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Production subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Place_of_articulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Place_of_articulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Place of articulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Place_of_articulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Labial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Labial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coronal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coronal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Coronal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coronal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dorsal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dorsal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Dorsal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dorsal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharyngeal_and_laryngeal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharyngeal_and_laryngeal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Pharyngeal and laryngeal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharyngeal_and_laryngeal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_larynx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_larynx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The larynx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_larynx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexical_access" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_access"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Lexical access</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_access-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articulatory_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articulatory_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Articulatory models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articulatory_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acoustics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acoustics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Acoustics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Acoustics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Acoustics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Acoustics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Voicing_and_phonation_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voicing_and_phonation_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Voicing and phonation types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voicing_and_phonation_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manner_of_articulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manner_of_articulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Manner of articulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manner_of_articulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pulmonary_and_subglottal_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pulmonary_and_subglottal_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Pulmonary and subglottal system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pulmonary_and_subglottal_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Source–filter_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Source–filter_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Source–filter theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Source–filter_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Perception</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Perception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Perception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Audition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Audition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosody" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosody"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Prosody</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosody-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_of_speech_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_speech_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Theories of speech perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_speech_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subdisciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdisciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Subdisciplines</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subdisciplines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subdisciplines subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subdisciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acoustic_phonetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acoustic_phonetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Acoustic phonetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acoustic_phonetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articulatory_phonetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articulatory_phonetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Articulatory phonetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articulatory_phonetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auditory_phonetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auditory_phonetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Auditory phonetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auditory_phonetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Describing_sounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Describing_sounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Describing sounds</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Describing_sounds-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Describing sounds subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Describing_sounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transcription" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcription"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Transcription</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sign_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sign_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sign languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sign_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Phonetics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 122 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-122" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">122 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetiek" title="Fonetiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fonetiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetik" title="Phonetik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Phonetik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_(%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="صوتيات (لسانيات) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صوتيات (لسانيات)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetica" title="Fonetica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fonetica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ধ্বনিবিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ধ্বনিবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9tica" title="Fonética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fonética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ধ্বনিবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ধ্বনিবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фанетыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фанетыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фанэтыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фанэтыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik" title="Fonetik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A8tica" title="Fonètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fonètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponetika" title="Ponetika – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Ponetika" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seineg" title="Seineg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Seineg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik" title="Fonetik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetik" title="Phonetik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Phonetik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneetika" title="Foneetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Foneetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Φωνητική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φωνητική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9tica" title="Fonética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fonética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetiko" title="Fonetiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fonetiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="آواشناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آواشناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lj%C3%B3%C3%B0fr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Ljóðfrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Ljóðfrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phon%C3%A9tique" title="Phonétique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Phonétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetyk" title="Fonetyk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fonetyk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheeanaghtys" title="Sheeanaghtys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Sheeanaghtys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9tica" title="Fonética – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fonética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%8C%EC%84%B1%ED%95%99" title="음성학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="음성학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%B9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հնչյունաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնչյունաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="स्वनविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्वनविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetiko" title="Fonetiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fonetiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik" title="Fonetik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetica" title="Phonetica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Phonetica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifonetiki" title="Ifonetiki – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ifonetiki" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifonetiki" title="Ifonetiki – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ifonetiki" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hlj%C3%B3%C3%B0fr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Hljóðfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hljóðfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetica" title="Fonetica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fonetica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="פונטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פונטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9tik" title="Fonétik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fonétik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ფონეტიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფონეტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetiki" title="Fonetiki – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Fonetiki" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik" title="Fonetik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengan%C3%AE" title="Denganî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Denganî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetica" title="Phonetica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Phonetica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C4%93tika" title="Fonētika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fonētika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneetik" title="Phoneetik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Phoneetik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetiek" title="Fonetiek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Fonetiek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetica" title="Fonetica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Fonetica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/voksnaske" title="voksnaske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="voksnaske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funetica" title="Funetica – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Funetica" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B4netika" title="Fônetika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fônetika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="സ്വനവിജ്ഞാനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്വനവിജ്ഞാനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik" title="Fonetik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84-%C4%ADng-h%C5%8Fk" title="Ngṳ̄-ĭng-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ngṳ̄-ĭng-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Фонетикась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Фонетикась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%92%E1%80%B9%E1%80%92%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="သဒ္ဒဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သဒ္ဒဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetiek" title="Fonetiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fonetiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E5%A3%B0%E5%AD%A6" title="音声学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="音声学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%A1%DF%8D%DF%B2%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%9F%DF%90%DF%B2%DF%98%DF%90%DF%A6%DF%8A" title="ߡߍ߲ߞߊ߲ߟߐ߲ߘߐߦߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߡߍ߲ߞߊ߲ߟߐ߲ߘߐߦߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetikk" title="Fonetikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fonetikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetikk" title="Fonetikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fonetikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetike" title="Fonetike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Fonetike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetica" title="Fonetica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fonetica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D3%B1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Йӱклончыш – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Йӱклончыш" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਧੁਨੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਧੁਨੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA" title="علم صوت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="علم صوت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9tika" title="Fonétika – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Fonétika" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="اوازپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اوازپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetyka" title="Fonetyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fonetyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9tica" title="Fonética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fonética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetic%C4%83" title="Fonetică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fonetică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9D_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5" title="ᱟᱲᱟᱝ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱟᱲᱟᱝ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knklaan_hengak" title="Knklaan hengak – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Knklaan hengak" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seediq</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetik" title="Phonetik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Phonetik" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fun%C3%A8tica" title="Funètica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Funètica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Phonetics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%A1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%97%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фѡнитїка – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Фѡнитїка" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_(%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C)" title="دەنگناسی (زمانەوانی) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەنگناسی (زمانەوانی)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetiikka" title="Fonetiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fonetiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik" title="Fonetik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palabigkasan" title="Palabigkasan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Palabigkasan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="ஒலியியல் (மொழியியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒலியியல் (மொழியியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="สัทศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สัทศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Овошиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Овошиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ses_bilgisi" title="Ses bilgisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ses bilgisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонетика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фонетика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="صوتیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="صوتیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A8tega" title="Fonètega – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fonètega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik" title="Fonetik – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_%C3%A2m_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Ngữ âm học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ âm học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E8%81%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="音聲學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="音聲學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetika" title="Fonetika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Fonetika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E5%AD%A6" title="语音学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="语音学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="פאנעטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פאנעטיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E9%9F%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="語音學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="語音學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E5%AD%A6" title="语音学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="语音学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonetik" title="Fonetik – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Fonetik" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%8D%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙⵍⵉⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙⵍⵉⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of how humans produce and perceive sounds</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the study of phonemes, or how languages organize sounds, see <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a>. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.3em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Phonetics" title="Category:Phonetics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#f2f2f2;padding-top:0.2em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phonetics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">Linguistics Series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em;background:#f2f2f2;"> Subdisciplines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_phonetics" title="Acoustic phonetics">Acoustic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">Articulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_phonetics" title="Auditory phonetics">Auditory</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em;background:#f2f2f2;"> <a href="/wiki/Speech_production" title="Speech production">Articulation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Places of articulation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Alveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">Laryngeal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Manners_of_articulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Manners of articulation">Manners of articulation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">Consonant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Airstream_mechanism" title="Airstream mechanism">Airstream mechanisms</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonic_consonant" title="Pulmonic consonant">Pulmonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottalic_consonant" title="Glottalic consonant">Glottalic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">Lingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percussive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Percussive consonant">Percussive</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em;background:#f2f2f2;"> <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Phonation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voicing</a>)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">Fundamental frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">Glottis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">Pitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">Pitch accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-filter_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Source-filter model">Source–filter theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">Voicelessness</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Phonation types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">Creaky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">Breathy</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em;background:#f2f2f2;"> <a href="/wiki/Speech_perception" title="Speech perception">Perception</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_cues" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustic cues">Acoustic cues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphasia" title="Aphasia">Aphasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_perception" title="Categorical perception">Categorical perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_encoding_of_sound" title="Neural encoding of sound">Neural encoding of sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theories of speech perception</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_landmarks" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustic landmarks">Acoustic landmarks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exemplar_theory" title="Exemplar theory">Exemplar theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_theory_of_speech_perception" title="Motor theory of speech perception">Motor theory</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#f2f2f2;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a 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linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Phonetics</b> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds or, in the case of <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>, the equivalent aspects of sign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200515_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200515-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are <b>phoneticians</b>. The field of phonetics is traditionally divided into three sub-disciplines on questions involved such as how humans plan and execute movements to produce speech (<a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">articulatory phonetics</a>), how various movements affect the properties of the resulting sound (<a href="/wiki/Acoustic_phonetics" title="Acoustic phonetics">acoustic phonetics</a>) or how humans convert sound waves to linguistic information (<a href="/wiki/Auditory_phonetics" title="Auditory phonetics">auditory phonetics</a>). Traditionally, the minimal linguistic unit of phonetics is the <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phone</a>—a speech sound in a language which differs from the phonological unit of <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a>; the phoneme is an abstract categorization of phones and it is also defined as the smallest unit that discerns meaning between sounds in any given language.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phonetics deals with two aspects of human speech: production (the ways humans make sounds) and perception (the way speech is understood). The <a href="/wiki/Communicative_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Communicative modality">communicative modality</a> of a language describes the method by which a language produces and perceives languages. Languages with oral-aural modalities such as English produce speech orally and perceive speech aurally (using the ears). Sign languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Australian_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Sign Language">Australian Sign Language</a> (Auslan) and <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> (ASL), have a manual-visual modality, producing speech manually (using the hands) and perceiving speech visually. ASL and some other sign languages have in addition a manual-manual dialect for use in <a href="/wiki/Tactile_signing" title="Tactile signing">tactile signing</a> by <a href="/wiki/Deafblind" class="mw-redirect" title="Deafblind">deafblind</a> speakers where signs are produced with the hands and perceived with the hands as well. </p><p>Language production consists of several interdependent processes which transform a non-linguistic message into a spoken or signed linguistic signal. After identifying a message to be linguistically encoded, a speaker must select the individual words—known as <a href="/wiki/Lexical_item" title="Lexical item">lexical items</a>—to represent that message in a process called lexical selection. During phonological encoding, the mental representation of the words are assigned their phonological content as a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> to be produced. The phonemes are specified for articulatory features which denote particular goals such as closed lips or the tongue in a particular location. These phonemes are then coordinated into a sequence of muscle commands that can be sent to the muscles and when these commands are executed properly the intended sounds are produced. </p><p>These movements disrupt and modify an airstream which results in a sound wave. The modification is done by the articulators, with different places and manners of articulation producing different acoustic results. For example, the words <i>tack</i> and <i>sack</i> both begin with alveolar sounds in English, but differ in how far the tongue is from the alveolar ridge. This difference has large effects on the air stream and thus the sound that is produced. Similarly, the direction and source of the airstream can affect the sound. The most common airstream mechanism is pulmonic (using the lungs) but the glottis and tongue can also be used to produce airstreams. </p><p>Language perception is the process by which a linguistic signal is decoded and understood by a listener. To perceive speech, the continuous acoustic signal must be converted into discrete linguistic units such as <a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphemes">morphemes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Words" class="mw-redirect" title="Words">words</a>. To correctly identify and categorize sounds, listeners prioritize certain aspects of the signal that can reliably distinguish between linguistic categories. While certain cues are prioritized over others, many aspects of the signal can contribute to perception. For example, though oral languages prioritize acoustic information, the <a href="/wiki/McGurk_effect" title="McGurk effect">McGurk effect</a> shows that visual information is used to distinguish ambiguous information when the acoustic cues are unreliable. </p><p>Modern phonetics has three branches: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">Articulatory phonetics</a>, which addresses the way sounds are made with the articulators.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_phonetics" title="Acoustic phonetics">Acoustic phonetics</a>, which addresses the acoustic results of different articulations.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_phonetics" title="Auditory phonetics">Auditory phonetics</a>, which addresses the way listeners perceive and understand linguistic signals.</li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="History_of_phonetics"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first known study of phonetics phonetic was undertaken by <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> grammarians as early as the 6th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaffrey2017_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaffrey2017-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hindu scholar <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> is among the most well known of these early investigators. His four-part grammar, written <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350 BCE</span>, is influential in modern linguistics and still represents "the most complete generative grammar of any language yet written".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiparsky19932918_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiparsky19932918-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His grammar formed the basis of modern linguistics and described several important phonetic principles, including voicing. This early account described resonance as being produced either by tone, when vocal folds are closed, or noise, when vocal folds are open. The phonetic principles in the grammar are considered "primitives" in that they are the basis for his theoretical analysis rather than the objects of theoretical analysis themselves, and the principles can be inferred from his system of phonology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiparsky19932922–3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiparsky19932922–3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sanskrit study of phonetics is called <i><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></i>, which the 1st-millennium BCE <a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya Upanishad</a> defines as follows: </p><p><i>Om! We will explain the Shiksha.</i><br /> <i>Sounds and accentuation, Quantity (of vowels) and the expression (of consonants),</i><br /> <i>Balancing (Saman) and connection (of sounds), So much about the study of Shiksha.</i> || 1 | </p><p>Taittiriya Upanishad 1.2, Shikshavalli, translated by Paul Deussen<i><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advancements in phonetics after Pāṇini and his contemporaries were limited until the modern era, save some limited investigations by Greek and Roman grammarians. In the millennia between Indic grammarians and modern phonetics, the focus shifted from the difference between spoken and written language, which was the driving force behind Pāṇini's account, and began to focus on the physical properties of speech alone. Sustained interest in phonetics began again around 1800 CE with the term "phonetics" being first used in the present sense in 1841.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxford_English_Dictionary2018_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_English_Dictionary2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaffrey2017_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaffrey2017-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With new developments in medicine and the development of audio and visual recording devices, phonetic insights were able to use and review new and more detailed data. This early period of modern phonetics included the development of an influential phonetic alphabet based on articulatory positions by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Melville_Bell" title="Alexander Melville Bell">Alexander Melville Bell</a>. Known as <a href="/wiki/Visible_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible speech">visible speech</a>, it gained prominence as a tool in the <a href="/wiki/Oralism" title="Oralism">oral education of deaf children</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaffrey2017_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaffrey2017-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the widespread availability of audio recording equipment, phoneticians relied heavily on a tradition of practical phonetics to ensure that transcriptions and findings were able to be consistent across phoneticians. This training involved both ear training—the recognition of speech sounds—as well as production training—the ability to produce sounds. Phoneticians were expected to learn to recognize by ear the various sounds on the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> and the IPA still tests and certifies speakers on their ability to accurately produce the phonetic patterns of English (though they have discontinued this practice for other languages).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach2015_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a revision of his visible speech method, Melville Bell developed a description of vowels by height and backness resulting in 9 <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal vowel">cardinal vowels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged1960388_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged1960388-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As part of their training in practical phonetics, phoneticians were expected to learn to produce these cardinal vowels to anchor their perception and transcription of these phones during fieldwork.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach2015_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach was critiqued by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Peter Ladefoged</a> in the 1960s based on experimental evidence where he found that cardinal vowels were auditory rather than articulatory targets, challenging the claim that they represented articulatory anchors by which phoneticians could judge other articulations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged1960_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged1960-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Language_production" title="Language production">Language production</a></div> <p>Language production consists of several interdependent processes which transform a nonlinguistic message into a spoken or signed linguistic signal. Linguists debate whether the process of language production occurs in a series of stages (serial processing) or whether production processes occur in parallel. After identifying a message to be linguistically encoded, a speaker must select the individual words—known as <a href="/wiki/Lexical_item" title="Lexical item">lexical items</a>—to represent that message in a process called lexical selection. The words are selected based on their meaning, which in linguistics is called <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> information. Lexical selection activates the word's <a href="/wiki/Lemma_(psycholinguistics)" title="Lemma (psycholinguistics)">lemma</a>, which contains both semantic and grammatical information about the word.