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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Four_Policemen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Four Policemen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Four_Policemen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_allies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_allies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Other allies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_allies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lend-Lease_and_economic_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lend-Lease_and_economic_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Lend-Lease and economic warfare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lend-Lease_and_economic_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_to_the_Holocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_to_the_Holocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Reaction to the Holocaust 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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 War production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atomic_bomb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic_bomb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Atomic bomb </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomic_bomb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_Americans_during_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_Americans_during_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 African Americans during the war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_Americans_during_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_liberties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_liberties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Civil liberties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_liberties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Course_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Course of the war </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Course_of_the_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Course of the war subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Course_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mediterranean_and_European_theater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mediterranean_and_European_theater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Mediterranean and European theater </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mediterranean_and_European_theater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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searchaux" style="display:none">U.S. presidential administration from 1941 to 1945</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="padding-bottom:2px; padding-top:2px;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:0; ;"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt"><img alt="Franklin D. Roosevelt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/220px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/330px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/440px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2342" data-file-height="3115" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal; padding-top:2px;">Roosevelt in 1944</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="padding:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Cabinet</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Personnel">See list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">Seat</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:4px 0 4px;" /> Third term January 20, 1941 – January 20, 1945</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Election</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="line-height:normal; padding-top:1px;"><div style="width:100%"><div style="float: left; text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;" class="noprint">← <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">1st & 2nd terms</a></div></div></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:0 0 4px;" /> Fourth term January 20, 1945 – April 12, 1945</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Election</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="line-height:normal; padding-top:1px;"><div style="width:100%"><div style="float: right; text-align:right;padding-left:0.5em;" class="noprint"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> →</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:0 0 8px;" /> <div class="center"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:6px 0 2px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/100px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/150px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/200px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="1012" /></a></div> <div style="line-height:normal; min-height:1px; padding-bottom:;">Seal of the president (1894–1945)</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="margin-top:7px; padding-top:0;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fdrlibrary.org/">Library website</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_(3x4_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/75px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/113px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/150px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2342" data-file-height="3115" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Early_life_and_education" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_family" title="Roosevelt family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_paralytic_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness">Paralysis</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#State_senator_and_Tammany_antagonist" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">State Senator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Secretary of the Navy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920 Cox–Roosevelt campaign</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> 44th Governor of New York</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorship_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Governorship of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Governorship</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> 32nd President of the United States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">First & second terms, 1933–1941</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Third & fourth terms, 1941–1945</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">Timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Transition</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Inaugurations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Second inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Third inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Fourth inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">fourth</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> First term</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_100_days_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="First 100 days of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">First 100 days</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-Steagall_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass-Steagall Act">Glass-Steagall Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">WPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">SEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireside_chats" title="Fireside chats">Fireside Chats</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> Second term</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">Supreme Court Packing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Recovery_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Recovery Act">National Recovery Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%9338" class="mw-redirect" title="Recession of 1937–38">1937 recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Dimes" title="March of Dimes">March of Dimes</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> Third term</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infamy_Speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Infamy Speech">Infamy Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Charter" title="Atlantic Charter">Atlantic Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">Japanese Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">D-Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">Second Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G.I._Bill" title="G.I. Bill">G.I. Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone_Supreme_Court_nomination" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination">Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination">Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> Fourth term</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Declining_health" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Declining health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Death,_funeral,_and_end_of_the_war_(1945)" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Death and state funeral</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> Presidential campaigns</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0; padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li>1932 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1932_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1932 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1932 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#1932_presidential_election" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>1936 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1936 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1936 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Re-election,_1936" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>1940 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1940 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Election_of_1940" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>1944 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1944 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1944 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Election_of_1944" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Electoral history of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Electoral history</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Legacy" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_critics_of_the_New_Deal" title="List of critics of the New Deal">New Deal critics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_record_on_civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt's record on civil rights">Civil rights record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial">Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Cultural depictions of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Depictions</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt's signature"><img alt="Franklin D. Roosevelt's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg/170px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg/255px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg/340px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="492" data-file-height="109" /></a></div> <img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_series" title="Template:Franklin D. Roosevelt series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_series" title="Template talk:Franklin D. Roosevelt series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Franklin D. Roosevelt series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The third presidential term of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> began on January 20, 1941, when he was <a href="/wiki/Third_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Third inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">once again inaugurated</a> as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">32nd president of the United States</a>, and the fourth term of his presidency ended with his death on April 12, 1945. Roosevelt won a third term by defeating <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> nominee <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Wendell Willkie</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940 United States presidential election</a>. He remains the only president to serve for more than two terms. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">his first two terms</a>, Roosevelt's third and fourth terms were dominated by foreign policy concerns, as the United States became involved in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> in December 1941. Roosevelt won congressional approval of the <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> program, which was designed to aid the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in its war against <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, while the US remained officially neutral. After <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Germany began war against the Soviet Union</a> in June 1941, Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> as well. In Asia, Roosevelt provided aid to the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, which was resisting an invasion by the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>. In response to the July 1941 <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_French_Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese occupation of French Indochina">Japanese occupation of French Indochina</a>, Roosevelt expanded a trade embargo to cut off oil that Japan urgently needed for its fleet. When Roosevelt refused to end the embargo, on December 7, 1941, Japan launched an <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack</a> on the U.S. fleet stationed at <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a> in Hawaii. Isolationist sentiment in the US immediately collapsed and Congress <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United States declaration of war on Japan">declared war on Japan</a>. After Germany declared war on the US, Congress declared war on it and Italy. To win the war, the US, Britain and USSR assembled a large coalition of <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied Powers</a>. The U.S. funded much of the war efforts of the other allies, and supplied munitions, food, and oil. In consultation with his Army and Navy and British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, Roosevelt decided on a <a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a> strategy, which focused on defeating Germany before Japan. In practice, however, in 1942 and 1943 the U.S. focused on fighting Japan. In late 1942 U.S. began its ground campaign against Germany with an invasion of North Africa. The German and Italian forces surrendered in May 1943, opening the way for the invasions of Sicily and Italy. Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy won a decisive victory over Japan in the Battle of Midway and began a campaign of <a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging_(strategy)" title="Leapfrogging (strategy)">island hopping</a> in the Pacific. In 1943, the Allies launched an <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">invasion of Italy</a> and continued to pursue the island hopping strategy. The top Allied leaders met at the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> in 1943, where they began to discuss post-war plans. Among the concepts discussed was the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, an intergovernmental organization championed by Roosevelt that would replace the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> after the war. In 1944, the Allies launched a <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">successful invasion</a> of northern France and the US Navy won a decisive naval victory over Japan in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Battle of Leyte Gulf</a>. By the time of Roosevelt's death in April 1945, the Allies had occupied portions of Germany and the US was in the process of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">capturing</a> <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Island" title="Okinawa Island">Okinawa</a>. Germany and Japan surrendered in May–August 1945 during the administration of Roosevelt's successor <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>, who previously served as Roosevelt's vice president. Though foreign affairs dominated Roosevelt's third and fourth terms, important developments also took place on the home front. The military buildup spurred economic growth, and unemployment fell precipitously. The United States excelled at war production; in 1944, it produced more military aircraft than the combined output of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union. The United States also established the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> to produce the world's first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. As in Roosevelt's second term, the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_coalition" title="Conservative coalition">conservative coalition</a> prevented Roosevelt from passing major domestic legislation, though it did increase taxes to help pay for the war. Congress also passed the <a href="/wiki/G.I._Bill" title="G.I. Bill">G.I. Bill</a>, which provided several benefits to World War II veterans. Roosevelt avoided imposing heavy-handed censorship or harsh crackdowns on war-time dissent, but his administration relocated and <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">interned over a hundred thousand Japanese Americans</a>. Roosevelt also prohibited religious and racial discrimination in the defense industry and established the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practice_Committee" title="Fair Employment Practice Committee">Fair Employment Practice Committee</a>, the first national program designed to prevent employment discrimination. Scholars, historians, and the public typically rank Roosevelt alongside <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> as one of the three <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">greatest U.S. presidents</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1940_election">1940 election</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1940 election">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Election_of_1940" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt § Election of 1940</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940 United States presidential election</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_elections" title="1940 United States elections">1940 United States elections</a>; <a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1940 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1940 Democratic Party presidential primaries</a>; <a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">1940 Democratic National Convention</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1940.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/ElectoralCollege1940.svg/275px-ElectoralCollege1940.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/ElectoralCollege1940.svg/413px-ElectoralCollege1940.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/ElectoralCollege1940.svg/550px-ElectoralCollege1940.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>President Roosevelt defeated Republican <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Wendell Willkie</a> in the 1940 presidential election.</figcaption></figure> The two-term tradition had been an unwritten rule (until the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22nd Amendment</a> after Roosevelt's presidency) since <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> declined to run for a third term in 1796. Both <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> were attacked for trying to obtain a third non-consecutive term. Roosevelt systematically undercut prominent Democrats who were angling for the nomination, including Vice President <a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">John Nance Garner</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> and two cabinet members, Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a> and Postmaster General <a href="/wiki/James_Farley" title="James Farley">James Farley</a>. Roosevelt moved the convention to Chicago where he had strong support from the city machine, which controlled the auditorium sound system. At the convention the opposition was poorly organized, but Farley had packed the galleries. Roosevelt sent a message saying that he would not run unless he was drafted, and that the delegates were free to vote for anyone. The delegates were stunned; then the loudspeaker screamed "We want Roosevelt... The world wants Roosevelt!" The delegates went wild and he was nominated by 946 to 147 on the first ballot. The tactic employed by Roosevelt was not entirely successful, as his goal had been to be drafted by acclamation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956428-2">[2]</a> At Roosevelt's request, the convention nominated Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace for vice president. Democratic party leaders disliked Wallace, a former Republican who strongly supported the New Deal, but were unable to prevent his nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999457–458-3">[3]</a> World War II shook up the Republican field, possibly preventing the nomination of isolationist congressional leaders like Taft or Vandenberg. The <a href="/wiki/1940_Republican_National_Convention" title="1940 Republican National Convention">1940 Republican National Convention</a> instead nominated <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Wendell Willkie</a>, who had never held public office. A well-known corporate attorney and executive, Willkie rose to public notice through his criticism of the New Deal and his clashes with the TVA. Unlike his isolationist rivals for the Republican nomination, Willkie favored Britain in the war, and he was backed by internationalist Republicans like <a href="/wiki/Henry_Luce" title="Henry Luce">Henry Luce</a> the publisher of influential magazines like TIME. Willkie's internationalist views initially prevented disputes over foreign policy from dominating the campaign, helping to allow for the Destroyers for Bases Agreement and the establishment of a peacetime draft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999455–460-4">[4]</a> FDR was in a fighting mood, as he called out to an enthusiastic audience in Brooklyn: <dl><dd>I am only fighting for a free America – for a country in which all men and women have equal rights to liberty and justice. I'm fighting against the revival of government by special privilege....I am fighting, as I always have fought, for the rights of the little man as well as the big man....I'm fighting to keep this nation prosperous and at peace. I'm fighting to keep our people out of foreign wars, and to keep foreign conceptions of government out of our own United States. I'm fighting for these great and good causes.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></dd></dl> As the campaign drew to a close, Willkie warned that Roosevelt's re-election would lead to the deployment of American soldiers abroad. In response, Roosevelt promised that, "Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars."<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Roosevelt won the <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940 election</a> with 55% of the popular vote and almost 85% of the electoral vote (449 to 82).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956454-7">[7]</a> Willkie won ten states: strongly Republican states of Vermont and Maine, and eight isolationist states in the Midwest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999463–464-8">[8]</a> The Democrats retained their congressional majorities, but the conservative coalition largely controlled domestic legislation and remained "leery of presidential extensions of executive power through social programs."<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personnel">Personnel</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Personnel">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Executive_branch">Executive branch</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Executive branch">edit</a>]</div> <table class="infobox" style="width:auto;text-align:left;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:1em; margin-right:0; float:right; clear:right;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="3" style="line-height:1.5em;font-size:110%;background:#DCDCDC;text-align:center">The Roosevelt cabinet</th></tr><tr><th>Office</th><th>Name</th><th>Term</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#000"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></th><td>1933–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">John Nance Garner</a></th><td>1933–1941</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a></th><td>1941–1945</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a></th><td>1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a></th><td>1933–1944</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Stettinius_Jr." title="Edward Stettinius Jr.">Edward Stettinius Jr.</a></th><td>1944–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Woodin" title="William H. Woodin">William H. Woodin</a></th><td>1933</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Henry Morgenthau Jr.</a></th><td>1934–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/George_Dern" title="George Dern">George Dern</a></th><td>1933–1936</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hines_Woodring" title="Harry Hines Woodring">Harry Hines Woodring</a></th><td>1936–1940</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a></th><td>1940–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Homer_Stille_Cummings" title="Homer Stille Cummings">Homer Stille Cummings</a></th><td>1933–1939</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a></th><td>1939–1940</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a></th><td>1940–1941</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a></th><td>1941–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/James_Farley" title="James Farley">James Farley</a></th><td>1933–1940</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Frank_C._Walker" title="Frank C. Walker">Frank C. Walker</a></th><td>1940–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Claude_A._Swanson" title="Claude A. Swanson">Claude A. Swanson</a></th><td>1933–1939</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Edison" title="Charles Edison">Charles Edison</a></th><td>1939–1940</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knox" title="Frank Knox">Frank Knox</a></th><td>1940–1944</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/James_Forrestal" title="James Forrestal">James Forrestal</a></th><td>1944–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Harold_L._Ickes" title="Harold L. Ickes">Harold L. Ickes</a></th><td>1933–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a></th><td>1933–1940</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Claude_R._Wickard" title="Claude R. Wickard">Claude R. Wickard</a></th><td>1940–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce" title="United States Secretary of Commerce">Secretary of Commerce</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Roper" title="Daniel C. Roper">Daniel C. Roper</a></th><td>1933–1938</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a></th><td>1938–1940</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Jesse_H._Jones" title="Jesse H. Jones">Jesse H. Jones</a></th><td>1940–1945</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a></th><td>1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Labor" title="United States Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Frances_Perkins" title="Frances Perkins">Frances Perkins</a></th><td>1933–1945</td></tr></tbody></table> Roosevelt's standard strategy was to give two different people the same role, expecting controversy would result. He wanted the agencies' heads to bring the controversy to him and he would make the decision.