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Originating from ancient [[Prehistoric Korea|agricultural and nomadic traditions]] in [[Korea]] and southern [[Manchuria]], Korean [[cuisine]] reflects a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends.<ref name="han-style.com"/><ref name="Korean Cuisine">{{cite web|url=http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=186015|title=Korean Cuisine (한국요리 韓國料理)|publisher=[[Naver]] / [[Doosan Encyclopedia]]|language=ko|access-date=2009-03-28}}{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Korean cuisine is largely based on [[rice]], [[vegetable]]s, [[seafood]] and (at least in [[South Korea]]) [[meat]]s. Dairy is largely absent from the traditional Korean diet.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Kyung Won|last2=Cho|first2=Wookyoun|date=2017-06-19|title=The Consumption of Dairy Products Is Associated with Reduced Risks of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Women but not in Men|journal=Nutrients|volume=9|issue=6|pages=630|doi=10.3390/nu9060630|issn=2072-6643|pmc=5490609|pmid=28629203|doi-access=free}}</ref> Traditional Korean meals are named for the number of [[side dish]]es ({{Korean|hangul=반찬|hanja=飯饌|rr=[[banchan]]|labels=no}}) that accompany [[steaming|steam-cooked]] short-grain rice. [[Kimchi]] is served at nearly every meal. Commonly used ingredients include [[sesame oil]], {{transliteration|ko|[[doenjang]]}} ([[fermented bean paste]]), [[Korean soy sauce|soy sauce]], salt, garlic, ginger, {{transliteration|ko|[[gochugaru]]}} ([[chili pepper|pepper]] flakes), {{transliteration|ko|[[gochujang]]}} (fermented red chili paste) and [[napa cabbage]]. Ingredients and dishes vary by province. Many regional dishes have become national. [[Korean royal court cuisine]] once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Foods are regulated by Korean cultural [[etiquette]]. [[Kimjang]], which means making [[kimchi]], is listed on [[UNESCO Intangible Heritage List]].<ref>[https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kimjang-making-and-sharing-kimchi-in-the-republic-of-korea-00881 Kimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205025303/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kimjang-making-and-sharing-kimchi-in-the-republic-of-korea-00881 |date=5 February 2021 }} - UNESCO</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Korean cuisine}} {{Further|History of Korea}} ===Prehistoric=== In the [[Jeulmun pottery period]] (approximately 8000 to 1500 BCE), hunter-gatherer societies engaged in fishing and hunting, and incipient agriculture in the later stages.<ref name="han-style.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.han-style.com/hansik/history/cochoson.jsp|script-title=ko:역사 속 한식이야기 |trans-title=Korean Food in History |publisher=[[Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism]]|language=ko|access-date=2010-08-02|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127180249/http://www.han-style.com/hansik/history/cochoson.jsp|archive-date=2011-11-27}}</ref> Since the beginning of the [[Mumun pottery period]] (1500 BCE), agricultural traditions began to develop with new migrant groups from the [[Liao River]] basin of Manchuria. During the Mumun period, people grew [[millet]], [[barley]], [[wheat]], legumes and [[rice]], and continued to hunt and fish. Archaeological remains point to development of fermented beans during this period, and cultural contact with nomadic cultures to the north facilitated domestication of animals. ===Three Kingdoms period=== [[File:Goguryeo-Gakjeochong-Inner life.jpg|thumb|In a mural of ''[[Gakjeochong]]'' (각저총 "Tombs of [[Ssireum|Wrestlers]]"),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koreanculture.org/06about_korea/symbols/24ssireum.htm |title=Ssireum |publisher=Korean Overseas Information Service |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221142538/http://www.koreanculture.org/06about_korea/symbols/24ssireum.htm |archive-date=2008-12-21 }}</ref> a [[Goguryeo]] tomb built around the 5th century shows a Goguryeo nobleman having a meal with two ladies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pimage.html?s=&i=244844002&en=244844&p_i=&a_i=&e=1 |title=Gakjeochong (각저총 角抵塚) |publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] /[[EncyKorea]] |language=ko |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610052233/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pimage.html?s=&i=244844002&en=244844&p_i=&a_i=&e=1 |archive-date=2011-06-10 }}</ref>]] The [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] period (57 BCE&nbsp;– 668 CE) was one of rapid cultural evolution. The kingdom of [[Goguryeo]] (37 BCE&nbsp;– 668 CE) was located in the northern part of the peninsula along much of modern-day [[Manchuria]]. The second kingdom, [[Baekje]] (18 BCE&nbsp;– 660 CE), was in the southwestern portion of the peninsula, and the third, [[Silla]] (57 BCE&nbsp;– 935 CE), was located at the southeastern portion of the peninsula. Each region had its own distinct set of cultural practices and foods. For example, Baekje was known for cold foods and fermented foods like ''[[kimchi]]''. The spread of [[Buddhism]] and [[Confucianism]] through cultural exchanges with China during the fourth century CE began to change the distinct cultures of Korea.{{sfn|Pettid|2008|p=13}} Attributed with the earliest [[kimchi]], the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Park |first1=Kun-Young |last2=Cheigh |first2=Hong-Sik |title=Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing |date=2003 |publisher=CRC Press |page=190 |chapter=Kimchi}}</ref> ===Goryeo period=== [[File:Spoon of Injong.jpg|thumb|right|220px| [[Silver]] [[spoon]] and [[chopsticks]] entombed with [[Injong of Goryeo|King Injong]] in 1146]] During the latter Goryeo period, the [[Mongols]] invaded Goryeo in the 13th century. Some traditional foods found today in Korea have their origins during this period. The dumpling dish, ''[[mandu (food)|mandu]]'', grilled meat dishes, [[Korean noodles|noodle dishes]], and the use of seasonings such as black pepper, all have their roots in this period.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=15}} ===Joseon period=== Agricultural innovations were significant and widespread during this period, such as the invention of the rain gauge during the 15th century. During 1429, the government began publishing books on agriculture and farming techniques, which included ''[[Nongsa jikseol]]'' (literally "Straight Talk on Farming"), an agricultural book compiled under [[King Sejong]].<ref name="National Assembly">King Sejong's Humanism, from [[National Assembly of the Republic of Korea]]</ref>{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=17}} A series of invasions in the earlier half of the Joseon caused a dynamic shift in the culture during the second half of the period. Groups of ''[[silhak]]'' ("practical learning") scholars began to emphasize the importance of looking outside the country for innovation and technology to help improve the agricultural systems. Crops traded by Europeans from the [[New World]] began to appear, acquired through trade with China, [[Japan]], [[Europe]], and the [[Philippines]]; these crops included [[maize]], [[sweet potato]]es, [[chili pepper]]s, [[tomato]]es, [[peanut]]s, and [[Squash (plant)|squash]]. Potatoes and sweet potatoes were particularly favored as they grew in soils and on terrains that were previously unused.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=18–19}} Government further developed agriculture through technology and lower taxation. Complex [[irrigation system]]s built by government allowed peasant farmers to produce larger crop volumes and produce crops not only for sustenance but also as [[cash crop]]s. Reduced taxation of the peasantry also furthered the expanded commerce through increasing periodic markets, usually held every five days. One thousand such markets existed in the 19th century, and were communal centers for economic trade and entertainment.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=18}} The end of the Joseon period was marked by consistent encouragement to trade with the Western world, China and Japan. In the 1860s, trade agreements pushed by the Japanese government led the [[Joseon dynasty]] to open its trade ports with the west, and to numerous treaties with the United States, Britain, France, and other Western countries.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=19}} The opening of Korea to the Western world brought further exchange of culture and food. Western missionaries introduced new ingredients and dishes to Korea. Joseon elites were introduced to these new foods by way of foreigners who attended the royal court as advisers or physicians. This period also saw the introduction of various seasonings imported from Japan via western traders and alcoholic drinks from China.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=163}} ===Colonial period to modern period=== {{Main|South Korean cuisine|North Korean cuisine}} [[File:Korean.food-Budaejjigae-01.jpg|thumb|alt=A spicy stew in a pot|''[[Budae jjigae]]'', a spicy stew originated during the Korean War.]] [[File:Korean chicken dish in Sydney, Australia.JPG|thumb|Korean chicken dish (Jjimdak) in Sydney, Australia]] Japan occupied the [[Korean peninsula]] from 1910 to 1945. Many of its agricultural systems were taken over by the Japanese to support Japan's food supply. Land changes resulting from the Japanese occupation included combining small farms into large-scale farms, which led to larger yields. Rice production increased during this period to support the Japanese Empire's war efforts. Many Koreans, in turn, increased the production of other grains for their own consumption.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=19–20}} Meals during the Japanese occupation were quite varied. Koreans usually ate two meals a day during the cold seasons, and three during the warm seasons. For the lower classes, satiety, rather than quality, was most important. Those in even lower economic levels were likely to enjoy only a single bowl of white rice ''each year'', while the remainder of the year was filled with cheaper grains, such as [[millet]] and [[barley]].{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=29, 163}} For the Korean middle and upper classes during the occupation, things were quite different. Western foods began emerging in the Korean diet, such as white bread and commercially produced staples such as precooked noodles. The Japanese occupational period ended after the defeat of Japan during [[World War II]].{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=20}} The country remained in a state of turmoil through the [[Korean War]] (1950–1953) and the [[Cold War]], which separated the country into [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]]. Both of these periods continued the limited food provisions for Koreans,{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=19–20}} and the stew called ''[[budae jjigae]]'', which makes use of inexpensive meats such as sausage and [[Spam (food)|Spam]], originated during this period. At this point, the history of North and South Korea sharply diverged. In the 1960s under President [[Park Chung Hee]], industrialization began to give South Korea the economic and cultural power it holds in the global economy today. Agriculture was increased through use of commercial fertilizers and modern farming equipment. In the 1970s, food shortages began to lessen. Consumption of instant and processed foods increased, as did the overall quality of foods. [[Livestock]] and dairy production was increased during the 1970s through the increase of commercial dairies and mechanized farms.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=164–165}} The consumption of pork and beef increased vastly in the 1970s. Per-capita consumption of meat was 3.6&nbsp;kg in 1961 and 11&nbsp;kg by 1979. The result of this increased meat consumption brought about the rise of ''[[bulgogi]]'' restaurants, which gave the middle class of South Korea the ability to enjoy meat regularly. Meat eating continued to rise, reaching 40&nbsp;kg in 1997, with fish consumption at 49.5&nbsp;kg in 1998. Rice consumption continually decreased through these years, from 128&nbsp;kg consumed per person in 1985 to 106&nbsp;kg in 1995 and 83&nbsp;kg in 2003. The decrease in rice consumption has been accompanied by an increase in the consumption of bread and noodles.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=166}} In 2009, the South Korean government launched a $77-million [[Culinary diplomacy#South Korea|culinary diplomacy]] program called "Korean Cuisine to the World" to promote its cuisine and subsequently pivoted into the markets in the United States and Muslim countries.