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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Arms_sales_to_Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_few_arms_sales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_few_arms_sales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 First few arms sales </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_few_arms_sales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modifications_in_plans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modifications_in_plans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Modifications in plans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modifications_in_plans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_dealings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_dealings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Subsequent dealings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_dealings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_and_scandal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_and_scandal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Discovery and scandal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_and_scandal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tower_Commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tower_Commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Tower Commission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tower_Commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congressional_committees_investigating_the_affair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congressional_committees_investigating_the_affair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Congressional committees investigating the affair </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congressional_committees_investigating_the_affair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indictments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indictments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Indictments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indictments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-George_H._W._Bush's_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_H._W._Bush's_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 George H. W. Bush's involvement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_H._W._Bush's_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pardons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pardons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Pardons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pardons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_interpretations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_interpretations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Modern interpretations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_interpretations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reports_and_documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reports_and_documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Reports and documents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reports_and_documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Iran–Contra affair</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" > 38 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="إيران كونترا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إيران كونترا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ran%E2%80%93Kontras_qalmaqal%C4%B1" title="İran–Kontras qalmaqalı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İran–Kontras qalmaqalı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Іран-контрас – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іран-контрас" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Иран-Контра – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Иран-Контра" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Contra" title="Iran-Contra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Iran-Contra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Af%C3%A9ra_%C3%8Dr%C3%A1n-Contras" title="Aféra Írán-Contras – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aféra Írán-Contras" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Contra-skandalen" title="Iran-Contra-skandalen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Iran-Contra-skandalen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Contra-Aff%C3%A4re" title="Iran-Contra-Affäre – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Iran-Contra-Affäre" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%8A%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD-%CE%9A%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Υπόθεση Ίραν-Κόντρας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υπόθεση Ίραν-Κόντρας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ir%C3%A1n-Contra" title="Irán-Contra – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Irán-Contra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Contra" title="Iran-Contra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Iran-Contra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ماجرای مک‌فارلین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماجرای مک‌فارلین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affaire_Iran-Contra" title="Affaire Iran-Contra – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Affaire Iran-Contra" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%9E%80-%EC%BD%98%ED%8A%B8%EB%9D%BC_%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4" title="이란-콘트라 사건 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이란-콘트라 사건" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afera_Iran-Contra" title="Afera Iran-Contra – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Afera Iran-Contra" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skandal_Iran_Contra" title="Skandal Iran Contra – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Skandal Iran Contra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dran-Kontrahneyksli%C3%B0" title="Íran-Kontrahneykslið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Íran-Kontrahneykslið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irangate" title="Irangate – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Irangate" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9F-%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A1" title="פרשת