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Roosevelt on August 21, 1942, explicitly wrote all of his department heads that disagreements: "should not be publicly aired, but are to be submitted to me by the appropriate heads of the conflicting agencies." Anyone going public had to resign.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> By far the most famous controversy came during the war when Secretary of Commerce <a href="/wiki/Jesse_H._Jones" title="Jesse H. Jones">Jesse H. Jones</a> and Vice President <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> clashed publicly over who would purchase war supplies in Latin America. Congress gave the authority to the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Finance_Corporation" title="Reconstruction Finance Corporation">Reconstruction Finance Corporation</a> controlled by Jones; Roosevelt gave the power to Wallace, who envisioned creating a sort of little New Deal for poorly paid South American workers. According to <a href="/wiki/James_MacGregor_Burns" title="James MacGregor Burns">James MacGregor Burns</a>, Jones, a leader of Southern conservative Democrats, was, "taciturn, shrewd, practical, cautious.” Wallace, deeply distrusted by Democratic party leaders, was the, "hero of the Lib Labs, dreamy, utopian, even mystical yet, yet with his own bent for management and power." On July 15, 1943, days after they escalated their private controversy to Congress and the public, Roosevelt stripped both of their roles in the matter.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> As World War II approached, Roosevelt brought in a new cohort of top leaders, including conservative Republicans to top Pentagon roles. <a href="/wiki/Frank_Knox" title="Frank Knox">Frank Knox</a>, the 1936 Republican vice presidential nominee, became <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a> while former Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a> became <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a>. Roosevelt began convening a "war cabinet" consisting of Hull, Stimson, Knox, <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations" title="Chief of Naval Operations">Chief of Naval Operations</a> <a href="/wiki/Harold_Rainsford_Stark" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Rainsford Stark">Harold Rainsford Stark</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Army">Army Chief of Staff</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Marshall" class="mw-redirect" title="George Marshall">George Marshall</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009622–623-13">[13]</a> In 1942 Roosevelt set up a new military command structure with Admiral <a href="/wiki/Ernest_J._King" title="Ernest J. King">Ernest J. King</a> (Stark's successor) as in complete control of the Navy and Marines. Marshall was in charge of the Army and nominally led the Air Force, which in practice was nearly independent and was commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Hap_Arnold" class="mw-redirect" title="Hap Arnold">Hap Arnold</a>. Roosevelt formed a new body, the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>, which made the final decisions on American military strategy.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The Joint Chiefs was a White House agency and was chaired by his old friend Admiral <a href="/wiki/William_D._Leahy" title="William D. Leahy">William D. Leahy</a>. The Joint Chiefs worked closely with their British counterparts and formed the <a href="/wiki/Combined_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Combined Chiefs of Staff">Combined Chiefs of Staff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Unlike Stalin, Churchill and Hitler, Roosevelt rarely overrode his military advisors. His civilian appointees handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians – not even the secretaries of War or Navy, had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high level diplomacy through his aides, especially <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a>. Since Hopkins also controlled $40 billion in Lend-Lease funds given to the Allies, they paid attention to him.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Treasury Secretary <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Henry Morgenthau Jr.</a> played an increasingly central role in foreign policy, especially regarding China.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_appointments">Judicial appointments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Judicial appointments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="List of federal judges appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt">List of federal judges appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Supreme Court candidates">Franklin D. Roosevelt Supreme Court candidates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination">Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination</a></div> Due to the retirements of Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> and Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">James Clark McReynolds</a>, Roosevelt filled three Supreme Court vacancies in 1941. He elevated <a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a>, a Republican appointed to the Court by Coolidge, to chief justice and then appointed two Democrats. Senator <a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a> of South Carolina and Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> became associate justices. The combination of the liberal Jackson, centrist Stone, and conservative Byrnes helped ensure the Senate confirmation of all three justices. Byrnes disliked serving on the Court, and he resigned to take a top position in the Roosevelt administration in 1942.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClouatre201240–41-19">[19]</a> Roosevelt nominated <a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" title="Wiley Rutledge">Wiley Rutledge</a> to replace him on the court. Rutledge a liberal federal appellate judge who would serve on the Supreme Court for just seven years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClouatre201245-20">[20]</a> By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed Stone, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley Forman Reed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a>, Byrnes, Jackson, and Rutledge, making <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">Owen Roberts</a> the lone Supreme Court justice whom Roosevelt had not appointed to the Court or elevated to Chief Justice.<a href="#cite_note-leuch-21">[21]</a> Roosevelt's appointees upheld his policies,<a href="#cite_note-renstrom-22">[22]</a> but often disagreed in other areas, especially after Roosevelt's death.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] William O. Douglas and Black served until the 1970s and joined or wrote many of the major decisions of the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a>, while Jackson and Frankfurter advocated <a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">judicial restraint</a> and deference to elected officials.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prelude_to_war:_1941">Prelude to war: 1941</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prelude to war: 1941">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_before_Operation_Barbarossa,_1941_(in_German).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Europe_before_Operation_Barbarossa%2C_1941_%28in_German%29.png/330px-Europe_before_Operation_Barbarossa%2C_1941_%28in_German%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Europe_before_Operation_Barbarossa%2C_1941_%28in_German%29.png/495px-Europe_before_Operation_Barbarossa%2C_1941_%28in_German%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Europe_before_Operation_Barbarossa%2C_1941_%28in_German%29.png/660px-Europe_before_Operation_Barbarossa%2C_1941_%28in_German%29.png 2x" data-file-width="958" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption>The geopolitical disposition of Europe in 1941. The grey area represents Nazi Germany, its allies, and countries under its firm control.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain_and_Germany_1941">Britain and Germany 1941</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Britain and Germany 1941">edit</a>]</div> After his victory in the 1940 election, Roosevelt embarked on a public campaign to win congressional support for aid to the British. In December 1940, Roosevelt received an appeal from Churchill explaining London could not finance the “cash and carry” provision of the Neutrality Act. With British forces deeply committed to fighting Germany, Churchill asked Washington to provide loans and shipping for American goods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999467–468-25">[25]</a> Roosevelt agreed and delivered a speech in which he called for the United States to serve as the "<a href="/wiki/Arsenal_of_Democracy" title="Arsenal of Democracy">Arsenal of Democracy</a>," supplying aid to those resisting Germany and other aggressors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008524–525-26">[26]</a> He stated, "if Great Britain goes down, the Axis Powers will control the continents of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the high seas–and they will be in a position to bring enormous military and naval resources against this hemisphere."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999401–402-27">[27]</a> In his January 1941 <a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms" title="Four Freedoms">Four Freedoms</a> speech, Roosevelt laid out the case for an American defense of basic rights throughout the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007487–488-28">[28]</a> In that same speech, Roosevelt asked Congress to approve a <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> program designed to provide military aid to Britain. The cover story was that the supplies were only being lent and would be returned after the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999469–470-29">[29]</a> With the backing of Willkie, the Lend-Lease bill passed by large majorities in both houses of Congress, with most of the opposition coming from Midwestern Republicans. Isolationists did, however, prevent the U.S. from providing naval escorts to merchant ships heading to Britain. Roosevelt also requested, and Congress granted, a massive boost in military expenditures. Military facilities, shipyards and munitions plants were built across the country (especially in the South) and the unemployment rate dropped below ten percent for the first time in over a decade. To oversee mobilization efforts, Roosevelt created the Office of Production Management, the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Price_Administration_and_Civilian_Supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply">Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Supply_Priorities_and_Allocations_Board" title="Supply Priorities and Allocations Board">Supply Priorities and Allocations Board</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999473–478-30">[30]</a> In late 1940, Admiral Stark had sent Roosevelt the <a href="/wiki/Plan_Dog_memo" title="Plan Dog memo">Plan Dog memo</a>, which set forth four possible strategic war plans for fighting an anticipated <a href="/wiki/Two-front_war" title="Two-front war">two-front war</a> against Japan and Germany. Of the four strategies, Stark advocated for the so-called "Plan Dog," which contemplated a <a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a> strategy and the avoidance of conflict with Japan for as long as possible. A key part of this strategy was to ensure that Britain remained in the fight against Germany until the United States, potentially with the aid of other countries, could launch a land offensive into Europe. Roosevelt did not publicly commit to Plan Dog, but it motivated him to launch talks between American and British military staff, codenamed "<a href="/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93British_Staff_Conference_(ABC%E2%80%931)" title="U.S.–British Staff Conference (ABC–1)">ABC–1</a>." In early 1941, American and British military planners jointly agreed to pursue a Europe first strategy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999479–480-31">[31]</a> In July 1941, Roosevelt ordered Secretary of War Stimson to begin planning for total American military involvement. The resulting "Victory Program" provided the army's estimates of the mobilization of manpower, industry, and logistics necessary to defeat Germany and Japan. The program planned to dramatically increase aid to the Allied nations and to prepare a force of ten million men in arms, half of whom would be ready for deployment abroad in 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill1977119-32">[32]</a> When Germany <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invaded</a> the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease to Moscow. Thus, Roosevelt had committed the American economy to the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied cause</a> with a policy of "all aid short of war."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill1977119-32">[32]</a> Some Americans were reluctant to aid the Soviet Union, but Roosevelt believed that the Soviets would be indispensable in the defeat of Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008532–533-33">[33]</a> Execution of the aid fell victim to foot-dragging in the administration, so FDR appointed a special assistant, <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Coy" title="Wayne Coy">Wayne Coy</a>, to expedite matters. The relationship with Moscow was informal—there was no treaty with the USSR. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970115-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_the_Atlantic_1941">Battle of the Atlantic 1941</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Battle of the Atlantic 1941">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></div> In February 1941, Hitler refocused the war against Britain from air raids to naval operations, specifically <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boat</a> (German submarine) raids against convoys of food and munitions headed to Britain. Canada and Britain provided naval escorts but Churchill needed more and asked Roosevelt. Roosevelt said no—he was still reluctant to challenge anti-war sentiment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999488–492-35">[35]</a> In May, German submarines sank the <a href="/wiki/SS_Robin_Moor" title="SS Robin Moor">SS Robin Moor</a>, an American freighter, but Roosevelt decided not to use the incident as a pretext to increase the navy's role in the Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Meanwhile, Germany celebrated victories against Yugoslavia, Greece, Russia, and the British forces in the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999493–495-37">[37]</a> In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill met secretly in <a href="/wiki/Argentia" title="Argentia">Argentia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a>. This meeting produced the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Charter" title="Atlantic Charter">Atlantic Charter</a>, which conceptually outlined global wartime and postwar goals.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Each leader pledged to support democracy, <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>, free trade, and principles of non-aggression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999496-39">[39]</a> Less than a month after Roosevelt and Churchill met at Argentia, a German submarine fired on the U.S. destroyer <a href="/wiki/USS_Greer_(DD-145)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Greer (DD-145)">Greer</a>, but the torpedo missed. In response, Roosevelt announced a new policy in which the U.S. would attack German U-boats that entered U.S. naval zones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999497–498-40">[40]</a> This "shoot on sight" policy effectively declared naval war on Germany and was approved by Americans in polls by a margin of 2-to-1.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970141–42-41">[41]</a> The Roosevelt administration also took control over Greenland and Iceland, which provided useful naval bases in the northern Atlantic Ocean. Seeking to bolster U.S. power in the Western Hemisphere and eliminate German influence, the Roosevelt administration increased military, commercial, and cultural engagement with Latin America. <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Coordinator_of_Inter-American_Affairs" title="Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs">Nelson Rockefeller</a> played a major role. The FBI trained the secret police of friendly nations. German sales to military forces was displaced by American aid. Pro-German newspapers and radio stations were blacklisted. Government censorship was encouraged, while Latin America was blanketed with pro-American propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Hitler did not aggressively respond to U.S. actions, as he wanted to avoid any incident that would bring the U.S. into the war prior to the defeat of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999492,_498–499-43">[43]</a> In October 1941, the <a href="/wiki/USS_Kearny_(DD-432)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Kearny (DD-432)">USS Kearny</a>, along with other warships, engaged a number of U-boats south of Iceland; the Kearny took fire and lost eleven crewmen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970148-44">[44]</a> Following the attack, Congress amended the Neutrality Act to allow U.S. ships to transport material to Britain, effectively repealing the last provision of the cash and carry policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999499–500-45">[45]</a> However, neither the Kearny incident nor an attack on the <a href="/wiki/USS_Reuben_James_(DD-245)" title="USS Reuben James (DD-245)">USS Reuben James</a> changed public opinion as much as Roosevelt hoped they might.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009615–616-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tensions_with_Japan">Tensions with Japan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tensions with Japan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prelude_to_the_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Prelude to the attack on Pearl Harbor">Prelude to the attack on Pearl Harbor</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg/160px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg/240px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg/320px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2173" data-file-height="2731" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg/160px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg/240px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg/320px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg 2x" data-file-width="923" data-file-height="1162" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Roosevelt signing declaration of war <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United States declaration of war on Japan">against Japan</a> (left) on December 8 and <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1941)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1941)">against Germany</a> (right) on December 11, 1941.</div></div></div></div> By 1940, Japan had conquered much of the Chinese coast and major river valleys, but had been unable to defeat either the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of China">Communist</a> forces under <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>. Though Japan's government was nominally led by the civilian government of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Fumimaro_Konoe" title="Fumimaro Konoe">Fumimaro Konoye</a>, Minister of War <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a> and other military leaders controlled the Japanese government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999502–504,_673-48">[48]</a> Tojo sent his military to take control of lightly defended French colonies in Indochina, which provided important resources as well as a conduit of supply to Chinese forces. When Japan <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">occupied</a> northern <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> in late 1940, Roosevelt authorized increased aid to the Republic of China, a policy that won widespread popular support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970134–46-49">[49]</a> He also implemented a partial embargo on Japan, preventing the export of iron and steel. Over the next year, the Roosevelt administration debated imposing an embargo on oil, the key American export to Japan. Though some in the administration wanted to do everything possible to prevent Japanese expansion, Secretary of State Hull feared that cutting off trade would encourage the Japanese to meet its needs for natural resources through the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">British Burma</a>, or the American Philippines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999505–507-50">[50]</a> With Roosevelt's attention focused on Europe, Hull took the lead in setting Asian policy and negotiating with Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999505–507-50">[50]</a> Beginning in March 1941, Hull and Japanese ambassador <a href="/wiki/Kichisabur%C5%8D_Nomura" title="Kichisaburō Nomura">Kichisaburō Nomura</a> sought to reach an accommodation between their respective governments. As the U.S. was not willing to accept the Japanese occupation of China, and Japan was not willing to withdraw from that country, the two sides were unable to reach an agreement. After Germany launched its invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Japanese declined to attack Soviet forces in Siberia, ending a long-running internal debate over the best target for Japanese expansion. In July, Japan took control of southern French Indochina, which provided a potential staging ground for an attack on British Burma and Malaya and the Dutch East Indies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999507–508-51">[51]</a> In response, the U.S. cut off the sale of oil to Japan, which thus lost more than 95 percent of its oil supply.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970134–46-49">[49]</a> Following the American embargo, Japanese planners studied how to seize the Dutch East Indies, which had a large supply of oil. Success required the capture the American Philippines and the British base at <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. That required sinking the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Fleet" title="United States Pacific Fleet">United States Pacific Fleet</a>, which was stationed at the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Station_Pearl_Harbor" title="Naval Station Pearl Harbor">naval base</a> at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The planners did not see the total defeat of the United States as a feasible outcome. Japanese leaders expected that a decisive naval victory would convince Washington to negotiate a compromise. Prime Minister Konoye sought a summit with Roosevelt in order to negotiate a deal, but Roosevelt insisted the Japanese withdrawal from China first. Tojo succeeded Konoye as prime minister in October, 1941, and the Japanese began preparations for an attack on American, British and Dutch possessions. In November, Nomura made a final offer, asking for reopened trade and acceptance of the Japanese campaign in China in return for Japan's pledge not to attack Southeast Asia. In part because the U.S. feared that Japan would attack the Soviet Union after conquering China, Roosevelt rejected the offer, and negotiations collapsed on November 26.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999512–515-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Entrance_into_the_war">Entrance into the war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Entrance into the war">edit</a>]</div> On the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">struck the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor with a surprise attack</a>, knocking out the main American <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleship</a> fleet and killing 2,403 American servicemen and civilians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999520–522-53">[53]</a> Mainstream scholars have all rejected the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_advance-knowledge_conspiracy_theory" title="Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory">conspiracy thesis</a> that Roosevelt, or any other high government officials, knew in advance about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded, and while senior American officials were aware that war was imminent, they did not expect an attack on Pearl Harbor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007523–39-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970159-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009622–623-13">[13]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Second_world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png/400px-Second_world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Second_world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png/600px-Second_world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Second_world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png/800px-Second_world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png 2x" data-file-width="1298" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption>Map of Japanese military advances, until mid-1942</figcaption></figure> After Pearl Harbor, antiwar sentiment in the United States evaporated overnight. For the first time since the early 19th century, foreign policy became the top priority for the American public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008538-56">[56]</a> Roosevelt called for war in his famous "<a href="/wiki/Infamy_Speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Infamy Speech">Infamy Speech</a>" to Congress, in which he said: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy — the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." On December 8, Congress voted almost unanimously to <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United States declaration of war on Japan">declare war against Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009632–633-57">[57]</a> On December 11, 1941, Germany <a href="/wiki/German_declaration_of_war_against_the_United_States_(1941)" class="mw-redirect" title="German declaration of war against the United States (1941)">declared war</a> on the United States, which <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1941)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1941)">responded in kind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESainsbury1994184-58">[58]</a> Roosevelt portrayed the war as a crusade against the aggressive dictatorships that threatened peace and democracy throughout the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009633–635-59">[59]</a> He and his military advisers implemented a Europe-first strategy with the objectives of halting the German advances in the Soviet Union and in North Africa; launching an invasion of western Europe with the aim of crushing Nazi Germany between two fronts; and saving China and defeating Japan. Public opinion, however, gave priority to the destruction of Japan. In any case, Japan was attacking the American Philippines and so in practice the Pacific had priority in 1942.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Japan bombed American air bases in the Philippines just hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor and destroyed the B-17 fleet parked on the ground.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> By the end of the month, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Japanese had invaded the Philippines</a>. General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> led American resistance in the Philippines until March 1942, when Roosevelt ordered him to evacuate to Australia, which became the forward American base.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> American forces in the Philippines surrendered in May 1942, leaving Japan with approximately ten thousand American prisoners. While it was subduing the Philippines, Japan also conquered Malaya, Singapore, Burma, and the Dutch East Indies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999526–531-63">[63]</a> In his role as the leader of the United States before and during World War II, Roosevelt tried to avoid repeating what he saw as Woodrow Wilson's mistakes in World War I.