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2015-07-02 |title=Eight Great Gastrodiplomacy Nations |url=https://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/story/eight-great-gastrodiplomacy-nations |website=USC Center on Public Diplomacy |access-date=6 June 2023 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606051650/https://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/story/eight-great-gastrodiplomacy-nations |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Herningtyas |first=Ratih |title=Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Sustainable Innovation 2019 – Humanity, Education and Social Sciences (IcoSIHESS 2019) |chapter=Korean Gastro Diplomacy: Strategy to Enhance Country Promotion Toward Moslem Countries |date=2019 |chapter-url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125919881 |language=en |publisher=Atlantis Press |doi=10.2991/icosihess-19.2019.42 |isbn=978-94-6252-813-0 |doi-access=free |access-date=6 June 2023 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909140205/https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icosihess-19/125919881 |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Food crops== ===Grains=== [[File:Korea-Icheon-Dolsotbap-Cooked rice in a stone pot-01.jpg|thumb|alt=Cooked rice sprinkled with four pieces of dried grape and cooked three chestnut in a black stone pot|''Dolsotbap'', cooked rice in a stone pot (''[[dolsot]]'')]][[Grain]]s have been one of the most important staples of the Korean diet. Early myths of the foundations of various kingdoms in Korea center on grains. One foundation myth relates to [[Jumong]], who received [[barley]] seeds from two [[dove]]s sent by his mother after establishing the kingdom of [[Goguryeo]].<ref>Yi Kyubo, 1-9.</ref> Yet another myth speaks of the three founding deities of [[Jeju Island]], who were to be wed to the three princesses of [[Tamna]]; the deities brought seeds of five grains which were the first seeds planted, which in turn became the first instance of farming.<ref>Koryǒsa, 57, 53b-54b.</ref> During the pre-modern era, grains such as barley and millet were the main staples. They were supplemented by wheat, [[sorghum]], and [[buckwheat]]. Rice is not an indigenous crop to Korea and millet was likely the preferred grain before rice was cultivated. Rice became the grain of choice during the Three Kingdoms period, particularly in the [[Silla]] and [[Baekje]] Kingdoms in the southern regions of the peninsula. Rice was such an important commodity in Silla that it was used to pay taxes. The [[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean]] word for "tax" is a compound character that uses the character for the rice plant. The preference for rice escalated into the [[Joseon]] period, when new methods of cultivation and new varieties emerged that would help increase production.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=33}} As rice was prohibitively expensive when it first came to Korea, the grain was likely mixed with other grains to "stretch" the rice; this is still done in dishes such as ''boribap'' (rice with barley) and ''[[kongbap]]'' (rice with beans).<ref name="Joins">{{cite news |url=http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?total_id=2685876 |script-title=ko:콩사연 |trans-title=The reason why kongbap changed to boribap |newspaper=[[JoongAng Ilbo]] |author=Yu Ji-sang (유지상) |language=ko |access-date=2009-03-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126133718/http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?total_id=2685876 |archive-date=2009-01-26 }}</ref> White rice, which is rice with the bran removed, has been the preferred form of rice since its introduction into the cuisine. The most traditional method of cooking the rice has been to cook it in an iron pot called a ''sot'' ({{Korean|hangul=솥|labels=no}}) or ''musoe sot'' ({{Korean|hangul=무쇠솥|labels=no}}). This method of rice cookery dates back to at least the [[Goryeo]] period, and these pots have even been found in tombs from the Silla period. The ''sot'' is still used today, much in the same manner as it was in the past centuries.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=34}} Rice is used to make a number of items, outside of the traditional bowl of plain white rice. It is commonly ground into a flour and used to make rice cakes called ''[[tteok]]'' in over two hundred varieties. It is also cooked down into a [[congee]] (''juk'') or [[gruel]] (''mieum'') and mixed with other grains, meat, or seafood. Koreans also produce a number of [[rice wine]]s, both in filtered and unfiltered versions. Grains have also been used for centuries to make [[misu]] and [[misu-garu]], drinks made from grain powder that are sometimes used as meal supplements.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahnesty.com/food/misugaru|title=All About Misugaru + Misugaru Dalgona Latte Recipe &#124; 미수가루|date=2 April 2020 |access-date=31 January 2021|archive-date=29 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729152310/https://www.ahnesty.com/food/misugaru|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Fruits=== Encompassing a wide range of temperate climates, the Korean peninsula supports the growth of many cultivated and wild fruit species. Asian pears of numerous varieties, apples, melons and berries and more are typical of summer and fall produce.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Seung Koo |title=Current Status of Fresh Fruit Export in Korea |url=https://un-csam.org/sites/default/files/2021-01/Current%20Status%20of%20Fresh%20Fruit%20Export%20in%20Korea.pdf |website=un-csam.org |publisher=Seoul National University |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=15 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815031729/https://un-csam.org/sites/default/files/2021-01/Current%20Status%20of%20Fresh%20Fruit%20Export%20in%20Korea.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Legumes=== [[File:Korean noodles-Kongguksu-01.jpg|thumb|alt=A wheat noodles with a cold white broth in a stainless bowl|''[[Kongguksu]]'', a cold noodle dish with a broth made from ground soy beans]] [[Legume]]s have been significant crops in Korean history and cuisine, according to the earliest preserved legumes found in [[archaeological site]]s in Korea.<ref>Crawford, (2006), p. 81.</ref><ref>Crawford and Lee, (2003).</ref> The excavation at Okbang site, [[Jinju]], [[South Gyeongsang Province]] indicates [[soybean]]s were cultivated as a food crop ''circa'' 1000–900 BCE.<ref>Crawford and Lee, (2003), p.90</ref> They are still made into dubu ([[tofu]]), while soybean sprouts are sauteed as a vegetable (''[[kongnamul]]'') and whole soybeans are seasoned and served as a side dish. They are also made into [[soy milk]], which is used as the base for the noodle dish called ''[[kongguksu]]''. A byproduct of soy milk production is ''[[soy pulp|biji]]'' or ''kong-biji'', which is used to thicken stews and porridges. Soybeans may also be one of the beans in ''[[kongbap]]'', boiled together with several types of beans and other grains, and they are also the primary ingredient in the production of fermented condiments collectively referred to as ''jang'', such as soybean pastes, ''[[doenjang]]'' and ''[[cheonggukjang]]'', a soy sauce called ''[[Korean soy sauce|ganjang]]'', chili pepper paste or ''[[gochujang]]'' and others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=258316&v=42|script-title=ko:장 醬|trans-title=Jang|publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|language=ko|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611054456/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=258316&v=42|archive-date=2011-06-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=255559&v=44|script-title=ko:콩|trans-title=Kong|publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|language=ko|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611054521/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=255559&v=44|archive-date=2011-06-11}}</ref> [[File:Korean shredded mung bean jelly with vegetables-Tangpyeongchae-01.jpg|thumb|alt=A salad consisting of slices of half transparent jelly-like food and vegetables|''[[Tangpyeongchae]]'', a dish made with ''[[nokdumuk]]'' (a mung bean starch jelly) and vegetables]] [[Mung bean|Nokdu]] (Mung bean) is commonly used in Korean cuisine. ''[[sukju namul|Sukju]] namuls (Mung bean sprouts)'' are often served as a side dish, [[Blanching (cooking)|blanched]] and [[Sautéing|sautéed]] with sesame oil, garlic, and salt. Ground Nokdu is used to make a porridge called ''nokdujuk'', which is eaten as a nutritional supplement and digestive aid, especially for ill patients.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encyber.com/search_w/ctdetail.php?masterno=39242&contentno=39242 |script-title=ko:녹두죽 綠豆粥 |trans-title=Nokdujuk |publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]] |language=ko }}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> A popular snack, ''[[bindaetteok]]'' (mung bean pancake), is made with ground nokdu and fresh sukju namul. Starch extracted from ground nokdu is used to make transparent dangmyeon ( [[cellophane noodles]]). The dangmyeons are the main ingredients for ''[[japchae]]'' (a salad-like dish) and ''[[sundae (Korean food)|sundae]]'' (a [[blood sausage]]), and are a subsidiary ingredient for soups and stews.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encyber.com/search_w/ctdetail.php?masterno=43607&contentno=43607 |script-title=ko:당면 唐麵 |trans-title=Dangmyeon |publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]] |language=ko }}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The starch can be also used to make jelly-like foods, such as ''[[nokdumuk]]'' and ''[[hwangpomuk]]''. The ''muk'' have a bland flavor, so are served seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil and crumbled seaweed or other seasonings such as ''[[tangpyeongchae]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://map.encyber.com/search_w/ctdetail.php?masterno=798550&contentno=798550|script-title=ko:녹두묵|trans-title=Nokdumuk|publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]]|language=ko|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927210542/http://map.encyber.com/search_w/ctdetail.php?masterno=798550&contentno=798550|archive-date=2008-09-27}}</ref> Cultivation of [[azuki bean]]s dates back to ancient times according to an excavation from Odong-ri, [[Hoeryong]], [[North Hamgyong Province]], which is assumed to be that of [[Mumun period]] (approximately 1500–300 BCE). Azuki beans are generally eaten as ''[[patbap]]'', which is a bowl of rice mixed with the beans, or as a filling and covering for ''[[tteok]]'' (rice cake) and breads. A porridge made with azuki beans, called ''[[patjuk]]'', is commonly eaten during the winter season. On [[Dongzhi Festival|Dongjinal]], a Korean traditional holiday which falls on December 22, Korean people eat ''donji patjuk'', which contains ''saealsim'' ({{Korean|hangul=새알심|labels=no}}), a ball made from glutinous rice flour. In old Korean tradition, ''patjuk'' is believed to have the power to drive evil spirits away.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=255560&v=44|script-title=ko:팥|trans-title=Pat|publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|language=ko|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611054656/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=255560&v=44|archive-date=2011-06-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=B&i=200918&v=44 |script-title=ko:팥 (Phaseolus angularis) |publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |language=ko |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611054732/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=B&i=200918&v=44 |archive-date=2011-06-11 }}</ref> ===Condiments and seasoning=== [[Condiment]]s are divided into fermented and nonfermented variants. Fermented condiments include ''[[ganjang]]'', ''[[doenjang]]'', ''[[gochujang]]'' and vinegars. Nonfermented condiments or spices include red pepper, black pepper, cordifolia, mustard, chinensis, garlic, onion, ginger, leek, and scallion (spring onion).