איראן-קונטראס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרשת איראן-קונטראס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ირან-კონტრას სკანდალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ირან-კონტრას სკანდალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Contra-affaire" title="Iran-Contra-affaire – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Iran-Contra-affaire" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="イラン・コントラ事件 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イラン・コントラ事件" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Contras-skandalen" title="Iran-Contras-skandalen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Iran-Contras-skandalen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%D9%80%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87" title="د ایران پـر خلاف معامله – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ایران پـر خلاف معامله" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afera_Iran-Contras" title="Afera Iran-Contras – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Afera Iran-Contras" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caso_Ir%C3%A3-Contras" title="Caso Irã-Contras – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Caso Irã-Contras" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%E2%80%94_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Иран — контрас – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иран — контрас" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Contra_affair" title="Iran-Contra affair – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Iran-Contra affair" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Iran–Contra affair" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afera_Iran-Contra" title="Afera Iran-Contra – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Afera Iran-Contra" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%A8%DA%95%D9%88%DA%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="ئابڕوچوونی ئێران-کۆنترا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئابڕوچوونی ئێران-کۆنترا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Афера Иран-Контра – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Афера Иран-Контра" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Kontra_afera" title="Iran-Kontra afera – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Iran-Kontra afera" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Contra-skandaali" title="Iran-Contra-skandaali – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Iran-Contra-skandaali" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contras-aff%C3%A4ren" title="Iran–Contras-affären – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Iran–Contras-affären" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ran-Kontra_skandal%C4%B1" title="İran-Kontra skandalı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İran-Kontra skandalı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Іран-контрас – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Iran–Contra affair</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">end of the Cold War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_aides_on_Iran-Contra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_aides_on_Iran-Contra.jpg/240px-President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_aides_on_Iran-Contra.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_aides_on_Iran-Contra.jpg/360px-President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_aides_on_Iran-Contra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_aides_on_Iran-Contra.jpg/480px-President_Ronald_Reagan_meets_with_aides_on_Iran-Contra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2674" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Reagan (on the far right) meets with (left to right) Secretary of Defense <a href="/wiki/Caspar_Weinberger" title="Caspar Weinberger">Caspar Weinberger</a>, Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">George Shultz</a>, Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Ed_Meese" class="mw-redirect" title="Ed Meese">Ed Meese</a>, and Chief of Staff <a href="/wiki/Donald_Regan" title="Donald Regan">Donald Regan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">20 August 1985 (1985-08-20) – 4 March 1987 (1987-03-04)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Also known as</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">Iran–Contra scandal, Iran Initiative, Iran–Contra</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Participants</th><td class="infobox-data attendee" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan#Administration" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Robert_McFarlane_(American_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert McFarlane (American politician)">Robert McFarlane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caspar_Weinberger" title="Caspar Weinberger">Caspar Weinberger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manucher_Ghorbanifar" title="Manucher Ghorbanifar">Manucher Ghorbanifar</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Poindexter" title="John Poindexter">John Poindexter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Antonio_Noriega" class="mw-redirect" title="Manuel Antonio Noriega">Manuel Antonio Noriega</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The Iran–Contra affair (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: ماجرای ایران-کنترا; <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: Caso Irán-Contra), also referred to as the Iran–Contra scandal, the Iran Initiative, or simply Iran–Contra, was a <a href="/wiki/Political_scandal" title="Political scandal">political scandal</a> in the United States that centered around the revelation that senior officials in the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan administration</a> secretly <a href="/wiki/Arms_trafficking" title="Arms trafficking">facilitated the sale of arms</a> to <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Republic of Iran">Iran</a> from 1981 to 1986. As Iran was subject to an <a href="/wiki/Arms_embargo" title="Arms embargo">arms embargo</a> at the time of the scandal, the sale of arms was deemed <a href="/wiki/Illicit_trade" title="Illicit trade">illegal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The administration hoped to use the proceeds of the arms sale to fund the <a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a>, an anti-<a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">Sandinista</a> rebel group in <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Boland_Amendment" title="Boland Amendment">Boland Amendment</a>, further funding of the Contras by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">legislative</a> appropriations was prohibited by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, but the Reagan administration figured out a <a href="/wiki/Loophole" title="Loophole">loophole</a> by secretively using non-appropriated funds instead. The administration's justification for the arms shipments was that they were part of an operation to free <a href="/wiki/Lebanon_hostage_crisis" title="Lebanon hostage crisis">seven U.S. hostages</a> being held in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a>, an Islamist paramilitary group with Iranian ties connected to the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps" title="Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps">Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-reagan_no-bbc-2">[2]</a> The idea to exchange arms for hostages was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Manucher_Ghorbanifar" title="Manucher Ghorbanifar">Manucher Ghorbanifar</a>, an expatriate Iranian arms dealer.<a href="#cite_note-plain-and-simple-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Some within the Reagan administration hoped the sales would influence Iran to get Hezbollah to release the hostages. After the Lebanese magazine <a href="/wiki/Ash-Shiraa" title="Ash-Shiraa">Ash-Shiraa</a> reported on the weapon dealings in November 1986, it broke international news, causing Reagan to appear on national television. He claimed that while the weapons transfers had indeed occurred, the U.S. did not trade arms for hostages.<a href="#cite_note-reaganspeech-6">[6]</a> The investigation was impeded when large volumes of documents relating to the affair were destroyed or withheld from investigators by Reagan administration officials.<a href="#cite_note-Excerpts_from_Iran-Contra_Report-7">[7]</a> In March 1987, Reagan made a further nationally televised address, saying he was taking full responsibility for the affair and stating that "what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages."<a href="#cite_note-reaganspeech-tower-8">[8]</a> The affair was investigated by Congress and by the three-person, Reagan-appointed <a href="/wiki/Tower_Commission" title="Tower Commission">Tower Commission</a>. Neither investigation found evidence that President Reagan himself knew of the extent of the multiple programs.<a href="#cite_note-reagan_no-bbc-2">[2]</a> Additionally, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Deputy_Attorney_General" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Deputy Attorney General">U.S. Deputy Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Walsh" title="Lawrence Walsh">Lawrence Walsh</a> was appointed <a href="/wiki/United_States_Office_of_the_Independent_Counsel" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Office of the Independent Counsel">independent counsel</a> in December 1986 to investigate possible criminal actions by officials involved in the scheme. In the end, several dozen administration officials were indicted, including Secretary of Defense <a href="/wiki/Caspar_Weinberger" title="Caspar Weinberger">Caspar Weinberger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel" title="Lieutenant colonel">Lieutenant colonel</a> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a>. Eleven convictions resulted, some of which were vacated on appeal.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The rest of those indicted or convicted were all pardoned in the final days of the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">presidency of George H. W. Bush</a>, who had been vice president at the time of the affair.<a href="#cite_note-ghwbush-pardons-10">[10]</a> Former Independent Counsel Walsh noted that, in issuing the pardons, Bush appeared to have been preempting being implicated himself by evidence that came to light during the Weinberger trial and noted that there was a pattern of "deception and obstruction" by Bush, Weinberger, and other senior Reagan administration officials.<a href="#cite_note-Firewall-11">[11]</a> Walsh submitted his final report on 4 August 1993<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993-12">[12]</a> and later wrote an account of his experiences as counsel, Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-Up.<a href="#cite_note-Firewall-11">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>, the U.S. was the largest seller of arms to Iran under <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a>, and the vast majority of the weapons that the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Republic of Iran</a> inherited in January 1979 were U.S.-made.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213-13">[13]</a> To maintain this arsenal, Iran required a steady supply of spare parts to replace those broken and worn out. In November 1979, after Iranian students <a href="/wiki/Iranian_hostage_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian hostage crisis">stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 52 Americans hostage</a>, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> imposed an <a href="/wiki/Arms_embargo" title="Arms embargo">arms embargo</a> on Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213-13">[13]</a> In September 1980, <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iraq invaded Iran</a> and Iran desperately needed weapons and spare parts for its current weapons. After Ronald Reagan took office as president on 20 January 1981 and the hostages were released, he vowed to continue Carter's policy of blocking arms sales to Iran on the grounds that Iran supported terrorism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213-13">[13]</a> However, a group of senior Reagan administration officials in the Senior Interdepartmental Group conducted a secret study on 21 July 1981 and concluded that the arms embargo was ineffective because Iran could always buy arms and spare parts for its U.S. weapons elsewhere, while, at the same time, the arms embargo opened the door for Iran to fall into the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_sphere_of_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet sphere of influence">Soviet sphere of influence</a> as the Kremlin could sell Iran weapons if the U.S. would not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213-13">[13]</a> The conclusion was that the U.S. should start selling Iran arms as soon as it was politically possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213-13">[13]</a> This was made more difficult politically due to <a href="/wiki/Ayatollah_Khomeini" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a>'s openly declared goal of exporting his Islamic revolution all over the Middle East and overthrowing the governments of Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">other states around the Persian Gulf</a>, which led to the Americans perceiving Khomeini as a major threat to the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213-13">[13]</a> In the spring of 1983, the U.S. launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Staunch" title="Operation Staunch">Operation Staunch</a>, a wide-ranging diplomatic effort to persuade other nations all over the world not to sell arms or spare parts for weapons to Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213-13">[13]</a> This was at least part of the reason the Iran–Contra affair proved so humiliating for the U.S. when the story first broke in November 1986 that the U.S. itself was selling arms to Iran. At the same time that the U.S. government was considering its options on selling arms to Iran, <a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contra</a> militants based in <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> were waging a guerrilla war to topple the <a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">FSLN</a> revolutionary government of <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>. Almost from the time he took office in 1981, a major goal of the Reagan administration was the overthrow of the left-wing Sandinista government in Nicaragua and to support the Contra rebels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996965-14">[14]</a> The Reagan administration's policy toward Nicaragua produced a major clash between the executive and legislative branches as Congress sought to limit, if not curb altogether, the ability of the White House to support the Contras.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996965-14">[14]</a> Direct U.S. funding of the Contras insurgency was made illegal through the <a href="/wiki/Boland_Amendment" title="Boland Amendment">Boland Amendment</a>, the name given to three U.S. legislative amendments between 1982 and 1984 aimed at limiting U.S. government assistance to Contra militants. By 1984, funding for the Contras had run out; and, in October of that year, a total ban came into effect. The second Boland Amendment, in effect from 3 October 1984 to 3 December 1985, stated:<blockquote>During the fiscal year 1985 no funds available to the Central Intelligence Agency, the Department of Defense or any other agency or entity of the United States involved in intelligence activities may be obligated or expended for the purpose of or which may have the effect of supporting directly or indirectly military or paramilitary operations in Nicaragua by any nation, organization, group, movement, or individual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996965-14">[14]</a></blockquote> In violation of the Boland Amendment, senior officials of the Reagan administration continued to secretly arm and train the Contras and provide arms to Iran, an operation they called "the Enterprise".<a href="#cite_note-Johnston-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Given the Contras' heavy dependence on U.S. military and financial support, the second Boland Amendment threatened to break the Contra movement and led to President Reagan ordering in 1984 that the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">NSC</a> "keep the Contras together 'body and soul'", no matter what Congress voted for.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996965-14">[14]</a> A major legal debate at the center of the Iran–Contra affair concerned the question of whether the NSC was one of the "any other agency or entity of the United States involved in intelligence activities" covered by the Boland Amendment. The Reagan administration argued it was not, and many in Congress argued that it was.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996965-14">[14]</a> The majority of constitutional scholars have asserted the NSC did indeed fall within the purview of the second Boland Amendment, though the amendment did not mention the NSC by name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996966-17">[17]</a> The broader constitutional question at stake was the power of Congress versus the power of the presidency. The Reagan administration argued that, because the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">constitution</a> assigned the <a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States#Commander-in-chief" title="Powers of the president of the United States">right to conduct foreign policy</a> to the executive, its efforts to overthrow the government of Nicaragua were a presidential prerogative that Congress had no right to try to halt via the Boland Amendments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996964-18">[18]</a> By contrast, Congressional leaders argued that the constitution had assigned Congress control of the budget, and Congress had every right to use that power not to fund projects they disapproved of, such as attempting to overthrow the government of Nicaragua.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996964-18">[18]</a> As part of the effort to circumvent the Boland Amendment, the NSC established "the Enterprise", an arms-smuggling network headed by a retired U.S. Air Force officer turned arms dealer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Secord" title="Richard Secord">Richard Secord</a> that supplied arms to the Contras. It was ostensibly a private sector operation, but in fact was controlled by the NSC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996966-17">[17]</a> To fund "the Enterprise", the Reagan administration was constantly on the look-out for funds that came from outside the U.S. government in order not to explicitly violate the letter of the Boland Amendment, though the efforts to find alternative funding for the Contras violated the spirit of the Boland Amendment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks1996966–967-19">[19]</a> Ironically, military aid to the Contras was reinstated with Congressional consent in October 1986, a month before the scandal broke.