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> He often made exactly the opposite decision. Wilson had called for neutrality in thought and deed, while Roosevelt made it clear his administration strongly favored Britain and China. Unlike the loans in World War I, the United States made large-scale grants of military and economic aid to the Allies through Lend-Lease, with little expectation of repayment. Wilson failed to expand war production before the declaration of war; Roosevelt made an all-out effort in 1940. Wilson waited for the declaration to begin a draft; Roosevelt started one in 1940. Wilson never made the United States an official ally but Roosevelt did. Wilson never met with the top Allied leaders but Roosevelt did. Wilson proclaimed independent policy, as seen in the 14 Points, while Roosevelt sought a collaborative policy with the Allies. In 1917, the United States declared war on Germany; in 1941, Roosevelt waited until the enemy attacked at Pearl Harbor. Wilson refused to collaborate with the Republicans; Roosevelt named leading Republicans to head the War Department and the Navy Department. Wilson let General George Pershing make the major military decisions; Roosevelt made the major decisions in his war including the "<a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a>" strategy. He rejected the idea of an armistice and demanded unconditional surrender. Roosevelt often mentioned his role as <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Assistant Secretary of the Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a> in the Wilson administration, but added that he had profited more from Wilson's errors than from his successes.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Sherwood" title="Robert E. Sherwood">Robert E. Sherwood</a> argues: <dl><dd>Roosevelt could never forget Wilson's mistakes....there was no motivating force in all of Roosevelt's wartime political policy stronger than the determination to prevent repetition of the same mistakes.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alliances,_economic_warfare,_and_other_wartime_issues">Alliances, economic warfare, and other wartime issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Alliances, economic warfare, and other wartime issues">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_Policemen">Four Policemen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Four Policemen">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom-United_States_relations_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom-United States relations in World War II">United Kingdom-United States relations in World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomatic history of World War II</a></div> In late December 1941 Churchill and Roosevelt met at the <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_Conference" title="Arcadia Conference">Arcadia Conference</a> in Washington, which established a joint strategy between the U.S. and Britain.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Both agreed on a <a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a> strategy that would prioritize the defeat of Germany before Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007545–547-71">[71]</a> With British forces focused on the war in Europe, and with the Soviet Union not at war with Japan, the United States would take the lead in the Pacific War despite its own focus on Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999809–810-72">[72]</a> The U.S. and Britain established the Combined Chiefs of Staff to coordinate military policy and the <a href="/wiki/Combined_Munitions_Assignments_Board" title="Combined Munitions Assignments Board">Combined Munitions Assignments Board</a> to coordinate the allocation of supplies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007545–547-71">[71]</a> An agreement was also reached to establish a centralized command in the Pacific theater called <a href="/wiki/ABDA" class="mw-redirect" title="ABDA">ABDA</a>, named for the American, British, Dutch, and Australian forces in the theater.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970180–85-73">[73]</a> On January 1, 1942, the United States, Britain, China, the Soviet Union, and twenty-two other countries issued the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a>, in which each nation pledged to defeat the Axis powers. These countries opposed to the Axis would be known as the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied Powers</a>; sometimes they were called the "United Nations" before the UN was set up in 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007547-74">[74]</a> Roosevelt coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a>" to refer to the "Big Four" Allied powers of World War II: the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China. Roosevelt, Churchill, Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek cooperated informally on a plan in which American and British troops concentrated in the West, Soviet troops fought on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern front</a>, and Chinese, British, and American troops fought in Asia and the Pacific. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high-profile conferences as well as contact through diplomatic and military channels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoeneckeStoler2005109–110-75">[75]</a> Roosevelt had a close relationship with Churchill, but he and his advisers quickly lost respect for Chiang's government, viewing it as hopelessly corrupt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008547,_574–578-76">[76]</a> General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stilwell" title="Joseph Stilwell">Joseph Stilwell</a>, who was assigned to lead U.S. forces in the <a href="/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater" class="mw-redirect" title="China Burma India Theater">China Burma India Theater</a>, came to believe that Chiang was more concerned with defeating Mao's Communists than with defeating the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999671–673-77">[77]</a> U.S. and Soviet leaders distrusted each other throughout the war, and relations further suffered after 1943 as both sides supported sympathetic governments in liberated territories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008546–547,_582–586-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_allies">Other allies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other allies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Latin_America_during_World_War_II" title="Latin America during World War II">Latin America during World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II#Minor_affiliated_state_combatants" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II § Minor affiliated state combatants</a></div> By the end of the war, several states, including all of Latin America, had joined the Allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008555–557-79">[79]</a> Roosevelt's appointment of young <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller" title="Nelson Rockefeller">Nelson Rockefeller</a> to head the new, well-funded <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Coordinator_of_Inter-American_Affairs" title="Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs">Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs</a> provided energetic leadership.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Under Rockefeller's leadership, the U.S. spent millions on radio broadcasts, motion pictures, and other anti-fascist propaganda. American advertising techniques generated a push back in Mexico especially, where well-informed locals resisted heavy-handed American influence.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Nevertheless, Mexico was a valuable ally in the war. A deal was reached whereby 250,000 Mexican citizens living in the United States served in the American forces; over 1000 were killed in combat.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In addition to propaganda, large sums were allocated for economic support and development. On the whole the Roosevelt policy in Latin America was a political success, except in Argentina, which tolerated German influence and refused to follow Washington's lead until the war was practically over.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Outside of Latin America, the U.S. paid particularly close attention to its oil-rich allies in the Middle East, marking the start of sustained American engagement in the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008562–565-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lend-Lease_and_economic_warfare">Lend-Lease and economic warfare</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lend-Lease and economic warfare">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing during World War II</a></div> The main American role in the war, beyond the military mission itself, was financing the war and providing large quantities of munitions and civilian goods. Lend-Lease, as passed by Congress in 1941, was a declaration of economic warfare, and that economic warfare continued after the attack on Pearl Harbor.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Roosevelt believed that the financing of World War I through loans to the Allies, with the demand for repayment after the war, had been a mistake. He set up the Lend-Lease system as a war program, financed through the military budget; as soon as the war with Japan ended, it was terminated.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The president chose the leadership—Hopkins and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Stettinius_Jr." title="Edward Stettinius Jr.">Edward Stettinius Jr.</a> played major roles—and exercised close oversight and control.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> One problem that bedeviled the program in 1942 was the strictly-limited supply of munitions that had to be divided between Lend-Lease and American forces. Roosevelt insisted to the military that Russia was to get all the supplies he had promised it.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Lend-Lease aid to the Soviet Union declined somewhat in mid-1942 after the United States began to prepare for military operations in North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999575,_579–580-90">[90]</a> The U.S. spent about $40 billion on Lend-Lease aid to the British Empire, the Soviet Union, France, China, and some smaller countries. That amounted to about 11% of the cost of the war to the U.S. It received back about $7.8 billion in goods and services provided by the recipients to the United States, especially the cost of food and rent for American installations abroad.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Britain received $30 billion, Russia received $10.7 billion, and all other countries $2.9 billion.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> When the question of repayment arose, Roosevelt insisted the United States did not want a postwar debt problem of the sort that had troubled relations after the first world war. The recipients provided bases and supplies to American forces on their own soil; this was referred informally as "Reverse Lend-Lease," and the combined total of this aid came to approximately $7.8 billion overall.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> In the end, none of the Allied Powers paid for the goods received during the war, although they did pay for goods in transit that were received after the program ended. Roosevelt told Congress in June 1942:<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <dl><dd>The real costs of the war cannot be measured, nor compared, nor paid for in money. They must and are being met in blood and toil.... If each country devotes roughly the same fraction of its national production to the war, then the financial burden of war is distributed equally among the United Nations in accordance with their ability to pay.</dd></dl> A major issue in the economic war was the transportation of supplies. After Germany declared war on the United States, Hitler removed all restrictions on the German submarine fleet. German submarines ravaged Allied shipping in the Atlantic, with many of the attacks taking place within ten miles of the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast of the United States</a> in early 1942.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999565–569-95">[95]</a> The U.S. Navy faced difficulties in simultaneously protecting Atlantic shipping while also prosecuting the war against Japan, and over one millions tons of Allied shipping was lost in 1942.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999569–571-96">[96]</a> The cracking of the German <a href="/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma code</a>, along with the construction and deployment of American naval escorts and <a href="/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft" title="Maritime patrol aircraft">maritime patrol aircraft</a> helped give the Allied Powers the upper hand in the Battle of the Atlantic after 1942. After the Allies sank dozens of U-boats in early 1943, most German submarines were withdrawn from the North Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999589–590-97">[97]</a> The United States began a <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">strategic bombing</a> campaign against Axis forces in Europe in mid-1942. Attacks initially targeted locations in France, Belgium, and the Netherlands; U.S. bombers launched their first attack against a target in Germany in January 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999604–605-98">[98]</a> In an attempt to destroy Germany's industrial capacity, Allied bombers struck targets such as oil refineries and ball-bearing factories. After taking heavy losses in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tidal_Wave" title="Operation Tidal Wave">Operation Tidal Wave</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Raid_on_Schweinfurt" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Raid on Schweinfurt">Second Raid on Schweinfurt</a>, the U.S. significantly scaled back the strategic bombing of Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999606–609-99">[99]</a> General <a href="/wiki/Carl_Andrew_Spaatz" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Andrew Spaatz">Carl Andrew Spaatz</a> redirected U.S. strategic bombing efforts to focus on German aircraft production facilities, and the Allies enjoyed air superiority in Europe after February 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999702–703-100">[100]</a> Allied strategic bombing escalated in late 1944, with an emphasis placed on Germany's transportation infrastructure and oil resources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999742–743-101">[101]</a> With the goal of forcing a quick German surrender, in 1945 the Allies launched attacks on <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Berlin_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Berlin in World War II">Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Dresden_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Dresden in World War II">Dresden</a> that killed tens of thousands of civilians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999743–744-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_to_the_Holocaust">Reaction to the Holocaust</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reaction to the Holocaust">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">International response to the Holocaust</a></div> After <a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a> in 1938, Roosevelt helped expedite Jewish immigration from Germany and allowed Austrian and German citizens already in the United States to stay indefinitely. He was prevented from accepting more Jewish immigrants by the prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> among voters and members of Congress, resistance in the <a href="/wiki/American_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="American Jew">American Jewish</a> community to the acceptance of Eastern European Jewish immigrants, and the restrictive <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007426–428-103">[103]</a> The Immigration Act of 1924 allowed only 150,000 immigrants to the United States per year and set firm quotas for each country, and in the midst of the Great Depression there was little popular support for revisions to the law that would have allowed for a more liberal immigration policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999413–414,_417-104">[104]</a> Roosevelt pushed the limits of his executive authority where possible, which allowed for several Austrian and German Jews, including <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, to escape from Europe or remain in the United States past their visa expirations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999414–416-105">[105]</a> Hitler chose to implement the "<a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>"–the extermination of the European Jewish population–by January 1942, and American officials learned of the scale of the Nazi extermination campaign in the following months. Against the objections of the State Department, Roosevelt convinced the other Allied leaders to jointly issue the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_by_Members_of_the_United_Nations" title="Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations">Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations</a>, which condemned the ongoing <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> and promised to try its perpetrators as <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war criminals</a>. In January 1944, Roosevelt established the <a href="/wiki/War_Refugee_Board" title="War Refugee Board">War Refugee Board</a> to aid Jews and other victims of Axis atrocities. Aside from these actions, Roosevelt believed that the best way to help the persecuted populations of Europe was to end the war as quickly as possible. Top military leaders and War Department leaders rejected any campaign to bomb the <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Extermination camps">extermination camps</a> or the rail lines leading to the camps, fearing it would be a diversion from the war effort. According to biographer Jean Edward Smith, there is no evidence that anyone ever proposed such a campaign to Roosevelt himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007607–613-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Homefront">Homefront</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Homefront">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States home front during World War II</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relations_with_Congress">Relations with Congress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Relations with Congress">edit</a>]</div> Up until Pearl Harbor, Congress played a very active role in foreign and military policy, dealing with neutrality laws, the draft, and Lend Lease. As with the general public, congressional sentiment was very hostile toward Germany and Japan, favorable toward China, and somewhat less favorable toward Britain. Congressmen with strong German, Irish Catholic, or Scandinavian constituencies generally supported isolationist policies. After Pearl Harbor, isolationism disappeared in Congress and was not a factor in the 1942 or 1944 elections. Some leading Republican isolationists, most notably Senator <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Vandenberg" title="Arthur Vandenberg">Arthur Vandenberg</a> of Michigan, Senator <a href="/wiki/Warren_Austin" title="Warren Austin">Warren Austin</a> of Vermont, and Congressman <a href="/wiki/Everett_Dirksen" title="Everett Dirksen">Everett Dirksen</a> of Illinois, became leading internationalists.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Republican Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Robert A. Taft</a> stayed quiet on foreign and defense issues, while many of the energetic isolationists of the 1930s, including Hiram Johnson and William Borah, were in poor health or had seen their influence decline. During the war, there were no secret briefings, and members of Congress were often no better informed than the average newspaper reader. Congressman did pay attention to military installations in their district, but rarely raised issues of broader military or diplomatic scope, with the partial exception of postwar plans.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Congress also established the <a href="/wiki/Truman_Committee" title="Truman Committee">Truman Committee</a>, which investigated wartime profiteering and other defects in war production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999791-110">[110]</a> Debates on domestic policy were as heated as ever, and the major Republican gains in Congress in 1938 and 1942 gave the Conservative Coalition the dominant voice on most domestic issues.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_legislation">Domestic legislation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Domestic legislation">edit</a>]</div> The home front was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concern. The military buildup spurred economic growth. Unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in early 1940 to 3.4 million in late 1941, and fell in half again to 1.5 million in late 1942, out of a labor force of 54 million.<a href="#cite_note-114">[a]</a> To pay for increased government spending, in 1941 Roosevelt proposed that Congress enact an income tax rate of 99.5% on all income over $100,000; when the proposal failed, he issued an executive order imposing an income tax of 100% on income over $25,000, which Congress rescinded. The <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1942" title="Revenue Act of 1942">Revenue Act of 1942</a> instituted top tax rates as high as 94% (after accounting for the <a href="/wiki/Excess_profits_tax" title="Excess profits tax">excess profits tax</a>) and instituted the first federal <a href="/wiki/Withholding_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Withholding tax">withholding tax</a>. It also greatly increased the tax base; only four million Americans paid the federal income taxes before the war, while by the end of the war over 40 million Americans paid federal income taxes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999624–625-115">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015221–222-116">[115]</a> In 1944, Roosevelt requested that Congress enact legislation which would tax all "unreasonable" profits, both corporate and individual, and thereby support his declared need for over $10 billion in revenue for the war and other government measures. Congress overrode Roosevelt's veto to pass a <a href="/wiki/Individual_Income_Tax_Act_of_1944" title="Individual Income Tax Act of 1944">smaller revenue bill</a> raising $2 billion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970436-117">[116]</a> Congress also abolished several New Deal agencies, including the CCC and the WPA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcJimsey2000249-118">[117]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/220px--Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="169" data-durationhint="95" data-mwtitle="Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="470" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="470" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="312" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="469" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASecond_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASecond_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv&lang=sk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sk" label="slovenčina ‪(sk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Franklin Delano Roosevelt announced the plan for a <a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">bill of social and economic rights</a> in January, 1944. (excerpt)</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt's 1944 State of the Union Address advocated a set of basic economic rights Roosevelt dubbed as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">Second Bill of Rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015223–225-119">[118]</a> In the most ambitious domestic proposal of the era, veterans groups led by the <a href="/wiki/American_Legion" title="American Legion">American Legion</a> secured the <a href="/wiki/G.I._Bill" title="G.I. Bill">G.I. Bill</a>, which created a massive benefits program for almost all men and women who served. Roosevelt had wanted a narrower bill focused more on poor people, but he was out-maneuvered by those on both his right and his left who, each for their own reasons, favored a blanket approach. Comprehensive coverage, regardless of income or combat experience, would avoid the prolonged disputes in the 1920s and 1930s over the aid to veterans. Benefits included a year of unemployment pay at $20 a week, tuition and living expense to attend high school or college, and low-cost loans to buy a home, farm or business.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> Of the fifteen million Americans who served in World War II, more than half would benefit from the educational opportunities provided for in the G.I. Bill.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007584–585-121">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_production">War production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: War production">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/American_women_in_World_War_II" title="American women in World War II">American women in World War II</a></div> To coordinate war production and other aspects of the home front, Roosevelt established the <a href="/wiki/War_Shipping_Administration" title="War Shipping Administration">War Shipping Administration</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Price_Administration" title="Office of Price Administration">Office of Price Administration</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Economic_Warfare" title="Board of Economic Warfare">Board of Economic Warfare</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/National_War_Labor_Board_(1942%E2%80%931945)" title="National War Labor Board (1942–1945)">War Labor Board</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcJimsey2000240–242,_248-122">[121]</a> The U.S. government generally relied on voluntary contracting to mobilize the production of war materials, but in rare cases the Roosevelt administration temporarily took control of industrial facilities. Congress also created tax incentives designed to encourage the shift to military production, while the Reconstruction Finance Corporation continued to offer loans to help expand industrial capacity. Despite efforts made by Congress to encourage contracting with smaller companies, most military contracts went to the largest corporations in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999619–623-123">[122]</a> War production increased dramatically after the attack on Pearl Harbor, but that production fell short of the goals established by the president, due in part to manpower shortages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970333-124">[123]</a> The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes, especially among union workers in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970343-125">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2012139–44,_151,_246-126">[125]</a> Mobilization was also affected by the military service of over 16 million individuals during the war; approximately one-in-five families had at least one individual serve during the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999632–637-127">[126]</a> Despite various challenges, between 1941 and 1945, the United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition. The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007571–572-128">[127]</a> The United States suffered from inflation during the war, and the administration instituted price and wage controls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcJimsey2000242–243-129">[128]</a> In 1943, Roosevelt established the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_War_Mobilization" title="Office of War Mobilization">Office of War Mobilization</a> (OWM) to oversee war production. The OWM was led by <a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a>, who came to be known as the "assistant president" due to his influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007575–576-130">[129]</a> As inflation continued to present a major challenge, the administration expanded a <a href="/wiki/Rationing" title="Rationing">rationing</a> program that covered an increasing number of consumer goods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcJimsey2000245–246-131">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomic_bomb">Atomic bomb</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Atomic bomb">edit</a>]</div> In August 1939, physicists <a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a> and Albert Einstein sent the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szil%C3%A1rd_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein–Szilárd letter">Einstein–Szilárd letter</a> to Roosevelt, warning of the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_weapon_project" class="mw-redirect" title="German nuclear weapon project">German project</a> to develop an atomic bomb (now called a "<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a>").