<ref>Shin, Dong Hwa "Korean Traditional Food: Status, Prospects, and Vision for Globalization" Chonbuk National University, 2004</ref> ===Gochujang=== [[Gochujang]] can be found in many writings. Some of the writings are the ''{{ill|Mangi Yoram|ko|만기요람}}'', ''The Three States'', the ''Nonggawolryeongga'', the ''Gijaejapgi'', and the ''{{ill|Hyangyak-jipsongbang|ko|향약제생집성방}}''. The ''Hyangyak-jipseongbang'', which dates back to around 1433 during the Chosun dynasty, is one of the oldest writings mentioning gochujang. Gochujang is a fermented bean paste that has red pepper powder, soybean powder and rice flour added to it to create a spicy paste. It typically can be added to most dishes. Gochujang can be used as a seasoning and sometimes as a dipping sauce. Many variations come from ''jang'', fermented bean paste. Some variations can include [[doenjang]] (soybean and brine), [[kanjang]] (soybeans, water, and salt), [[chogochujang]] (gochujang and vinegar), and [[jeotgal]] (mixture of other jangs and seafoods). Vegetables such as cucumbers, carrots, and cabbage use gochujang as a dip. Gochujang is a common seasoning for foods such as Korean barbecue including pork and beef. One popular snack food that is very commonly eaten with gochujang is bibimbap. [[Bibimbap]] includes rice, spinach, radish, bean sprouts. Sometimes beef is added to bibimbap. Another popular dish including gochujang is [[tteokbokki]]. Gochujang was believed to revitalize people who were sick with colds or exhaustion during the Gio period. There have been some studies that show that red peppers fight obesity and diabetes. Gochujang is also added to many foods so that there can be additional nutritional value with each meal.<ref>Kim, S., Chung, K. R., Yang, H., & Kwon, D. Y. (2016) Sungchang gochujang (Korean red chili paste): The unfolding of authenticity. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 3(3), 201-208. DOI:10.1016/j.jef.2016.09.002</ref><ref>Kwon, D. Y., Chung, K. R., Yang, H., & Jang, D. (2015). Gochujang (Korean red pepper paste): A Korean ethnic sauce, its role and history. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 2(1), 29-35. DOI:10.1016/j.jef.2015.02.006</ref> ===Meat=== [[File:Yayeon_(Night_Banquet).jpg|thumb|right|Koreans enjoying grilled meat and alcohol in the 18th century]] {{see also|List of Korean dishes#Meat-based dishes}} In antiquity, most meat in Korea was likely obtained through [[hunting]] and [[fishing]]. Ancient records indicate rearing of [[livestock]] began on a small scale during the Three Kingdoms period. Meat was consumed roasted or in soups or stews during this period. Those who lived closer to the oceans were able to complement their diet with more fish, while those who lived in the interior had a diet containing more meat.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=58}} ====Beef==== [[File:Korean barbeque-Yangnyeom galbi-01.jpg|thumb|Marinated [[galbi]] before grilling]] [[Beef]] is the most prized of all, with cattle holding an important cultural role in the Korean home. Beef is prepared in numerous ways today, including roasting, grilling (''[[Gui (food)|gui]]'') or boiling in [[guk|soups]]. Beef can also be dried into ''[[yukpo]]'', a type of ''[[po (food)|po]]'', as with seafood, called ''[[eopo]]''.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=60}} The cattle were valuable draught animals, often seen as equal to human servants, or in some cases, members of the family. Cattle were also given their own holiday during the first 'cow' day of the [[Korean New Year|lunar New Year]]. The importance of cattle does not suggest Koreans ate an abundance of beef, however, as the cattle were valued as [[Pack animal|beasts of burden]] and slaughtering one would create dire issues in farming the land. Pork and seafood were consumed more regularly for this reason. The Buddhist ruling class of the Goryeo period forbade the consumption of beef. The [[Mongol]]s dispensed with the ban of beef during the 13th century, and they promoted the production of beef cattle. This increased production continued into the Joseon period, when the government encouraged both increased quantities and quality of beef.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=59–60}} Only in the latter part of the 20th century has beef become regular table fare. ====Chicken==== [[Chicken (food)|Chicken]] has played an important role as a protein in Korean history, evidenced by a number of myths. One myth tells of the birth of [[Kim Alji]], founder of the [[Kim (Korean name)#Gyeongju|Kim family]] of [[Gyeongju]] being announced by the cry of a white chicken. As the birth of a clan's founder is always announced by an animal with preternatural qualities, this myth speaks to the importance of chicken in Korean culture. Chicken is often served roasted or braised with vegetables or in soups. All parts of the chicken are used in Korean cuisine, including the [[gizzard]], [[liver]], and feet. Young chickens are braised with [[ginseng]] and other ingredients in medicinal soups eaten during the summer months to combat heat called ''[[samgyetang]]''. The feet of the chicken, called ''dakbal'' ({{Korean|hangul=닭발|labels=no}}), are often roasted and covered with hot and spicy ''[[gochujang]]''-based sauce and served as an ''[[anju (food)|anju]]'', or side dish, to accompany [[Korean alcoholic beverages|alcoholic beverages]], especially ''[[soju]]''.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=62}}<ref>Yu Jisang ({{Korean|hangul=유지상|labels=no}})</ref> ====Pork==== [[File:Korean barbeque-Samgyeopsal-06.jpg|thumb|''[[Samgyeopsal]]'']] [[Pork]] has also been another important land-based protein for Korea. Records indicate pork has been a part of the Korean diet back to antiquity, similar to beef.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=61}} A number of foods have been avoided while eating pork, including [[Chinese bellflower]] (''doraji'', 도라지) and [[lotus root]] (''yeonn ppuri'', 연뿌리), as the combinations have been thought to cause diarrhea. All parts of the pig are used in Korean cuisine, including the head, intestines, liver, kidney and other internal organs. Koreans utilize these parts in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, stewing, boiling and smoking.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=62}} Koreans especially like to eat grilled pork belly, which is called ''[[samgyeopsal]]''.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=62}} ====Fish and seafood==== {{see also|List of Korean dishes#Fish-based dishes|Jeotgal}} [[File:Korean.cuisine-Ganjang gejang and banchan-01.jpg|thumb|A bowl of ''[[gejang]]'', marinated crabs in soy sauce and plates of various ''[[banchan]]'' (small side dishes)]] [[Fish (food)|Fish]] and [[shellfish]] have been a major part of Korean cuisine because of the oceans bordering the peninsula. Evidence from the 12th century illustrates commoners consumed a diet mostly of fish and shellfish, such as [[Shrimp (food)|shrimp]], [[clam]]s, [[oyster]]s, [[abalone]], and [[Cobitidae|loach]], while [[sheep]] and hogs were reserved for the upper class.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=63}} Both fresh and saltwater fish are popular, and are served raw, grilled, broiled, dried or served in soups and stews. Common grilled fish include [[Mackerel (food)|mackerel]], [[hairtail]], [[Sciaenidae|croaker]] and [[Pacific herring]]. Smaller fish, shrimp, squid, mollusks and countless other seafood can be salted and fermented as ''[[jeotgal]]''. Fish can also be grilled either whole or in fillets as [[banchan]]. Fish is often dried naturally to prolong storing periods and enable shipping over long distances. Fish commonly dried include [[yellow corvina]], [[Anchovy (food)|anchovies]] (''myeolchi'') and [[Sciaenidae|croaker]].{{sfn|Pettid|2008|p=63}} Dried anchovies, along with kelp, form the basis of common soup stocks.<ref>Marks, 8.</ref> Shellfish is widely eaten in all different types of preparation. They can be used to prepare [[Stock (food)|broth]], eaten raw with ''chogochujang'', which is a mixture of ''[[gochujang]]'' and vinegar, or used as a popular ingredient in countless dishes.<ref name="Korea">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781740594493 |url-access=registration |quote=shellfish korean broth. |title=Korea |author=Martin Robinson |author2=Andrew Bender |others=Rob Whyte |date = April 2004|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications |isbn=978-1-74059-449-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781740594493/page/147 147]}}</ref> Raw oysters and other seafood can be used in making kimchi to improve and vary the flavor.<ref name="handbook">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dVpQVJ46C5gC&q=oysters&pg=PA191 |title=Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing |author=Yiu H. Hui |author2=Sue Ghazala |others=Dee M. Graham, K. D. Murrell, Wai-Kit Nip |publisher=CRC Press |date=2003-09-01 |isbn=978-0-8247-4301-7 |page=191 |access-date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909140202/https://books.google.com/books?id=dVpQVJ46C5gC&q=oysters&pg=PA191 |url-status=live }}</ref> Salted baby shrimp are used as a seasoning agent, known as ''[[saeujeot]]'', for the preparation of some types of kimchi. Large shrimp are often grilled as ''[[Gui (food)|daeha gui]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=대하구이|labels=no}})<ref name="KTO 256873">Korea Tourism Organization</ref> or dried, mixed with vegetables and served with rice. [[Mollusk]]s eaten in Korean cuisine include [[Octopus (food)|octopus]], [[cuttlefish]], and [[Squid (food)|squid]].{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=65–66}} ===Vegetables=== [[File:Korea.food-Miyeok.guk-01.jpg|thumb|[[Miyeok guk]], a soup made from the sea seaweed, [[miyeok]]]] {{see also|List of Korean dishes#Vegetable-based dishes}} Korean cuisine uses a wide variety of vegetables, which are often served uncooked, either in salads or [[Pickling|pickles]], as well as cooked in various stews, stir-fried dishes, and other hot dishes.<ref name="cooking">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=weePqwbUAQEC&q=%22korean+cuisine%22+vegetables&pg=PA13 |title=Cooking the Korean Way |author=Okwha Chung |author2=Judy Monroe |publisher=Lerner Publishing Group |date=September 2002 |isbn=978-0-8225-4115-8 |pages=13–14 |access-date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909140204/https://books.google.com/books?id=weePqwbUAQEC&q=%22korean+cuisine%22+vegetables&pg=PA13 |url-status=live }}</ref> Commonly used vegetables include [[Korean radish]], [[napa cabbage]], cucumber, potato, sweet potato, spinach, bean sprouts, scallions, garlic, chili peppers, [[Edible seaweed|seaweed]], [[zucchini]], mushrooms, [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus root]]. Several types of wild greens, known collectively as ''[[chwinamul]]'' (such as ''[[Aster (genus)|Aster]] scaber''), are a popular dish, and other wild vegetables such as [[Bracken|bracken fern]] shoots (''gosari'') or [[Campanula takesimana|Korean bellflower]] root (''doraji'') are also harvested and eaten in season.<ref name="food">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1c44-6UVtXsC&q=%22korean+cuisine%22+bracken&pg=PA24 |title=Food of Korea |author=David Clive Price |author2=Masano Kawana |publisher=Periplus Editions |date=2002-11-15 |isbn=978-962-593-026-8 |pages=24–25 |access-date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909140203/https://books.google.com/books?id=1c44-6UVtXsC&q=%22korean+cuisine%22+bracken&pg=PA24 |url-status=live }}</ref> Traditional medicinal herbs in Korean cuisine, such as [[ginseng]], [[lingzhi mushroom]], [[wolfberry]], ''[[Codonopsis pilosula]]'', and ''[[Angelica sinensis]]'', are often used as ingredients in cooking, as in ''[[samgyetang]]''. ===Medicinal foods=== Medicinal food (''boyangshik'') is a wide variety of specialty foods prepared and eaten for their purported medicinal purposes, especially during the hottest 30-day period in the lunar calendar, called ''sambok''. Hot foods consumed are believed to restore ''[[qi|ki]]'', as well as sexual and physical stamina lost in the summer heat.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=84–85}}<ref name="hankooki">{{cite news|url=http://news.hankooki.com/lpage/economy/201007/h2010071322204321500.htm|script-title=ko:초복 앞둔 유통가 '보양식' 열기 (Popularity of boyangshik ahead of coming chobok)|newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]|language=ko|access-date=2010-07-20|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613215619/http://news.hankooki.com/lpage/economy/201007/h2010071322204321500.htm|archive-date=2011-06-13}}</ref> Commonly eaten ''boyangshik'' include ginseng, chicken, black goat, abalone, eel, carp, beef bone soups, pig kidneys.