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id="toc-Jakobson's_six_functions_of_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jakobson's_six_functions_of_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Jakobson's six functions of language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jakobson's_six_functions_of_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Related fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Formalization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formalization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formalization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rational_Speech_Act_and_Probabilistic_Pragmatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rational_Speech_Act_and_Probabilistic_Pragmatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Rational Speech Act and Probabilistic Pragmatics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rational_Speech_Act_and_Probabilistic_Pragmatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_literary_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literary_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>In literary theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literary_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significant_works_and_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significant_works_and_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Significant works and concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Significant_works_and_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pragmatics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 61 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">61 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatiek_(taalkunde)" title="Pragmatiek (taalkunde) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Pragmatiek (taalkunde)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تداوليات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تداوليات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragm%C3%A1tica" title="Pragmática – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pragmática" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praqmatika" title="Praqmatika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Praqmatika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Прагматика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Прагматика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragm%C3%A0tica" title="Pragmàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pragmàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmateg" title="Pragmateg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pragmateg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatik_(lingvistik)" title="Pragmatik (lingvistik) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pragmatik (lingvistik)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatik_(Linguistik)" title="Pragmatik (Linguistik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pragmatik (Linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmaatika" title="Pragmaatika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pragmaatika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πραγματολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πραγματολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragm%C3%A1tica" title="Pragmática – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pragmática" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatiko" title="Pragmatiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pragmatiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="کاربردشناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کاربردشناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatique_(linguistique)" title="Pragmatique (linguistique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pragmatique (linguistique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragm%C3%A1tica" title="Pragmática – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pragmática" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%EC%9A%A9%EB%A1%A0" title="화용론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화용론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="संकेतप्रयोगविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संकेतप्रयोगविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatik" title="Pragmatik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pragmatik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatica" title="Pragmatica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pragmatica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="פרגמטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרגמטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="პრაგმატიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პრაგმატიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Прагматика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Прагматика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isimu_amali" title="Isimu amali – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Isimu amali" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Прагматика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Прагматика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/banpliske" title="banpliske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="banpliske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Прагматика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Прагматика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="सापेक्ष अर्थच्‍छटाशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सापेक्ष अर्थच्‍छटाशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatik" title="Pragmatik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pragmatik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatiek_(taalkunde)" title="Pragmatiek (taalkunde) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pragmatiek (taalkunde)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E7%94%A8%E8%AB%96" title="語用論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="語用論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9F%DF%8A%DF%AC%DF%93%DF%8A%DF%B0%DF%99%DF%8A%DF%AC%DF%9F%DF%8C%DF%AC%DF%A2%DF%8A" title="ߟߊ߬ߓߊ߰ߙߊ߬ߟߌ߬ߢߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߟߊ߬ߓߊ߰ߙߊ߬ߟߌ߬ߢߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatikk" title="Pragmatikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pragmatikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatica" title="Pragmatica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pragmatica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="پراګماتیکس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پراګماتیکس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatyka" title="Pragmatyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pragmatyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragm%C3%A1tica" title="Pragmática – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pragmática" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic%C4%83" title="Pragmatică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Pragmatică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Прагматика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Прагматика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pragmatics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Прагматика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Прагматика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatiikka" title="Pragmatiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pragmatiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatik" title="Pragmatik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pragmatik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatiks" title="Pragmatiks – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pragmatiks" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="சூழ்பொருளியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சூழ்பொருளியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วัจนปฏิบัติศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วัจนปฏิบัติศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edimbilim" title="Edimbilim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Edimbilim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Прагматика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Прагматика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_d%E1%BB%A5ng_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Ngữ dụng học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ dụng học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatika" title="Pragmatika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pragmatika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E7%94%A8%E5%AD%B8" title="語用學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="語用學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%94%A8%E5%AD%A6" title="语用学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="语用学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of linguistics and semiotics relating context to meaning</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the subfield of linguistics. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics_(journal)" title="Pragmatics (journal)"><i>Pragmatics</i> (journal)</a>. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and related fields, <b>pragmatics</b> is the study of how <a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a> contributes to meaning. The field of study evaluates how human language is utilized in social interactions, as well as the relationship between the interpreter and the interpreted.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguists who specialize in pragmatics are called <b>pragmaticians</b>. The field has been represented since 1986 by the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA). </p><p>Pragmatics encompasses phenomena including <a href="/wiki/Implicature" title="Implicature">implicature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech acts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">relevance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">conversation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Mey_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mey-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">nonverbal communication</a>. Theories of pragmatics go hand-in-hand with theories of <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>, which studies aspects of meaning, and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> which examines sentence structures, principles, and relationships. The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called <i>pragmatic competence</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1938, Charles Morris first distinguished pragmatics as an independent subfield within semiotics, alongside syntax and semantics.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pragmatics emerged as its own subfield in the 1950s after the pioneering work of <a href="/wiki/J.L._Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Austin">J.L. Austin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_the_field">Origin of the field</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin of the field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Pragmatics" title="Special:EditPage/Pragmatics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Pragmatics was a reaction to <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralist</a> linguistics as outlined by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>. In many cases, it expanded upon his idea that language has an analyzable structure, composed of parts that can be defined in relation to others. Pragmatics first engaged only in <a href="/wiki/Course_in_General_Linguistics#Synchronic_and_diachronic_axes" title="Course in General Linguistics">synchronic</a> study, as opposed to examining the historical development of language. However, it rejected the notion that all meaning comes from <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">signs</a> existing purely in the abstract space of <i>langue</i>. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Historical_pragmatics" title="Historical pragmatics">historical pragmatics</a> has also come into being. The field did not gain linguists' attention until the 1970s, when two different schools emerged: the Anglo-American pragmatic thought and the European continental pragmatic thought (also called the perspective view).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areas_of_interest">Areas of interest</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Areas of interest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Pragmatics" title="Special:EditPage/Pragmatics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The study of the speaker's meaning focusing not on the phonetic or grammatical form of an utterance but on what the speaker's intentions and beliefs are.</li> <li>The study of the meaning in context and the influence that a given context can have on the message. It requires knowledge of the speaker's identities, and the place and time of the utterance.</li> <li>The study of <a href="/wiki/Implicature" title="Implicature">implicatures</a>: the things that are communicated even though they are not explicitly expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The study of relative distance, both social and physical, between speakers in order to understand what determines the choice of what is said and what is not said.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The study of what is not meant, as opposed to the intended meaning: what is unsaid and unintended, or unintentional.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_structure" title="Information structure">Information structure</a>, the study of how utterances are marked in order to efficiently manage the common ground of referred entities between speaker and hearer.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_Pragmatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal Pragmatics">Formal Pragmatics</a>, the study of those aspects of meaning and use for which context of use is an important factor by using the methods and goals of <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">formal semantics</a>.</li> <li>The study of the role of pragmatics in the development of children with <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">autism spectrum disorders</a> or developmental language disorder <a href="/wiki/Developmental_language_disorder" title="Developmental language disorder">(DLD).</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ambiguity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></div> <p>Ambiguity refers to when it is difficult to infer meaning without knowing the context, the identity of the speaker or the speaker's intent. For example, the sentence "You have a green light" is ambiguous, as without knowing the context, one could reasonably interpret it as meaning: </p> <ul><li>the space that belongs to you has green ambient lighting;</li> <li>you are driving through a green traffic signal;</li> <li>you no longer have to wait to continue driving;</li> <li>you are permitted to proceed in a non-driving context;</li> <li>your body is cast in a greenish glow;</li> <li>you possess a light source which radiates green; or</li> <li>you possess a light with a green surface.</li></ul> <p>Another example of an ambiguous sentence is, "I went to the bank." This is an example of lexical ambiguity, as the word bank can either be in reference to a place where money is kept, or the edge of a river. To understand what the speaker is truly saying, it is a matter of context, which is why it is pragmatically ambiguous as well.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, the sentence "Sherlock saw the man with binoculars" could mean that Sherlock observed the man by using binoculars, or it could mean that Sherlock observed a man who was holding binoculars (<i><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">syntactic ambiguity</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meaning of the sentence depends on an understanding of the context and the speaker's intent. As defined in linguistics, a sentence is an abstract entity: a string of words divorced from non-linguistic context, as opposed to an <a href="/wiki/Utterance" title="Utterance">utterance</a>, which is a concrete example of a <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech act</a> in a specific context. The more closely conscious subjects stick to common words, idioms, phrasings, and topics, the more easily others can surmise their meaning; the further they stray from common expressions and topics, the wider the variations in interpretations. That suggests that sentences do not have intrinsic meaning, that there is no meaning associated with a sentence or word, and that either can represent an idea only symbolically. <i>The cat sat on the mat</i> is a sentence in English. If someone were to say to someone else, "The cat sat on the mat", the act is itself an utterance. That implies that a sentence, term, expression or word cannot symbolically represent a single true meaning; such meaning is underspecified (which cat sat on which mat?) and potentially ambiguous. By contrast, the meaning of an utterance can be inferred through knowledge of both its linguistic and non-linguistic contexts (which may or may not be sufficient to resolve ambiguity). In mathematics, with <a href="/wiki/Berry%27s_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Berry's paradox">Berry's paradox</a>, there arises a similar systematic ambiguity with the word "definable". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Referential_uses_of_language">Referential uses of language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Referential uses of language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Pragmatics" title="Special:EditPage/Pragmatics">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The referential uses of language are how <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">signs</a> are used to refer to certain items. A sign is the link or relationship between a <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">signified and the signifier</a> as defined by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Ren%C3%A9_Huguenin" title="Jean-René Huguenin">Jean-René Huguenin</a>. The signified is some entity or concept in the world. The signifier represents the signified. An example would be: </p> <dl><dd><i>Signified: the concept cat</i></dd> <dd><i>Signifier: the word "cat"</i></dd></dl> <p>The relationship between the two gives the sign meaning. The relationship can be explained further by considering what is meant by "meaning." In pragmatics, there are two different types of meaning to consider: <b>semantic-referential meaning</b> and <b>indexical meaning.</b> <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Semantic-referential meaning refers to the aspect of meaning, which describes events in the world that are independent of the circumstance they are uttered in. An example would be propositions such as: </p> <dl><dd><i>"Santa Claus eats cookies."</i></dd></dl> <p>In this case, the proposition is describing that Santa Claus eats cookies. The meaning of the proposition does not rely on whether or not Santa Claus is eating cookies at the time of its utterance. Santa Claus could be eating cookies at any time and the meaning of the proposition would remain the same. The meaning is simply describing something that is the case in the world. In contrast, the proposition, "Santa Claus is eating a cookie right now", describes events that are happening at the time the proposition is uttered. </p><p>Semantic-referential meaning is also present in meta-semantical statements such as: </p> <dl><dd><i>Tiger: carnivorous, a mammal</i></dd></dl> <p>If someone were to say that a tiger is a carnivorous animal in one context and a mammal in another, the definition of tiger would still be the same. The meaning of the sign tiger is describing some animal in the world, which does not change in either circumstance. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Indexical" class="mw-redirect" title="Indexical">Indexical</a> meaning, on the other hand, is dependent on the context of the utterance and has rules of use. By rules of use, it is meant that indexicals can tell when they are used, but not what they actually mean. </p> <dl><dd><i>Example</i>: "I"</dd></dl> <p>Whom "I" refers to, depends on the context and the person uttering it. </p><p>As mentioned, these meanings are brought about through the relationship between the signified and the signifier. One way to define the relationship is by placing signs in two categories: <b>referential indexical signs,</b> also called "shifters", and <b>pure indexical signs.</b> </p><p>Referential indexical signs are signs where the meaning shifts depending on the context hence the nickname "shifters." 'I' would be considered a referential indexical sign. The referential aspect of its meaning would be '1st person singular' while the indexical aspect would be the person who is speaking (refer above for definitions of semantic-referential and indexical meaning). Another example would be: </p> <dl><dd><i>"This"</i></dd> <dd><i>Referential: singular count</i></dd> <dd><i>Indexical: Close by</i></dd></dl> <p>A pure indexical sign does not contribute to the meaning of the propositions at all. It is an example of a "non-referential use of language." </p><p>A second way to define the signified and signifier relationship is <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">C.S. Peirce</a>'s <b>Peircean Trichotomy</b>. The components of the trichotomy are the following: </p> <dl><dd>1. <b>Icon</b>: the signified resembles the signifier (signified: a dog's barking noise, signifier: bow-wow)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>2. <b>Index</b>: the signified and signifier are linked by proximity or the signifier has meaning only because it is pointing to the signified<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>3. <b>Symbol</b>: the signified and signifier are arbitrarily linked (signified: a cat, signifier: the word cat)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>These relationships allow signs to be used to convey intended meaning. If two people were in a room and one of them wanted to refer to a characteristic of a chair in the room he would say "this chair has four legs" instead of "a chair has four legs." The former relies on context (indexical and referential meaning) by referring to a chair specifically in the room at that moment while the latter is independent of the context (semantico-referential meaning), meaning the concept chair.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Referential_expressions_in_conversation">Referential expressions in conversation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Referential expressions in conversation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Referring</a> to things and people is a common feature of conversation, and conversants do so <a href="/wiki/Collaboration" title="Collaboration">collaboratively</a>. Individuals engaging in <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> utilize pragmatics.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, individuals within the scope of discourse cannot help but avoid intuitive use of certain utterances or word choices in an effort to create communicative success.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study of referential language is heavily focused upon <a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">definite descriptions</a> and referent accessibility. Theories have been presented for why direct referent descriptions occur in discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (In layman's terms: why reiteration of certain names, places, or individuals involved or as a topic of the conversation at hand are repeated more than one would think necessary.) Four factors are widely accepted for the use of referent language including (i) competition with a possible referent, (ii) <a href="/wiki/Salience_(language)" title="Salience (language)">salience</a> of the referent in the context of discussion (iii) an effort for unity of the parties involved, and finally, (iv) a blatant presence of distance from the last referent.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Referential expressions are a form of <a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">anaphora.</a><sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also a means of connecting past and present thoughts together to create context for information at hand. Analyzing the context of a sentence and determining whether or not the use of referent expression is necessary is highly reliant upon the author/speaker's digression- and is correlated strongly with the use of pragmatic competency.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nonreferential_uses_of_language">Nonreferential uses of language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nonreferential uses of language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silverstein's_"Pure"_Indexes"><span id="Silverstein.27s_.22Pure.22_Indexes"></span>Silverstein's "Pure" Indexes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Silverstein's "Pure" Indexes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Silverstein" title="Michael Silverstein">Michael Silverstein</a> has argued that "nonreferential" or "pure" indices do not contribute to an utterance's referential meaning but instead "signal some particular value of one or more contextual variables."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilverstein1976_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverstein1976-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although nonreferential indexes are devoid of semantico-referential meaning, they do encode "pragmatic" meaning. </p><p>The sorts of contexts that such indexes can mark are varied. Examples include: </p> <ul><li><b>Sex indexes</b> are affixes or inflections that index the sex of the speaker, e.g. the verb forms of female <a href="/wiki/Koasati_language" title="Koasati language">Koasati</a> speakers take the suffix "-s".</li> <li><b>Deference indexes</b> are words that signal social differences (usually related to status or age) between the speaker and the addressee. The most common example of a deference index is the V form in a language with a <a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">T–V distinction</a>, the widespread phenomenon in which there are multiple second-person pronouns that correspond to the addressee's relative status or familiarity to the speaker. <a href="/wiki/Honorific" title="Honorific">Honorifics</a> are another common form of deference index and demonstrate the speaker's respect or esteem for the addressee via special forms of address and/or self-humbling first-person pronouns.