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009678–680-132">[131]</a> The thought of Germany to build a bomb first was terrifying. Roosevelt authorized preliminary research.<a href="#cite_note-134">[b]</a> After Pearl Harbor, a few top Congressional leaders secretly gave the administration the necessary money. General <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a>, the Army's engineer who built the Pentagon, took charge of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to jointly pursue the project with the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a> allowing American scientists to cooperate with their British counterparts, including at least one spy who provided Moscow with the top secret details.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007578–581-135">[133]</a> The Manhattan Project cost more than $2 billion, employed 150,000 individuals, and required the construction of massive facilities at <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos</a>, and other parts of the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999662–665-136">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_Americans_during_the_war">African Americans during the war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: African Americans during the war">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_the_U.S._Armed_Forces_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic minorities in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II">Ethnic minorities in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II</a></div> In 1941, <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a> and other <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African-American</a> leaders planned a march on Washington to protest segregation in the military and the defense industry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999766–767-137">[135]</a> In response, Roosevelt issued <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Executive Order 8802</a>, which prohibited racial and religious discrimination in employment among defense contractors. Randolph then cancelled the march on Washington.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> Roosevelt also established the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practices_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Employment Practices Committee">Fair Employment Practices Committee</a> (FEPC) to enforce Executive Order 8802. The FEPC was the first national program directed against <a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">employment discrimination</a>, and it played a major role in opening up new employment opportunities to non-white workers.<a href="#cite_note-collins-139">[137]</a> During the war, the number of African Americans employed in the defense industry increased dramatically, primarily outside the South. Likewise, there was rapid growth in the number of African Americans employed by the federal government in segregated roles. Many African Americans were drafted into the Army. Military units remained segregated and most black people were assigned to non-combat roles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999771–775-140">[138]</a> The <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> grew dramatically during the war, buoyed in part by Randolph's role in convincing Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 8802.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999767–768-141">[139]</a> The war also saw the acceleration of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>, as African Americans moved from rural Southern areas to manufacturing centers outside of the South.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> Roosevelt encouraged employers to hire African Americans, as well as women and ethnics workers, to meet the needs of the wartime labor shortage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999777–778-143">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_liberties">Civil liberties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Civil liberties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manzanar_Relocation_Center,_Manzanar,_California._A_typical_interior_scene_in_one_of_the_barrack_ap_._._._-_NARA_-_538136.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Manzanar_Relocation_Center%2C_Manzanar%2C_California._A_typical_interior_scene_in_one_of_the_barrack_ap_._._._-_NARA_-_538136.jpg/220px-Manzanar_Relocation_Center%2C_Manzanar%2C_California._A_typical_interior_scene_in_one_of_the_barrack_ap_._._._-_NARA_-_538136.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Manzanar_Relocation_Center%2C_Manzanar%2C_California._A_typical_interior_scene_in_one_of_the_barrack_ap_._._._-_NARA_-_538136.jpg/330px-Manzanar_Relocation_Center%2C_Manzanar%2C_California._A_typical_interior_scene_in_one_of_the_barrack_ap_._._._-_NARA_-_538136.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Manzanar_Relocation_Center%2C_Manzanar%2C_California._A_typical_interior_scene_in_one_of_the_barrack_ap_._._._-_NARA_-_538136.jpg/440px-Manzanar_Relocation_Center%2C_Manzanar%2C_California._A_typical_interior_scene_in_one_of_the_barrack_ap_._._._-_NARA_-_538136.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2808" data-file-height="2934" /></a><figcaption>A typical living quarters at the <a href="/wiki/Manzanar" title="Manzanar">Manzanar internment camp</a> for relocated Japanese.</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt had cultivated a friendly relationship with the domestic press throughout his presidency, and his good relations with the press helped ensure favorable coverage of his war-time policies without resorting to heavy-handed <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_United_States" title="Censorship in the United States">censorship</a>. During World War I, the U.S. had passed acts such as the <a href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_of_1918" title="Sedition Act of 1918">Sedition Act of 1918</a> to crack down on dissent, but Roosevelt largely avoided such harsh measures. He did order <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a> <a href="/wiki/Director_of_the_Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation">Director</a> <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a> to increase its investigations of dissidents and signed the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>, which made it a crime to advocate the overthrow of the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009653–656-144">[142]</a> The trials against antiwar spokesmen on the far left and far right collapsed in failure.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> The attack on Pearl Harbor raised concerns in the public regarding the possibility of sabotage by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Americans" title="Japanese Americans">Japanese Americans</a>. This suspicion was fed by long-standing racism against Japanese immigrants, as well as the findings of the <a href="/wiki/Roberts_Commissions" title="Roberts Commissions">Roberts Commission</a>, which concluded that the attack on Pearl Harbor had been assisted by Japanese spies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007549–553-146">[144]</a> The size of the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_Hawaii" title="Japanese in Hawaii">Japanese population in Hawaii</a> precluded mass internment in that territory, but there was strong popular support for the removal of Japanese from the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999748–750-147">[145]</a> In February 1942, President Roosevelt signed <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9066" title="Executive Order 9066">Executive Order 9066</a>, which provided for the relocation of hundreds of thousands of Japanese-American citizens and immigrants from the West Coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999753–754-148">[146]</a> They were forced to liquidate their properties and businesses and <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">interned in hastily built camps</a> in interior, harsh locations. Distracted by other issues, Roosevelt had delegated the decision for internment to Secretary of War Stimson, who in turn relied on the judgment of Assistant Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/John_J._McCloy" title="John J. McCloy">John J. McCloy</a>. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the executive order in the 1944 case of <a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007549–553-146">[144]</a> The internment order was rescinded shortly after the Korematsu decision, and Japanese-Americans were allowed to return to the West Coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999759-149">[147]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_German_Americans" title="Internment of German Americans">German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Italian_Americans" title="Internment of Italian Americans">Italian</a> citizens were also arrested or placed into internment camps.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Course_of_the_war">Course of the war</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Course of the war">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_participants_in_World_War_II.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Map_of_participants_in_World_War_II.svg/500px-Map_of_participants_in_World_War_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Map_of_participants_in_World_War_II.svg/750px-Map_of_participants_in_World_War_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Map_of_participants_in_World_War_II.svg/1000px-Map_of_participants_in_World_War_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>The two alliances of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, with the Axis Powers in blue and the Allied Powers in green</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">Military history of the United States during World War II</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mediterranean_and_European_theater">Mediterranean and European theater</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mediterranean and European theater">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">European theatre of World War II</a></div> The Soviets urged an Anglo-American invasion of German-occupied France in order to divert troops from the Eastern front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007557–559-151">[149]</a> Churchill in particular was reluctant to commit troops in Europe in 1942, and strongly favored launching a campaign designed to expel the Axis Powers from North Africa and to consolidate Allied power in the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999576–577-152">[150]</a> General Marshall and Admiral King opposed the decision to prioritize North Africa, which they saw as relatively unimportant to the overall war. Roosevelt overrode their objections, as he wanted the U.S. to commit ground forces in the European theater, in 1942, and with British cooperation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999577–579-153">[151]</a> The Allies invaded <a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">French North Africa</a> in November 1942, securing the quick surrender of local Vichy French forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007563–564-154">[152]</a> That surrender was arranged through a deal between General <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, the supreme commander of the Allied invasion of North Africa, and Vichy Admiral <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a>. The cooperation with Darlan allowed the Allies to quickly gain control of much of North Africa, but it also alienated <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free French</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> and other opponents of the Vichy regime. Darlan was assassinated in December 1942, while Vichy France broke relations with the United States and requested that German forces prevent the Allies from gaining control of French <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>. The experience with de Gaulle, Darlan, and another French leader, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a>, convinced Roosevelt of the necessity to avoid becoming closely associated with any French faction for the remainder of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999581–583-155">[153]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Campaign">Tunisian Campaign</a>, Eisenhower initially faced great difficulties in leading his inexperienced force to success, but Allied forces eventually gained the upper hand. 250,000 Axis soldiers surrendered in May 1943, bringing an end to the <a href="/wiki/North_African_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="North African Campaign">North African Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999583–584-156">[154]</a> At the January 1943 <a href="/wiki/Casablanca_Conference" title="Casablanca Conference">Casablanca Conference</a>, the U.S. and Britain agreed to defeat Axis forces in North Africa and then launch an invasion of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> after the North African campaign, with an attack on France to follow in 1944. At the conference, Roosevelt also announced that he would only accept the <a href="/wiki/Unconditional_surrender" title="Unconditional surrender">unconditional surrender</a> of Germany, Japan, and Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007565–567-157">[155]</a> The demand for unconditional surrender was calculated to reassure the Soviets, who were still insisting on an immediate attack on German-occupied France, that the United States would not seek a negotiated peace with Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999587–588-158">[156]</a> In February 1943, the Soviet Union turned the tide on the eastern front by winning a decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>. The Allies launched an <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">invasion of Sicily</a> in July 1943, capturing the island by the end of the following month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007575–576-130">[129]</a> During the campaign in Sicily, King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel III of Italy">Victor Emmanuel III of Italy</a> arrested Mussolini and replaced him with <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a>, who secretly negotiated a surrender with the Allies. Despite his earlier insistence on unconditional surrender, Roosevelt accepted <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">armistice</a> terms that allowed Badoglio to remain in power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999594–598-159">[157]</a> Germany quickly restored Mussolini to power and set up a puppet state in northern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007575–576-130">[129]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of mainland Italy</a> commenced in September 1943, but the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a> moved slowly until 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007581–582-160">[158]</a> Roosevelt consented to the campaign only on the condition that the British commit to an invasion of France in mid-1944, and the Allied Powers began to build up a force for that operation, diverting soldiers from the Italian Campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999594–598-159">[157]</a> To command the invasion of France, Roosevelt passed over Marshall and in favor of General Eisenhower.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007596–597-161">[159]</a> Roosevelt had originally wanted to appoint Marshall to the command, but top military leaders argued that Marshall was indispensable in his role in Washington.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999686–687-162">[160]</a> While building up forces in Britain, the Allied Powers engaged in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodyguard" title="Operation Bodyguard">Operation Bodyguard</a>, an elaborate campaign designed to mask where the Allies would land in Northwestern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999693–695-163">[161]</a> Eisenhower launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a>, a landing in the Northern French region of <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, on June 6, 1944. Supported by 12,000 aircraft that provided complete control of the air, and the largest naval force ever assembled, the Allies successfully established a beachhead in Normandy and then advanced further into France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007598–599-164">[162]</a> Though reluctant to back an unelected government, Roosevelt recognized Charles de Gaulle's <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> as the de facto government of France in July 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007613–617-165">[163]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Falaise_Pocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Falaise Pocket">Battle of the Falaise Pocket</a>, the Allies pushed Axis forces back towards Germany, capturing Paris in August 1944. That same month, the Allies launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a>, an invasion of Southern France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999730–732-166">[164]</a> Facing logistical issues, Allied forces attempted to secure the Belgian port of <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> before moving on Germany's <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr region</a>, but the failure of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Operation Market Garden</a> delayed the <a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Allied invasion of Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999734–737-167">[165]</a> In late 1944, Hitler began to amass forces for a major offensive designed to convince the United States and Britain to seek a negotiated peace. A surprise German attack in December 1944 marked the start of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Battle of the Bulge</a>, but the Allies were able to beat back the attack in the following weeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999739–742-168">[166]</a> The Allies advanced across the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> River in March 1945, and took control of the Ruhr and the <a href="/wiki/Saarland" title="Saarland">Saarland</a>, another key industrial region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999734,_745-169">[167]</a> By April 1945, Nazi resistance was crumbling in the face of advances by both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007630–631-170">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_theater">Pacific theater</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pacific theater">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></div> After sweeping across <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a> in the months following Pearl Harbor, Japan looked to further expand its territory, taking control of the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_(archipelago)" title="Solomon Islands (archipelago)">Solomon Islands</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>. In May 1942, American and Australian forces defeated the Japanese in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a>, prompting a Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">land campaign</a> across the island of New Guinea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999531–532-171">[169]</a> Seeking to seize control of a strategically placed island and destroy the U.S. fleet in the Pacific, Japan also launched an attack on the American-held <a href="/wiki/Midway_Atoll" title="Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999532–534,_536-172">[170]</a> With the assistance of the <a href="/wiki/Magic_(cryptography)" title="Magic (cryptography)">Magic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">cryptanalysis</a> project, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Chester_Nimitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Chester Nimitz">Chester Nimitz</a> led an American force that defeated the Japanese navy at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a>. The Battle of Midway resulted in the Japanese fleet's loss of four crucial aircraft carriers, and the battle marked a major reversal of fortune in the Pacific War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999537–543-173">[171]</a> In August 1942, the United States <a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Guadalcanal Campaign">launched an invasion</a> of the Japanese-held South Pacific island of <a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal" title="Guadalcanal">Guadalcanal</a> in the Solomon Islands; Japanese and American forces contested control of Guadalcanal until February 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999547,_553–560-174">[172]</a> After the Battle of Guadalcanal, the U.S. adopted an <a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging_(strategy)" title="Leapfrogging (strategy)">island hopping</a> strategy in order to avoid entrenched Japanese garrisons. By early 1944, Allied forces had established control over much of New Guinea and had landed on the adjacent island of <a href="/wiki/New_Britain" title="New Britain">New Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999562–564-175">[173]</a> While the <a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">campaign in the Southwest Pacific</a> continued, U.S. forces launched <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">an offensive in the Central Pacific</a>, beginning with the November 1943 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Battle of Tarawa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999609–610-176">[174]</a> The U.S. next captured Japanese positions in the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999810-177">[175]</a> In June 1944, the U.S. launched <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saipan" title="Battle of Saipan">an attack on Saipan</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>, gaining control of the island in early July at the cost of fourteen thousand casualties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999816–818-178">[176]</a> As the Battle of Saipan continued, the U.S. won a major naval victory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Philippine_Sea" title="Battle of the Philippine Sea">Battle of the Philippine Sea</a>, sinking three Japanese aircraft carriers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999819–820-179">[177]</a> In July 1944, Roosevelt met with Nimitz and MacArthur, where he authorized the continuation of the campaigns in the Southwest Pacific and the Central Pacific. MacArthur's force would continue its advance towards the Philippines, while the Central Pacific campaign would work its way towards Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999821-180">[178]</a> The U.S. <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte" title="Battle of Leyte">landed</a> on the Philippine island of <a href="/wiki/Leyte" title="Leyte">Leyte</a> in October 1944, provoking a Japanese naval response, as the Philippine Islands maintained a critical position on the Japanese oil supply route from the Dutch East Indies. The Japanese navy was decimated in the resulting <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Battle of Leyte Gulf</a>, which is sometimes claimed to be the "<a href="/wiki/Largest_naval_battle_in_history" title="Largest naval battle in history">largest naval battle in history</a>." MacArthur's forces secured control of Leyte in December and had largely re-taken control of the Philippines by March 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999822–829-181">[179]</a> The U.S. began launching <a href="/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan" title="Air raids on Japan">strategic bombing raids</a> on Japan from the Mariana Islands in November 1944, but Japan still controlled several islands that provided defense for the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_archipelago" title="Japanese archipelago">Japanese archipelago</a>. In February 1945, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">launched an invasion</a> of the well-defended island of <a href="/wiki/Iwo_Jima" title="Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a>, taking control of that island the following month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999829–831-182">[180]</a> On April 1, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">landed</a> on <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Island" title="Okinawa Island">Okinawa Island</a>, the largest of the <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu Islands</a>. The Japanese allowed the Americans to land on the island before launching a fierce attack that included <a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">kamikaze</a> suicide attacks by Japanese aircraft. Japanese forces on Okinawa held out until June 1945; U.S. forces suffered over 60,000 casualties during the operation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999831–834-183">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war_planning">Post-war planning</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Post-war planning">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yalta_Conference_(Churchill,_Roosevelt,_Stalin)_(B%26W).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/220px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/330px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/440px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2720" data-file-height="2239" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a>, FDR, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a> at Yalta, two months before Roosevelt's death</figcaption></figure> In late 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to meet to discuss strategy and post-war plans at the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a>, which marked Roosevelt's first face-to-face meeting with Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007587–588-184">[182]</a> At the conference, Britain and the United States committed to opening a second front against Germany in 1944, while Stalin committed to entering the war against Japan at an unspecified date.