<ref name="kgdomin">{{cite web |url=http://www.kgdomin.com/paper/news/view.php?newsno=151039&sectno=14&sectno2=0&pubno= |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120426005505/http://www.kgdomin.com/paper/news/view.php?newsno=151039&sectno=14&sectno2=0&pubno= |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-04-26 |script-title=ko:보양식 드시고 건강하세요 (Eat boyangshik and be healthy) |publisher=Kyounggikdoin Times |access-date=2010-07-20 }}</ref><ref name="Lifehanbang">{{cite web|url=http://www.lifehanbang.co.kr/familyhealth/healthBoyang.asp?page=1&titlename=%EB%B4%84%EC%B2%A0%EA%B1%B4%EA%B0%95%EB%B3%B4%EC%96%91%EC%8B%9D|title=Spring boyangshik|publisher=lifehanbang.co.kr|language=ko|access-date=2010-07-20|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130219014803/http://www.lifehanbang.co.kr/familyhealth/healthBoyang.asp?page=1&titlename=봄철건강보양식|archive-date=2013-02-19}}</ref> ==== Samgyetang ==== [[Samgye-tang|''Samgyetang'']] is a chicken ginseng soup traditionally consumed during Boknal ({{Korean|hangul=복날|labels=no}}) days: the hottest days of summer. It is a Korean custom to eat hot food in hot weather called Iyeolchiyeol ({{Korean|hangul=이열치열|labels=no}}), which means "controlling heat with heat". Consequently, Samgyetang is Koreans' favorite energizing food and it is common to have it on sambok ({{Korean|hangul=삼복|labels=no}}) days — Chobok ({{Korean|hangul=초복|labels=no}}), Jungbok ({{Korean|hangul=중복|labels=no}}) and Malbok ({{Korean|hangul=말복|labels=no}}) — which are believed to be the hottest days in Korea. ==Dishes== {{see also|List of Korean dishes|List of North Korean dishes}} Korean foods can be largely categorized into groups of "main [[staple food]]s" ({{Korean|hangul=주식|labels=no}}), "subsidiary dishes" ({{Korean|hangul=부식|labels=no}}), and "dessert" ({{Korean|hangul=후식|labels=no}}). The main dishes are made from grains such as ''bap'' (a bowl of rice), ''[[Rice congee|juk]]'' (porridge), and ''[[Korean noodles|guksu]]'' (noodles). Many Korean ''banchan'' rely on fermentation for flavor and preservation, resulting in a tangy, salty, and spicy taste. Certain regions are especially associated with some dishes (for example, the city of [[Jeonju]] with ''[[bibimbap]]'') either as a place of origin or for a famous regional variety. Restaurants will often use these famous names on their signs or menus (e.g. "[[Suwon]] galbi"). ===Soups and stews=== {{see also|List of Korean dishes#Soups and stews}} [[File:Korean.food-Tteok.mandu.guk-01.jpg|thumb|''[[Tteokguk]]'', soup made with ''[[tteok]]'', rice cake]] [[Soup]]s are a common part of any Korean meal. Unlike other cultures, in Korean culture, soup is served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal, as an accompaniment to rice along with other [[banchan]]. Soups known as ''[[guk]]'' are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Soups can be made into more formal soups known as ''[[tang (food)|tang]]'', often served as the main dish of the meal. ''[[Jjigae]]'' are a thicker, heavier seasoned soups or stews.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=56}} Some popular types of soups are: * ''[[Malgeunguk]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=맑은국|labels=no}}), are flavored with ''[[ganjang]]''. Small amounts of long boiled meat may be added to the soup, or seafood both fresh and dried may be added, or vegetables may be the main component for the clear soup. * ''[[Doenjang-guk]]'' are seasoned with ''[[doenjang]]''. Common ingredients for ''tojang guk'' include seafood such as clams, dried anchovies, and shrimp. For a spicier soup, ''[[gochujang]]'' is added.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=56–57}} * [[Tteokguk|''Tteok-guk'']] is a rice cake soup commonly made with sliced rice cakes and beef broth. White rice cake was called Baekbyeong (백병-白餠) or Geomo (거모-擧摸). Tteok-guk is made with thinly sliced garae-tteok, are long, cylindrical shaped rice cakes made with rice flour. Tteok-guk is boiled in chicken broth, but was originally boiled in pheasant meat soup. It says, "hunting pheasant is not easy, and since they breed chickens, they use chicken instead of pheasant, and if there's not chicken they even used beef"({{Korean|hangul=꿩 대신 닭|labels=no}}). In North Korea, there is a variation of this recipe called joraengi tteokguk where rice cakes are made in the shape of balls. it is eaten on New Year's Day because Koreans believe that if you eat a bowl of tteok-guk on the first of the lunar year, you get one year older. There is the belief that rice cakes in oval shape bring fortune since they resemble old Korean coins known as [[yeopjeon]] ({{Korean|hangul=엽전|labels=no}}). * ''[[Gomguk]]'' or ''gomtang'' ({{Korean|hangul=곰탕|labels=no}}), and they are made from boiling beef bones or [[cartilage]]. Originating as a peasant dish, all parts of beef are used, including tail, leg and rib bones with or without meat attached; these are boiled in water to extract fat, [[Bone marrow|marrow]], and [[gelatin]] to create a rich soup. Some versions of this soup may also use the beef head and intestines. The only seasoning generally used in the soup is salt. * ''[[Naengguk]]'', which are cold soups generally eaten during the summer months to cool the diner. A light hand is usually used in the seasoning of these soups usually using ''[[ganjang]]'' and [[sesame oil]].{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=57}} *Shin-son-ro (or koo-ja tang), the name of it came from its special cook pot with chimney for burning charcoal. The meaning is a hearth or furnace or a pot for fire or incense burning that always contains nineteen fillings. The nineteen fillings were including beef, fish, eggs, carrot, mushrooms, and onion.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://newspaperarchive.com/kingston-gleaner-apr-15-1971-p-19/|title=Korean food was the theme.|date=15 April 1971|work=The Daily Gleaner|access-date=6 March 2019|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306180352/https://newspaperarchive.com/kingston-gleaner-apr-15-1971-p-19/|url-status=live}}</ref> Stews are referred to as ''[[jjigae]]'', and are often a shared side dish. ''Jjigae'' is often both cooked and served in the glazed earthenware pot (''[[ttukbaegi]]'') in which it is cooked. The most common version of this stew is ''[[doenjang jjigae]]'', which is a stew of [[soybean paste]], with many variations; common ingredients include vegetables, saltwater or freshwater fish, and tofu. The stew often changes with the seasons and which ingredients are available. Other common varieties of ''jjigae'' contain [[kimchi]] (''[[kimchi jjigae]]'') or tofu (''[[sundubu jjigae]]'').{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=57–58}} * ''[[Miyeok-guk]]''. This soup is made of dried seaweed according to 조선요리제법, it says it is usually made by frying 미역 with beef pouring water and making the soup. Adding mussel can make it taste better. Also in coastal areas they use fish instead of beef too. It is usually consumed on Koreans birthday, specifically on samchil day (삼칠일: a resting period after giving birth to the newborn); [[Korean birthday celebrations|baek-il]] (백일: the 100th day after a baby is born); [[doljanchi]] (돌잔치: the baby's first birthday). The Korean tradition of mothers eating seaweed after birth originated in Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite web |last1=함혜강 |script-title=ko:[바다정보다잇다] 미역의 효능과 좋은 미역 고르는 방법 - 해양/레저 |url=https://marine.mt.co.kr/articleView.html?no=2019080713565918637 |website=MT해양 |date=2019 |access-date=17 July 2024 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930031412/https://marine.mt.co.kr/articleView.html?no=2019080713565918637 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Korean word for seaweed, ''miyeok'', originated in Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ko:진도 미역 |url=https://www.grandculture.net/jindo/toc/GC00501456 |website=디지털진도문화대전 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]}}</ref> ===Kimchi=== {{main|Kimchi}} [[File:Triple White Kimchi 04.jpg|thumb|right|[[Baek-kimchi]]]] [[Kimchi]] refers to often fermented vegetable dishes, usually made with [[napa cabbage]], [[Korean radish]], or sometimes cucumber. There are 4 types of raw materials which are major ones: spices, seasonings, and other additional materials. Red and black pepper, cinnamon, garlic, ginger, onion, and mustard are the example of spices.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Patra|first1=Jayanta Kumar|last2=Das|first2=Gitishree|last3=Paramithiotis|first3=Spiros|last4=Shin|first4=Han-Seung|date=2016-09-28|title=Kimchi and Other Widely Consumed Traditional Fermented Foods of Korea: A Review|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|volume=7|pages=1493|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2016.01493|issn=1664-302X|pmc=5039233|pmid=27733844|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/317957/kimchi|title=Kimchi - food|access-date=23 June 2022|archive-date=20 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520231309/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/317957/kimchi|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Kim, M., & Chun, J. (2005). Bacterial community structure in kimchi, a Korean fermented vegetable food, as revealed by 16S rRNA gene analysis. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 103(1), 91-96. See Abstract.</ref> There are endless varieties with regional variations, and it is served as a side dish or cooked into soups and rice dishes. In the late 15th century, it depicted Korean's custom that Korean ancestors buried kimchi jars in the ground for storage for the entire winter season, as fermented foods can keep for several years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jang|first1=Dai-Ja|last2=Chung|first2=Kyung Rhan|last3=Yang|first3=Hye Jeong|last4=Kim|first4=Kang-sung|last5=Kwon|first5=Dae Young|date=September 2015|title=Discussion on the origin of kimchi, representative of Korean unique fermented vegetables|journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods|volume=2|issue=3|pages=126–136|doi=10.1016/j.jef.2015.08.005|doi-access=free}}</ref> These were stored in traditional Korean mud pots known as [[jangdokdae]], although with the advent of refrigerators, special kimchi freezers and commercially produced kimchi, this practice has become less common. Kimchi is a vegetable-based food which includes low calorie, low fat, and no cholesterol. Also, it is a rich source of various vitamins and minerals. It contains vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, and vitamin K and minerals which are calcium, iron, phosphorus, and selenium. The same lactobacilli bacteria found in yogurt and other fermented dairy products are also found in kimchi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hongu|first1=Nobuko|last2=Kim|first2=Angela S.|last3=Suzuki|first3=Asuka|last4=Wilson|first4=Hope|last5=Tsui|first5=Karen C.|last6=Park|first6=Sunmin|date=September 2017|title=Korean kimchi : promoting healthy meals through cultural tradition|journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods|volume=4|issue=3|pages=172–180|doi=10.1016/j.jef.2017.08.005|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Document Viewer |url=https://www.wikim.re.kr/viewer/doc.html?fn=202302281031502431.pdf&rs=/upload/synap_convert/202310/ |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=www.wikim.re.kr |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004050402/https://www.wikim.re.kr/viewer/doc.html?fn=202302281031502431.pdf&rs=/upload/synap_convert/202310/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Noodles=== [[File:Polish Korean Cuisine and Culture Exchanges Gradmother’s Recipes 05.jpg|thumb|right|Japchae, a kind of Korean noodle dish made with marinated beef and vegetables in soy sauce and sesame oil.]] {{main|Korean noodles}} Noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine are collectively referred to as ''guksu'' in native Korean or ''myeon'' in [[hanja]]. While noodles were eaten in Korea from ancient times, productions of wheat was less than other crops, so wheat noodles did not become a daily food until 1945.<ref name="Doosan Noodles">{{cite web|url=http://www.encyber.com/search_w/ctdetail.php?masterno=22241&contentno=22241|script-title=ko:국수|trans-title=Noodle (guksu)|publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]]|language=ko}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="EncyKorea Noodles">{{cite web|url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=241837&v=43|script-title=ko:국수|trans-title=Noodle (guksu)|publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|language=ko|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610072555/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=241837&v=43|archive-date=2011-06-10}}</ref> Wheat noodles (''milguksu'') were specialty foods for birthdays, weddings or auspicious occasions because the long and continued shape were thought to be associated with the bliss for longevity and long-lasting marriage.