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDellO'Seaghdha1992_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDellO'Seaghdha1992-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After an utterance has been planned,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it then goes through phonological encoding. In this stage of language production, the mental representation of the words are assigned their phonological content as a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> to be produced. The phonemes are specified for articulatory features which denote particular goals such as closed lips or the tongue in a particular location. These phonemes are then coordinated into a sequence of muscle commands that can be sent to the muscles, and when these commands are executed properly the intended sounds are produced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoersma1998_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoersma1998-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus the process of production from message to sound can be summarized as the following sequence:<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Message planning</li> <li>Lemma selection</li> <li>Retrieval and assignment of phonological word forms</li> <li>Articulatory specification</li> <li>Muscle commands</li> <li>Articulation</li> <li>Speech sounds</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Place_of_articulation">Place of articulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Place of articulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Place of articulation</a></div> <p>Sounds which are made by a full or partial constriction of the vocal tract are called <a href="/wiki/Consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonants">consonants</a>. Consonants are pronounced in the vocal tract, usually in the mouth, and the location of this constriction affects the resulting sound. Because of the close connection between the position of the tongue and the resulting sound, the place of articulation is an important concept in many subdisciplines of phonetics. </p><p>Sounds are partly categorized by the location of a constriction as well as the part of the body doing the constricting. For example, in English the words <i>fought</i> and <i>thought</i> are a <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal pair</a> differing only in the organ making the construction rather than the location of the construction. The "f" in <i>fought</i> is a labiodental articulation made with the bottom lip against the teeth. The "th" in <i>thought</i> is a linguodental articulation made with the tongue against the teeth. Constrictions made by the lips are called <a href="/wiki/Labialized" class="mw-redirect" title="Labialized">labials</a> while those made with the tongue are called lingual. </p><p>Constrictions made with the tongue can be made in several parts of the vocal tract, broadly classified into coronal, dorsal and radical places of articulation. <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> articulations are made with the front of the tongue, <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">dorsal</a> articulations are made with the back of the tongue, and <a href="/wiki/Radical_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical consonant">radical</a> articulations are made in the <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">pharynx</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged20015_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged20015-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These divisions are not sufficient for distinguishing and describing all speech sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged20015_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged20015-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in English the sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ]</span> are both coronal, but they are produced in different places of the mouth. To account for this, more detailed places of articulation are needed based upon the area of the mouth in which the constriction occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson19969_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson19969-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Labial">Labial</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Labial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Articulations involving the lips can be made in three different ways: with both lips (bilabial), with one lip and the teeth, so they have the lower lip as the active articulator and the upper teeth as the passive articulator<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (labiodental), and with the tongue and the upper lip (linguolabial).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199616_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199616-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the definition used, some or all of these kinds of articulations may be categorized into the class of <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial articulations</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial consonants</a> are made with both lips. In producing these sounds the lower lip moves farthest to meet the upper lip, which also moves down slightly,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddieson1993_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddieson1993-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though in some cases the force from air moving through the aperture (opening between the lips) may cause the lips to separate faster than they can come together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFujimura1961_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFujimura1961-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike most other articulations, both articulators are made from soft tissue, and so bilabial stops are more likely to be produced with incomplete closures than articulations involving hard surfaces like the teeth or palate. Bilabial stops are also unusual in that an articulator in the upper section of the vocal tract actively moves downward, as the upper lip shows some active downward movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199616–17_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199616–17-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Linguolabial_consonant" title="Linguolabial consonant">Linguolabial consonants</a> are made with the blade of the tongue approaching or contacting the upper lip. Like in bilabial articulations, the upper lip moves slightly towards the more active articulator. Articulations in this group do not have their own symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet, rather, they are formed by combining an apical symbol with a diacritic implicitly placing them in the coronal category.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2015_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2015-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199618_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199618-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They exist in a number of languages indigenous to <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Tangoa_language" title="Tangoa language">Tangoa</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental consonants</a> are made by the lower lip rising to the upper teeth. Labiodental consonants are most often <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a> while labiodental nasals are also typologically common.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199617–18_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199617–18-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is debate as to whether true labiodental <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">plosives</a> occur in any natural language,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199617_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199617-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though a number of languages are reported to have labiodental plosives including <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoke1926_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoke1926-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tonga_language_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)" title="Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)">Tonga</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuthrie194861_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuthrie194861-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Shubi_language" title="Shubi language">Shubi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199617_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199617-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coronal">Coronal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Coronal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coronal consonants are made with the tip or blade of the tongue and, because of the agility of the front of the tongue, represent a variety not only in place but in the posture of the tongue. The coronal places of articulation represent the areas of the mouth where the tongue contacts or makes a constriction, and include dental, alveolar, and post-alveolar locations. Tongue postures using the tip of the tongue can be <a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">apical</a> if using the top of the tongue tip, <a href="/wiki/Laminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Laminal">laminal</a> if made with the blade of the tongue, or <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">sub-apical</a> if the tongue tip is curled back and the bottom of the tongue is used. Coronals are unique as a group in that every <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a> is attested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2015_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2015-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199619–31_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199619–31-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Australian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian languages">Australian languages</a> are well known for the large number of coronal contrasts exhibited within and across languages in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199628_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199628-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental consonants</a> are made with the tip or blade of the tongue and the upper teeth. They are divided into two groups based upon the part of the tongue used to produce them: apical dental consonants are produced with the tongue tip touching the teeth; interdental consonants are produced with the blade of the tongue as the tip of the tongue sticks out in front of the teeth. No language is known to use both contrastively though they may exist <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophonically</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar consonants</a> are made with the tip or blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth and can similarly be apical or laminal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199619–25_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199619–25-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crosslinguistically, dental consonants and alveolar consonants are frequently contrasted leading to a number of generalizations of crosslinguistic patterns. The different places of articulation tend to also be contrasted in the part of the tongue used to produce them: most languages with dental stops have laminal dentals, while languages with apical stops usually have apical stops. Languages rarely have two consonants in the same place with a contrast in laminality, though <a href="/wiki/Taa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taa">Taa</a> (ǃXóõ) is a counterexample to this pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199620,_40–1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199620,_40–1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a language has only one of a dental stop or an alveolar stop, it will usually be laminal if it is a dental stop, and the stop will usually be apical if it is an alveolar stop, though for example <a href="/wiki/Temne_language" title="Temne language">Temne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScatton198460_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScatton198460-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> do not follow this pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199623_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199623-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a language has both an apical and laminal stop, then the laminal stop is more likely to be affricated like in <a href="/wiki/Isoko_language" title="Isoko language">Isoko</a>, though <a href="/wiki/Dahalo" class="mw-redirect" title="Dahalo">Dahalo</a> show the opposite pattern with alveolar stops being more affricated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199623–5_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199623–5-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex consonants</a> have several different definitions depending on whether the position of the tongue or the position on the roof of the mouth is given prominence. In general, they represent a group of articulations in which the tip of the tongue is curled upwards to some degree. In this way, retroflex articulations can occur in several different locations on the roof of the mouth including alveolar, post-alveolar, and palatal regions. If the underside of the tongue tip makes contact with the roof of the mouth, it is sub-apical though apical post-alveolar sounds are also described as retroflex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199625,_27–8_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199625,_27–8-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical examples of sub-apical retroflex stops are commonly found in <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a>, and in some <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">languages indigenous to the southwest United States</a> the contrastive difference between dental and alveolar stops is a slight retroflexion of the alveolar stop.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199627_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199627-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acoustically, retroflexion tends to affect the higher formants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199627_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199627-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Articulations taking place just behind the alveolar ridge, known as <a href="/wiki/Post-alveolar_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-alveolar consonant">post-alveolar consonants</a>, have been referred to using a number of different terms. Apical post-alveolar consonants are often called retroflex, while laminal articulations are sometimes called palato-alveolar;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199627–8_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199627–8-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the Australianist literature, these laminal stops are often described as 'palatal' though they are produced further forward than the palate region typically described as palatal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199628_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199628-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of individual anatomical variation, the precise articulation of palato-alveolar stops (and coronals in general) can vary widely within a speech community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199632_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199632-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dorsal">Dorsal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dorsal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dorsal consonants are those consonants made using the tongue body rather than the tip or blade and are typically produced at the palate, velum or uvula. <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal consonants">Palatal consonants</a> are made using the tongue body against the hard palate on the roof of the mouth. They are frequently contrasted with velar or uvular consonants, though it is rare for a language to contrast all three simultaneously, with <a href="/wiki/Jaqaru" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaqaru">Jaqaru</a> as a possible example of a three-way contrast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199635_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199635-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar consonants">Velar consonants</a> are made using the tongue body against the <a href="/wiki/Soft_palate" title="Soft palate">velum</a>. They are incredibly common cross-linguistically; almost all languages have a velar stop. Because both velars and vowels are made using the tongue body, they are highly affected by <a href="/wiki/Coarticulation" title="Coarticulation">coarticulation</a> with vowels and can be produced as far forward as the hard palate or as far back as the uvula. These variations are typically divided into front, central, and back velars in parallel with the vowel space.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199633–34_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199633–34-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can be hard to distinguish phonetically from palatal consonants, though are produced slightly behind the area of prototypical palatal consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeatingLahiri199389_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeatingLahiri199389-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Uvular consonants">Uvular consonants</a> are made by the tongue body contacting or approaching the uvula. They are rare, occurring in an estimated 19 percent of languages, and large regions of the Americas and Africa have no languages with uvular consonants. In languages with uvular consonants, stops are most frequent followed by <a href="/wiki/Continuant" title="Continuant">continuants</a> (including nasals).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddieson2013_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddieson2013-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pharyngeal_and_laryngeal">Pharyngeal and laryngeal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pharyngeal and laryngeal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consonants made by constrictions of the throat are pharyngeals, and those made by a constriction in the larynx are laryngeal. Laryngeals are made using the vocal folds as the larynx is too far down the throat to reach with the tongue. Pharyngeals however are close enough to the mouth that parts of the tongue can reach them. </p><p>Radical consonants either use the root of the tongue or the <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">epiglottis</a> during production and are produced very far back in the vocal tract.