cinder cones on the volcano's flanks. Lava flows from the most recent century extend down the flanks more than 30 km (19 mi) from the summit, reaching as far as <a href="/wiki/Lake_Kivu" title="Lake Kivu">Lake Kivu</a>. <a href="/wiki/Erta_Ale" title="Erta Ale">Erta Ale</a> in Ethiopia is another active shield volcano and one of the few places in the world with a permanent lava lake, which has been active since at least 1967, and possibly since 1906.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs-africa_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-africa-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other volcanic centers include <a href="/wiki/Menengai" title="Menengai">Menengai</a>, a massive shield caldera,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Marsabit" title="Mount Marsabit">Mount Marsabit</a> in Kenya. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extraterrestrial_shield_volcanoes">Extraterrestrial shield volcanoes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Extraterrestrial shield volcanoes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_extraterrestrial_mountains" title="Category:Lists of extraterrestrial mountains">Category:Lists of extraterrestrial mountains</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olympus_Mons_and_Hawaii_to_scale.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Olympus_Mons_and_Hawaii_to_scale.png/220px-Olympus_Mons_and_Hawaii_to_scale.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Olympus_Mons_and_Hawaii_to_scale.png/330px-Olympus_Mons_and_Hawaii_to_scale.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Olympus_Mons_and_Hawaii_to_scale.png/440px-Olympus_Mons_and_Hawaii_to_scale.png 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Scaled image showing <a href="/wiki/Olympus_Mons" title="Olympus Mons">Olympus Mons</a>, top, and the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaiian island chain</a>, bottom. <a href="/wiki/Volcanology_of_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanology of Mars">Martian volcanoes</a> are far larger than those found on Earth.</figcaption></figure> <p>Shield volcanoes are not limited to Earth; they have been found on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter's</a> moon, <a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)" title="Io (moon)">Io</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dk_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dk-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Mars" title="Volcanism on Mars">shield volcanoes of Mars</a> are very similar to the shield volcanoes on Earth. On both planets, they have gently sloping flanks, collapse craters along their central structure, and are built of highly fluid lavas. Volcanic features on Mars were observed long before they were first studied in detail during the 1976–1979 <a href="/wiki/Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking mission</a>. The principal difference between the volcanoes of Mars and those on Earth is in terms of size; Martian volcanoes range in size up to 14 mi (23 km) high and 370 mi (595 km) in diameter, far larger than the 6 mi (10 km) high, 74 mi (119 km) wide Hawaiian shields.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest of these, <a href="/wiki/Olympus_Mons" title="Olympus Mons">Olympus Mons</a>, is the tallest known mountain on any planet in the solar system. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Venus" title="Volcanism on Venus">Venus has over 150 shield volcanoes</a> which are much flatter, with a larger surface area than those found on Earth, some having a diameter of more than 700 km (430 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the majority of these are long extinct it has been suggested, from observations by the <a href="/wiki/Venus_Express" title="Venus Express">Venus Express spacecraft</a>, that many may still be active.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shield_volcano&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSchmincke2003" class="citation book cs1">Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003). <i>Volcanism</i>. Berlin: Springer. pp. 127–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540436508" title="Special:BookSources/9783540436508"><bdi>9783540436508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Volcanism&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=127-128&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9783540436508&rft.aulast=Schmincke&rft.aufirst=Hans-Ulrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShield+volcano" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlescia2004" class="citation journal cs1">Plescia, J. B. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2002JE002031">"Morphometric properties of Martian volcanoes"</a>. <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>109</b> (E3): E03003. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JGRE..109.3003P">2004JGRE..109.3003P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2002JE002031">10.1029/2002JE002031</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Morphometric+properties+of+Martian+volcanoes&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=E3&rft.pages=E03003&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2002JE002031&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004JGRE..109.3003P&rft.aulast=Plescia&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2002JE002031&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShield+volcano" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeddieHead1994" class="citation journal cs1">Keddie, Susan T.; Head, James W. (1994). "Sapas Mons, Venus: evolution of a large shield volcano". <i>Earth, Moon, and Planets</i>. <b>65</b> (2): 129–190. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994EM&P...65..129K">1994EM&P...65..129K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00644896">10.1007/BF00644896</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122532573">122532573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth%2C+Moon%2C+and+Planets&rft.atitle=Sapas+Mons%2C+Venus%3A+evolution+of+a+large+shield+volcano&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129-190&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122532573%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00644896&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994EM%26P...65..129K&rft.aulast=Keddie&rft.aufirst=Susan+T.