<ref name="Doosan Noodles" /> In Korean traditional noodle dishes are ''onmyeon'' or ''guksu jangguk'' (noodles with a hot clear broth), ''[[naengmyeon]]'' (cold buckwheat noodles), ''[[bibim guksu]]'' (cold noodle dish mixed with vegetables), ''[[kalguksu]]'' (knife-cut noodles), ''[[kongguksu]]'' (noodles with a cold soybean broth), ''[[japchae]]'' (cellophane noodles made from sweet potato with various vegetables) and others. In royal court, ''baekmyeon'' (literally "white noodles") consisting of buckwheat noodles and [[pheasant]] broth, was regarded as the top quality noodle dish. ''Naengmyeon'' with a cold soup mixed with ''[[dongchimi]]'' (watery [[Korean radish|radish]] kimchi) and beef brisket broth was eaten in court during summer.<ref name="Doosan Noodles" /> * ''[[Jajangmyeon]]'', a staple Koreanized [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] noodle dish, is extremely popular in Korea as fast, take-out food. It is made with a black bean sauce usually fried with diced pork or seafood and a variety of vegetables, including zucchini and potatoes. It is popularly ordered and delivered, like Chinese take-out food in other parts of the world. * ''[[Ramyeon]]'' refers to Korean instant noodles similar to [[ramen]]. * ''[[Japchae]]'' is a dish made by inserting in boiling water roasted vegetables, mushrooms and meat, each of them roasted. This is one of the most popular dishes in Korean tradition enjoyed on special occasion like weddings, holidays and birthday. There are two types of Japchae, one that includes glass noodles and another without noodles. According to the Korean cookbook Diminbang 음식디미방 (around 1670), there's only the recipe without glass noodles. The original recipe without glass noodles is made by boiling vegetables such as cucumbers, pine mushrooms, bean sprouts, bellflowers green onion, then they are sprinkled with ginger, pepper, sesame oil, and flour. The sauce is made by boiling minced pink meat and soybean paste that is lightly filtered with sesame oil and flour. To match the name more than 20 ingredients were used. In Gyongon Yoram [규곤요람閨壼要覽 (1896)] is also recorded japchae seasoned with mustard sauce without glass noodles. However, since the 1930s, appears the japchae recipe with glass noodles alongside the original recipe. Also, during the Joseon dynasty [조선요리법朝鮮料理法] the recipe of japchae, with and without glass noodles, was added to the cookbook. Also, there is also a variant of japchae with meat, or one with abalone or other seafood in 1930s.It is a local food that shows the traditional recipe. In the Jinju region, Jamung-sam, Yokimun, is a local dish with soy sauce and sesame oil, and the seafood, such as octopus, skates, and mixed several vegetables stained in oil. Because it uses various ingredients, it has high calorie, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, and sufficient nutritional. It is the first item to choose when you want a feast table. ===Banchan=== [[Banchan]] is a term referring collectively to side dishes in Korean cuisine. Soups and stews are not considered [[banchan]]. [[File:Korean.cuisine-Bulgogi-01.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Bulgogi]]'', a grilled Korean dish; the meat and vegetables shown here have not yet been grilled.]] ''[[Gui (food)|Gui]]'' are grilled dishes, which most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetable ingredients. At traditional restaurants, meats are cooked at the center of the table over a charcoal grill, surrounded by various ''banchan'' and individual rice bowls. The cooked meat is then cut into small pieces and wrapped with fresh lettuce leaves, with rice, thinly sliced garlic, ''[[ssamjang]]'' (a mixture of ''gochujang'' and ''dwenjang''), and other seasonings. The suffix ''gui'' is often omitted in the names of meat-based ''gui'' such as ''[[galbi]]'', the name of which was originally ''galbi gui''. ''[[Jjim]]'' and ''[[Seon (food)|seon]]'' (steamed dishes) are generic terms referring to steamed or boiled dishes in Korean cuisine. However, the former is made with meat or seafood-based ingredients marinated in ''[[gochujang]]'' or ''[[ganjang]]'' while ''seon'' is made with vegetable stuffed with fillings. ''[[Hoe (dish)|Hoe]]'' (raw dishes): although the term originally referred to any kind of raw dish, it is generally used to refer to ''saengseonhweh'' (생선회, raw fish dishes). It is dipped in ''[[gochujang]]'', or soy sauce with [[wasabi]], and served with lettuce or [[perilla]] leaves. [[File:Korean.food-Bindaetteok-01.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Bindaeddeok]]'']] [[Jeon (food)|''Jeon'']] (or ''buchimgae'') is a Korean savory pancake made from various ingredients. Chopped kimchi or seafood is mixed into a wheat flour-based batter, and then pan fried. This dish is typically dipped in a mixture of soy sauce, vinegar, and red pepper powder. It can be served as an appetizer, side dish ([[banchan|''banchan'']]) or accompanied by alcohol ([[Anju (food)|''anju'']]). There are some sweet varieties called [[Hwajeon]] ({{Korean|hangul=화전|labels=no}}) which means flower pancakes. Cooking oils such as soy and corn are used today, though technology required for producing these oils was not available during the Joseon dynasty. [[File:Korean.food-Namul-02.jpg|thumb|''Namul'']] ''[[Namul]]'' may refer to either ''[[saengchae]]'' (생채, literally "fresh vegetables") or ''sukchae'' (숙채, literally "heated vegetables"), although the term generally indicates the latter. ''Saengchae'' is mostly seasoned with vinegar, [[chili pepper]] powder and salt to give a tangy and refreshing taste. On the other hand, ''sukchae'' ({{Korean|hangul=숙채|labels=no}}) is blanched and seasoned with soy sauce, [[sesame oil]], chopped garlic, or sometimes chili pepper powder. ===''Anju'' (side dishes accompanying alcoholic beverages)=== [[File:Korean cuisine-Jokbal-02.jpg|thumb|[[Jokbal]] : pig's feet, a type of Anju.]] [[Anju (food)|Anju]] is a general term for a Korean side dish consumed with alcohol. It matches well with Korean traditional alcohol such as Soju or Makgeolli and helps people to enjoy their drinking more. Some examples of ''anju'' include steamed squid with ''[[gochujang]]'', assorted fruit, ''[[dubu kimchi]]'' (tofu with kimchi), peanuts, ''[[Kamaboko|odeng]]''/''ohmuk'', ''sora'' ({{Korean|hangul=소라|labels=no}}) (a kind of shellfish popular in street food tents), and ''[[Octopus minor|nakji]]'' (small octopus) and [[Jokbal]] (pig's leg served with salted shrimp sauce). Samgyupsal (pork belly) is also considered as Anju with Soju. Most Korean foods can be considered as 'anju', as the food consumed alongside the alcohol depends on the diner's taste and preferences. == Holiday food == === ''Songpyeon'' === [[File:Songpyeon.jpg|thumb|right|Songpyeon]] ''[[Songpyeon]]'' is a Korean dish made of rice powder mostly eaten during [[Chuseok]] to express gratitude towards ancestors. Songpyeon recordings appear from the 17th century. It is said in 『Yorok 要錄』, "Make rice cakes with white rice flour, steam them with pine and pine needles and wash them off with water." At the beginning of Songpyeon, rice cakes were made simply with white rice powder, pine needles were steamed and then washed in water. It is said that "red beans, pine nuts, walnuts, ginger and cinnamon" were added in the "Buyin Pilji 婦人必知". In 『Korean Rice Cakes, Hangwa, Eumcheongryu』, "In mountainous regions such as Gangwon-do and Chungcheong-do, potato songpyeon, acorn songpyeon and songgisongpyeon have been prepared and eaten. In the coastal areas of Hamgyeong-do, Pyeongan-do and Gyeonggi-do, shellfish songpyeon as produced and eaten, and in the southern regions of Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do, songpyeon with moss leaves was produced and eaten. === ''Ogok-bap'' === [[File:Ogokbap.jpg|thumb|right|Ogok-bap]] ''[[Ogok-bap]]'' means five rice dish, which consists of rice mixed with glutinous rice, cornstarch, red bean, perilla, and soybean. By consuming grains with the energy of blue, red, yellow, white, and black, we pray for good health as well as a good year for our body with the energy of the five elements, and to chase away bad luck and happiness and well-being. ==Beverages== ===Non-alcoholic beverages=== {{main|Korean tea}} {{see also|List of Korean dishes#Types of non-alcoholic beverages}} [[File:Korean.tea-Daechucha-01.jpg|thumb|right|''Daechu cha'' (jujube tea)]] All Korean traditional nonalcoholic beverages are referred to as ''eumcheong'' or ''eumcheongnyu'' (음청류 {{linktext|飮|淸|類}}) which literally means "clear beverages".<ref>(in Korean) [https://archive.today/20120701135148/http://alldic.nate.com/search/handic.html?search_select2=on&category=&cm=c&q=%EB%E6%F4%E8%D7%BE 飮淸類] Nate Hanja Dictionary</ref> According to historical documents regarding Korean cuisine, 193 items of ''eumcheongnyu'' are recorded.<ref name="Baek Un-hwa">Baek Un-hwa, The industrialization of Korean traditional beverages</ref> ''Eumcheongnyu'' can be divided into the following categories: ''[[Korean tea|tea]]'', ''[[hwachae]]'' (fruit punch), ''[[sikhye]]'' (sweet rice drink), ''[[sujeonggwa]]'' (persimmon punch), ''tang'' (탕, boiled water), ''jang'' (장, fermented grain juice with a sour taste), ''suksu'' (숙수, beverage made of herbs), ''galsu'' (갈수, drink made of fruit extract, and Oriental medicine), honeyed water, juice and milk by their ingredient materials and preparation methods. Among the varieties, tea, ''hwachae'', ''sikhye'', and ''sujeonggwa'' are still widely favored and consumed; however, the others almost disappeared by the end of the 20th century.<ref name="KAFT">Introduction of Eumcheongryu, Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation</ref><ref name="Sohn Gyeong-hee">Sohn Gyeong-hee, Historical overview of Korean traditional eumcheongryu</ref> In Korean cuisine, [[Korean tea|tea]], or ''cha'', refers to various types of [[herbal tea]] that can be served hot or cold. Not necessarily related to the leaves, leaf buds, and [[internode (botany)|internode]]s of the ''[[Camellia sinensis]]'' plant, they are made from diverse substances, including fruits (e.g. ''[[yuja-cha]]''), flowers (e.g. ''[[gukhwa-cha]]''), leaves, roots, and grains (e.g. ''[[bori-cha]]'', ''[[hyeonmi-cha]]'') or herbs and substances used in [[traditional Korean medicine]], such as [[ginseng]] (e.g. ''[[insam-cha]]'') and ginger (e.g. ''[[saenggang-cha]]'').<ref name="Cha">{{cite web |url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=241842&v=42 |script-title=ko:차 |trans-title=Tea (cha) |publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |access-date=2009-10-23 |language=ko |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610072510/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=241842&v=42 |archive-date=2011-06-10 }}</ref> ===Alcoholic beverages=== {{main|Korean alcoholic beverages}} {{see also|Beer in North Korea|Beer in South Korea|List of Korean beverages}} [[File:Makgeolri.jpg|thumb|A bowl of ''[[makgeolli]]'', a type of ''takju'']] While ''[[soju]]'' is the best known liquor, there are well over 100 different alcoholic beverages, such as beers, rice and fruit wines, and liquors produced in South Korea as well as a sweet rice drink. The top-selling domestic beers (''maekju'' in Korean) are [[lager]]s, which differ from Western beers in that they are brewed from rice, rather than barley. Consequently, Korean beers are lighter, sweeter and have less head than their Western counterparts. The [[South Korean beer]] market is dominated by the two major breweries: [[Hite Brewery|Hite]] and [[Oriental Brewery|OB]]. [[Taedonggang]] is a [[North Korean beer]] produced at a brewery based in [[Pyongyang]] since 2002.<ref>Reuters, "North Korean beer: great taste, low proliferation risk", Mar 9, 2008</ref> [[Microbrewery]] beers and bars are growing in popularity after 2002.<ref>The Korea Economic Daily, 2006-12-01</ref> ''[[Soju]]'' is a clear spirit which was originally made from grain, especially rice, and is now also made from sweet potatoes or barley. ''[[Soju]]'' made from grain is considered superior (as is also the case with grain vs. potato [[vodka]]). ''Soju'' is around 22% [[ABV]], and is a favorite beverage of hard-up college students, hard-drinking businessmen, and blue-collar workers. ''[[Yakju]]'' is a refined pure liquor fermented from rice, with the best known being ''cheongju''. ''[[Takju]]'' is a thick unrefined liquor made with grains, with the best known being ''[[makgeolli]]'', a white, milky rice wine traditionally drunk by farmers.<ref name="Jontongjoo">Food in Korea, "Jontongjoo&nbsp;– Kinds of Traditional Liquors"</ref> In addition to the [[rice wine]], various fruit wines and herbal wines exist in Korean cuisine. Acacia, ''[[prunus mume|maesil]]'' plum, [[Pseudocydonia|Chinese quince]], cherry, [[Conifer cone|pine cone]], and pomegranate are most popular. ''Majuang wine'' (a blended wine of Korean grapes with French or American wines) and ginseng-based wines are also available. ==Sweets== {{see also|List of Korean desserts}} [[File:Tteok.