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199611_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199611-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal consonants</a> are made by retracting the root of the tongue far enough to almost touch the wall of the <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">pharynx</a>. Due to production difficulties, only fricatives and approximants can be produced this way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodge200933_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge200933-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199637_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199637-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiglottal consonant">Epiglottal consonants</a> are made with the epiglottis and the back wall of the pharynx. Epiglottal stops have been recorded in <a href="/wiki/Dahalo" class="mw-redirect" title="Dahalo">Dahalo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199637_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199637-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Voiced epiglottal consonants are not deemed possible due to the cavity between the <a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a> and epiglottis being too small to permit voicing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199638_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199638-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glottal consonants are those produced using the vocal folds in the larynx. Because the vocal folds are the source of phonation and below the oro-nasal vocal tract, a number of glottal consonants are impossible such as a voiced glottal stop. Three glottal consonants are possible, a voiceless glottal stop and two glottal fricatives, and all are attested in natural languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2015_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2015-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">Glottal stops</a>, produced by closing the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_folds" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal folds">vocal folds</a>, are notably common in the world's languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199638_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199638-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many languages use them to demarcate phrase boundaries, some languages like <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huautla_Mazatec" class="mw-redirect" title="Huautla Mazatec">Huatla Mazatec</a> have them as contrastive phonemes. Additionally, glottal stops can be realized as <a href="/wiki/Laryngealization" class="mw-redirect" title="Laryngealization">laryngealization</a> of the following vowel in this language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199674_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199674-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glottal stops, especially between vowels, do usually not form a complete closure. True glottal stops normally occur only when they are <a href="/wiki/Geminated" class="mw-redirect" title="Geminated">geminated</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199675_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199675-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_larynx">The larynx</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The larynx"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Larynx_(top_view).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Larynx_%28top_view%29.jpg/220px-Larynx_%28top_view%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Larynx_%28top_view%29.jpg/330px-Larynx_%28top_view%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Larynx_%28top_view%29.jpg/440px-Larynx_%28top_view%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1261" /></a><figcaption>A top-down view of the larynx</figcaption></figure> <p>The larynx, commonly known as the "voice box", is a cartilaginous structure in the <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a> responsible for <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a>. The vocal folds (chords) are held together so that they vibrate, or held apart so that they do not. The positions of the vocal folds are achieved by movement of the <a href="/wiki/Arytenoid_cartilage" title="Arytenoid cartilage">arytenoid cartilages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2001123_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2001123-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Larynx#Intrinsic" title="Larynx">intrinsic laryngeal muscles</a> are responsible for moving the arytenoid cartilages as well as modulating the tension of the vocal folds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016222_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016222-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the vocal folds are not close or tense enough, they will either vibrate sporadically or not at all. If they vibrate sporadically it will result in either creaky or breathy voice, depending on the degree; if do not vibrate at all, the result will be <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voicelessness</a>. </p><p>In addition to correctly positioning the vocal folds, there must also be air flowing across them or they will not vibrate. The difference in pressure across the glottis required for voicing is estimated at 1 – 2 <a href="/wiki/Centimetre_of_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Centimetre of water">cm H<sub>2</sub>O</a> (98.0665 – 196.133 pascals).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOhala19971_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOhala19971-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pressure differential can fall below levels required for phonation either because of an increase in pressure above the glottis (superglottal pressure) or a decrease in pressure below the glottis (subglottal pressure). The subglottal pressure is maintained by the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_muscles" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory muscles">respiratory muscles</a>. Supraglottal pressure, with no constrictions or articulations, is equal to about <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a>. However, because articulations—especially consonants—represent constrictions of the airflow, the pressure in the cavity behind those constrictions can increase resulting in a higher supraglottal pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChomskyHalle1968300–301_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChomskyHalle1968300–301-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexical_access">Lexical access</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lexical access"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the lexical access model two different stages of cognition are employed; thus, this concept is known as the two-stage theory of lexical access. The first stage, lexical selection, provides information about lexical items required to construct the functional-level representation. These items are retrieved according to their specific semantic and syntactic properties, but phonological forms are not yet made available at this stage. The second stage, retrieval of wordforms, provides information required for building the positional level representation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAltmann2002_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAltmann2002-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articulatory_models">Articulatory models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Articulatory models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When producing speech, the articulators move through and contact particular locations in space resulting in changes to the acoustic signal. Some models of speech production take this as the basis for modeling articulation in a coordinate system that may be internal to the body (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic). Intrinsic coordinate systems model the movement of articulators as positions and angles of joints in the body. Intrinsic coordinate models of the jaw often use two to three degrees of freedom representing translation and rotation. These face issues with modeling the tongue which, unlike joints of the jaw and arms, is a <a href="/wiki/Muscular_hydrostat" title="Muscular hydrostat">muscular hydrostat</a>—like an elephant trunk—which lacks joints.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010359_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010359-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the different physiological structures, movement paths of the jaw are relatively straight lines during speech and mastication, while movements of the tongue follow curves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMunhallOstryFlanagan1991299_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunhallOstryFlanagan1991299-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Straight-line movements have been used to argue articulations as planned in extrinsic rather than intrinsic space, though extrinsic coordinate systems also include acoustic coordinate spaces, not just physical coordinate spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010359_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010359-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Models that assume movements are planned in extrinsic space run into an <a href="/wiki/Inverse_problem" title="Inverse problem">inverse problem</a> of explaining the muscle and joint locations which produce the observed path or acoustic signal. The arm, for example, has seven degrees of freedom and 22 muscles, so multiple different joint and muscle configurations can lead to the same final position. For models of planning in extrinsic acoustic space, the same one-to-many mapping problem applies as well, with no unique mapping from physical or acoustic targets to the muscle movements required to achieve them. Concerns about the inverse problem may be exaggerated, however, as speech is a highly learned skill using neurological structures which evolved for the purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010360_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010360-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The equilibrium-point model proposes a resolution to the inverse problem by arguing that movement targets be represented as the position of the muscle pairs acting on a joint.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Importantly, muscles are modeled as springs, and the target is the equilibrium point for the modeled spring-mass system. By using springs, the equilibrium point model can easily account for compensation and response when movements are disrupted. They are considered a coordinate model because they assume that these muscle positions are represented as points in space, equilibrium points, where the spring-like action of the muscles converges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBizziHoganMussa-IvaldiGiszter1992_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBizziHoganMussa-IvaldiGiszter1992-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010361_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010361-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gestural approaches to speech production propose that articulations are represented as movement patterns rather than particular coordinates to hit. The minimal unit is a gesture that represents a group of "functionally equivalent articulatory movement patterns that are actively controlled with reference to a given speech-relevant goal (e.g., a bilabial closure)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaltzmanMunhall1989_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaltzmanMunhall1989-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These groups represent coordinative structures or "synergies" which view movements not as individual muscle movements but as task-dependent groupings of muscles which work together as a single unit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMattingly1990_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattingly1990-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010362–4_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010362–4-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reduces the degrees of freedom in articulation planning, a problem especially in intrinsic coordinate models, which allows for any movement that achieves the speech goal, rather than encoding the particular movements in the abstract representation. Coarticulation is well described by gestural models as the articulations at faster speech rates can be explained as composites of the independent gestures at slower speech rates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010364_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöfqvist2010364-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Acoustics">Acoustics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Acoustics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waveform_spectrogram_and_transcription_of_wikipedia_in_praat.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Waveform_spectrogram_and_transcription_of_wikipedia_in_praat.png/330px-Waveform_spectrogram_and_transcription_of_wikipedia_in_praat.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Waveform_spectrogram_and_transcription_of_wikipedia_in_praat.png/495px-Waveform_spectrogram_and_transcription_of_wikipedia_in_praat.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Waveform_spectrogram_and_transcription_of_wikipedia_in_praat.png/660px-Waveform_spectrogram_and_transcription_of_wikipedia_in_praat.png 2x" data-file-width="1657" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>A waveform (top), spectrogram (middle), and transcription (bottom) of a woman saying "Wikipedia" displayed using the <a href="/wiki/Praat" title="Praat">Praat</a> software for linguistic analysis <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-left listen noprint listen-plain listen-noimage"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-Wikipedia.ogg" title="File:En-us-Wikipedia.ogg">Listen</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="1" data-mwtitle="En-us-Wikipedia.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/En-us-Wikipedia.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/En-us-Wikipedia.ogg/En-us-Wikipedia.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEn-us-Wikipedia.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEn-us-Wikipedia.ogg&lang=he&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="he" label="עברית ‪(he)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEn-us-Wikipedia.ogg&lang=th&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="th" label="ไทย ‪(th)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEn-us-Wikipedia.ogg&lang=yo&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="yo" label="Yorùbá ‪(yo)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">The accompanying audio</div></div></div></div> </div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Speech sounds are created by the modification of an airstream which results in a sound wave. The modification is done by the articulators, with different places and manners of articulation producing different acoustic results. Because the posture of the vocal tract, not just the position of the tongue can affect the resulting sound, the <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a> is important for describing the speech sound. The words <i>tack</i> and <i>sack</i> both begin with alveolar sounds in English, but differ in how far the tongue is from the alveolar ridge. This difference has large effects on the air stream and thus the sound that is produced. Similarly, the direction and source of the airstream can affect the sound. The most common airstream mechanism is pulmonic—using the lungs—but the glottis and tongue can also be used to produce airstreams. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voicing_and_phonation_types">Voicing and phonation types</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Voicing and phonation types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major distinction between speech sounds is whether they are voiced. Sounds are voiced when the vocal folds begin to vibrate in the process of phonation. Many sounds can be produced with or without phonation, though physical constraints may make phonation difficult or impossible for some articulations. When articulations are voiced, the main source of noise is the periodic vibration of the vocal folds. Articulations like voiceless plosives have no acoustic source and are noticeable by their silence, but other voiceless sounds like fricatives create their own acoustic source regardless of phonation. </p><p>Phonation is controlled by the muscles of the larynx, and languages make use of more acoustic detail than binary voicing. During phonation, the vocal folds vibrate at a certain rate. This vibration results in a periodic acoustic waveform comprising a <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">fundamental frequency</a> and its harmonics. The fundamental frequency of the acoustic wave can be controlled by adjusting the muscles of the larynx, and listeners perceive this fundamental frequency as pitch. Languages use pitch manipulation to convey lexical information in tonal languages, and many languages use pitch to mark prosodic or pragmatic information. </p><p>For the vocal folds to vibrate, they must be in the proper position and there must be air flowing through the glottis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOhala19971_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOhala19971-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phonation types are modeled on a continuum of glottal states from completely open (voiceless) to completely closed (glottal stop). The optimal position for vibration, and the phonation type most used in speech, modal voice, exists in the middle of these two extremes. If the glottis is slightly wider, breathy voice occurs, while bringing the vocal folds closer together results in creaky voice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordonLadefoged2001_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordonLadefoged2001-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The normal phonation pattern used in typical speech is modal voice, where the vocal folds are held close together with moderate tension. The vocal folds vibrate as a single unit periodically and efficiently with a full glottal closure and no aspiration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoblNí_Chasaide2010399_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoblNí_Chasaide2010399-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If they are pulled farther apart, they do not vibrate and so produce voiceless phones. If they are held firmly together they produce a glottal stop.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordonLadefoged2001_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordonLadefoged2001-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the vocal folds are held slightly further apart than in modal voicing, they produce phonation types like breathy voice (or murmur) and whispery voice. The tension across the vocal ligaments (<a href="/wiki/Vocal_cords" title="Vocal cords">vocal cords</a>) is less than in modal voicing allowing for air to flow more freely. Both breathy voice and whispery voice exist on a continuum loosely characterized as going from the more periodic waveform of breathy voice to the more noisy waveform of whispery voice. Acoustically, both tend to dampen the first formant with whispery voice showing more extreme deviations. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoblNí_Chasaide2010400-401_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoblNí_Chasaide2010400-401-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Holding the vocal folds more tightly together results in a creaky voice. The tension across the vocal folds is less than in modal voice, but they are held tightly together resulting in only the ligaments of the vocal folds vibrating.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pulses are highly irregular, with low pitch and frequency amplitude.