&rft.au=Head%2C+James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShield+volcano" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas_Harper2010" class="citation web cs1">Douglas Harper (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/search?q=shield+volcano">"Shield volcano"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>. Douglas Harper<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Shield+volcano&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Douglas+Harper&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dshield%2Bvolcano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShield+volcano" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/178068?redirectedFrom=shield+volcano#eid22885288">"Shield volcano"</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usgs-types-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-types_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-types_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-types_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Watson2011" class="citation web cs1">John Watson (1 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html">"Principal Types of Volcanoes"</a>. United States Geological Survey<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Principal+Types+of+Volcanoes&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft.date=2011-03-01&rft.au=John+Watson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fgip%2Fvolc%2Ftypes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShield+volcano" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hvw-shield-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvw-shield_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140102135754/http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/shieldvolc_page.html">"How Volcanoes Work: Shield Volcanoes"</a>. San Diego State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/shieldvolc_page.html">the original</a> on 2 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Volcanoes+Work%3A+Shield+Volcanoes&rft.pub=San+Diego+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geology.sdsu.edu%2Fhow_volcanoes_work%2Fshieldvolc_page.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShield+volcano" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=355094">"Purico Complex"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Global_Volcanism_Program" title="Global Volcanism Program">Global Volcanism Program</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of North Dakota. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/volcano_types/shield.htm">the original</a> on 8 August 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shield+Volcanoes&rft.pub=University+of+North+Dakota&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvolcano.und.edu%2Fvwdocs%2Fvwlessons%2Fvolcano_types%2Fshield.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShield+volcano" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usgs-shield-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs-shield_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopinka2005" class="citation web cs1">Topinka, Lyn (28 December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/ShieldVolcano/description_shield_volcano.html">"Description: Shield Volcano"</a>. 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Shield_volcanoes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Shield volcanoes">Shield volcanoes</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Volcanoes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Cryovolcano" title="Cryovolcano">Cryovolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptoexplosion" title="Cryptoexplosion">Cryptovolcanic structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissure_vent" title="Fissure vent">Fissure vent</a></li> <li>Lava cone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_dome" title="Lava dome">Lava dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maar" title="Maar">Maar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">Mud volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_cone" title="Parasitic cone">Parasitic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_cone" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyroclastic cone">Pyroclastic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_shield" title="Pyroclastic shield">Pyroclastic shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cone" title="Rootless cone">Rootless cone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shield volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somma_volcano" title="Somma volcano">Somma volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratovolcano" title="Stratovolcano">Stratovolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subglacial_volcano" title="Subglacial volcano">Subglacial volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tossol" title="Tossol">Tossol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_cone" title="Volcanic cone">Volcanic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_tremor" title="Harmonic tremor">Harmonic tremor</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/90px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/135px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/180px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="578" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">Volcanic rocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agglomerate" title="Agglomerate">Agglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">Andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">Basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basaltic_andesite" title="Basaltic andesite">Basaltic andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benmoreite" title="Benmoreite">Benmoreite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blairmorite" title="Blairmorite">Blairmorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">Cinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">Dacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felsite" title="Felsite">Felsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite">Ignimbrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">Komatiite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapilli" title="Lapilli">Lapilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latite" title="Latite">Latite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucitite" title="Leucitite">Leucitite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">Nephelinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonolite" title="Phonolite">Phonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonotephrite" title="Phonotephrite">Phonotephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">Pumice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyodacite" title="Rhyodacite">Rhyodacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">Rhyolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">Tephra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephriphonolite" title="Tephriphonolite">Tephriphonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyandesite" title="Trachyandesite">Trachyandesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachybasalt" title="Trachybasalt">Trachybasalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyte" title="Trachyte">Trachyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">Tuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_fall" title="Pyroclastic fall">Pyroclastic fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">Pyroclastic flow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Lists and groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">Hotspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_volcanoes" title="Lists of volcanoes">Lists of volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanic_eruptions_by_death_toll" title="List of volcanic eruptions by death toll">Eruptions by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decade_Volcanoes" title="Decade Volcanoes">Decade Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_belt" title="Volcanic belt">Volcanic belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_field" title="Volcanic field">Volcanic field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monogenetic_volcanic_field" title="Monogenetic volcanic field">monogenetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygenetic_volcanic_field" title="Polygenetic volcanic field">polygenetic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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