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Tteok]]'']] [[File:Korean.food-Yakgua-Yugua-Insadong.jpg|thumb|right|Various ''[[hahngwa]]'']] Traditional rice cakes, ''[[tteok]]'' and Korean confectionery ''[[hangwa]]'' are eaten as treats during holidays and festivals. ''Tteok'' refers to all kinds of [[Tteok|rice cakes]] made from either pounded rice (메떡, ''metteok''), pounded [[glutinous rice]] (찰떡, ''chaltteok''), or glutinous rice left whole, without pounding. It is served either filled or covered with sweetened mung bean paste, [[red bean paste]], mashed red beans, [[raisin]]s, a sweetened filling made with sesame seeds, sweet pumpkin, beans, jujubes, pine nuts or honey). ''Tteok'' is usually served as dessert or as a snack. Among varieties, ''[[songpyeon]]'' is a chewy stuffed ''tteok'' served at ''[[Chuseok]]''. [[Honey]] or another soft sweet material such as sweetened sesame or black beans are used as fillings. [[Pine]] needles can be used for imparting flavor during the steaming process.<ref name="Roy">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IKqOUfqt4cIC&q=songpyeon+%22pine+needles%22&pg=PA285|title=Traditional Festivals: A Multicultural Encyclopedia|first=Christian|last=Roy|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|year=2005|page=285|isbn=978-1-57607-089-5|access-date=26 October 2020|archive-date=9 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909140203/https://books.google.com/books?id=IKqOUfqt4cIC&q=songpyeon+%22pine+needles%22&pg=PA285|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Yaksik]]'' is a sweet rice cake made with glutinous rice, chestnuts, pine nuts, jujubes, and other ingredients, while ''[[chapssaltteok]]'' is a ''tteok'' filled with [[sweet bean paste]]. On the other hand, ''[[hangwa]]'' is a general term referring to all types of Korean traditional [[confectionery]]. The ingredients of ''hahngwa'' mainly consist of grain flour, honey, ''[[yeot]]'', and sugar, or of fruit and [[edible root]]s. ''Hangwa'' is largely divided into ''[[yumilgwa]]'' (fried confectionery), ''[[suksilgwa]]'', ''[[jeonggwa]]'', ''[[gwapyeon]]'', ''[[dasik]]'' (tea food) and ''[[yeot]]''. ''Yumilgwa'' is made by [[stir frying]] or frying pieces of dough, such as ''[[maejakgwa]]'' and ''[[yakgwa]]''. ''Maejakgwa'' is a ring-shaped confection made of wheat flour, vegetable oil, [[Cinnamomum cassia|cinnamon]], [[ginger]] juice, ''[[jocheong]]'', and [[pine nut]]s, while ''yakgwa'', literally "medicinal confectionery", is a flower-shaped biscuit made of [[honey]], [[sesame oil]] and wheat flour. ''[[Suksilgwa]]'' is made by boiling fruits, ginger, or nuts in water, and then forming the mix into the original fruit's shape, or other shapes. ''[[Gwapyeon]]'' is a [[Gelatin dessert|jelly]]-like confection made by boiling sour fruits, starch, and sugar. ''[[Dasik]]'', literally "eatery for tea", is made by kneading rice flour, honey, and various types of flour from nuts, herbs, sesame, or jujubes. ''[[Jeonggwa]]'', or ''jeongwa'', is made by boiling fruits, plant roots and seeds in honey, [[yeot|mullyeot]] (''물엿'', liquid candy) or sugar. It is similar to [[marmalade]] or [[Fruit preserves|jam/jelly]].<ref name="Foods in Korea">{{cite web |url=http://www.foodinkorea.org/eng_food/korfood/korfood8_3.jsp |title=Kinds of Hangwa |publisher=Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation |work=Food in Korea |access-date=5 August 2008 |archive-date=23 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123101327/http://www.foodinkorea.org/eng_food/korfood/korfood8_3.jsp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://100.empas.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=B&i=184489&v=42 |title=Jeonggwa (정과 正果) |language=ko |publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Britannica]] |access-date=5 August 2008 |archive-date=21 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321142900/http://100.empas.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=B |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://100.empas.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=241861&v=42 |title=Jeonggwa (정과 正果 |publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[EncyKorea]] |language=ko |access-date=5 August 2008 |archive-date=21 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321143002/http://100.empas.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Yeot'' is a Korean traditional candy in liquid or solid form made from [[steamed rice]], glutinous rice, [[Commercial sorghum|glutinous kaoliang]], corn, sweet potatoes or mixed grains. The steamed ingredients are lightly fermented and boiled in a large pot called ''sot'' ({{Korean|hangul=솥|labels=no}}) for a long time. ''[[Yugwa]]'' and [[Yakgwa]]. They are traditional desserts enjoyed during Chuseok, marriage or the [[Sixtieth birthday in the Sinosphere|sixtieth birthday]]. ==Regional and variant cuisines== {{main|Korean regional cuisine}} [[File:North Korea-Kaesong-Tongil restaurant-02.jpg|thumb|A traditional meal in [[Kaesong]], North Korea.]] Korean regional cuisines ({{Korean|hangul=향토음식|rr=hyangto eumsik|labels=no}})<ref>[http://engdic.nate.com/dicsearch/view.html?i=553835 향토음식] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714155725/http://engdic.nate.com/dicsearch/view.html?i=553835 |date=2011-07-14 }} [[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] Korean-English Dictionary</ref> are characterized by local specialties and distinctive styles within Korean cuisine. The divisions reflected historical boundaries of the [[province]]s where these food and culinary traditions were preserved until modern times. Although Korea has been divided into two nation-states since 1948 (North Korea and South Korea), it was once divided into [[Eight provinces of Korea|eight provinces]] (''paldo'') according to the [[Joseon]] administrative districts. The northern region consisted of [[Hamgyeong]] Province, [[Pyeongan]] Province and [[Hwanghae Province]]. The central region comprised [[Gyeonggi Province]], [[Chungcheong Province]], and [[Gangwon (historical)|Gangwon Province]]. [[Gyeongsang Province]] and [[Jeolla Province]] Province made up the southern region.<ref name="KTO">{{cite web |url=http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_6.jsp?gotoPage=1&cid=259623 |title=(Korean Food Culture Series – Part 7) Local Foods |publisher=[[Korea Tourism Organization]] |date=2008-02-05 |access-date=1 December 2009 |archive-date=31 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531024838/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_6.jsp?gotoPage=1&cid=259623 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Until the late 19th century, transportation networks were not well developed, and each provincial region preserved its own characteristic tastes and cooking methods. Geographic differences are also reflected by the local specialty foodstuffs depending on the climate and types of agriculture, as well as the natural foods available. With the modern development of transportation and the introduction of foreign foods, Korean regional cuisines have tended to overlap and integrate. However, many unique traditional dishes in Korean regional cuisine have been handed down through the generations.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=&i=208146 |script-title=ko:향토음식 鄕土飮食 |trans-title=Hyangto eumsik |publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]]/[[Britannica]] |language=ko |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610073851/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=&i=208146 |archive-date=2011-06-10 }}</ref><ref name="EncyKorea RC">{{cite web |url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=241864&v=43 |script-title=ko:향토음식 鄕土飮食 |trans-title=Hyangto eumsik |publisher=[[Nate (web portal)|Nate]]/[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610075444/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=241864&v=43 |archive-date=2011-06-10 }}</ref> ===Buddhist cuisine=== [[File:Korea-Seoul-Insadong-Sanchon-02.jpg|thumb|Korean temple cuisine at Sanchon, a restaurant located in [[Insadong]], Seoul.]] {{further|Korean temple cuisine|Buddhist cuisine}} Korean temple cuisine originated in Buddhist temples of Korea. Since [[Buddhism in Korea|Buddhism]] was introduced into Korea, [[Buddhist]] traditions have strongly influenced Korean cuisine, as well. During the [[Silla]] period (57 BCE&nbsp;– 935 CE), ''chalbap'' (찰밥, a bowl of cooked [[glutinous rice]]) ''[[yakgwa]]'' (a fried dessert) and ''[[yumilgwa]]'' (a fried and puffed rice snack) were served for Buddhist altars and have been developed into types of ''hangwa'', Korean traditional [[confectionery]]. During the [[Goryeo]] period, ''[[Ssam|sangchu ssam]]'' (wraps made with lettuce), ''[[yaksik]]'', and ''yakgwa'' were developed, and since spread to China and other countries. Since the Joseon dynasty, Buddhist cuisine has been established in Korea according to regions and temples.<ref name="Doosan">{{cite web |url=http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000875217 |title=Sachal eumsik (사찰음식 寺刹飮食) |publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]] |language=ko |access-date=2015-07-02 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923230223/http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000875217 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Segye">{{cite web|url=http://www.segye.com/content/html/2008/05/08/20080508002244.html|script-title=ko:심신이 맑아지는 사찰음식…마음까지 정갈|publisher=Seyeo Ilbo|author=Song, Min-seop (송민섭)|language=ko|date=2005-05-08|access-date=2015-07-02|archive-date=2 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702232652/http://www.segye.com/content/html/2008/05/08/20080508002244.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On the other hand, [[Korean royal court cuisine|royal court cuisine]] is closely related to Korean temple cuisine. In the past, when the royal court maids, ''[[sanggung]]'', who were assigned to ''Suragan'' ({{Korean|hangul=수라간|hanja=[[wikt:水剌間|水剌間]]|labels=no}}; the name of the royal kitchen), where they prepared the king's meals, became old, they had to leave the royal palace. Therefore, many of them entered Buddhist temples to become nuns. As a result, culinary techniques and recipes of the royal cuisine were integrated into Buddhist cuisine.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://media.daum.net/breakingnews/view.html?issueid=2699&newsid=20080401135025545&cp=hankookis |script-title=ko:사찰 음식, 정신을 수양하며 건강을 먹는다 |publisher=[[JoongAng Ilbo]] via [[Daum (web portal)|Daum]] News |language=ko |date=2008-04-01 |access-date=2015-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703012516/http://media.daum.net/breakingnews/view.html?issueid=2699&newsid=20080401135025545&cp=hankookis |archive-date=2015-07-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Vegetarian cuisine=== [[File:Bibimbap by dizznbonn in New York.jpg|thumb|Closeup of the ingredients in ''[[Bibimbap|goldongban]]'' or ''[[bibimbap]]'']] [[vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian cookery]] in Korea may be linked to the [[Buddhist]] traditions that influenced Korean culture from the [[Goryeo]] dynasty onwards. There are hundreds of vegetarian restaurants in Korea, although historically they have been local restaurants that are unknown to tourists. Most have buffets, with cold food, and vegetarian [[kimchi]] and [[tofu]] being the main features. ''[[Bibimbap]]'' is a common [[vegan]] dish. Menus change with seasons. Wine with the alcohol removed and fine [[Korean tea|teas]] are also served. The [[Korean tea ceremony]] is suitable for all vegetarians and vegans, and began with Buddhist influences. All food is eaten with a combination of stainless steel oval [[chopsticks]] and a long-handled shallow spoon called together ''[[sujeo]]''. ===Ceremonial food=== {{main|Korean ceremonial food}} {{see also|Korean Traditional Festivals}} Food is an important part of traditions of Korean family ceremonies, which are mainly based on the Confucian culture. [[The Four Ceremonial Occasions|Gwan Hon Sang Je]] ({{Korean|hangul=관혼상제|hanja=冠婚喪祭|labels=no}}), the four family ceremonies (coming-of-age ceremony, wedding, funeral, and ancestral rite) have been considered especially important and elaborately developed, continuing to influence Korean life to these days. Ceremonial food in Korea has developed with variation across different regions and cultures.