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoblNí_Chasaide2010401_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoblNí_Chasaide2010401-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some languages do not maintain a voicing distinction for some consonants,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but all languages use voicing to some degree. For example, no language is known to have a phonemic voicing contrast for vowels with all known vowels canonically voiced.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other positions of the glottis, such as breathy and creaky voice, are used in a number of languages, like <a href="/wiki/Jalapa_Mazatec" title="Jalapa Mazatec">Jalapa Mazatec</a>, to contrast <a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a> while in other languages, like English, they exist allophonically. </p><p>There are several ways to determine if a segment is voiced or not, the simplest being to feel the larynx during speech and note when vibrations are felt. More precise measurements can be obtained through acoustic analysis of a spectrogram or spectral slice. In a spectrographic analysis, voiced segments show a voicing bar, a region of high acoustic energy, in the low frequencies of voiced segments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawsonPhelan2016_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawsonPhelan2016-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In examining a spectral splice, the acoustic spectrum at a given point in time a model of the vowel pronounced reverses the filtering of the mouth producing the spectrum of the glottis. A computational model of the unfiltered glottal signal is then fitted to the inverse filtered acoustic signal to determine the characteristics of the glottis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoblNí_Chasaide2010388,_''et_seq''_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoblNí_Chasaide2010388,_''et_seq''-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visual analysis is also available using specialized medical equipment such as ultrasound and endoscopy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawsonPhelan2016_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawsonPhelan2016-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235389435">.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-captioned{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:var(--color-base,#202122);padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-caption{padding:0.2em;text-align:center;background-color:#f2f2ce;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-table{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-table .wraplinks .selflink{white-space:normal}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable th{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable th:not(.IPA-pulmonic-mannerarrow)[scope="col"]{text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;max-width:4em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable th:not(.IPA-pulmonic-placearrow)[scope="row"]{text-align:left;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable td{vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-constable:not(.IPA-common-audiotable) td:not([colspan]){text-align:center;max-width:1.2em;min-width:1.2em;padding:0.1em 0.2em;font-size:125%}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-audiotable td{padding:0}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-noleftborder{border-left:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-norightborder{border-right:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notopborder{border-top:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-nobottomborder{border-bottom:none}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-shaded{background-color:var(--background-color-disabled,#c8ccd1)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notes{text-align:left;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notes>div{float:right}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notes>div ul{white-space:nowrap;font-weight:normal;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-notes>div ul li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-audiocell{width:40px;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .IPA-audiocell-symbol{font-size:120%}.mw-parser-output .IPA-audiocell-audio{height:20px}.mw-parser-output .IPA-audiocell-audio .ext-phonos-attribution{margin-left:0}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .IPA-common-caption{background-color:#262600}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .IPA-common-caption{background-color:#262600}}</style> <table role="presentation" class="IPA-common-captioned floatright" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th class="IPA-common-caption" style=""><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowels</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233850583">.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main,.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div>span,.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-container-dot,.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-audio .IPA-audiocell{background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main{table-layout:fixed;border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-nocaption{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main th{vertical-align:middle;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main th[scope="col"]{padding-top:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main th[scope="row"]{text-align:right;padding-left:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-minorcaption{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-main td{vertical-align:middle;padding:0;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio td{width:106.67px;min-width:106.67px;height:32px}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-audio td{width:200px;min-width:200px;height:60px}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-image-cell{position:relative}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-image{position:absolute;top:0;left:0}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-container{display:flex;justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div{width:1em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div:first-child{direction:rtl;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div:last-child{direction:ltr;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div:first-child>span{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-noaudio .IPA-vowels-container>div:last-child>span{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-container-dot{z-index:-1}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-audio .IPA-vowels-container>div:empty{width:40px}.mw-parser-output .IPA-vowels-audio .IPA-audiocell-audio{font-size:90%}</style> <table class="nowrap IPA-vowels-main IPA-vowels-noaudio" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td class="IPA-vowels-image-cell"><span class="IPA-vowels-image skin-invert notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/320px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/480px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/640px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-22px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-1px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">Near-close</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(40px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front rounded vowel">ʏ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-15px, -1px);"><div></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">ø</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɘ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">ɵ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(42px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid front unrounded vowel">e̞</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Mid front rounded vowel">ø̞</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(32px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ̞</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">o̞</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(64px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(42px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central unrounded vowel">ɜ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central rounded vowel">ɞ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">Near-open</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(85px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(53px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(106px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open front rounded vowel">ɶ</a></span></span></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(63px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">ä</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></span></span></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div><span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a></span></span></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <hr /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_vowels" title="Template:IPA vowels">template</a></li></ul> </div> <p>Legend: <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded <span style="color: var(--color-base, #202122);">•</span> rounded</a> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Vowels are broadly categorized by the area of the mouth in which they are produced, but because they are produced without a constriction in the vocal tract their precise description relies on measuring acoustic correlates of tongue position. The location of the tongue during vowel production changes the frequencies at which the cavity resonates, and it is these resonances—known as <a href="/wiki/Formants" class="mw-redirect" title="Formants">formants</a>—which are measured and used to characterize vowels. </p><p>Vowel height traditionally refers to the highest point of the tongue during articulation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996282_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996282-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The height parameter is divided into four primary levels: high (close), close-mid, open-mid, and low (open). Vowels whose height are in the middle are referred to as mid. Slightly opened close vowels and slightly closed open vowels are referred to as near-close and near-open respectively. The lowest vowels are not just articulated with a lowered tongue, but also by lowering the jaw.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodge200939_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge200939-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the IPA implies that there are seven levels of vowel height, it is unlikely that a given language can minimally contrast all seven levels. <a href="/wiki/Chomsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Chomsky">Chomsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Halle</a> suggest that there are only three levels,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChomskyHalle1968_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChomskyHalle1968-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although four levels of vowel height seem to be needed to describe <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> and it is possible that some languages might even need five.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996289_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996289-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vowel backness is dividing into three levels: front, central and back. Languages usually do not minimally contrast more than two levels of vowel backness. Some languages claimed to have a three-way backness distinction include <a href="/wiki/Nimboran" class="mw-redirect" title="Nimboran">Nimboran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996290_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996290-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most languages, the lips during vowel production can be classified as either rounded or unrounded (spread), although other types of lip positions, such as compression and protrusion, have been described. Lip position is correlated with height and backness: front and low vowels tend to be unrounded whereas back and high vowels are usually rounded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996292-295_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996292-295-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paired vowels on the IPA chart have the spread vowel on the left and the rounded vowel on the right.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodge200940_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge200940-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Together with the universal vowel features described above, some languages have additional features such as <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">length</a> and different types of phonation such as <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> or <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky</a>. Sometimes more specialized tongue gestures such as <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic vowel">rhoticity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advanced_tongue_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced tongue root">advanced tongue root</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strident_vowel" title="Strident vowel">stridency</a> and frication are required to describe a certain vowel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996298_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996298-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manner_of_articulation">Manner of articulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Manner of articulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">Manner of articulation</a></div> <p>Knowing the place of articulation is not enough to fully describe a consonant, the way in which the stricture happens is equally important. Manners of articulation describe how exactly the active articulator modifies, narrows or closes off the vocal tract.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stops</a> (also referred to as plosives) are consonants where the airstream is completely obstructed. Pressure builds up in the mouth during the stricture, which is then released as a small burst of sound when the articulators move apart. The velum is raised so that air cannot flow through the nasal cavity. If the velum is lowered and allows for air to flow through the nose, the result in a nasal stop. However, phoneticians almost always refer to nasal stops as just "nasals".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Affricates" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricates">Affricates</a> are a sequence of stops followed by a fricative in the same place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201167_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201167-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fricatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">Fricatives</a> are consonants where the airstream is made turbulent by partially, but not completely, obstructing part of the vocal tract.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">Sibilants</a> are a special type of fricative where the turbulent airstream is directed towards the teeth,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996145_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996145-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> creating a high-pitched hissing sound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201115_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201115-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nasals" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasals">Nasals</a> (sometimes referred to as nasal stops) are consonants in which there's a closure in the oral cavity and the velum is lowered, allowing air to flow through the nose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996102_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996102-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an <a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximant</a>, the articulators come close together, but not to such an extent that allows a turbulent airstream.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201115_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201115-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Laterals</a> are consonants in which the airstream is obstructed along the center of the vocal tract, allowing the airstream to flow freely on one or both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201115_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201115-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laterals have also been defined as consonants in which the tongue is contracted in such a way that the airstream is greater around the sides than over the center of the tongue.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996182_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996182-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first definition does not allow for air to flow over the tongue. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trills</a> are consonants in which the tongue or lips are set in motion by the airstream.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stricture is formed in such a way that the airstream causes a repeating pattern of opening and closing of the soft articulator(s).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996217_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996217-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apical trills typically consist of two or three periods of vibration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996218_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996218-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">Taps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">flaps</a> are single, rapid, usually <a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">apical</a> gestures where the tongue is thrown against the roof of the mouth, comparable to a very rapid stop.