</li> <li>An <b>Affinal taboo index</b> is an example of <a href="/wiki/Avoidance_speech" title="Avoidance speech">avoidance speech</a> that produces and reinforces sociological distance, as seen in the Aboriginal <a href="/wiki/Dyirbal_language" title="Dyirbal language">Dyirbal language</a> of Australia. In that language and some others, there is a social taboo against the use of the everyday lexicon in the presence of certain relatives (mother-in-law, child-in-law, paternal aunt's child, and maternal uncle's child). If any of those relatives are present, a Dyirbal speaker has to switch to a completely separate lexicon reserved for that purpose.</li></ul> <p>In all of these cases, the semantico-referential meaning of the utterances is unchanged from that of the other possible (but often impermissible) forms, but the pragmatic meaning is vastly different. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_performative">The performative</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The performative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performative utterance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Speech_act_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech act theory">Speech act theory</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/J.L._Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Austin">J.L. Austin</a> introduced the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">performative</a>, contrasted in his writing with "constative" (i.e. descriptive) utterances. According to Austin's original formulation, a performative is a type of utterance characterized by two distinctive features: </p> <ul><li>It is not <a href="/wiki/Logical_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical value">truth-evaluable</a> (i.e. it is neither true nor false)</li> <li>Its uttering <i>performs</i> an action rather than simply describing one</li></ul> <p>Examples: </p> <ul><li>"I hereby pronounce you man and wife."</li> <li>"I accept your apology."</li> <li>"This meeting is now adjourned."</li></ul> <p>To be performative, an utterance must conform to various conditions involving what Austin calls <a href="/wiki/Felicity_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Felicity conditions">felicity</a>. These deal with things like appropriate context and the speaker's authority. For instance, when a couple has been arguing and the husband says to his wife that he accepts her apology even though she has offered nothing approaching an apology, his assertion is infelicitous: because she has made neither expression of regret nor request for forgiveness, there exists none to accept, and thus no act of accepting can possibly happen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jakobson's_six_functions_of_language"><span id="Jakobson.27s_six_functions_of_language"></span>Jakobson's six functions of language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Jakobson's six functions of language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jakobson%27s_functions_of_language" title="Jakobson's functions of language">Jakobson's functions of language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roma_jakobson_theory.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Roma_jakobson_theory.png/220px-Roma_jakobson_theory.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Roma_jakobson_theory.png/330px-Roma_jakobson_theory.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Roma_jakobson_theory.png/440px-Roma_jakobson_theory.png 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>The six factors of an effective verbal communication. To each one corresponds a communication function (not displayed in this picture).<sup id="cite_ref-Middleton_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middleton-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a>, expanding on the work of <a href="/wiki/Karl_B%C3%BChler" title="Karl Bühler">Karl Bühler</a>, described six "constitutive factors" of a <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech event</a>, each of which represents the privileging of a corresponding function, and only one of which is the referential (which corresponds to the <b>context</b> of the speech event). The six constitutive factors and their corresponding functions are diagrammed below. </p><p><b>The six constitutive factors of a speech event</b> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>Context</dd> <dd>Message</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Addresser --------------------- Addressee </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>Contact</dd> <dd>Code</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p><br /> <b>The six functions of language</b> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>Referential</dd> <dd>Poetic</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Emotive ----------------------- Conative </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>Phatic</dd> <dd>Metalingual</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The Referential Function corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and <a href="/wiki/Deixis" title="Deixis">deictic</a> words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen now."</li> <li>The Expressive (alternatively called "emotive" or "affective") Function relates to the Addresser and is best exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Interjections" class="mw-redirect" title="Interjections">interjections</a> and other sound changes that do not alter the <a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">denotative meaning</a> of an utterance but do add information about the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e.g. "Wow, what a view!"</li> <li>The Conative Function engages the Addressee directly and is best illustrated by <a href="/wiki/Vocative" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocative">vocatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperatives</a>, e.g. "Tom! Come inside and eat!"</li> <li>The Poetic Function focuses on "the message for its own sake"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuranti1997_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuranti1997-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Phatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phatic">Phatic</a> Function is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers.</li> <li>The Metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive") Function is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe itself.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_fields">Related fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Related fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is considerable overlap between pragmatics and <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>, since both share an interest in <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_meaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic meaning">linguistic meaning</a> as determined by usage in a speech community. However, sociolinguists tend to be more interested in variations in language within such communities. Influences of philosophy and politics are also present in the field of pragmatics, as the dynamics of societies and oppression are expressed through language <sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pragmatics helps anthropologists relate elements of language to broader social phenomena; it thus pervades the field of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">linguistic anthropology</a>. Because pragmatics describes generally the forces in play for a given utterance, it includes the study of power, gender, race, identity, and their interactions with individual speech acts. For example, the study of <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code switching</a> directly relates to pragmatics, since a switch in code effects a shift in pragmatic force.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuranti1997_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuranti1997-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Morris" title="Charles W. Morris">Charles W. Morris</a>, pragmatics tries to understand the relationship between signs and their users, while <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> tends to focus on the actual objects or ideas to which a word refers, and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> (or "syntactics") examines relationships among signs or symbols. Semantics is the literal meaning of an idea whereas pragmatics is the implied meaning of the given idea. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech Act Theory</a>, pioneered by <a href="/wiki/J.L._Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Austin">J.L. Austin</a> and further developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, centers around the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Performative" class="mw-redirect" title="Performative">performative</a>, a type of utterance that performs the very action it describes. Speech Act Theory's examination of <a href="/wiki/Illocutionary_act" title="Illocutionary act">Illocutionary Acts</a> has many of the same goals as pragmatics, as outlined <a href="#Areas_of_interest">above</a>. </p><p>Computational Pragmatics, as defined by <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Fromkin" title="Victoria Fromkin">Victoria Fromkin</a>, concerns how humans can communicate their intentions to computers with as little ambiguity as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That process, integral to the science of <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> (seen as a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>), involves providing a computer system with some database of knowledge related to a topic and a series of algorithms, which control how the system responds to incoming data, using contextual knowledge to more accurately approximate natural human language and information processing abilities. Reference resolution, how a computer determines when two objects are different or not, is one of the most important tasks of computational pragmatics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formalization">Formalization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Formalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There has been a great amount of discussion on the boundary between semantics and pragmatics <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there are many different formalizations of aspects of pragmatics linked to context dependence. Particularly interesting cases are the discussions on the semantics of indexicals and the problem of referential descriptions, a topic developed after the theories of <a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A proper logical theory of formal pragmatics has been developed by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Dalla_Pozza" title="Carlo Dalla Pozza">Carlo Dalla Pozza</a>, according to which it is possible to connect classical semantics (treating propositional contents as true or false) and intuitionistic semantics (dealing with illocutionary forces). The presentation of a formal treatment of pragmatics appears to be a development of the Fregean idea of assertion sign as formal sign of the act of assertion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rational_Speech_Act_and_Probabilistic_Pragmatics">Rational Speech Act and Probabilistic Pragmatics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rational Speech Act and Probabilistic Pragmatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over the past decade, many probabilistic and Bayesian methods have become very popular in the modelling of pragmatics, of which the most successful framework has been the Rational Speech Act<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> framework developed by Noah Goodman and <a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Frank" title="Michael C. Frank">Michael C. Frank</a>, which has already seen much use in the analysis of metaphor,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hyperbole<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and politeness.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Rational Speech Act, listeners and speakers both reason about the other's reasoning concerning the literal meaning of the utterances, and as such, the resulting interpretation depends, but is not necessarily determined by the literal truth conditional meaning of an utterance, and so it uses recursive reasoning to pursue a broadly Gricean co-operative ideal. </p><p>In the most basic form of the Rational Speech Act, there are three levels of inference; Beginning from the highest level, the pragmatic listener <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0e79dc1b001f8b923df475ed14de023cbc456013" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.637ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L_{1}}"></span> will reason about the pragmatic speaker <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5bf84e7fd4fb8259a9b37f956afdf83ee2a020f9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.479ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{1}}"></span>, and will then infer the likely world state <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}"></span> taking into account that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5bf84e7fd4fb8259a9b37f956afdf83ee2a020f9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.479ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{1}}"></span> has deliberately chosen to produce utterance <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>u</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3e6bb763d22c20916ed4f0bb6bd49d7470cffd8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u}"></span>, while <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5bf84e7fd4fb8259a9b37f956afdf83ee2a020f9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.479ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{1}}"></span> chooses to produce utterance <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>u</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3e6bb763d22c20916ed4f0bb6bd49d7470cffd8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u}"></span> by reasoning about how the literal listener <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/db742b8c210fc611329a4c2dcc3af4b4e1a110cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.637ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L_{0}}"></span> will understand the literal meaning of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>u</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3e6bb763d22c20916ed4f0bb6bd49d7470cffd8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u}"></span> and so will attempt to maximise the chances that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/db742b8c210fc611329a4c2dcc3af4b4e1a110cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.637ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L_{0}}"></span> will correctly infer the world state <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}"></span>. As such, a simple schema of the Rational Speech Act reasoning hierarchy can be formulated for use in a reference game such that:<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&L_{1}:P_{L_{1}}(s|u)\propto P_{S_{1}}(u|s)\cdot P(s)\\&S_{1}:P_{S_{1}}(u|s)\propto \exp(\alpha U_{S_{1}}(u;s))\\&L_{0}:P_{L_{O}}(s|u)\propto [\![u]\!](s)\cdot P(s)\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>:</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>u</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>∝</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>P</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>:</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>∝</mo> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>α</mi> <msub> <mi>U</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>u</mi> <mo>;</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>:</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>O</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>u</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>∝</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>u</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>P</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&L_{1}:P_{L_{1}}(s|u)\propto P_{S_{1}}(u|s)\cdot P(s)\\&S_{1}:P_{S_{1}}(u|s)\propto \exp(\alpha U_{S_{1}}(u;s))\\&L_{0}:P_{L_{O}}(s|u)\propto [\![u]\!](s)\cdot P(s)\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9ee0e4a7e7b9eac3899c2bc476dd3d36a3e2f420" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.964ex; margin-bottom: -0.207ex; width:32.478ex; height:9.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&L_{1}:P_{L_{1}}(s|u)\propto P_{S_{1}}(u|s)\cdot P(s)\\&S_{1}:P_{S_{1}}(u|s)\propto \exp(\alpha U_{S_{1}}(u;s))\\&L_{0}:P_{L_{O}}(s|u)\propto [\![u]\!](s)\cdot P(s)\end{aligned}}}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_literary_theory">In literary theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In literary theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pragmatics (more specifically, Speech Act Theory's notion of the <a href="/wiki/Performative" class="mw-redirect" title="Performative">performative</a>) underpins <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Gender_performativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender performativity">gender performativity</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i>, they claim that gender and sex are not natural categories, but socially constructed roles produced by "reiterative acting." </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler#Excitable_Speech:_A_Politics_of_the_Performative" title="Judith Butler"><i>Excitable Speech</i></a> they extend their theory of <a href="/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity">performativity</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">hate speech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a>, arguing that censorship necessarily strengthens any discourse it tries to suppress and therefore, since the state has sole power to define hate speech legally, it is the state that makes hate speech performative. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a> remarked that some work done under Pragmatics aligned well with the program he outlined in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Benveniste" title="Émile Benveniste">Émile Benveniste</a> argued that the <a href="/wiki/Pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronouns">pronouns</a> "I" and "you" are fundamentally distinct from other pronouns because of their role in creating the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">subject</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> and <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Félix Guattari</a> discuss linguistic pragmatics in the fourth chapter of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Thousand_Plateaus" title="A Thousand Plateaus">A Thousand Plateaus</a></i> ("November 20, 1923--Postulates of Linguistics"). They draw three conclusions from Austin: (1) A <a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">performative utterance</a> does not communicate information about an act second-hand, but it is the act; (2) Every aspect of language ("semantics, syntactics, or even phonematics") functionally interacts with pragmatics; (3) There is no distinction between language and speech. This last conclusion attempts to refute <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussure's</a> division between <a href="/wiki/Langue_and_parole" title="Langue and parole"><i>langue</i> and <i>parole</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky's</a> distinction between <a href="/wiki/Deep_structure_and_surface_structure" title="Deep structure and surface structure">deep structure and surface structure</a> simultaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significant_works_and_concepts">Significant works and concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Significant works and concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a>'s <i>How To Do Things With Words</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_principle" title="Cooperative principle">cooperative principle</a> and conversational maxims</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politeness_theory" title="Politeness theory">Brown and Levinson's politeness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Leech" title="Geoffrey Leech">Geoffrey Leech</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Politeness_maxims" title="Politeness maxims">politeness maxims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Levinson" title="Stephen Levinson">Levinson's</a> presumptive meanings</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Universal_pragmatics" title="Universal pragmatics">universal pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Sperber" title="Dan Sperber">Dan Sperber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deirdre_Wilson" title="Deirdre Wilson">Deirdre Wilson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">relevance theory</a></li> <li>Dallin D. Oaks's <i>Structural Ambiguity in English: An Applied Grammatical Inventory</i></li> <li>Vonk, Hustinx, and Simon's 1992 journal article <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_1695298_1/component/file_1695297/content">"The use of referential expressions in structuring discourse"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Bauer_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Bauer (philosopher)">Nancy Bauer</a>'s <i>How To Do Things With Pornography</i></li> <li>Piotr Gmytrasiewicz, "How to Do Things with Words: A Bayesian Approach", <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11951/26599">https://www.jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11951/26599</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-linguistics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/25px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/38px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/51px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="29" data-file-height="32" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a> – Use of an expression whose interpretation depends on context</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-construction_(linguistics)" title="Co-construction (linguistics)">Co-construction</a> – grammatical or semantic entity which has been uttered by more than one speaker<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsing_sequence" title="Collapsing sequence">Collapsing sequence</a> – occurrence in human speech<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_principle" title="Cooperative principle">Cooperative principle</a> – Pragmatics of conversational communication</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deixis" title="Deixis">Deixis</a> – Words requiring context to understand their meaning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicature" title="Implicature">Implicature</a> – Information conveyed verbally yet not literally</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a> – Phenomenon of a sign pointing to (or indexing) some object in the context in which it occurs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origo_(pragmatics)" title="Origo (pragmatics)">Origo (pragmatics)</a> – Reference point of a deictic expression in the context of pragmatics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a> – British philosopher of language (1913–1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a> – Assumed context surrounding an utterance</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a> – Study of meaning in language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a> – Study of signs and sign processes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_relation" title="Sign relation">Sign relation</a> – Concept in semiotics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitz_im_Leben" title="Sitz im Leben">Sitz im Leben</a> – the context in which a text, or object, has been created, and its function and purpose at that time<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a> – Utterance that serves a performative function</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylistics" title="Stylistics">Stylistics</a> – Branch of applied linguistics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_pragmatics" title="Universal pragmatics">Universal pragmatics</a> – field of study in philosophy<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMey2006" class="citation book cs1">Mey, Jacob L. (2006). "Pragmatics: Overview". In Brown, E. K.; Anderson, Anne (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of language & linguistics</i> (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 51–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00306-0">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00306-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatics%3A+Overview&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+language+%26+linguistics&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=51-62&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00306-0&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Mey&rft.aufirst=Jacob+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mey-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mey_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mey, Jacob L. (1993) <i>Pragmatics: An Introduction</i>. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimHall2002" class="citation journal cs1">Kim, Daejin; Hall, Joan Kelly (2002). 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210102094644/https://www.mccauslandcenter.sc.edu/aLab/sites/sc.edu.alab/files/attachments/almor-nair-2007.pdf">"The Form of Referential Expressions in Discourse"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i>. <b>1</b> (1–2): 84–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2007.00009.x">10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00009.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1749-818X">1749-818X</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mccauslandcenter.sc.edu/aLab/sites/sc.edu.alab/files/attachments/almor-nair-2007.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-01-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics+Compass&rft.atitle=The+Form+of+Referential+Expressions+in+Discourse&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=84-99&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2007.00009.x&rft.issn=1749-818X&rft.aulast=Almor&rft.aufirst=Amit&rft.au=Nair%2C+Veena+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mccauslandcenter.sc.edu%2FaLab%2Fsites%2Fsc.edu.alab%2Ffiles%2Fattachments%2Falmor-nair-2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVonkHustinxSimons1992" class="citation journal cs1">Vonk, Wietske; Hustinx, Lettica G. M. M.; Simons, Wim H. G. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_1695298_1/component/file_1695297/content">"The use of referential expressions in structuring discourse"</a>. <i>Language and Cognitive Processes</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 301–333. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01690969208409389">10.1080/01690969208409389</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-000E-E736-D">11858/00-001M-0000-000E-E736-D</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-0965">0169-0965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Cognitive+Processes&rft.atitle=The+use+of+referential+expressions+in+structuring+discourse&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=301-333&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-000E-E736-D&rft.issn=0169-0965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01690969208409389&rft.aulast=Vonk&rft.aufirst=Wietske&rft.au=Hustinx%2C+Lettica+G.+M.+M.&rft.au=Simons%2C+Wim+H.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.mpg.de%2Frest%2Fitems%2Fitem_1695298_1%2Fcomponent%2Ffile_1695297%2Fcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverstein1976-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilverstein1976_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSilverstein1976">Silverstein 1976</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFSilverstein1976 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Middleton-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Middleton_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). <i>Studying Popular Music</i>, p. 241. Philadelphia: Open University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-335-15275-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-335-15275-9">0-335-15275-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuranti1997-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuranti1997_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuranti1997_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuranti1997">Duranti 1997</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFDuranti1997 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajagopalan2006" class="citation book cs1">Rajagopalan, K. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542003163">"Social Aspects of Pragmatics"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics</i>. pp. 434–440. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00316-3">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00316-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080448541" title="Special:BookSources/9780080448541"><bdi>9780080448541</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Aspects+of+Pragmatics&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=434-440&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00316-3&rft.isbn=9780080448541&rft.aulast=Rajagopalan&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB0080448542003163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFromkin2014" class="citation book cs1">Fromkin, Victoria (2014). <i>Introduction to Language</i>. Boston, Ma.: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. p. 508. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1133310686" title="Special:BookSources/978-1133310686"><bdi>978-1133310686</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Language&rft.place=Boston%2C+Ma.&rft.pages=508&rft.pub=Wadsworth%2C+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1133310686&rft.aulast=Fromkin&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/cslipublications/cslipublications/site/9781575866673.shtml">"see for instance F.Domaneschi. C. Penco, What is Said and What is Not, CSLI Publication, Stanford"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=see+for+instance+F.Domaneschi.+C.+Penco%2C+What+is+Said+and+What+is+Not%2C+CSLI+Publication%2C+Stanford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.stanford.edu%2Fgroup%2Fcslipublications%2Fcslipublications%2Fsite%2F9781575866673.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see for instance S. Neale, Descriptions, 1990</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodmanFrank2016" class="citation journal cs1">Goodman, Noah D.; Frank, Michael C. 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(2014). "Formalizing the Pragmatics of Metaphor Understanding". <i>Cognitive Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13623227">13623227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Science&rft.atitle=Formalizing+the+Pragmatics+of+Metaphor+Understanding&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13623227%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kao&rft.aufirst=Justine+T.&rft.au=Bergen%2C+Leon&rft.au=Goodman%2C+Noah+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaoWuBergenGoodman2014" class="citation journal cs1">Kao, Justine T.; Wu, Jean Y.; Bergen, Leon; Goodman, Noah D. (2014-08-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4143012">"Nonliteral understanding of number words"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>111</b> (33): 12002–12007. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..11112002K">2014PNAS..11112002K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1407479111">10.1073/pnas.1407479111</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F95752">1721.1/95752</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4143012">4143012</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25092304">25092304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Nonliteral+understanding+of+number+words&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=33&rft.pages=12002-12007&rft.date=2014-08-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4143012%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..11112002K&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1407479111&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25092304&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F95752&rft.aulast=Kao&rft.aufirst=Justine+T.&rft.au=Wu%2C+Jean+Y.&rft.au=Bergen%2C+Leon&rft.au=Goodman%2C+Noah+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4143012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoonFrankTesslerGoodman2018" class="citation report cs1">Yoon, Erica J.; Frank, Michael C.; Tessler, Michael Henry; Goodman, Noah D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Probabilistic+language+understanding%3A+An+introduction+to+the+Rational+Speech+Act+framework&rft.atitle=Introducing+the+Rational+Speech+Act+framework&rft.aulast=Scontras&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft.au=Tessler%2C+Michael+Henry&rft.au=Franke%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.problang.org%2Fchapters%2F01-introduction.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a> and <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Félix Guattari</a> (1987) [1980]. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Thousand_Plateaus" title="A Thousand Plateaus">A Thousand Plateaus</a></i>. University of Minnesota Press.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin, J. L.</a> (1962) <i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Do_Things_With_Words" class="mw-redirect" title="How to Do Things With Words">How to Do Things With Words</a></i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Ariel, Mira (2008), <i>Pragmatics and Grammar</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel,_Mira2010" class="citation book cs1">Ariel, Mira (2010). <i>Defining Pragmatics</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-73203-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-73203-1"><bdi>978-0-521-73203-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defining+Pragmatics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-73203-1&rft.au=Ariel%2C+Mira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Brown, Penelope, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Levinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen C. Levinson">Stephen C. Levinson</a>. (1978) <i>Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robyn_Carston" title="Robyn Carston">Carston, Robyn</a> (2002) <i>Thoughts and Utterances: The Pragmatics of Explicit Communication</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herb_Clark" class="mw-redirect" title="Herb Clark">Clark, Herbert H.</a> (1996) "Using Language". Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Cole, Peter, ed.. (1978) <i>Pragmatics</i>. (Syntax and Semantics, 9). New York: Academic Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teun_A._van_Dijk" title="Teun A. van Dijk">Dijk, Teun A. van.</a> (1977) <i>Text and Context. Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse</i>. London: Longman.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Paul_Grice" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Paul Grice">Grice, H. Paul</a>. (1989) <i>Studies in the Way of Words</i>. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.</li> <li>Laurence R. Horn and Gregory Ward. (2005) <i>The Handbook of Pragmatics</i>. Blackwell.