<ref>Jang, J. et al. (2005). Understanding the food culture. [식생활 문화의 이해]. Seoul: Bomungak. {{ISBN|89-91060-34-X}}</ref> For example, ancestral rites called ''[[jesa]]'' are mainly held on the anniversary of an ancestor's death. Ritual food includes rice, alcohol (clear alcohol), soup, vinegar, and soy sauce (first line). Various meats, various rice cakes, and fish (row 2). When placing meat and fish, make sure your head faces east (right). Also, meat is placed on the left and fish is placed on the right; three types of hot soup prepared. Meat stew, beef stew, fish stew (3rd row); dried snacks''[[kimchi]]''No red pepper powder used, glutinous rice drink (line 4); and various fruits. Red fruits are to the east, white fruits are to the west. (Line 5) <ref>Lee Yeon-ja, "Jeongga's ancestral rites and food culture" Koreana, Vol. 24, No. 2, Summer 2010</ref> ===Street food=== {{Main|Street food in South Korea}} [[File:Gimbap.jpg|thumb|''[[Gimbap]]'', rice (bap) and various filler ingredients, rolled in sheets of dried seaweed ([[Gim (food)|gim]])|190x190px]] [[File:Korea-Busan-Pupyeong Market-Eomuk and tteokbokgi-01.jpg|thumb|195x195px|Korea Street Food ''[[tteokbokki]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=떡볶이|labels=no}}) and ''[[Eomuk]]'' ({{korean|hangul=어묵; 오뎅|labels=no}})]] In South Korea, inexpensive food may be purchased from ''[[pojangmacha]]'', street carts during the day, where customers may eat standing beside the cart or have their food wrapped up to take home. At night, ''pojangmacha'' ({{Korean|hangul=포장마차|labels=no}}) become small tents that sell food, drinks, and alcoholic beverages.<ref>Ho, Esther [http://www.cnngo.com/seoul/drink/pojangmacha-guide-039741 "Guide to pojangmacha: Why Koreans love drinking in tents"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330010301/http://www.cnngo.com/seoul/drink/pojangmacha-guide-039741 |date=2012-03-30 }} ''CNN Go''. 23 March 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-13</ref> Seasonal street foods include ''[[hotteok]]'', and ''[[bungeoppang]]'', which are enjoyed in autumn and winter. ''[[Gimbap]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=김밥|labels=no}}) and ''[[tteokbokki]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=떡볶이|labels=no}})are also very popular street food.<ref>[http://www.cnngo.com/seoul/eat/best-specialty-food-carts-642173 "Best specialty food carts in Seoul"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019135813/http://www.cnngo.com/seoul/eat/best-specialty-food-carts-642173 |date=2011-10-19 }} ''CNN Go''. 7 July 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-11</ref> People also eat ''[[Sundae (sausage)|sundae]]'', ''[[twigim]]'', and ''[[eomuk]]'' which are popular with ''tteokbokki''. Also, ''[[gyeran-ppang]]'' and ''[[hoppang]]'' are also enjoyed in winter. ''Dak-kkochi'' ({{Korean|hangul=닭꼬치|labels=no}}) is a popular food in Korea with various sauces on chicken. ''[[Beondegi]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=번데기|labels=no}}) and ''[[dalgona]]/ppopgi'' ({{Korean|hangul=뽑기|labels=no}}) are two examples of original street foods many people have enjoyed since childhood. [[File:Dak-kkochi.jpg|thumb|''[[Dak-kkochi]]'', Bbopki/Dalgona, Korean chicken skewers consisting of grilled small pieces of chicken.]] ==Etiquette== ===Dining=== [[File:Bapsang.jpg|thumb|A single-person ''bapsang'' (meal table). Each person was given a table in a traditional dining setting.]] [[File:Korean chopsticks and spoon-Sujeo-01.jpg|thumb|160px|Korean [[chopsticks]] and [[spoon]] made of [[stainless steel]].]] Dining etiquette in Korea can be traced back to the [[Confucian]] philosophies of the [[Joseon dynasty|Joseon period]]. Guidebooks, such as ''[[Sasojeol]]'' (士小節, ''Elementary Etiquette for Scholar Families''), written in 1775 by Yi Deokmu ({{Korean|hangul=이덕무|hanja=李德懋|labels=no}}), comment on the dining etiquette for the period. Suggestions include items such as "when you see a fat cow, goat, pig, or chicken, do not immediately speak of slaughtering, cooking or eating it",<ref name="Quote1">Yi Tǒngmu 62.</ref> "when you are having a meal with others, do not speak of smelly or dirty things, such as boils or [[diarrhea]],"<ref name="Quote1"/> "when eating a meal, neither eat so slowly as to appear to be eating against your will nor so fast as if to be taking someone else's food. Do not throw chopsticks on the table. Spoons should not touch plates, making a clashing sound",<ref name="Quote1"/> among many other recommendations which emphasized proper [[table etiquette]]. Other than the etiquette mentioned above, blowing one's nose when having a meal is considered an inappropriate act as well. The eldest male at the table was always served first, and was commonly served in the men's quarters by the women of the house. Women usually dined in a separate portion of the house after the men were served. The eldest men or women always ate before the younger family members. The meal was usually quiet, as conversation was discouraged during meals. In modern times, these rules have become lax, as families usually dine together now and use the time to converse. Of the remaining elements of this decorum, one is that the younger members of the table should not pick up their [[chopsticks]] or start eating before the elders of the table or guests and should not finish eating before the elders or guests finish eating.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=159}}<ref name="Jang et al. 2005, p.102">Jang et al. (2005, p.102).</ref> In Korea, unlike in other East Asian cuisines such as [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] and [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]], the rice or soup bowl is not lifted from the table when eating from it. This is due to the fact that each diner is given a metal spoon along with the chopsticks known collectively as [[sujeo]]. The use of the spoon for eating rice and soups is expected. There are rules which reflect the decorum of sharing communal side dishes; rules include not picking through the dishes for certain items while leaving others, and the spoon used should be clean, because usually diners put their spoons in the same serving bowl on the table. Diners should also cover their mouths when using a [[toothpick]] after the meal.{{sfn|Pettid|2008|p=159}}<ref name="Jang et al. 2005, p.102"/> The table setup is important as well, and individual place settings, moving from the diner's left should be as follows: rice bowl, spoon, then chopsticks. Hot foods are set to the right side of the table, with the cold foods to the left. Soup must remain on the right side of the diner along with [[stew]]s. Vegetables remain on the left along with the rice, and [[kimchi]] is set to the back while sauces remain in the front.{{sfn|Pettid|2008|p=159}} ===Drinking=== The manner of drinking [[Soju|alcoholic drinks]] while dining is significant in [[Drinking culture of Korea|Korean dining etiquette]]. Each diner is expected to face away from the [[Korean Confucianism|eldest male]] and cover his mouth when drinking alcohol. According to Hyang Eum Ju Rye ({{Korean|hangul=향음주례|hanja=鄕飮酒禮|labels=no}}), the drinking etiquette established in [[Choseon dynasty]], it is impolite for a king and his vassal, a father and his son, or a teacher and his student to drink face to face. Also, a guest should not refuse the first drink offered by host, and in the most formal situations, the diner should politely twice refuse a drink offered by the eldest male or a host. When the host offers for the third time, then finally the guest can receive it. If the guest refuses three times, drink is not to be offered any more.<ref>Jeong, H. (2011). Story of alcoholic drink by Professor Jeong Hun Bae [정헌배 교수의 술나라 이야기]. Seoul: Yedam. {{ISBN|978-89-5913-611-7}}.</ref> ==Royal court cuisine== {{main|Korean royal court cuisine}} {{see also|List of Korean dishes#Royal court dishes}} [[File:Anapji Pond-Gyeongju-Korea-2006-09.jpg|thumb|[[Anapji Lake]] in [[Gyeongju]], the capital of [[Silla|Silla Kingdom]].]] Collectively known as ''gungjung eumsik'' during the pre-modern era, the foods of the royal palace were reflective of the opulent nature of the past rulers of the Korean peninsula. This nature is evidenced in examples as far back as the [[Silla]] kingdom, where a man-made lake ([[Anapji Lake]], located in [[Gyeongju]]), was created with multiple pavilions and halls for the sole purpose of opulent [[banquet]]s, and a spring fed channel, [[Poseokjeong]], was created for the singular purpose of setting wine cups afloat while they wrote poems.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=129}} Reflecting the regionalism of the kingdoms and bordering countries of the peninsula, the cuisine borrowed portions from each of these areas to exist as a showcase. The royalty would have the finest regional specialties and delicacies sent to them at the palace. Although there are records of banquets predating the Joseon period, the majority of these records mostly reflect the vast variety of foods, but do not mention the specific foods presented.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=130}} The meals cooked for the royal family did not reflect the seasons, as the commoner's meals would have. Instead, their meals varied significantly day-to-day. Each of the eight provinces was represented each month in the royal palace by ingredients presented by their governors, which gave the cooks a wide assortment of ingredients to use for royal meals.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=132}} [[File:Korea-Dae Jang Geum Theme Park-41.jpg|thumb|A model of the royal kitchen in the [[Dae Jang Geum]] theme park, South Korea.]] Food was considered significant in the Joseon period. Official positions were created within the [[Six Ministries of Joseon|Six Ministries]] (''[[Yukjo]]'', 육조) that were charged with all matters related to procurement and consumption of food and drink for the royal court. The Board of Personnel (''Ijo'', 이조) contained positions specific for attaining rice for the royal family. The Board of Rights (''Yejo'') were responsible for foods prepared for ancestor rites, attaining wines and other beverages, and medicinal foods. There were also hundreds of slaves and women who worked in the palace that had tasks such as making [[tofu]], liquor, tea, and ''[[tteok]]'' (rice cakes). The women were the cooks to the royal palace and were of commoner or low-born families. These women would be split into specific skill sets or "bureau" such as the bureau of special foods (''Saenggwa-bang'', 생과방) or the bureau of cooking foods (''Soju-bang'', 소주방). These female cooks may have been assisted by male cooks from outside the palace during larger banquets when necessary.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=130–132}} Five meals were generally served in the royal palace each day during the Joseon period, and records suggest this pattern had existed from antiquity. Three of these meals would be full meals, while the afternoon and after dinner meals would be lighter. The first meal, ''mieumsang'' ({{Korean|hangul=미음상|labels=no}}), was served at sunrise and was served only on days when the king and queen were not taking herbal medicines. The meal consisted of [[rice congee|rice porridge]] (''juk'', 죽) made with ingredients such as abalone (''[[jeonbokjuk]]''), white rice (''[[huinjuk]]''), mushrooms (''beoseotjuk''), pine nuts (''[[jatjuk]]''), and sesame (''kkaejuk''). The side dishes could consist of ''kimchi'', ''[[nabak kimchi]]'', oysters, soy sauce, and other items. The porridge was thought to give vitality to the king and queen throughout the day.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|p=133}} The ''sura'' ({{Korean|hangul=수라|labels=no}}) were the main meals of the day. Breakfast was served at ten in the morning, and the evening meals were served between six and seven at night. The set of three tables (''surasang'', 수라상), were usually set with two types of rice, two types of soup, two types of stew (''[[jjigae]]''), one dish of ''[[jjim]]'' (meat stew), one dish of ''[[jeongol]]'' (a casserole of meat and vegetables), three types of ''kimchi'', three types of ''[[Korean condiments|jang]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=장|labels=no}}) and twelve side dishes, called 12 cheop (12첩). The meals were set in the ''[[suragan]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=수라간|labels=no}}), a room specifically used for taking meals, with the king seated to the east and the queen to the west. Each had their own set of tables and were attended by three palace servant women known as ''[[sura sanggung]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=수라상궁|labels=no}}). These women would remove bowl covers and offer the foods to the king and queen after ensuring the dishes were not poisoned.{{Sfn|Pettid|2008|pp=134–135}} Banquets ({{Korean|hangul=궁중 연회 음식|labels=no}}) were held on special occasions in the Korean Royal Palace. These included birthdays of the royal family members, marriages, and national festivals, including Daeborum, Dano, Chuseok, and Dongji.<ref name="koreafoods.