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but some phoneticians make a distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996230-231_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996230-231-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a tap, the tongue contacts the roof in a single motion whereas in a flap the tongue moves tangentially to the roof of the mouth, striking it in passing. </p><p>During a <a href="/wiki/Glottalic_airstream_mechanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Glottalic airstream mechanism">glottalic airstream mechanism</a>, the glottis is closed, trapping a body of air. This allows for the remaining air in the vocal tract to be moved separately. An upward movement of the closed glottis will move this air out, resulting in it an <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective consonant</a>. Alternatively, the glottis can lower, sucking more air into the mouth, which results in an <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosive consonant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011137_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011137-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">Clicks</a> are stops in which tongue movement causes air to be sucked in the mouth, this is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Velaric_airstream" class="mw-redirect" title="Velaric airstream">velaric airstream</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199678_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199678-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the click, the air becomes <a href="/wiki/Rarefied" class="mw-redirect" title="Rarefied">rarefied</a> between two articulatory closures, producing a loud 'click' sound when the anterior closure is released. The release of the anterior closure is referred to as the click influx. The release of the posterior closure, which can be velar or uvular, is the click efflux. Clicks are used in several African language families, such as the <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996246-247_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996246-247-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pulmonary_and_subglottal_system">Pulmonary and subglottal system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pulmonary and subglottal system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></div> <p>The lungs drive nearly all speech production, and their importance in phonetics is due to their creation of pressure for pulmonic sounds. The most common kinds of sound across languages are pulmonic egress, where air is exhaled from the lungs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged20011_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged20011-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opposite is possible, though no language is known to have pulmonic ingressive sounds as phonemes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEklund2008237_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEklund2008237-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many languages such as <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> use them for <a href="/wiki/Paralinguistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralinguistic">paralinguistic</a> articulations such as affirmations in a number of genetically and geographically diverse languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEklund2008_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEklund2008-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both egressive and ingressive sounds rely on holding the vocal folds in a particular posture and using the lungs to draw air across the vocal folds so that they either vibrate (voiced) or do not vibrate (voiceless).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged20011_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged20011-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pulmonic articulations are restricted by the volume of air able to be exhaled in a given respiratory cycle, known as the <a href="/wiki/Vital_capacity" title="Vital capacity">vital capacity</a>. </p><p>The lungs are used to maintain two kinds of pressure simultaneously to produce and modify phonation. To produce phonation at all, the lungs must maintain a pressure of 3–5 cm H<sub>2</sub>O higher than the pressure above the glottis. However small and fast adjustments are made to the subglottal pressure to modify speech for suprasegmental features like stress. A number of thoracic muscles are used to make these adjustments. Because the lungs and thorax stretch during inhalation, the elastic forces of the lungs alone can produce pressure differentials sufficient for phonation at lung volumes above 50 percent of vital capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016176_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016176-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Above 50 percent of vital capacity, the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_muscles" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory muscles">respiratory muscles</a> are used to "check" the elastic forces of the thorax to maintain a stable pressure differential. Below that volume, they are used to increase the subglottal pressure by actively exhaling air. </p><p>During speech, the respiratory cycle is modified to accommodate both linguistic and biological needs. Exhalation, usually about 60 percent of the respiratory cycle at rest, is increased to about 90 percent of the respiratory cycle. Because metabolic needs are relatively stable, the total volume of air moved in most cases of speech remains about the same as quiet tidal breathing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016171_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016171-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increases in speech intensity of 18 dB (a loud conversation) has relatively little impact on the volume of air moved. Because their respiratory systems are not as developed as adults, children tend to use a larger proportion of their vital capacity compared to adults, with more deep inhales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016168–77_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016168–77-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Source–filter_theory"><span id="Source.E2.80.93filter_theory"></span>Source–filter theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Source–filter theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93filter_model" title="Source–filter model">Source–filter model</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The source–filter model of speech is a theory of speech production which explains the link between vocal tract posture and the acoustic consequences. Under this model, the vocal tract can be modeled as a noise source coupled onto an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acoustic_filter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acoustic filter (page does not exist)">acoustic filter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson200883–5_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200883–5-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The noise source in many cases is the larynx during the process of voicing, though other noise sources can be modeled in the same way. The shape of the supraglottal vocal tract acts as the filter, and different configurations of the articulators result in different acoustic patterns. These changes are predictable. The vocal tract can be modeled as a sequence of tubes, closed at one end, with varying diameters, and by using equations for <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_resonance" title="Acoustic resonance">acoustic resonance</a> the acoustic effect of an articulatory posture can be derived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008104–5_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008104–5-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process of inverse filtering uses this principle to analyze the source spectrum produced by the vocal folds during voicing. By taking the inverse of a predicted filter, the acoustic effect of the supraglottal vocal tract can be undone giving the acoustic spectrum produced by the vocal folds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008157_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008157-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows quantitative study of the various phonation types. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perception">Perception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Speech_perception" title="Speech perception">Speech perception</a></div> <p>Language perception is the process by which a linguistic signal is decoded and understood by a listener.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To perceive speech, the continuous acoustic signal must be converted into discrete linguistic units such as <a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphemes">morphemes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Words" class="mw-redirect" title="Words">words</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019259–60_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019259–60-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To correctly identify and categorize sounds, listeners prioritize certain aspects of the signal that can reliably distinguish between linguistic categories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019269_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019269-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While certain cues are prioritized over others, many aspects of the signal can contribute to perception. For example, though oral languages prioritize acoustic information, the <a href="/wiki/McGurk_effect" title="McGurk effect">McGurk effect</a> shows that visual information is used to distinguish ambiguous information when the acoustic cues are unreliable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019273_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019273-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While listeners can use a variety of information to segment the speech signal, the relationship between acoustic signal and category perception is not a perfect mapping. Because of <a href="/wiki/Coarticulation" title="Coarticulation">coarticulation</a>, noisy environments, and individual differences, there is a high degree of acoustic variability within categories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019259_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019259-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Known as the problem of <b>perceptual invariance</b>, listeners are able to reliably perceive categories despite the variability in acoustic instantiation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019260_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019260-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To do this, listeners rapidly accommodate to new speakers and will shift their boundaries between categories to match the acoustic distinctions their conversational partner is making.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019274–85_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019274–85-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Audition">Audition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Audition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a>; for further information see <a href="/wiki/Neuronal_encoding_of_sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuronal encoding of sound">Neuronal encoding of sound</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv/300px--Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="300" height="169" data-durationhint="147" data-mwtitle="Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv/Journey_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJourney_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv&lang=el&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="el" label="Ελληνικά ‪(el)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJourney_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJourney_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJourney_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJourney_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJourney_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv&lang=th&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="th" label="ไทย ‪(th)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJourney_of_Sound_to_the_Brain.ogv&lang=uk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="uk" label="українська ‪(uk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>How sounds make their way from the source to the brain</figcaption></figure> <p>Audition, the process of hearing sounds, is the first stage of perceiving speech. Articulators cause systematic changes in air pressure which travel as sound waves to the listener's ear. The sound waves then hit the listener's <a href="/wiki/Ear_drum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ear drum">ear drum</a> causing it to vibrate. The vibration of the ear drum is transmitted by the <a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">ossicles</a>—three small bones of the middle ear—to the <a href="/wiki/Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson200346–7_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200346–7-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cochlea is a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled tube divided lengthwise by the <a href="/wiki/Organ_of_Corti" title="Organ of Corti">organ of Corti</a> which contains the <a href="/wiki/Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">basilar membrane</a>. The basilar membrane increases in thickness as it travels through the cochlea causing different frequencies to resonate at different locations. This <a href="/wiki/Tonotopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonotopic">tonotopic</a> design allows for the ear to analyze sound in a manner similar to a <a href="/wiki/Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson200347_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200347-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The differential vibration of the basilar causes the <a href="/wiki/Hair_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Hair cells">hair cells</a> within the organ of Corti to move. This causes <a href="/wiki/Depolarization" title="Depolarization">depolarization</a> of the hair cells and ultimately a conversion of the acoustic signal into a neuronal signal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchacterGilbertWegner2011158–9_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchacterGilbertWegner2011158–9-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the hair cells do not produce <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</a> themselves, they release neurotransmitter at synapses with the fibers of the <a href="/wiki/Auditory_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory nerve">auditory nerve</a>, which does produce action potentials. In this way, the patterns of oscillations on the basilar membrane are converted to <a href="/wiki/Spatiotemporal_pattern" title="Spatiotemporal pattern">spatiotemporal patterns</a> of firings which transmit information about the sound to the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYost2003130_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYost2003130-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosody">Prosody</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Prosody"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody (linguistics)</a></div> <p>Besides consonants and vowels, phonetics also describes the properties of speech that are not localized to <a href="/wiki/Segment_(linguistics)" title="Segment (linguistics)">segments</a> but greater units of speech, such as <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrases</a>. Prosody includes <a href="/wiki/Auditory_phonetics" title="Auditory phonetics">auditory characteristics</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isochrony" title="Isochrony">speech rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duration_(music)" title="Duration (music)">duration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">loudness</a>. Languages use these properties to different degrees to implement <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent_(intonation)" title="Pitch accent (intonation)">pitch accents</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a> — for example, <a href="/wiki/Stress_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress in English">stress in English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stress_in_Spanish" title="Stress in Spanish">Spanish</a> is correlated with changes in pitch and duration, whereas <a href="/wiki/Welsh_phonology" title="Welsh phonology">stress in Welsh</a> is more consistently correlated with pitch than duration and stress in Thai is only correlated with duration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECutler2005_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECutler2005-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_of_speech_perception">Theories of speech perception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Theories of speech perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early theories of speech perception such as <a href="/wiki/Motor_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor theory">motor theory</a> attempted to solve the problem of perceptual invariance by arguing that speech perception and production were closely linked. In its strongest form, motor theory argues that speech perception <i>requires</i> the listener to access the articulatory representation of sounds;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019289_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019289-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to properly categorize a sound, a listener reverse engineers the articulation which would produce that sound and by identifying these gestures is able to retrieve the intended linguistic category.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalantucciFowlerTurvey2006_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalantucciFowlerTurvey2006-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While findings such as the McGurk effect and case studies from patients with neurological injuries have provided support for motor theory, further experiments have not supported the strong form of motor theory, though there is some support for weaker forms of motor theory which claim a non-deterministic relationship between production and perception.