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015214–216-185">[183]</a> Roosevelt also privately indicated acceptance of Soviet control of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> and Soviet plans to <a href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_immediately_after_World_War_II" title="Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II">shift Poland's borders</a> to the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999677–679,_685-186">[184]</a> Stalin, meanwhile, committed to joining the war against Japan after the defeat of Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999681–682-187">[185]</a> Post-war plans increasingly came to the fore as the Allies won several major victories in 1944. The wartime economic boom and the experience of the Great Depression convinced many Americans of the need to lower trade barriers. Lend-Lease agreements included provisions for eliminating tariffs, and the U.S. especially desired the dismantlement of the British <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Preference" title="Imperial Preference">Imperial Preference</a> system. At the <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_Conference" title="Bretton Woods Conference">Bretton Woods Conference</a>, the Allies agreed to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>, which would provide for currency stabilization, and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, which would fund post-war rebuilding. Taking up the Wilsonian mantle, Roosevelt also pushed for the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, a permanent intergovernmental organization that would succeed the League of Nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008579–581-188">[186]</a> Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met for a second time at the February 1945 <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>. With the end of the war in Europe approaching, Roosevelt's primary focus was on convincing Stalin to enter the war against Japan; the Joint Chiefs had estimated that an <a href="/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">American invasion of Japan</a> would cause as many as one million American casualties. In return for the Soviet Union's entrance into the war against Japan, the Soviet Union was promised control of Asian territories such as <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakhalin Island">Sakhalin Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007623–624-189">[187]</a> With the Soviet Union in control of much of Eastern Europe by early 1945, Roosevelt had little leverage over Soviet actions in Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999801–802-190">[188]</a> He did not push for the immediate evacuation of Soviet soldiers from Poland, but he did win the issuance of the Declaration on Liberated Europe, which promised free elections in countries that had been occupied by Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007623–624-189">[187]</a> Against Soviet pressure, Roosevelt and Churchill refused to consent to imposing huge reparations and deindustrialization on Germany after the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015233–234-191">[189]</a> Roosevelt's role in the Yalta Conference has been controversial; critics charge that he naively trusted the Soviet Union to allow free elections in Eastern Europe, while supporters argue that there was little more that Roosevelt could have done for the Eastern European countries given the Soviet occupation and the need for cooperation with the Soviet Union during and after the war.<a href="#cite_note-jdeparle1-192">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-ebumiller1-193">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999807-194">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_the_United_Nations">Founding the United Nations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Founding the United Nations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Nations" title="History of the United Nations">History of the United Nations</a></div> At the Yalta Conference, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to the establishment of the United Nations, as well as the structure of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>, which would be charged with ensuring <a href="/wiki/International_security" title="International security">international peace and security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007623–624-189">[187]</a> The participants at Yalta also agreed that the United Nations would convene for the first time in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> in April 1945 in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">United Nations Conference on International Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999806-195">[193]</a> Roosevelt considered the United Nations to be his most important legacy. He provided continuous backstage political support inside the United States, and with Churchill and Stalin abroad. He made sure that leading Republicans were on board, especially Senators <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Vandenberg" title="Arthur Vandenberg">Arthur Vandenberg</a> of Michigan,<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warren_Austin" title="Warren Austin">Warren Austin</a> of Vermont.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> The Allies had agreed to the basic structure of the new body at the <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Conference" title="Dumbarton Oaks Conference">Dumbarton Oaks Conference</a> in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015214–216-185">[183]</a> The Big Four of the United States, Britain, Soviet Union and China would make the major decisions, with France added later to provide permanent members of the all-powerful Security Council. Each had a veto power, thus avoiding the fatal weakness of the League of Nations, which had theoretically been able order its members to act in defiance of their own parliaments.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Anti-imperialism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom-United_States_relations_in_World_War_II#India" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom-United States relations in World War II">United Kingdom-United States relations in World War II § India</a></div> British, French, and Dutch leaders all hoped to retain or reclaim their colonial possessions after the war. The U.S. was committed to granting independence to the Philippines following the end of the war, and Roosevelt frequently pressured Churchill to similarly commit to the independence of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, Burma, Malaya, and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999670-199">[197]</a> His motives included principled opposition to colonialism, practical concern for the outcome of the war, and the need to build support for the U.S. in a future independent India. Churchill was deeply committed to imperialism and pushed back hard. Because the U.S. needed British cooperation in India to support China, Roosevelt had to draw back on his anti-colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> That annoyed Indian nationalist leaders, though most of those leaders were in British prisons for the duration because they would not support the war against Japan.<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> Roosevelt also promised to return Chinese territories seized by Japan since 1895, and ended the practice of American <a href="/wiki/Extraterritoriality" title="Extraterritoriality">special rights</a> in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008569–578-203">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1944_election">1944 election</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: 1944 election">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Election_of_1944" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt § Election of 1944</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944 United States presidential election</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_elections" title="1944 United States elections">1944 United States elections</a>, <a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1944 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1944 Democratic Party presidential primaries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1944 Democratic National Convention">1944 Democratic National Convention</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1944.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/ElectoralCollege1944.svg/275px-ElectoralCollege1944.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/ElectoralCollege1944.svg/413px-ElectoralCollege1944.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/ElectoralCollege1944.svg/550px-ElectoralCollege1944.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>President Roosevelt defeated Republican <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a> in the 1944 presidential election.</figcaption></figure> Unlike 1940, Roosevelt openly sought re-election in 1944, and he faced little opposition for the Democratic nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999788–789-204">[202]</a> Roosevelt favored Henry Wallace or James Byrnes as his running mate in 1944, but Wallace was unpopular among conservatives in the party, while Byrnes was opposed by liberals and Catholics (Byrnes was an ex-Catholic). At the behest of party leaders, Roosevelt eventually got convinced to support and then accepted Missouri Senator <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>, who was acceptable to all factions of the political party. Truman was best known for his battle against corruption and inefficiency in wartime spending as the head of the <a href="/wiki/Truman_Committee" title="Truman Committee">Truman Committee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999788–791-205">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a>, the Governor of New York and an internationalist, was the odds-on favorite and easily won the nomination at the <a href="/wiki/1944_Republican_National_Convention" title="1944 Republican National Convention">1944 Republican National Convention</a>. The GOP lambasted FDR and his administration for domestic corruption, bureaucratic inefficiency, tolerance of Communism, and military blunders. Dewey largely avoided foreign policy issues because of the deep split in his party between internationalists and isolationists. Labor unions threw their all-out support behind Roosevelt. Roosevelt won the <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944 election</a> by a comfortable margin with 53.4% of the popular vote and 432 out of the 531 electoral votes.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_days_and_death">Final days and death</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Final days and death">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR-April-11-1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/FDR-April-11-1945.jpg/220px-FDR-April-11-1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/FDR-April-11-1945.jpg/330px-FDR-April-11-1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/FDR-April-11-1945.jpg/440px-FDR-April-11-1945.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2231" data-file-height="2763" /></a><figcaption>Last photograph of Roosevelt, taken the day before his death (April 11, 1945)</figcaption></figure> After returning to the United States from the Yalta Conference, Roosevelt addressed Congress on March 1,<a href="#cite_note-congress45-208">[206]</a> and many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity. Still in full command mentally, he firmly stated his primary commitment to a powerful United Nations: <blockquote>The Crimean Conference [Yalta] ought to spell the end of a system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the spheres of influence, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that have been tried for centuries—and have always failed. We propose to substitute for all these, a universal organization in which all peace-loving nations will finally have a chance to join.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek1995520-209">[207]</a> </blockquote> Roosevelt had been in declining health since at least 1940, and by 1944 he was noticeably fatigued. In March 1944, shortly after his 62nd birthday, he underwent testing and was found to have high blood pressure, <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, and coronary artery disease. His heart was failing and there was no cure. On March 29, 1945, Roosevelt went to the Little White House at Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the United Nations. On April 12, 1945, in <a href="/wiki/Warm_Springs,_Georgia" title="Warm Springs, Georgia">Warm Springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, while sitting for a portrait by Elizabeth Shoumatoff, Roosevelt said: "I have a terrific headache." He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was carried into his bedroom. The president's attending cardiologist, Howard Bruenn, diagnosed a massive intracerebral hemorrhage. At 3:35 p.m., Roosevelt died at the age of 63 years old.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970448,_600-210">[208]</a> Less than a month after his death, on May 8, the war in Europe ended. Harry Truman, who had become president upon Roosevelt's death, dedicated <a href="/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">Victory in Europe Day</a> and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory. Truman kept the flags across the U.S. at half-staff for the remainder of the 30-day mourning period, saying that his only wish was "that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to witness this day."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1992345,_381-211">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_reputation">Historical reputation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Historical reputation">edit</a>]</div> The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">liberalism</a> for coming generations.<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> Roosevelt's direct appeals to the public, legislative leadership, and executive reorganization dramatically changed the powers and responsibilities of the president.<a href="#cite_note-millercenterimpact-213">[211]</a> The New Deal Coalition that he established transformed national politics, ushering in the Fifth Party System.<a href="#cite_note-ciment6-214">[212]</a> Through his actions before and during World War II, Roosevelt firmly established a leadership role for the United States on the world stage. His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> Both during and after his terms, <a href="/wiki/List_of_critics_of_the_New_Deal" title="List of critics of the New Deal">critics of Roosevelt</a> questioned not only <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt">his policies and positions</a>, but even more so the consolidation of power in the White House at a time when dictators were taking over Europe and Asia.<a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a> Many of the New Deal programs were abolished during the war by FDR's opponents. The powerful new wartime agencies were set up to be temporary and expire at war's end.<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> The internment of Japanese-Americans is frequently criticized as a major stain on Roosevelt's record.<a href="#cite_note-jguo1-218">[216]</a> After Roosevelt's death, his widow Eleanor continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally. Truman replaced the Roosevelt cabinet members but the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a> persisted into the 1970s. Young New Dealer <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> as president in 1964–1966 revived the energy and liberalism of the mid-1930s.<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">polls of historians and political scientists</a>, Roosevelt is consistently ranked as one of the three greatest presidents alongside George Washington and Abraham Lincoln.<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a> Summing up Roosevelt's impact, historian <a href="/wiki/William_E._Leuchtenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="William E. Leuchtenburg">William E. Leuchtenburg</a> writes: <blockquote>Franklin Delano Roosevelt served as President from March 1933 to April 1945, the longest tenure in American history. He may have done more during those twelve years to change American society and politics than any of his predecessors in the White House, save Abraham Lincoln. Of course, some of this was the product of circumstances; the Great Depression and the rise of Germany and Japan were beyond FDR's control. But his responses to the challenges he faced made him a defining figure in American history.<a href="#cite_note-millercenterimpact-213">[211]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">First and second terms of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States#War,_prosperity,_and_depression" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a>[<a href="/wiki/MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS">broken anchor</a>] under FDR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> WPA workers were counted as unemployed by this set of statistics.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> The Germans stopped research on nuclear weapons in 1942, deciding it was too hard to make a bomb. Japan gave up its own small program in 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007580-133">[132]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCaro1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Caro, Robert A.</a> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathtopower00caro">The Path to Power</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Years_of_Lyndon_Johnson" title="The Years of Lyndon Johnson">The Years of Lyndon Johnson</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred A. 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Retrieved May 4, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Presidential+Leadership+%E2%80%93+The+Rankings&rft.date=2005-09-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.opinionjournal.com%2Fextra%2F%3Fid%3D110007243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2015/02/16/new-ranking-of-u-s-presidents-puts-lincoln-1-obama-18-kennedy-judged-most-over-rated/">"New ranking of U.S. presidents puts Lincoln at No. 1, Obama at 18; Kennedy judged most overrated"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. 16 February 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=New+ranking+of+U.S.+presidents+puts+Lincoln+at+No.+1%2C+Obama+at+18%3B+Kennedy+judged+most+overrated&rft.date=2015-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fblogs%2Fmonkey-cage%2Fwp%2F2015%2F02%2F16%2Fnew-ranking-of-u-s-presidents-puts-lincoln-1-obama-18-kennedy-judged-most-over-rated%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlter2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Alter" title="Jonathan Alter">Alter, Jonathan</a> (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/definingmomentfd00alte_0">The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope</a> (popular history), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-4600-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-4600-2"><bdi>978-0-7432-4600-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Defining+Moment%3A+FDR%27s+Hundred+Days+and+the+Triumph+of+Hope&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-4600-2&rft.aulast=Alter&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdefiningmomentfd00alte_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Black" title="Conrad Black">Black, Conrad</a> (2005) [2003], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lYVCi70HaigC">Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781586482824" title="Special:BookSources/9781586482824"><bdi>9781586482824</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt%3A+Champion+of+Freedom&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781586482824&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Conrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlYVCi70HaigC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"> 1276ppinterpretive detailed biography</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrands2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/H._W._Brands" title="H. W. Brands">Brands, HW</a> (2009), Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traitor+to+His+Class%3A+The+Privileged+Life+and+Radical+Presidency+of+Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Brands&rft.aufirst=HW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1956" class="citation book cs1">Burns, James MacGregor (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.87676">Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roosevelt%3A+The+Lion+and+the+Fox&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=James+MacGregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.87676&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"> scholarly biography to 1940; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.87676">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1970" class="citation book cs1">Burns, James MacGregor (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rooseveltsoldier0000burn">Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom</a>. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-178871-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-178871-2"><bdi>978-0-15-178871-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roosevelt%3A+The+Soldier+of+Freedom&rft.place=San+Diego&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-15-178871-2&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=James+MacGregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frooseveltsoldier0000burn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill, Winston</a> (1977). <a href="/wiki/The_Second_World_War_(book_series)" title="The Second World War (book series)">The Grand Alliance</a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41057-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41057-8"><bdi>978-0-395-41057-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Alliance&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-395-41057-8&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClouatre2012" class="citation book cs1">Clouatre, Douglas (2012). Presidents and their Justices. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Presidents+and+their+Justices&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Clouatre&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallek2017" class="citation book cs1">Dallek, Robert (2017). Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life. Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780698181724" title="Special:BookSources/9780698181724"><bdi>9780698181724</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%3A+A+Political+Life&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780698181724&rft.aulast=Dallek&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallek1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Dallek" title="Robert Dallek">Dallek, Robert</a> (1995). Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945. Oxford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt+and+American+Foreign+Policy%2C+1932%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Dallek&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"> a standard scholarly history; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklindrooseve00robe">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerman2012" class="citation book cs1">Herman, Arthur (2012). Freedom's Forge: How American Business produced victory in World War II. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6964-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6964-4"><bdi>978-1-4000-6964-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%27s+Forge%3A+How+American+Business+produced+victory+in+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6964-4&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1999" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, David M. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedomfromfeara00kenn">Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195038347" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195038347"><bdi>978-0195038347</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+from+Fear%3A+The+American+People+in+Depression+and+War%2C+1929-1945&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0195038347&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreedomfromfeara00kenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarrabee1987" class="citation cs2">Larrabee, Eric (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commanderinchief0000larr">Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-039050-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-039050-1"><bdi>978-0-06-039050-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commander+in+Chief%3A+Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt%2C+His+Lieutenants%2C+and+Their+War&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-06-039050-1&rft.aulast=Larrabee&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommanderinchief0000larr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">. Detailed history of how FDR handled the war.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeuchtenburg1963" class="citation book cs1">Leuchtenburg, William E. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklindrooseve00leuc">Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940</a>. Harpers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780061330254" title="Special:BookSources/9780061330254"><bdi>9780061330254</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt+and+the+New+Deal%2C+1932%E2%80%931940&rft.pub=Harpers&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=9780061330254&rft.aulast=Leuchtenburg&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffranklindrooseve00leuc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">, widely cited survey; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.213904">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeuchtenburg2015" class="citation book cs1">Leuchtenburg, William (2015). The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+President%3A+From+Teddy+Roosevelt+to+Bill+Clinton&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Leuchtenburg&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullough1992" class="citation book cs1">McCullough, David (1992). Truman. New York: Simon & Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Truman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCullough&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcJimsey2000" class="citation book cs1">McJimsey, George (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyoffran00mcji">The Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>. University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1012-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1012-9"><bdi>978-0-7006-1012-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1012-9&rft.aulast=McJimsey&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresidencyoffran00mcji&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyoffran00mcji">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSainsbury1994" class="citation book cs1">Sainsbury, Keith (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/churchillrooseve0000sain">Churchill and Roosevelt at War: The War They Fought and the Peace They Hoped to Make</a>. New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-7991-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-7991-0"><bdi>978-0-8147-7991-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Churchill+and+Roosevelt+at+War%3A+The+War+They+Fought+and+the+Peace+They+Hoped+to+Make&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-7991-0&rft.aulast=Sainsbury&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchurchillrooseve0000sain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Smith, Jean Edward</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fdr00smit">FDR</a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400061211" title="Special:BookSources/9781400061211"><bdi>9781400061211</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FDR&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781400061211&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jean+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffdr00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"> 858pp</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Bibliography of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Bibliography of Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographical">Biographical</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Biographical">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Black" title="Conrad Black">Black, Conrad</a> (2005) [2003]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lYVCi70HaigC">Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781586482824" title="Special:BookSources/9781586482824"><bdi>9781586482824</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt%3A+Champion+of+Freedom&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781586482824&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Conrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlYVCi70HaigC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"> 1276pp interpretive detailed biography; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklindelanoro00blac">online</a></li> <li>Burns, James MacGregor. Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom (1970), vol 2 covers the war years. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rooseveltsoldier0000burn">online</a></li> <li>Cook, Blanche Wiesen. Eleanor Roosevelt, Volume 3: The War Years and After, 1939-1962 (Penguin, 2017).</li> <li>Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life (Penguin, 2017).</li> <li>Freidel, Frank. (1991) Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny, complete biography to 1945. 710pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fRN2zUV5zNEC">excerpt</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklindroosevefre00frei">online</a></li> <li>Goodwin, Doris Kearns. No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (1995)</li> <li>Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times. (1985). encyclopedia</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin,_Doris_Kearns1994" class="citation book cs1">Goodwin, Doris Kearns (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hfv-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">No Ordinary Time: Franklin & Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781476750576" title="Special:BookSources/9781476750576"><bdi>9781476750576</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Ordinary+Time%3A+Franklin+%26+Eleanor+Roosevelt%3A+The+Home+Front+in+World+War+II&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9781476750576&rft.au=Goodwin%2C+Doris+Kearns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHfv-AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hamby, Alonzo. For the survival of democracy: Franklin Roosevelt and the world crisis of the 1930s (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forsurvivalofdem00hamb">online</a></li> <li>Leebaert, Derek. Unlikely Heroes: Franklin Roosevelt, His Four Lieutenants, and the World They Made (2023); on Perkins, Ickes, Wallace and Hopkins.</li> <li>Lehrman, Lewis E. Churchill, Roosevelt & company: studies in character and statecraft (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017).</li> <li>Lelyveld, Joseph. His final battle: The last months of Franklin Roosevelt (Vintage, 2017).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPederson2011" class="citation cs2">Pederson, William D (2011), A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Blackwell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Pederson&rft.aufirst=William+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">; 35 essays by scholars emphasizing historiography. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A260873056/EAIM?u=anon~questia&sid=EAIM&xid=9d1e3aa0">online</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r4-UnSYARiMC&dq=%22Chapter+One+FDR+Biographies%22&pg=PT23">excerpt at Google</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_homefront_studies">Scholarly homefront studies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Scholarly homefront studies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II#References" title="United States home front during World War II">United States home front during World War II § References</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>10 Eventful Years: 1937-1946 4 vol. Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947. Highly detailed encyclopedia of events. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%22Eventful%20Years%22%20%29%20AND%20date%3A%5B1947-01-01%20TO%201947-12-31%5D">oneline free</a></li> <li>Best, Michael H. "Industrial innovation and productive structures: The creation of America’s ‘Arsenal of democracy’." Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 48 (2019): 32-41.</li> <li>Brinkley, Douglas G. Rightful Heritage: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Land of America (2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0062089234/">excerpt</a>; On FDR's environmental and conservation beliefs & policies.</li> <li>Clarke, Jeanne Nienaber. Roosevelt's Warrior: Harold L. Ickes and the New Deal (1996)</li> <li>Engel, Jeffrey A., ed. The four freedoms: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the evolution of an American idea (Oxford University Press, 2015).</li> <li>Feagin, Joe R., and Kelly Riddell. "The State, Capitalism and World War II": The U.S. Case.' Armed Forces and Society (1990) 17#1 pp. 53–79.</li> <li>Holzer, Harold. The Presidents Vs. the Press: The Endless Battle Between the White House and the Media--from the Founding Fathers to Fake News (Dutton, 2020) pp. 167–192. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=siY6EAAAQBAJ&dq=HOLZER+PRESS+Harold&pg=PR15">online</a></li> <li>Jeffries John W. 'The "New" New Deal: FDR and American Liberalism, 1937–1945.' Political Science Quarterly (1990): 397–418. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2150824">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Klein, Maury. A Call to Arms: Mobilizing America for World War II (2013).</li> <li>Koistinen, Paul A. C. Arsenal of World War II: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1940–1945 (2004)</li> <li>Orren, Karen, and Stephen Skowronek. "Regimes and regime building in American government: A review of literature on the 1940s." Political Science Quarterly 113.4 (1998): 689–702. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658250">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPederson2011" class="citation book cs1">Pederson, William D (2011). A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444330168" title="Special:BookSources/9781444330168"><bdi>9781444330168</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781444330168&rft.aulast=Pederson&rft.aufirst=William+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">, 768 pages; essays by scholars covering major historiographical themes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A260873056/EAIM?u=anon~questia&sid=EAIM&xid=9d1e3aa0">online</a></li> <li>Resch, John Phillips, and D'Ann Campbell eds. Americans at War: Society, Culture, and the Homefront (vol 3 2004)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Sitkoff" class="citation book cs1">Sitkoff, Harvard (1978). A New Deal for Blacks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502418-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502418-0"><bdi>978-0-19-502418-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Deal+for+Blacks&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502418-0&rft.aulast=Sitkoff&rft.aufirst=Harvard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy_and_World_War_II">Foreign policy and World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Foreign policy and World War II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Andrew, Christopher. For the President’s Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush (1995), pp 75–148.</li> <li>Barron, Gloria J. Leadership in Crisis: FDR and the Path to Intervention (1973).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerthonPotts2007" class="citation book cs1">Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007). Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-creation of World War II Through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin. Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81538-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81538-6"><bdi>978-0-306-81538-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords%3A+An+Extraordinary+Re-creation+of+World+War+II+Through+the+Eyes+and+Minds+of+Hitler%2C+Churchill%2C+Roosevelt%2C+and+Stalin&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-306-81538-6&rft.aulast=Berthon&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Potts%2C+Joanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeschloss2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Beschloss, Michael</a> (2002). The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman, and the destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81027-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81027-0"><bdi>978-0-684-81027-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conquerors%3A+Roosevelt%2C+Truman%2C+and+the+destruction+of+Hitler%27s+Germany%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-684-81027-0&rft.aulast=Beschloss&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Feis, Herbert. Churchill Roosevelt Stalin: Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War they waged and the Peace they sought (1957) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.60213">online</a></li> <li>Feis, Herbert. China Tangle: The American Effort in China from Pearl Harbor to the Marshall Mission (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.136703/2015.136703.The-China-Tangle.pdf">ch 1-6 online</a></li> <li>Fenby, Jonathan. Alliance: the inside story of how Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill won one war and began another (Simon and Schuster, 2015), popular history.</li> <li>Gellman, Irwin. Secret Affairs: Franklin Roosevelt, Cordell Hull, and Sumner Welles (JHU Press, 2019).</li> <li>Heinrichs, Waldo H. Threshold of war: Franklin D. Roosevelt and American entry into World War II (Oxford UP, 1989) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thresholdofwar00wald">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring2008" class="citation book cs1">Herring, George C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr">From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507822-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507822-0"><bdi>978-0-19-507822-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Colony+to+Superpower%3B+U.S.+Foreign+Relations+Since+1776&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507822-0&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromcolonytosupe00herr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. FDR and the Creation of the UN (Yale UP, 2000).</li> <li>Hurstfield, Julian G. America and the French Nation, 1939-1945 (UNC Press Books, 2018).</li> <li>Johnstone, Andrew. "Spinning war and peace: Foreign relations and public relations on the eve of World War II." Journal of American Studies 53.1 (2019): 223–251. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10204289/files/18393632.pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan2011" class="citation cs2">Jordan, David M (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fdrdeweyelection0000jord">FDR, Dewey, and the Election of 1944</a>, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253356833" title="Special:BookSources/9780253356833"><bdi>9780253356833</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FDR%2C+Dewey%2C+and+the+Election+of+1944&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780253356833&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=David+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffdrdeweyelection0000jord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">.</li> <li>Lacey, James. The Washington War: FDR's Inner Circle and the Politics of Power That Won World War II (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/James-Lacey/dp/0345547586/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Marks, Frederick W. Wind over sand: the diplomacy of Franklin Roosevelt (1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/windoversanddipl00mark">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiscamble2007" class="citation book cs1">Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86244-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86244-8"><bdi>978-0-521-86244-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Roosevelt+to+Truman%3A+Potsdam%2C+Hiroshima%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86244-8&rft.aulast=Miscamble&rft.aufirst=Wilson+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Padgett, Philip. Advocating Overlord: The D-Day Strategy and the Atomic Bomb (U of Nebraska Press, 2018).</li> <li>Rauchway, Eric. The Money Makers: How Roosevelt and Keynes Ended the Depression, Defeated Fascism, and Secured a Prosperous Peace (Basic Books, 2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Money-Makers-Roosevelt-Depression-Prosperous/dp/0465049699/">excerpt</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherwood1949" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Sherwood" title="Robert E. Sherwood">Sherwood, Robert E</a> (1949), Roosevelt and Hopkins: an Intimate History, Harper, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fheb.00749">2027/heb.00749</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060138455" title="Special:BookSources/9780060138455"><bdi>9780060138455</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roosevelt+and+Hopkins%3A+an+Intimate+History&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fheb.00749&rft.isbn=9780060138455&rft.aulast=Sherwood&rft.aufirst=Robert+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">, Pulitzer Prize; published in England as The White House Papers Of Harry L. Hopkins Vol. I (1948); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.276121">online</a></li> <li>Steele Richard W. 'The Great Debate: Roosevelt, the Media, and the Coming of the War, 1940–1941.' Journal of American History 71 (1994): 69–92. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1899834">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Stefan, Charles G. "Yalta Revisited: An Update on the Diplomacy of FDR and His Wartime Summit Partners." Presidential Studies Quarterly 23.4 (1993): 755–770. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551152">online</a></li> <li>van Hoef, Yuri. "Interpreting affect between state leaders: Assessing the political friendship between Winston S. Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt." in Researching Emotions in International Relations (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018) pp. 51–73.</li> <li>Woolner, D., W. Kimball and D. Reynolds, eds. FDR's World: War, Peace, and Legacies (2008) essays by scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1137270314/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Woolner, David B. The Last 100 Days: FDR at War and at Peace (Basic Books, 2017).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoeneckeStoler2005" class="citation cs2">Doenecke, Justus D; Stoler, Mark A (2005), Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0847694150" title="Special:BookSources/978-0847694150"><bdi>978-0847694150</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debating+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%27s+Foreign+Policies%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0847694150&rft.aulast=Doenecke&rft.aufirst=Justus+D&rft.au=Stoler%2C+Mark+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">. 248 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn1948" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Flynn" title="John T. Flynn">Flynn, John T</a> (1948), The Roosevelt Myth</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roosevelt+Myth&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=John+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">, former FDR supporter condemns all aspects of FDR.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmiley1993" class="citation cs2">Smiley, Gene (1993), Rethinking the Great Depression (short essay)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+Great+Depression&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Smiley&rft.aufirst=Gene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988"> by <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a> economist who blames both Hoover and FDR.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/1946-01.pdf">Statistical Abstract of the United States</a> (PDF), Bureau of the Census, 1951</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statistical+Abstract+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=Bureau+of+the+Census&rft.date=1951&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.census.gov%2Fprod2%2Fstatcomp%2Fdocuments%2F1946-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">; full of useful data</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Bureau of the Census, 1976</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Statistics+of+the+United+States%3A+Colonial+Times+to+1970&rft.pub=Bureau+of+the+Census&rft.date=1976&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1975/compendia/hist_stats_colonial-1970.html">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantrilStrunk1951" class="citation cs2">Cantril, Hadley; Strunk, Mildred, eds. (1951), Public Opinion, 1935–1946</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+Opinion%2C+1935%E2%80%931946&rft.date=1951&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">, massive compilation of many public opinion polls from the USA; also some from Europe and Canada; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/publicopinion19300unse">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallup1972" class="citation cs2">Gallup, George Horace, ed. (1972), The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935–1971</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gallup+Poll%3B+Public+Opinion%2C+1935%E2%80%931971&rft.date=1972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">, 3 vol, summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galluppollpublic0001gall/page/n7/mode/2up">vol 1 online 1935-1948</a>.</li> <li>Leahy, Fleet Adm William D. I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman: Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time (2017).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewenheimLangley1975" class="citation cs2">Loewenheim, Francis L; <a href="/wiki/Harold_D._Langley" title="Harold D. Langley">Langley, Harold D</a>, eds. (1975), Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roosevelt+and+Churchill%3A+Their+Secret+Wartime+Correspondence&rft.date=1975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">.</li> <li>Nicholas, H. G. Washington despatches, 1941-1945: weekly political reports from the British Embassy (1985) 718 pages; unusually rich secret reports from British diplomats (especially <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>) analyzing American government and politics</li> <li>Reynolds. David, and Vladimir Pechatnov, eds. The Kremlin Letters: Stalin’s Wartime Correspondence with Churchill and Roosevelt (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Kremlin-Letters-Correspondence-Churchill-Roosevelt/dp/0300226829/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoosevelt1945" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt, Franklin Delano</a> (1945) [1938], Rosenman, Samuel Irving (ed.), The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt (public material only (no letters); covers 1928–1945), vol. 13 volumes</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Public+Papers+and+Addresses+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Roosevelt&rft.aufirst=Franklin+Delano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28franklin%20roosevelt%20public%20papers%29">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoosevelt1946" class="citation cs2">——— (1946), Zevin, BD (ed.), Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932–1945 (selected speeches)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nothing+to+Fear%3A+The+Selected+Addresses+of+Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt%2C+1932%E2%80%931945&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Roosevelt&rft.aufirst=Franklin+Delano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoosevelt2005" class="citation cs2">——— (2005) [1947], Taylor, Myron C (ed.), Wartime Correspondence Between President Roosevelt and Pope Pius XII (reprint), Prefaces by <a href="/wiki/Pius_XII" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius XII">Pius XII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a>, Kessinger Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-6654-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-6654-9"><bdi>978-1-4191-6654-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wartime+Correspondence+Between+President+Roosevelt+and+Pope+Pius+XII&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4191-6654-9&rft.aulast=Roosevelt&rft.aufirst=Franklin+Delano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%2C+third+and+fourth+terms" class="Z3988">.</li> <li>The Documentary History of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidency (47 vol. ed by George McJimsey; University Publications of America, 2001–2008.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170510090921/http://cisupa.proquest.com/ws_display.asp?filter=upa_intermediate&item_id=%7B312485BA-4146-4BD2-91D2-4314C14607CA%7D">table of contents</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt">Miller Center on the Presidency at U of Virginia</a>, brief articles on Roosevelt and his presidency</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Franklin_D._Roosevelt" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Template:Franklin D. 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Roosevelt</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">32nd</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1933–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_New_York" title="List of governors of New York">44th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">Governor of New York</a> (1929–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Assistant Secretary of the Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a> (1913–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_York_state_senators" title="List of New York state senators">New York State Senator</a> (1911–1913)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Presidency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Transition</a></li> <li>Inaugurations (<a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Second inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Third inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Fourth inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">4th)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">First and second terms</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Third and fourth terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:New_Deal" title="Template:New Deal">overview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_100_days_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="First 100 days of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">First 100 days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_New_Deal" title="Second New Deal">Second New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration" title="Federal Emergency Relief Administration">Federal Emergency Relief Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">Agricultural Adjustment Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Banking_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency Banking Act">Emergency Banking Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal-Aid_Highway_Act_of_1944" title="Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944">Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_and_Wildlife_Coordination_Act" title="Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act">Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act_of_1933" title="National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933">National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_Works_Administration" title="Public Works Administration">Public Works Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Recovery_Administration" title="National Recovery Administration">National Recovery Administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Youth_Administration" title="National Youth Administration">National Youth Administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Act" title="Social Security Act">Social Security Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_to_Families_with_Dependent_Children" title="Aid to Families with Dependent Children">Aid to Families with Dependent Children</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934" title="Communications Act of 1934">Communications Act of 1934</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_6102" title="Executive Order 6102">Monetary gold ownership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Reserve_Act" title="Gold Reserve Act">Gold Reserve Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_6814" title="Executive Order 6814">Silver seizure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_civil_rights" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt and civil rights">Record on civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Defense industry non-discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practice_Committee" title="Fair Employment Practice Committee">Fair Employment Practice Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9066" title="Executive Order 9066">Executive Orders 9066,</a><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9102" title="Executive Order 9102"> 9102</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_Relocation_Authority" title="War Relocation Authority">War Relocation Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">Japanese American internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_German_Americans" title="Internment of German Americans">German-American internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Italian_Americans" title="Internment of Italian Americans">Italian-American internment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownlow_Committee" title="Brownlow Committee">Brownlow Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States#History" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office of the President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G.I._Bill" title="G.I. Bill">G.I. Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cullen%E2%80%93Harrison_Act" title="Cullen–Harrison Act">Cullen–Harrison Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerich_Pact" title="Roerich Pact">Roerich Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms" title="Four Freedoms">Four Freedoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms_Monument" title="Four Freedoms Monument">Four Freedoms Monument</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Cabinet" title="Black Cabinet">Black Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson%27s_Birthday" title="Jefferson's Birthday">Jefferson's Birthday holiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Memorial" title="Jefferson Memorial">Jefferson Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">Judicial Court-Packing Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Cannabis policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">Cannabis policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="List of federal judges appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt">Federal Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone_Supreme_Court_nomination" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination">Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination">Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:FD_Roosevelt_cabinet" title="Template:FD Roosevelt cabinet">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_trust#Roosevelt's_"Brain_Trust"" title="Brain trust">"Brain Trust"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Dimes" title="March of Dimes">March of Dimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oval_Office#Modern_Oval_Office:_1934–present" title="Oval Office">Modern Oval Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunshine_Special_(automobile)" title="Sunshine Special (automobile)">Official car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Criticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franksgiving" title="Franksgiving">Franksgiving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt/Executive_orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Franklin Delano Roosevelt/Executive orders">Executive Orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Franklin Delano Roosevelt/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential Proclamations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">Presidential foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Nicaragua" title="United States occupation of Nicaragua">U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, 1912–1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">U.S. occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Neighbor_policy" title="Good Neighbor policy">Good Neighbor Policy (1933–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montevideo_Convention" title="Montevideo Convention">Montevideo Convention (1933)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treaty" title="Second London Naval Treaty">Second London Naval Treaty (1936)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABCD_line" title="ABCD line">ABCD line (1940)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Export_Control_Act" title="Export Control Act">Export Control Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyers-for-bases_deal" title="Destroyers-for-bases deal">Destroyers-for-bases deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Training_and_Service_Act_of_1940" title="Selective Training and Service Act of 1940">1940 Selective Service Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_note" title="Hull note">Hull note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Charter" title="Atlantic Charter">Atlantic Charter (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">Military history of the United States during World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Munitions_Assignments_Board" title="Combined Munitions Assignments Board">Combined Munitions Assignments Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Production_Board" title="War Production Board">War Production Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations (1942)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Conference" title="Dumbarton Oaks Conference">Dumbarton Oaks Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">World War II conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan#Roosevelt's_support_for_the_plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan support</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidential speeches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1932_Democratic_National_Convention#Roosevelt's_acceptance_speech" title="1932 Democratic National Convention">1932 Acceptance speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Club_Address" title="Commonwealth Club Address">Commonwealth Club Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Madison_Square_Garden_speech" title="1936 Madison Square Garden speech">Madison Square Garden speech</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms" title="Four Freedoms">Four Freedoms</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Infamy_speech" title="Day of Infamy speech">Day of Infamy speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal_of_Democracy" title="Arsenal of Democracy">Arsenal of Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Inaugural_address" title="First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">"...is fear itself"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireside_chats" title="Fireside chats">Fireside chats</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Look_to_Norway" title="Look to Norway">Look to Norway</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine_Speech" title="Quarantine Speech">Quarantine Speech</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_More_Abundant_Life" title="The More Abundant Life">The More Abundant Life</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1934_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1934 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address (1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1938 State of the Union Address">1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1939 State of the Union Address">1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1940 State of the Union Address">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms" title="Four Freedoms">1941 (Four Freedoms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">1944 (Second Bill of Rights)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1945_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1945 State of the Union Address">1945)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Early_life_and_marriage" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Early life, education, career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warm_Springs_Historic_District" title="Warm Springs Historic District">Warm Springs Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorship_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Governorship of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Governorship of New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_Plot" title="Business Plot">Business Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zangara#Assassination_attempt" title="Giuseppe Zangara">Assassination attempt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Electoral history of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1928_New_York_state_election" title="1928 New York state election">1928 New York state election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1930_New_York_state_election" title="1930 New York state election">1930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1920 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention, 1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Democratic_National_Convention#Impact" title="1924 Democratic National Convention">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1932 Democratic National Convention">1932</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1936 Democratic National Convention">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1944 Democratic National Convention">1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Happy_Days_Are_Here_Again#In_popular_culture" title="Happy Days Are Here Again">theme song</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Personal_life" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Early life and education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groton_School" title="Groton School">Groton School</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site">Springwood birthplace, home, and gravesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_House_(Harvard_College)" title="Adams House (Harvard College)">Adams House</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FDR_Suite_at_Adams_House,_Harvard_University" title="FDR Suite at Adams House, Harvard University">FDR Suite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Campobello_International_Park" title="Roosevelt Campobello International Park">Campobello home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralytic_illness_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Paralytic illness of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Paralytic illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_Cottage" title="Top Cottage">Top Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_White_House" title="Little White House">Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Bibliography of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statues_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="List of statues of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Statues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential Library and Museum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute" title="Roosevelt Institute">Roosevelt Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_Campus_Network" title="Roosevelt Institute Campus Network">Roosevelt Institute Campus Network</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Foundation" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation">Franklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial">Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Island" title="Roosevelt Island">Roosevelt Island</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Four_Freedoms_Park" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park">Four Freedoms Park</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Room" title="Roosevelt Room">White House Roosevelt Room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_for_American_Studies" title="Roosevelt Institute for American Studies">Roosevelt Institute for American Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_(CV-42)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42)">USS Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Roosevelt_(DDG-80)" title="USS Roosevelt (DDG-80)">USS Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms_Award" title="Four Freedoms Award">Four Freedoms Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms_(Rockwell)" title="Four Freedoms (Rockwell)">Four Freedoms paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfinished_portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Unfinished portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Unfinished portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_dime" title="Roosevelt dime">Roosevelt dime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27d_Rather_Be_Right" title="I'd Rather Be Right">I'd Rather Be Right 1937 musical</a></li> <li>Films <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Roosevelt_Story" title="The Roosevelt Story">The Roosevelt Story 1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunrise_at_Campobello" title="Sunrise at Campobello">Sunrise at Campobello 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin_(miniseries)" title="Eleanor and Franklin (miniseries)">Eleanor and Franklin 1976,</a> <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin:_The_White_House_Years" title="Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years">The White House Years 1977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House">Backstairs at the White House 1979 miniseries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II:_When_Lions_Roared" title="World War II: When Lions Roared">World War II: When Lions Roared 1997 miniseries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warm_Springs_(film)" title="Warm Springs (film)">Warm Springs 2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyde_Park_on_Hudson" title="Hyde Park on Hudson">Hyde Park on Hudson 2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Roosevelts_(miniseries)" title="The Roosevelts (miniseries)">The Roosevelts 2014 documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_First_Lady_(American_TV_series)" title="The First Lady (American TV series)">The First Lady 2022 miniseries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FDR_(miniseries)" title="FDR (miniseries)">FDR 2023 miniseries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memorials to Franklin D. Roosevelt">Other namesakes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family (<a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_family" title="Roosevelt family">Roosevelt</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Delano_family" title="Delano family">Delano</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Roosevelt_Halsted" title="Anna Roosevelt Halsted">Anna Roosevelt Halsted</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt" title="James Roosevelt">James Roosevelt II</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt_(general)" title="Elliott Roosevelt (general)">Elliott Roosevelt</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Jr." title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr.">Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr.</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Aspinwall_Roosevelt" title="John Aspinwall Roosevelt">John Aspinwall Roosevelt II</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt_I" title="James Roosevelt I">James Roosevelt I</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Roosevelt" title="Sara Roosevelt">Sara Ann Delano</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt_Roosevelt" title="James Roosevelt Roosevelt">James Roosevelt Roosevelt</a> (half-brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Roosevelt_(businessman)" title="Isaac Roosevelt (businessman)">Isaac Roosevelt</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Delano_Jr." title="Warren Delano Jr.">Warren Delano Jr.</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fala_(dog)" title="Fala (dog)">Fala</a> (family dog)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_(Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_dog)" title="Major (Franklin D. Roosevelt's dog)">Major</a> (family dog)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">← Herbert Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Category:Franklin D. Roosevelt">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_presidents" title="Template:US presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_presidents" title="Template talk:US presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidents of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents and presidencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="display:flex"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;flex:1;text-align:left;white-space:nowrap"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">1789–1797</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">1797–1801</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Presidency of Thomas Jefferson">1801–1809</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Madison" title="Presidency of James Madison">1809–1817</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Monroe" title="Presidency of James Monroe">1817–1825</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidency of John Quincy Adams">1825–1829</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">1829–1837</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Presidency of Martin Van Buren">1837–1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison#Presidency_(1841)" title="William Henry Harrison">1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Tyler" title="Presidency of John Tyler">1841–1845</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">1845–1849</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor#Presidency_(1849–1850)" title="Zachary Taylor">1849–1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Millard_Fillmore" title="Presidency of Millard Fillmore">1850–1853</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_Pierce" title="Presidency of Franklin Pierce">1853–1857</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">1857–1861</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">1861–1865</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">1865–1869</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">1869–1877</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">1877–1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield#Presidency_(1881)" title="James A. Garfield">1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">1881–1885</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#First_presidency_(1885–1889)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1885–1889</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">1889–1893</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#Second_presidency_(1893–1897)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1893–1897</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">1897–1901</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">1901–1909</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">1909–1913</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">1913–1921</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">1921–1923</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">1923–1929</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">1929–1933</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">1933–1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">1945–1953</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1953–1961</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">1961–1963</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">1963–1969</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">1969–1974</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">1974–1977</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">1977–1981</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">1981–1989</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">1989–1993</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">1993–2001</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">2001–2009</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">2009–2017</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">2021–present</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidency timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_Washington_presidency" title="Timeline of the George Washington presidency">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_McKinley_presidency" title="Timeline of the William McKinley presidency">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Theodore Roosevelt presidency">T. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_Howard_Taft_presidency" title="Timeline of the William Howard Taft presidency">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Warren_G._Harding_presidency" title="Timeline of the Warren G. Harding presidency">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Herbert_Hoover_presidency" title="Timeline of the Herbert Hoover presidency">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_presidency" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy presidency">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Richard_Nixon_presidency" title="Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Gerald_Ford_presidency" title="Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_presidency" title="Timeline of the Jimmy Carter presidency">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_presidency" title="Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Bill_Clinton_presidency" title="Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George W. Bush presidency">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Barack_Obama_presidency" title="Timeline of the Barack Obama presidency">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Donald_Trump_presidencies" title="Timeline of the Donald Trump presidencies">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Joe_Biden_presidency" title="Timeline of the Joe Biden presidency">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Presidents of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Democratic_Party" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#B0CEFF;;background:#3333FF; color:white"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Template:Democratic Party (United States)"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Template talk:Democratic Party (United States)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Democratic Party (United States)"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Democratic_Party" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#B0CEFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth Party System</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention" title="Democratic National Convention">National conventions</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets">presidential tickets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Democratic Party presidential primaries">presidential primaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election#Democratic_Party_nomination" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828 (None)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1832 Democratic National Convention">1832 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a>/<a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1835_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1835 Democratic National Convention">1835 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a>/<a href="/wiki/Richard_Mentor_Johnson" title="Richard Mentor Johnson">R. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1840_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1840 Democratic National Convention">1840 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a>/None</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1844_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1844 Democratic National Convention">1844 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">Polk</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_M._Dallas" title="George M. Dallas">Dallas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1848_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1848 Democratic National Convention">1848 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Cass</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_Orlando_Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="William Orlando Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1852_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1852 Democratic National Convention">1852 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_R._King" title="William R. King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1856_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1856 Democratic National Convention">1856 (Cincinnati)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_Democratic_National_Conventions" title="1860 Democratic National Conventions">1860 (Charleston/Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Douglas</a>/<a href="/wiki/Herschel_V._Johnson" title="Herschel V. Johnson">H. Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lane" title="Joseph Lane">Lane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">SD</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1864 Democratic National Convention">1864 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">McClellan</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_H._Pendleton" title="George H. Pendleton">Pendleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1868 Democratic National Convention">1868 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Seymour" title="Horatio Seymour">Seymour</a>/<a href="/wiki/Francis_Preston_Blair_Jr." title="Francis Preston Blair Jr.">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1872 Democratic National Convention">1872 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Greeley</a>/<a href="/wiki/B._Gratz_Brown" title="B. Gratz Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1876 Democratic National Convention">1876 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Tilden</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1880 Democratic National Convention">1880 (Cincinnati)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott_Hancock" title="Winfield Scott Hancock">Hancock</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_Hayden_English" title="William Hayden English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1884 Democratic National Convention">1884 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1888 Democratic National Convention">1888 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a>/<a href="/wiki/Allen_G._Thurman" title="Allen G. Thurman">Thurman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1892 Democratic National Convention">1892 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a>/<a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_I" title="Adlai Stevenson I">Stevenson I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1896_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1896 Democratic National Convention">1896 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">W. Bryan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Arthur_Sewall" title="Arthur Sewall">Sewall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1900 Democratic National Convention">1900 (Kansas City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">W. Bryan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_I" title="Adlai Stevenson I">Stevenson I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1904 Democratic National Convention">1904 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker" title="Alton B. Parker">Parker</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_G._Davis" title="Henry G. Davis">H. Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1908 Democratic National Convention">1908 (Denver)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">W. Bryan</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_W._Kern" title="John W. Kern">Kern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1912 Democratic National Convention">1912 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Marshall" title="Thomas R. Marshall">Marshall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1912 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1916 Democratic National Convention">1916 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Marshall" title="Thomas R. Marshall">Marshall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1916_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1916 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1920 Democratic National Convention">1920 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_M._Cox" title="James M. Cox">Cox</a>/<a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1920 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1924 Democratic National Convention">1924 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">J. Davis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Bryan" title="Charles W. Bryan">C. Bryan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1924_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1924 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1928 Democratic National Convention">1928 (Houston)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Smith</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joseph_T._Robinson" title="Joseph T. Robinson">Robinson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1928_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1928 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1932 Democratic National Convention">1932 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">Garner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1932_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1932 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1936 Democratic National Convention">1936 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">Garner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1936 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">1940 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Wallace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1940 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1944 Democratic National Convention">1944 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1944 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1948 Democratic National Convention">1948 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley">Barkley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1948 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1952 Democratic National Convention">1952 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Stevenson II</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Sparkman" title="John Sparkman">Sparkman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1956 Democratic National Convention">1956 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Stevenson II</a>/<a href="/wiki/Estes_Kefauver" title="Estes Kefauver">Kefauver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1960 Democratic National Convention">1960 (Los Angeles)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">L. Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1964 Democratic National Convention">1964 (Atlantic City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">L. Johnson</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Humphrey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1964 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1968 Democratic National Convention">1968 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Humphrey</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edmund_Muskie" title="Edmund Muskie">Muskie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1972 Democratic National Convention">1972 (Miami Beach)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">McGovern</a>/(<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eagleton" title="Thomas Eagleton">Eagleton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sargent_Shriver" title="Sargent Shriver">Shriver</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1972_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1976 Democratic National Convention">1976 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a>/<a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Mondale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1976_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1976 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1980 Democratic National Convention">1980 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a>/<a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Mondale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1984 Democratic National Convention">1984 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Mondale</a>/<a href="/wiki/Geraldine_Ferraro" title="Geraldine Ferraro">Ferraro</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1988 Democratic National Convention">1988 (Atlanta)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Dukakis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Bentsen" title="Lloyd Bentsen">Bentsen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1988_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1992 Democratic National Convention">1992 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">B. Clinton</a>/<a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Gore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1996 Democratic National Convention">1996 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">B. Clinton</a>/<a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Gore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1996_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1996 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2000 Democratic National Convention">2000 (Los Angeles)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Gore</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joe_Lieberman" title="Joe Lieberman">Lieberman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2000 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2004 Democratic National Convention">2004 (Boston)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">Kerry</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Edwards" title="John Edwards">Edwards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2004_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2004 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2008 Democratic National Convention">2008 (Denver)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2012 Democratic National Convention">2012 (Charlotte)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2012 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2016 Democratic National Convention">2016 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">H. Clinton</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tim_Kaine" title="Tim Kaine">Kaine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2020 Democratic National Convention">2020 (Milwaukee/other locations)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Harris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2024 Democratic National Convention">2024 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Harris</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tim_Walz" title="Tim Walz">Walz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2024 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">Presidential</a> <a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">administrations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a> (1829–1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Presidency of Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a> (1837–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">Polk</a> (1845–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_Pierce" title="Presidency of Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a> (1853–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">Buchanan</a> (1857–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">A. Johnson</a> (1868–1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a> (1885–1889; 1893–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a> (1913–1921)</li> <li>Roosevelt (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">1933–1941</a>; <a class="mw-selflink selflink">1941–1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Truman</a> (1945–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a> (1961–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">L. B. Johnson</a> (1963–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">Carter</a> (1977–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">Clinton</a> (1993–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">Obama</a> (2009–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">Biden</a> (2021–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">U.S. House leaders</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the United States House of Representatives">Speakers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/House_Democratic_Caucus" title="House Democratic Caucus">Caucus chairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Stevenson" title="Andrew Stevenson">A. Stevenson</a> (1827–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bell_(Tennessee_politician)" title="John Bell (Tennessee politician)">Bell</a> (1834–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">Polk</a> (1835–1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Winston_Jones" title="John Winston Jones">J. W. Jones</a> (1843–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Davis" title="John Wesley Davis">Davis</a> (1845–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_Cobb" title="Howell Cobb">Cobb</a> (1849–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linn_Boyd" title="Linn Boyd">Boyd</a> (1851–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Jones_(Tennessee_politician)" title="George Washington Jones (Tennessee politician)">G. W. Jones</a> (1855–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawrence_Orr" title="James Lawrence Orr">Orr</a> (1857–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_S._Houston" title="George S. Houston">Houston</a> (1859–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Niblack" title="William E. Niblack">Niblack</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Randall" title="Samuel J. Randall">Randall</a> (1869–1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Niblack" title="William E. Niblack">Niblack</a> (1873–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Kerr" title="Michael C. Kerr">Kerr</a> (1875–1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Randall" title="Samuel J. Randall">Randall</a> (1876–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Carlisle" title="John G. Carlisle">Carlisle</a> (1883–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Holman" title="William S. Holman">Holman</a> (1889–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Frederick_Crisp" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Frederick Crisp">Crisp</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_B._Culberson" title="David B. Culberson">D. B. Culberson</a> (1895–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_D._Richardson" title="James D. Richardson">Richardson</a> (1897–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sharp_Williams" title="John Sharp Williams">Williams</a> (1903–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_Clark" title="Champ Clark">Clark</a> (1909–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Kitchin" title="Claude Kitchin">Kitchin</a> (1921–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finis_J._Garrett" title="Finis J. Garrett">Garrett</a> (1923–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">Garner</a> (1929–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Rainey" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Thomas Rainey">Rainey</a> (1933–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Byrns" title="Jo Byrns">Byrns</a> (1935–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Bankhead" title="William B. Bankhead">Bankhead</a> (1936–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Rayburn" title="Sam Rayburn">Rayburn</a> (1940–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._McCormack" title="John W. McCormack">McCormack</a> (1962–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Albert" title="Carl Albert">Albert</a> (1971–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_O%27Neill" title="Tip O'Neill">O'Neill</a> (1977–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Wright" title="Jim Wright">Wright</a> (1987–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Foley" title="Tom Foley">Foley</a> (1989–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gephardt" title="Dick Gephardt">Gephardt</a> (1995–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi" title="Nancy Pelosi">Pelosi</a> (2003–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakeem_Jeffries" title="Hakeem Jeffries">Jeffries</a> (2023–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">U.S. Senate leaders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Senate_Democratic_Caucus" title="Senate Democratic Caucus">Caucus chairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Stevenson" title="John W. Stevenson">J. W. Stevenson</a> (1873–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Wallace" title="William A. Wallace">Wallace</a> (1877–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._Pendleton" title="George H. Pendleton">Pendleton</a> (1881–1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Beck" title="James B. Beck">Beck</a> (1885–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Gorman" title="Arthur P. Gorman">Gorman</a> (1890–1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Turpie" title="David Turpie">Turpie</a> (1898–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Jones" title="James K. Jones">J. K. Jones</a> (1899–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Gorman" title="Arthur P. Gorman">Gorman</a> (1903–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._C._S._Blackburn" title="J. C. S. Blackburn">Blackburn</a> (1906–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Culberson" title="Charles A. Culberson">C. A. Culberson</a> (1907–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernando_Money" title="Hernando Money">Money</a> (1909–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Martin" title="Thomas S. Martin">Martin</a> (1911–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Kern" title="John W. Kern">Kern</a> (1913–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Martin" title="Thomas S. Martin">Martin</a> (1917–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Hitchcock" title="Gilbert Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a> (1919–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Underwood" title="Oscar Underwood">Underwood</a> (1920–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_T._Robinson" title="Joseph T. Robinson">Robinson</a> (1923–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley">Barkley</a> (1937–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_W._Lucas" title="Scott W. Lucas">Lucas</a> (1949–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_McFarland" title="Ernest McFarland">McFarland</a> (1951–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Johnson</a> (1953–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Mansfield" title="Mike Mansfield">Mansfield</a> (1961–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Byrd" title="Robert Byrd">Byrd</a> (1977–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_J._Mitchell" title="George J. Mitchell">Mitchell</a> (1989–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Daschle" title="Tom Daschle">Daschle</a> (1995–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Reid" title="Harry Reid">Reid</a> (2005–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Schumer</a> (2017–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Chairs of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee" title="Democratic National Committee">DNC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_F._Hallett" title="Benjamin F. Hallett">Hallett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Milligan_McLane" title="Robert Milligan McLane">McLane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Allen_Smalley" title="David Allen Smalley">Smalley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Belmont" title="August Belmont">Belmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Schell" title="Augustus Schell">Schell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abram_Hewitt" title="Abram Hewitt">Hewitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Barnum" title="William Barnum">Barnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_S._Brice" title="Calvin S. Brice">Brice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Harrity" title="William F. Harrity">Harrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Jones" title="James K. Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taggart" title="Thomas Taggart">Taggart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_E._Mack" title="Norman E. Mack">Mack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._McCombs" title="William F. McCombs">McCombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vance_C._McCormick" title="Vance C. McCormick">McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Stille_Cummings" title="Homer Stille Cummings">Cummings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_White_(Ohio_politician)" title="George White (Ohio politician)">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clem_L._Shaver" title="Clem L. Shaver">Shaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Raskob" title="John J. Raskob">Raskob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farley" title="James Farley">Farley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_J._Flynn" title="Edward J. Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_C._Walker" title="Frank C. Walker">Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Hannegan" title="Robert E. Hannegan">Hannegan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_McGrath" title="J. Howard McGrath">McGrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Boyle" title="William M. Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_E._McKinney" title="Frank E. McKinney">McKinney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Mitchell_(politician)" title="Stephen A. Mitchell (politician)">Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Butler_(lawyer)" title="Paul Butler (lawyer)">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Jackson" title="Henry M. Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Moran_Bailey" title="John Moran Bailey">Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_O%27Brien" title="Larry O'Brien">O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_R._Harris" title="Fred R. Harris">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_O%27Brien" title="Larry O'Brien">O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Westwood_(politician)" title="Jean Westwood (politician)">Westwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Strauss" title="Robert S. Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Curtis" title="Kenneth M. Curtis">Curtis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Coyle_White" title="John Coyle White">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Manatt" title="Charles Manatt">Manatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_G._Kirk" title="Paul G. Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Brown" title="Ron Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Wilhelm" title="David Wilhelm">Wilhelm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debra_DeLee" title="Debra DeLee">DeLee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Dodd" title="Chris Dodd">Dodd</a>/<a href="/wiki/Donald_Fowler" title="Donald Fowler">Fowler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Romer" title="Roy Romer">Romer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Steven_Grossman_(politician)" title="Steven Grossman (politician)">Grossman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Rendell" title="Ed Rendell">Rendell</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joe_Andrew" title="Joe Andrew">Andrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_McAuliffe" title="Terry McAuliffe">McAuliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Dean" title="Howard Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Kaine" title="Tim Kaine">Kaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debbie_Wasserman_Schultz" title="Debbie Wasserman Schultz">Wasserman Schultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Perez" title="Tom Perez">Perez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaime_Harrison" title="Jaime Harrison">Harrison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_parties_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="List of state parties of the Democratic Party (United States)">State and territorial parties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Democratic_Party" title="Alabama Democratic Party">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Democratic_Party" title="Alaska Democratic Party">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Democratic_Party" title="Arizona Democratic Party">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Arkansas" title="Democratic Party of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Democratic_Party" title="California Democratic Party">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Democratic_Party" title="Colorado Democratic Party">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Connecticut" title="Democratic Party of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Democratic_Party" title="Delaware Democratic Party">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Democratic_Party" title="Florida Democratic Party">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Georgia" title="Democratic Party of Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Hawaii" title="Democratic Party of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Democratic_Party" title="Idaho Democratic Party">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Illinois" title="Democratic Party of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Democratic_Party" title="Indiana Democratic Party">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_Democratic_Party" title="Iowa Democratic Party">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_Democratic_Party" title="Kansas Democratic Party">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_Democratic_Party" title="Kentucky Democratic Party">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Democratic_Party" title="Louisiana Democratic Party">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_Democratic_Party" title="Maine Democratic Party">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_Democratic_Party" title="Maryland Democratic Party">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Democratic_Party" title="Massachusetts Democratic Party">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Democratic_Party" title="Michigan Democratic Party">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Democratic%E2%80%93Farmer%E2%80%93Labor_Party" title="Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Democratic Party">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Democratic_Party" title="Missouri Democratic Party">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_Democratic_Party" title="Montana Democratic Party">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Democratic_Party" title="Nebraska Democratic Party">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Democratic_Party" title="Nevada Democratic Party">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Democratic_Party" title="New Hampshire Democratic Party">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Democratic_State_Committee" title="New Jersey Democratic State Committee">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_New_Mexico" title="Democratic Party of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Democratic_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State Democratic Committee">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Democratic_Party" title="North Carolina Democratic Party">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota_Democratic%E2%80%93Nonpartisan_League_Party" title="North Dakota Democratic–Nonpartisan League Party">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_Democratic_Party" title="Ohio Democratic Party">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Democratic_Party" title="Oklahoma Democratic Party">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Oregon" title="Democratic Party of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Democratic_Party" title="Pennsylvania Democratic Party">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Democratic_Party" title="Rhode Island Democratic Party">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Democratic_Party" title="South Carolina Democratic Party">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_Democratic_Party" title="South Dakota Democratic Party">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Democratic_Party" title="Tennessee Democratic Party">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Democratic_Party" title="Texas Democratic Party">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_Democratic_Party" title="Utah Democratic Party">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_Democratic_Party" title="Vermont Democratic Party">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Virginia" title="Democratic Party of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_State_Democratic_Party" title="Washington State Democratic Party">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_Democratic_Party" title="West Virginia Democratic Party">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Wisconsin" title="Democratic Party of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyoming_Democratic_Party" title="Wyoming Democratic Party">Wyoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Samoa_Democratic_Party" title="American Samoa Democratic Party">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Democratic_State_Committee" title="District of Columbia Democratic State Committee">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Guam" title="Democratic Party of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Northern_Mariana_Islands)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Party (Northern Mariana Islands)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Puerto_Rico)" title="Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Democratic Party of the Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democrats_Abroad" title="Democrats Abroad">Democrats Abroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)_organizations" title="Democratic Party (United States) organizations">Affiliated groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Congress</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Democratic_Caucus" title="Senate Democratic Caucus">Senate Caucus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Democratic_Policy_Committee" title="United States Senate Democratic Policy Committee">Policy Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Democratic_Steering_and_Outreach_Committee" title="United States Senate Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee">Steering and Outreach Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_Democratic_Caucus" title="House Democratic Caucus">House Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Democratic Party (United States)">Factions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Dog_Coalition" title="Blue Dog Coalition">Blue Dog Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Progressive_Caucus" title="Congressional Progressive Caucus">Congressional Progressive Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_Democrats" title="Justice Democrats">Justice Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Democrat_Coalition" title="New Democrat Coalition">New Democrat Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_Solvers_Caucus" title="Problem Solvers Caucus">Problem Solvers Caucus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Fundraising</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Attorneys_General_Association" title="Democratic Attorneys General Association">Democratic Attorneys General Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Congressional_Campaign_Committee" title="Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee">Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Governors_Association" title="Democratic Governors Association">Democratic Governors Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Legislative_Campaign_Committee" title="Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee">Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Senatorial_Campaign_Committee" title="Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee">Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Democratic_Mayors" title="National Conference of Democratic Mayors">National Conference of Democratic Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Redistricting_Committee" title="National Democratic Redistricting Committee">National Democratic Redistricting Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Sectional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_Democrats_of_America" title="College Democrats of America">College Democrats of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democrats_Abroad" title="Democrats Abroad">Democrats Abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Democratic_Women" title="National Federation of Democratic Women">National Federation of Democratic Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Democrats" title="Stonewall Democrats">Stonewall Democrats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Young_Democrats" title="Stonewall Young Democrats">Stonewall Young Democrats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Democrats_of_America" title="Young Democrats of America">Young Democrats of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_School_Democrats_of_America" title="High School Democrats of America">High School Democrats of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Democratic Party presidential primaries">Primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_candidates" title="List of United States Democratic Party presidential candidates">Presidential candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_presidential_debates" title="Democratic Party presidential debates">Debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superdelegate" title="Superdelegate">Superdelegate</a></li> <li>Chairmanship elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_Democratic_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2005 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Democratic_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2017 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Democratic_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2021 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Democratic_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2025 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election">2025</a></li></ul></li> <li>House caucus leadership elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2006_United_States_House_of_Representatives_Democratic_Caucus_leadership_election" title="2006 United States House of Representatives Democratic Caucus leadership election">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_United_States_House_of_Representatives_Democratic_Caucus_leadership_election" title="2018 United States House of Representatives Democratic Caucus leadership election">2018</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weekly_Democratic_Address" title="Weekly Democratic Address">Weekly Democratic Address</a></li></ul> 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