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.koreafoods.net|title=koreafoods.net|last=Olimiko|website=www.koreafoods.net|access-date=2019-08-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113132154/http://koreafoods.net/|archive-date=2018-11-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> Banquet food was served on individual tables which varied according to the rank of the person. Usually banquet food consisted of ten different types of dishes. Main dishes were prepared based on the seasonal foods. Main dishes of the banquet included ''sinseollo'', ''jeon'', ''hwayang jeok'', ''honghapcho'', ''nengmyun'' and ''mulgimchi''.<ref name="koreafoods.net"/> A typical banquet ingredient was ''chogyetang'' (chicken broth with vinegar), which was prepared with five different chickens, five abalones, ten sea cucumbers, twenty eggs, half a bellflower root, mushrooms, two cups of black pepper, two peeled pine nuts, starch, soy sauce and vinegar. ''[[Yaksik]]'' was a favorite banquet dessert.<ref>Kim, Jong Su "Royal Banquets and Uigwe during the Late Chosun Period," Korea Journal, Summer 2008</ref> == Health effects == {{see also|Yaksik}} Traditional Korean diet or Hansik is often associated with spiritual and physical health. While the diet of modern Korean people has become increasingly westernized and consists of numerous non-traditional foods, many believe in the healing power of Hansik. Vegetables and fermented foods are part of a healthy diet around the world, and Hansik includes many vegetable dishes and fermented foods. Three dishes, soup, [[Kimchi]] and multigrain rice make up the basic meal pattern of Hansik called three Cheopbansang. Fermented soybean paste [[Doenjang]] used in soups and fermented red chili paste [[Gochujang]] used in kimchi add health benefits to these foods. Certain foods are typically consumed to combat the heat of the summer or the cold months, regain strength during and after an illness, or for general health. Cool noodle [[Naengmyeon]] originally from the northern part of the Korean peninsula is now enjoyed in South Korea as well as many parts of the world especially during the hot summer months. Likewise, ginseng chicken soup [[Samgye-tang|Samgyetang]] is often eaten during summer to reduce heat exhaustion and regain stamina. Following a traditional Korean diet may lower the risk of some health issues including obesity and metabolic syndrome with a decrease in body mass index (BMI), body fat percent, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Seong-Ah |last2=Shin |first2=Sangah |last3=Ha |first3=Kyungho |last4=Hwang |first4=Young |last5=Park |first5=Young-Hee |last6=Kang |first6=Min-Sook |last7=Joung |first7=Hyojee |date=2020-01-11 |title=Effect of a balanced Korean diet on metabolic risk factors among overweight/obese Korean adults: a randomized controlled trial |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00394-019-02141-y |url-status=live |journal=European Journal of Nutrition |volume=59 |issue=7 |pages=3023–3035 |doi=10.1007/s00394-019-02141-y |issn=1436-6207 |pmid=31927671 |s2cid=210135076 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909140204/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00394-019-02141-y |archive-date=9 September 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref> Fermented foods like kimchi and doenjang contain probiotics which may boost immunity and reduce the incidence or severity of allergic conditions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis. It may also lower the risk of cardiovascular and chronic metabolic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jung |first1=Su-Jin |last2=Chae |first2=Soo-Wan |last3=Shin |first3=Dong-Hwa |date=2022-11-15 |title=Fermented Foods of Korea and Their Functionalities |journal=Fermentation |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=645 |doi=10.3390/fermentation8110645 |issn=2311-5637 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Probiotics typically found in kimchi include species of genera Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Weissella, and they have been linked to anti-inflammatory effects and health benefits such as improved gut health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Eunhye |last2=Ang |first2=Lin |last3=Lee |first3=Hye Won |last4=Kim |first4=Myung-Sunny |last5=Kim |first5=You Jin |last6=Jang |first6=Daija |last7=Lee |first7=Myeong Soo |date=2023-04-03 |title=Effects of kimchi on human health: a scoping review of randomized controlled trials |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/s42779-023-00173-8 |issn=2352-6181 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Napa cabbage|Napa]] cabbage is prepared with much salt and approximately 20% of sodium intake comes from kimchi. An increased risk of gastric cancer among subjects with frequent or high consumption of kimchi was found in some case-control studies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shin |first1=Aesun |last2=Kim |first2=Jeongseon |last3=Park |first3=Sohee |date=2011 |title=Gastric Cancer Epidemiology in Korea |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5230/jgc.2011.11.3.135 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Gastric Cancer |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=135–140 |doi=10.5230/jgc.2011.11.3.135 |issn=2093-582X |pmc=3204471 |pmid=22076217 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909140241/https://jgc-online.org/DOIx.php?id=10.5230/jgc.2011.11.3.135 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref> As with other salted foods, moderate consumption may maximize health benefits of kimchi. ==See also== {{Portal|South Korea|Food}} {{Div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Culture of South Korea]] * [[Delivery culture in South Korea]] * [[Korean New Year]] * [[Banchan]] * [[Hanjeongsik]] * [[North Korean cuisine]] * [[South Korean cuisine]] ** [[List of Korean desserts]] ** [[List of Korean dishes]] ** [[List of Korean drinks]] ** [[List of Korean restaurants]] ** [[List of oldest restaurants in South Korea]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} === Sources === {{refbegin}} *Baek Un-hwa (백운화). 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''The Korean Kitchen: Classic Recipes from the Land of the Morning Calm''. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1993. *O'Brien, Betsy. ''Let's Eat Korean Food''. Elizabeth, NJ:Hollym, 1997. {{ISBN|1-56591-071-0}} *{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzJ7_WcLJSwC|title=Korean cuisine: an illustrated history|first=Michael J.|last=Pettid|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86189-348-2|access-date=22 November 2015|archive-date=9 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909140203/https://books.google.com/books?id=wzJ7_WcLJSwC|url-status=live}} *Sohn Gyeong-hee (손경희). Inje Food Science Forum (인제식품과학 FORUM), "Part 1 HIstorical overview of Korean traditional eumcheongryu (제 1 주제 한국 전통 음청류의 역사적 고찰)" taken from [https://web.archive.org/web/20080608020931/http://www.dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?arid=499897] on 2008-06-16. *[[The Academy of Korean Studies]]. "농사직설(農事直說), Nongsa jikseol" taken from [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716073630/http://www.aks.ac.kr/glossary/glossary_detail.asp?g_code=1498&page=19&c_code=&search_field=&keyword=&order=g_korean&kanada=1] on 2008-06-10. *{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030707232256/http://english.chosun.com/english/contents/magazine/2001/Cuisine200111_1.html|archive-date=2003-07-07|newspaper=[[The Chosun Ilbo]]|title=Hanjeongsik, a full-course Korean meal|url=http://english.chosun.com/english/contents/magazine/2001/Cuisine200111_1.html|access-date=2008-06-11|year=2001}} *The Korea Economic Daily, "Brew master.. the only beer in the world" (브루 마스터 .. 세계 유일의 맥주) taken from [http://www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2006120107501&ltype=1&nid=101&sid=011612&page=1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212022518/http://www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2006120107501&ltype=1&nid=101&sid=011612&page=1 |date=12 December 2008 }} *Yi Kyubo, Tongmyǒng-wang p'yǒn' (The lay of King Tongmyǒng) in ''Tongguk Yi Sangguk chip'' (''The Collected Works of Minister Yi of the Eastern Country''), Seoul, 1982. * Yi Yang-Cha, and Armin E. Möller (1999). ''Koreanisch vegetarisch: Die kaum bekannte, fettarme, phantasievolle und küchenfreundliche Art asiatisch zu kochen'' (Korean Vegetarian: Almost Unknown, Low Fat, Creative and Kitchen-friendly Way of Asian Cooking). {{ISBN|978-3-7750-0457-2}}. *Yi Tǒngmu, ''Sasojǒl'' (''Elementary Etiquette for Scholar Families''), quaoted in Sources of Korean Tradition, Volume Two: From the Twentieth Centuries, ed. Yǒongho Ch'oe, Peter H. Lee and W. Theodore de Bary. New York, 2000. *Yu Jisang (유지상). "How about today? ''Pojangmacha'', outing at night" (오늘 어때? 포장마차 ‘밤마실’) taken from [http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?ctg=20&Total_ID=3147231] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211155552/http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?ctg=20&Total_ID=3147231 |date=11 December 2008 }} on 2008-06-13. {{refend}} ==External links== {{sister project links|auto=1}} * [https://www.mcst.go.kr/kor/s_data/ordinance/instruction/instructionView.jsp?pSeq=2845 공공 용어의 외국어 번역 및 표기 지침 (List of names of Korean foods in English)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020092726/https://www.mcst.go.kr/kor/s_data/ordinance/instruction/instructionView.jsp?pSeq=2845 |date=20 October 2022 }} *[http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/1051_Food.jsp Official site of Korea National Tourism List of Korean Food] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928121917/http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/1051_Food.jsp |date=28 September 2013 }} *{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090406082722/http://www.foodinkorea.org/eng_food/index.jsp |date=April 6, 2009 |title=Food in Korea }} at the Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation  *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131202230014/http://www.food-in-korea.com/ Food in Korea] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080607212444/http://www.encyber.com/search_w/category.php?gd=ed&cd=0403020703&p=1 List of articles about Korean cuisine] at the [[Doosan Encyclopedia]] {{in lang|ko}} *[http://100.empas.com/dicsearch/pcategory.html?s=K&i=1215 Categories of Korean cuisine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521051144/http://100.empas.com/dicsearch/pcategory.html?s=K&i=1215 |date=21 May 2008 }} at the [[Empas]] / [[EncyKorea]] {{in lang|ko}} *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221131922/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/ |date=21 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7618 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206184044/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7618 |date=6 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7929 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221131710/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7929 |date=21 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7858 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221155247/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7858 |date=21 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7777 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221131714/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7777 |date=21 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7544# {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221131722/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7544 |date=21 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7963 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221131712/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7963 |date=21 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/4128 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221133452/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/4128 |date=21 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7981 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221131712/https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7981 |date=21 February 2022 }}<nowiki/> (in Korean) *https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kimjang-making-and-sharing-kimchi-in-the-republic-of-korea-00881 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205025303/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kimjang-making-and-sharing-kimchi-in-the-republic-of-korea-00881 |date=5 February 2021 }}<nowiki/> (in English) {{Asian topic|title=[[Asian cuisine]]|suffix=cuisine}} {{Cuisine}} {{Authority control}} 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