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalantucciFowlerTurvey2006_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalantucciFowlerTurvey2006-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019292–3_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019292–3-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkipperDevlinLametti2017_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkipperDevlinLametti2017-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Successor theories of speech perception place the focus on acoustic cues to sound categories and can be grouped into two broad categories: abstractionist theories and episodic theories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldinger1996_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldinger1996-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In abstractionist theories, speech perception involves the identification of an idealized lexical object based on a signal reduced to its necessary components and normalizing the signal to counteract speaker variability. Episodic theories such as the <a href="/wiki/Exemplar_theory" title="Exemplar theory">exemplar model</a> argue that speech perception involves accessing detailed memories (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Episodic_memories" class="mw-redirect" title="Episodic memories">episodic memories</a>) of previously heard tokens. The problem of perceptual invariance is explained by episodic theories as an issue of familiarity: normalization is a byproduct of exposure to more variable distributions rather than a discrete process as abstractionist theories claim.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldinger1996_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldinger1996-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subdisciplines">Subdisciplines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Subdisciplines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acoustic_phonetics">Acoustic phonetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Acoustic phonetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_phonetics" title="Acoustic phonetics">Acoustic phonetics</a></div> <p>Acoustic phonetics deals with the <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustic</a> properties of speech sounds. The <a href="/wiki/Sensation_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensation (psychology)">sensation</a> of sound is caused by pressure fluctuations which cause the <a href="/wiki/Eardrum" title="Eardrum">eardrum</a> to move. The ear transforms this movement into neural signals that the brain registers as sound. Acoustic waveforms are records that measure these pressure fluctuations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson20031_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson20031-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articulatory_phonetics">Articulatory phonetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Articulatory phonetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">Articulatory phonetics</a></div> <p>Articulatory phonetics deals with the ways in which speech sounds are made. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auditory_phonetics">Auditory phonetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Auditory phonetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Auditory_phonetics" title="Auditory phonetics">Auditory phonetics</a></div> <p>Auditory phonetics studies how humans perceive speech sounds. Due to the anatomical features of the auditory system distorting the speech signal, humans do not experience speech sounds as perfect acoustic records. For example, the auditory impressions of <a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">volume</a>, measured in decibels (dB), does not linearly match the difference in sound pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson200346-49_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200346-49-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mismatch between acoustic analyses and what the listener hears is especially noticeable in speech sounds that have a lot of high-frequency energy, such as certain fricatives. To reconcile this mismatch, functional models of the auditory system have been developed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson200353_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200353-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Describing_sounds"><span class="anchor" id="Consonants"></span>Describing sounds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Describing sounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human languages use many different sounds and to compare them linguists must be able to describe sounds in a way that is language independent. Speech sounds can be described in a number of ways. Most commonly speech sounds are referred to by the mouth movements needed to produce them. <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">Consonants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> are two gross categories that phoneticians define by the movements in a speech sound. More fine-grained descriptors are parameters such as place of articulation. <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Place of articulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Voicing_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Voicing (phonetics)">voicing</a> are used to describe consonants and are the main divisions of the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> consonant chart. Vowels are described by their height, backness, and rounding. Sign language are described using a similar but distinct set of parameters to describe signs: location, movement, hand shape, palm orientation, and non-manual features. In addition to articulatory descriptions, sounds used in oral languages can be described using their acoustics. Because the acoustics are a consequence of the articulation, both methods of description are sufficient to distinguish sounds with the choice between systems dependent on the phonetic feature being investigated. </p><p>Consonants are speech sounds that are articulated with a complete or partial closure of the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_tract" title="Vocal tract">vocal tract</a>. They are generally produced by the modification of an <a href="/wiki/Airstream_mechanism" title="Airstream mechanism">airstream</a> exhaled from the lungs. The respiratory organs used to create and modify airflow are divided into three regions: the vocal tract (supralaryngeal), the <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a>, and the subglottal system. The airstream can be either <a href="/wiki/Egressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Egressive">egressive</a> (out of the vocal tract) or <a href="/wiki/Ingressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingressive">ingressive</a> (into the vocal tract). In pulmonic sounds, the airstream is produced by the lungs in the subglottal system and passes through the larynx and vocal tract. <a href="/wiki/Glottalic" class="mw-redirect" title="Glottalic">Glottalic</a> sounds use an airstream created by movements of the larynx without airflow from the lungs. <a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">Click</a> consonants are articulated through the <a href="/wiki/Rarefaction" title="Rarefaction">rarefaction</a> of air using the tongue, followed by releasing the forward closure of the tongue. </p><p>Vowels are <a href="/wiki/Syllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabic">syllabic</a> speech sounds that are pronounced without any obstruction in the vocal tract.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996281_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996281-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike consonants, which usually have definite places of articulation, vowels are defined in relation to a set of reference vowels called <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_vowels" title="Cardinal vowels">cardinal vowels</a>. Three properties are needed to define vowels: tongue height, tongue backness, and lip roundedness. Vowels that are articulated with a stable quality are called <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a>; a combination of two separate vowels in the same syllable is a <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs201726-27_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs201726-27-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>, the vowels are represented on a trapezoid shape representing the human mouth: the vertical axis representing the mouth from floor to roof and the horizontal axis represents the front-back dimension.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodge200938_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge200938-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transcription">Transcription</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Transcription"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">Phonetic transcription</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">Phonetic transcription</a> is a system for transcribing <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a> that occur in a language, whether <a href="/wiki/Oral_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral language">oral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a>. The most widely known system of phonetic transcription, the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA), provides a standardized set of symbols for oral phones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200517_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200517-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The standardized nature of the IPA enables its users to transcribe accurately and consistently the phones of different languages, <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Idiolect" title="Idiolect">idiolects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200517_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200517-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2005_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2005-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IPA is a useful tool not only for the study of phonetics but also for language teaching, professional acting, and <a href="/wiki/Speech_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech pathology">speech pathology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2005_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2005-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While no sign language has a standardized writing system, linguists have developed their own notation systems that describe the handshape, location and movement. The <a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Notation_System" title="Hamburg Notation System">Hamburg Notation System</a> (HamNoSys) is similar to the IPA in that it allows for varying levels of detail. Some notation systems such as KOMVA and the <a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe system</a> were designed for use in dictionaries; they also make use of alphabetic letters in the local language for handshapes whereas HamNoSys represents the handshape directly. <a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a> aims to be an easy-to-learn writing system for sign languages, although it has not been officially adopted by any deaf community yet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016242-244_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016242-244-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sign_languages">Sign languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Sign languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike spoken languages, words in <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a> are perceived with the eyes instead of the ears. Signs are articulated with the hands, upper body and head. The main articulators are the hands and arms. Relative parts of the arm are described with the terms <a href="/wiki/Proximal" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximal">proximal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Distal" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal">distal</a>. Proximal refers to a part closer to the torso whereas a distal part is further away from it. For example, a wrist movement is distal compared to an elbow movement. Due to requiring less energy, distal movements are generally easier to produce. Various factors – such as muscle flexibility and being considered <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboo</a> – restrict what can be considered a sign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native signers do not look at their conversation partner's hands. Instead, their gaze is fixated on the face. Because <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_vision" title="Peripheral vision">peripheral vision</a> is not as focused as the center of the visual field, signs articulated near the face allow for more subtle differences in finger movement and location to be perceived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016236_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016236-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike spoken languages, sign languages have two identical articulators: the hands. Signers may use whichever hand they prefer with no disruption in communication. Due to universal neurological limitations, two-handed signs generally have the same kind of articulation in both hands; this is referred to as the Symmetry Condition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second universal constraint is the Dominance Condition, which holds that when two handshapes are involved, one hand will remain stationary and have a more limited set of handshapes compared to the dominant, moving hand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016286_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016286-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, it is common for one hand in a two-handed sign to be dropped during informal conversations, a process referred to as weak drop.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235_134-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just like words in spoken languages, coarticulation may cause signs to influence each other's form. Examples include the handshapes of neighboring signs becoming more similar to each other (<a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">assimilation</a>) or weak drop (an instance of <a href="/wiki/Deletion_(phonology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deletion (phonology)">deletion</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016239_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016239-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motor_theory_of_speech_perception" title="Motor theory of speech perception">Motor theory of speech perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exemplar_theory" title="Exemplar theory">Exemplar theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonology" title="Articulatory phonology">Articulatory phonology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Linguists debate whether these stages can interact or whether they occur serially (compare <a href="#CITEREFDellReich1981">Dell & Reich (1981)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFMotleyCamdenBaars1982">Motley, Camden & Baars (1982)</a>). For ease of description, the language production process is described as a series of independent stages, though recent evidence shows this is inaccurate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019439_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019439-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For further descriptions of interactive activation models see <a href="#CITEREFJaegerFurthHilliard2012">Jaeger, Furth & Hilliard (2012)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">or after part of an utterance has been planned; see <a href="#CITEREFGleitmanJanuaryNappaTrueswell2007">Gleitman et al. (2007)</a> for evidence of production before a message has been completely planned</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">adapted from <a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy (2019</a>, p. 411) and <a href="#CITEREFBoersma1998">Boersma (1998</a>, p. 11)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#CITEREFFeldman1966">Feldman (1966)</a> for the original proposal.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#The_larynx">#The larynx</a> for further information on the anatomy of phonation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hawaiian, for example, does not contrast voiced and voiceless plosives.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are languages, like <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, where vowels are produced as voiceless in certain contexts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#Articulatory_models">#Articulatory models</a> for further information on acoustic modeling.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As with speech production, the nature of the linguistic signal varies depending on the <a href="/wiki/Language_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Language modality">language modality</a>. The signal can be acoustic for oral speech, visual for signed languages, or tactile for manual-tactile sign languages. For simplicity acoustic speech is described here; for sign language perception specifically, see <a href="/wiki/Sign_language#Sign_perception" title="Sign language">Sign language#Sign perception</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200515-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200515_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Grady2005">O'Grady 2005</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLynch2021" class="citation web cs1">Lynch, Matthew (2021-04-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theedadvocate.org/the-differences-between-a-phone-phoneme-and-an-allophone/">"The Differences Between a Phone, Phoneme And an Allophone"</a>. <i>The Edvocate</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, p. 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201114_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedJohnson2011">Ladefoged & Johnson 2011</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201167-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201167_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedJohnson2011">Ladefoged & Johnson 2011</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996145-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996218-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996218_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996230-231-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996230-231_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, p. 230-231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011137-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011137_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedJohnson2011">Ladefoged & Johnson 2011</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199678-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson199678_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996246-247-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996246-247_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>, p. 246-247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged20011-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged20011_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged20011_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefoged2001">Ladefoged 2001</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEklund2008237-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEklund2008237_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEklund2008">Eklund 2008</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEklund2008-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEklund2008_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEklund2008">Eklund 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016176-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016176_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeikelDrumrightKing2016">Seikel, Drumright & King 2016</a>, p. 