</li> <li>Leech, Geoffrey N. (1983) <i>Principles of Pragmatics</i>. London: Longman.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Levinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen C. Levinson">Levinson, Stephen C.</a> (1983) <i>Pragmatics</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Levinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen C. Levinson">Levinson, Stephen C.</a> (2000). Presumptive meanings: The theory of generalized conversational implicature. MIT Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinPerkins2005" class="citation journal cs1">Lin, G. H. C.; Perkins, L. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED503685.pdf">"Cross-cultural discourse of giving and accepting gifts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of Communication</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 103–112.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Communication&rft.atitle=Cross-cultural+discourse+of+giving+and+accepting+gifts&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=103-112&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=G.+H.+C.&rft.au=Perkins%2C+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffiles.eric.ed.gov%2Ffulltext%2FED503685.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Moumni, Hassan (2005). Politeness in Parliamentary Discourse : A Comparative Pragmatic Study of British and Moroccan MPs’ Speech Acts at Question Time. Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis. Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_L._Mey" title="Jacob L. Mey">Mey, Jacob L.</a> (1993) <i>Pragmatics: An Introduction</i>. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortaPerry2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Korta, Kepa; Perry, John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatics/">"Pragmatics"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Korta&rft.aufirst=Kepa&rft.au=Perry%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpragmatics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Potts, Christopher. (2005) <i>The Logic of Conventional Implicatures</i>. Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Robinson_(academic)" title="Douglas Robinson (academic)">Robinson, Douglas</a>. (2003). <i>Performative Linguistics: Speaking and Translating as Doing Things With Words</i>. London and New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Robinson, Douglas. (2006). <i>Introducing Performative Pragmatics</i>. London and New York: Routledge.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperberWilson2005" class="citation book cs1">Sperber, Dan; Wilson, Deirdre (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180214073322/http://www.dan.sperber.com/pragmatics.htm">"Pragmatics"</a>. In Jackson, F.; Smith, M. (eds.). <i>Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 468–501. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dan.sperber.com/pragmatics.htm">the original</a> on 2018-02-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatics&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+of+Contemporary+Philosophy&rft.pages=468-501&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Deirdre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dan.sperber.com%2Fpragmatics.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span> Also available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927024359/http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/deirdre/papers/Pragmatics2005.doc">ucl.ac.uk</a>.</li> <li>Thomas, Jenny (1995) <i>Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics</i>. Longman.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerschueren1999" class="citation book cs1">Verschueren, Jef (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.uantwerpen.be/docman/irua/03eb70/20735.pdf"><i>Understanding Pragmatics</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Arnold_(publisher)" title="Edward Arnold (publisher)">Edward Arnold</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-64623-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-64623-6"><bdi>978-0-340-64623-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Pragmatics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-340-64623-6&rft.aulast=Verschueren&rft.aufirst=Jef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.uantwerpen.be%2Fdocman%2Firua%2F03eb70%2F20735.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatics" class="Z3988"></span> Also available from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingpra0000vers_s7k3">Internet Archive</a>.</li> <li>Verschueren, Jef, Jan-Ola Östman, Jan Blommaert, eds. (1995) <i>Handbook of Pragmatics</i>. Amsterdam: Benjamins.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watzlawick" class="mw-redirect" title="Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a>, Paul, <a href="/wiki/Janet_Beavin_Bavelas" title="Janet Beavin Bavelas">Janet Helmick Beavin</a> and Don D. Jackson (1967) <i>Pragmatics of Human Communication: A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes</i>. New York: Norton.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Wierzbicka" title="Anna Wierzbicka">Wierzbicka, Anna</a> (1991) <i>Cross-cultural Pragmatics. The Semantics of Human Interaction</i>. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter.</li> <li>Yule, George (1996) <i>Pragmatics</i> (Oxford Introductions to Language Study). Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Silverstein, Michael. 1976. "Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description", in Meaning and Anthropology, Basso and Selby, eds. New York: Harper & Row</li> <li>Wardhaugh, Ronald. (2006). "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics". Blackwell.</li> <li>Duranti, Alessandro. (1997). "Linguistic Anthropology". Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Carbaugh, Donal. (1990). "Cultural Communication and Intercultural Contact." LEA.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatics/">Pragmatics</a>, <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/mean-c-s/">Meaning and Context Sensitivity</a>, <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/505593/description#description">Journal of Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pragmatics.international">International Pragmatics Association (IPrA).</a></li></ul> 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication (science)">Biocommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal communication">Interpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal communication">Intrapersonal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent communication">Nonviolent communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_symbols" title="List of symbols">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Encoding_communication.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Encoding communication"><img alt="Encoding communication" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/120px-Encoding_communication.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/180px-Encoding_communication.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/240px-Encoding_communication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="345" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop communication">Closed-loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_design" title="Communication design">Communication design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_communication" title="Development communication">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global communication">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_communication" title="International communication">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_cross-border_communication" title="Mediated cross-border communication">Mediated cross-border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_communication" title="Political communication">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" title="Risk communication">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical communication">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher (professor)">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Lippman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard Jr.">Tankard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Communication_studies" title="Category:Communication studies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Formal_semantics" title="Template talk:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">Denotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entailment" class="mw-redirect" title="Entailment">Entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">Extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_se" title="De se">De se</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory_with_records" title="Type theory with records">TTR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal 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