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016171-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016171_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeikelDrumrightKing2016">Seikel, Drumright & King 2016</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016168–77-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeikelDrumrightKing2016168–77_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeikelDrumrightKing2016">Seikel, Drumright & King 2016</a>, pp. 168–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200883–5-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson200883–5_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2008">Johnson 2008</a>, p. 83–5.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2008 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008104–5-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008104–5_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2008">Johnson 2008</a>, p. 104–5.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2008 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008157-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008157_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2008">Johnson 2008</a>, p. 157.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2008 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019259–60-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019259–60_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy 2019</a>, p. 259–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019269-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019269_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy 2019</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019273-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019273_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy 2019</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019259-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019259_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy 2019</a>, p. 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019260-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019260_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy 2019</a>, p. 260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019274–85-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019274–85_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy 2019</a>, p. 274–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200346–7-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson200346–7_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2003">Johnson 2003</a>, p. 46–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200347-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson200347_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2003">Johnson 2003</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchacterGilbertWegner2011158–9-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchacterGilbertWegner2011158–9_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchacterGilbertWegner2011">Schacter, Gilbert & Wegner 2011</a>, p. 158–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYost2003130-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYost2003130_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYost2003">Yost 2003</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECutler2005-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECutler2005_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCutler2005">Cutler 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019289-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019289_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy 2019</a>, p. 289.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalantucciFowlerTurvey2006-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalantucciFowlerTurvey2006_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalantucciFowlerTurvey2006_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalantucciFowlerTurvey2006">Galantucci, Fowler & Turvey 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESedivy2019292–3-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedivy2019292–3_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedivy2019">Sedivy 2019</a>, p. 292–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkipperDevlinLametti2017-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkipperDevlinLametti2017_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkipperDevlinLametti2017">Skipper, Devlin & Lametti 2017</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldinger1996-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldinger1996_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldinger1996_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldinger1996">Goldinger 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li 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p. 281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs201726-27-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs201726-27_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGussenhovenJacobs2017">Gussenhoven & Jacobs 2017</a>, p. 26-27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge200938-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodge200938_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLodge2009">Lodge 2009</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200517-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200517_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Grady200517_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Grady2005">O'Grady 2005</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2005-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2005_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2005_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefoged2005">Ladefoged 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016242-244-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016242-244_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016">Baker et al. 2016</a>, p. 242-244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016229-235_134-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016">Baker et al. 2016</a>, p. 229-235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016236-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016236_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016">Baker et al. 2016</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016286-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016286_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016">Baker et al. 2016</a>, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016239-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016239_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016">Baker et al. 2016</a>, p. 239.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbercrombie1967" class="citation book cs1">Abercrombie, D. (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementsofgenera0000aber"><i>Elements of General Phonetics</i></a></span>. Edinburgh: Chicago, Aldine Pub. Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+General+Phonetics&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Chicago%2C+Aldine+Pub.+Co&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Abercrombie&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementsofgenera0000aber&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAltmann2002" class="citation book cs1">Altmann, Gerry (2002). <i>Psycholinguistics : critical concepts in psychology</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415229906" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415229906"><bdi>978-0415229906</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48014482">48014482</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psycholinguistics+%3A+critical+concepts+in+psychology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48014482&rft.isbn=978-0415229906&rft.aulast=Altmann&rft.aufirst=Gerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakervan_den_BogaerdePfauSchermer2016" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Anne; van den Bogaerde, Beppie; Pfau, Roland; Schermer, Trude (2016). <i>The Linguistics of Sign Languages</i>. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-1230-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-1230-6"><bdi>978-90-272-1230-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Linguistics+of+Sign+Languages&rft.place=Amsterdam%2FPhiladelphia&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-90-272-1230-6&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft.au=van+den+Bogaerde%2C+Beppie&rft.au=Pfau%2C+Roland&rft.au=Schermer%2C+Trude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumbach1987" class="citation book cs1">Baumbach, E. J. M (1987). <i>Analytical Tsonga Grammar</i>. Pretoria: University of South Africa.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analytical+Tsonga+Grammar&rft.place=Pretoria&rft.pub=University+of+South+Africa&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Baumbach&rft.aufirst=E.+J.+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBizziHoganMussa-IvaldiGiszter1992" class="citation journal cs1">Bizzi, E.; Hogan, N.; Mussa-Ivaldi, F.; Giszter, S. (1992). "Does the nervous system use equilibrium-point control to guide single and multiple joint movements?". <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 603–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00072538">10.1017/S0140525X00072538</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23302290">23302290</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Does+the+nervous+system+use+equilibrium-point+control+to+guide+single+and+multiple+joint+movements%3F&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=603-13&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X00072538&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23302290&rft.aulast=Bizzi&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Hogan%2C+N.&rft.au=Mussa-Ivaldi%2C+F.&rft.au=Giszter%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBockLevelt2002" class="citation book cs1">Bock, Kathryn; Levelt, Willem (2002). Atlmann, Gerry (ed.). <i>Psycholinguistics: Critical Concepts in Psychology</i>. Vol. 5. New York: Routledge. pp. 405–407. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26701-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26701-4"><bdi>978-0-415-26701-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psycholinguistics%3A+Critical+Concepts+in+Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=405-407&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26701-4&rft.aulast=Bock&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rft.au=Levelt%2C+Willem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoersma1998" class="citation book cs1">Boersma, Paul (1998). <i>Functional phonology: Formalizing the interactions between articulatory and perceptual drives</i>. The Hague: Holland Academic Graphics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9055690546" title="Special:BookSources/9055690546"><bdi>9055690546</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40563066">40563066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Functional+phonology%3A+Formalizing+the+interactions+between+articulatory+and+perceptual+drives&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Holland+Academic+Graphics&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40563066&rft.isbn=9055690546&rft.aulast=Boersma&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaffrey2017" class="citation book cs1">Caffrey, Cait (2017). "Phonetics". <i>Salem Press Encyclopedia</i>. Salem Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phonetics&rft.btitle=Salem+Press+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Salem+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Caffrey&rft.aufirst=Cait&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatford2001" class="citation book cs1">Catford, J. C. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalintrodu00catf"><i>A Practical Introduction to Phonetics</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924635-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924635-9"><bdi>978-0-19-924635-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Introduction+to+Phonetics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924635-9&rft.aulast=Catford&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpracticalintrodu00catf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomskyHalle1968" class="citation book cs1">Chomsky, Noam; Halle, Morris (1968). <i>Sound Pattern of English</i>. Harper and Row.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sound+Pattern+of+English&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft.au=Halle%2C+Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutler2005" class="citation book cs1">Cutler, Anne (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/56545/56545.pdf">"Lexical Stress"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Pisoni, David B.; Remez, Robert (eds.). <i>The Handbook of Speech Perception</i>. Blackwell. pp. 264–289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470757024.ch11">10.1002/9780470757024.ch11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22927-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22927-8"><bdi>978-0-631-22927-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/749782145">749782145</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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The Ohio State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-5270-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-5270-3"><bdi>978-0-8142-5270-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Files%3A+Materials+for+an+Introduction+to+Linguistics&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=The+Ohio+State+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8142-5270-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDellO'Seaghdha1992" class="citation journal cs1">Dell, Gary; O'Seaghdha, Padraig (1992). "Stages of lexical access in language production". <i>Cognition</i>. <b>42</b> (1–3): 287–314. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0277%2892%2990046-k">10.1016/0010-0277(92)90046-k</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1582160">1582160</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37962027">37962027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognition&rft.atitle=Stages+of+lexical+access+in+language+production&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=287-314&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37962027%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1582160&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0010-0277%2892%2990046-k&rft.aulast=Dell&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft.au=O%27Seaghdha%2C+Padraig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDellReich1981" class="citation journal cs1">Dell, Gary; Reich, Peter (1981). 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New York: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-04479-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-04479-2"><bdi>978-0-321-04479-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Civilizations&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-321-04479-2&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adas%2C+Michael&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Stuart&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Marc+Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldcivilizatio00stea_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrask1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Trask" title="Larry Trask">Trask, R.L.</a> (1996). <i>A Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology</i>. Abingdon: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11261-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11261-1"><bdi>978-0-415-11261-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Phonetics+and+Phonology&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-11261-1&rft.aulast=Trask&rft.aufirst=R.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYost2003" class="citation book cs1">Yost, William (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sPkIn4sUyXEC&pg=PA130">"Audition"</a>. In Alice F. Healy; Robert W. Proctor (eds.). <i>Handbook of Psychology: Experimental psychology</i>. John Wiley and Sons. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39262-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39262-0"><bdi>978-0-471-39262-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Audition&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Psychology%3A+Experimental+psychology&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-471-39262-0&rft.aulast=Yost&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsPkIn4sUyXEC%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonetics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonetics&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External 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decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work">The New Student's Reference Work</a></i> article "<b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Phonetics" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work/Phonetics">Phonetics</a></b>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Phonetics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Phonetics">Phonetics</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://users.castle.unc.edu/~jlsmith/phonetics-resources.html">Collection of phonetics resources</a> by the University of North Carolina</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.peterroach.net/uploads/3/6/5/8/3658625/english-phonetics-and-phonology4-glossary.pdf">"A Little Encyclopedia of Phonetics"</a> by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Roach_(phonetician)" title="Peter Roach (phonetician)">Peter Roach</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dood.al/pinktrombone/">Pink Trombone</a>, an interactive articulation simulator by Neil Thapen.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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