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In his 1995 memoir My American Journey, General <a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a>, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Deputy_National_Security_Advisor" title="Deputy National Security Advisor">Deputy National Security Advisor</a>, wrote that the weapons sales to Iran were used "for purposes prohibited by the elected representatives of the American people [...] in a way that avoided accountability to the President and Congress. It was wrong."<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> In 1985, Panamanian dictator <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Noriega" title="Manuel Noriega">Manuel Noriega</a> offered to help the U.S. by allowing <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> as a staging ground for operations against the FSLN and offering to train Contras in Panama, but this would later be overshadowed by the Iran–Contra affair itself.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> At around the same time, the Soviet Bloc also engaged in arms deals with ideologically opponent buyers,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> possibly involving some of the same players as the Iran–Contra affair.<a href="#cite_note-:1-25">[25]</a> In 1986, a complex operation involving <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a> and the Danish-registered ship Pia Vesta ultimately aimed to sell Soviet arms and military vehicles to South Africa's <a href="/wiki/Armscor_(South_Africa)" title="Armscor (South Africa)">Armscor</a>, using various intermediaries to distance themselves from the deal. Noriega was apparently one of these intermediaries but backed out on the deal as the ship and weapons were seized at a Panamanian port.<a href="#cite_note-:02-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-25">[25]</a> The Pia Vesta led to a small controversy, as the Panama and Peru governments in 1986 accused the U.S. and each other of being involved in the East Germany-originated shipment.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arms_sales_to_Iran">Arms sales to Iran</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Arms sales to Iran">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Brokers_of_Death_arms_case" title="Brokers of Death arms case">Brokers of Death arms case</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel_in_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel in the Iran–Iraq War">Israel in the Iran–Iraq War</a></div> As reported in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> in 1991, "continuing allegations that Reagan campaign officials made a deal with the Iranian Government of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in the fall of 1980" led to "limited investigations". However "limited", those investigations established that "Soon after taking office in 1981, the Reagan Administration secretly and abruptly changed United States policy." Secret Israeli arms sales and shipments to Iran began in that year, even as, in public, "the Reagan Administration" presented a different face, and "aggressively promoted a public campaign [...] to stop worldwide transfers of military goods to Iran". The New York Times explains: "Iran at that time was in dire need of arms and spare parts for its American-made arsenal to defend itself against Iraq, which had attacked it in September 1980", while "Israel [a US ally] was interested in keeping the war between Iran and Iraq going to ensure that these two potential enemies remained preoccupied with each other". Major General Avraham Tamir, a high-ranking Israeli Defense Ministry official in 1981, said there was an "oral agreement" to allow the sale of "spare parts" to Iran. This was based on an "understanding" with Secretary <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Haig" title="Alexander Haig">Alexander Haig</a> (which a Haig adviser denied). This account was confirmed by a former senior US diplomat with a few modifications. The diplomat claimed that "[Ariel] Sharon violated it, and Haig backed away". A former "high-level" <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) official who saw reports of arms sales to Iran by Israel in the early 1980s estimated that the total was about $2 billion a year—but also said, "The degree to which it was sanctioned I don't know."<a href="#cite_note-israel-iran-29">[29]</a> On 17 June 1985, National Security Adviser <a href="/wiki/Robert_McFarlane_(American_government_official)" title="Robert McFarlane (American government official)">Robert McFarlane</a> wrote a National Security Decision Directive which called for the US to begin a rapprochement with the Islamic Republic of Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213-13">[13]</a> The paper read: <blockquote>Dynamic political evolution is taking place inside Iran. Instability caused by the pressures of the Iraq-Iran war, economic deterioration and regime in-fighting create the potential for major changes inside Iran. The Soviet Union is better positioned than the U.S. to exploit and benefit from any power struggle that results in changes from the Iranian regime [...]. The U.S. should encourage Western allies and friends to help Iran meet its import requirements so as to reduce the attractiveness of Soviet assistance [...]. This includes provision of selected military equipment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993213–214-30">[30]</a></blockquote> Defense Secretary <a href="/wiki/Caspar_Weinberger" title="Caspar Weinberger">Caspar Weinberger</a> was highly negative, writing on his copy of McFarlane's paper: "This is almost too absurd to comment on [...] like asking Qaddafi to Washington for a cozy chat."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214-31">[31]</a> Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">George Shultz</a> was also opposed, stating that having designated Iran a <a href="/wiki/State_Sponsor_of_Terrorism" class="mw-redirect" title="State Sponsor of Terrorism">State Sponsor of Terrorism</a> in January 1984, how could the US possibly sell arms to Iran?<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214-31">[31]</a> Only the Director of the CIA <a href="/wiki/William_J._Casey" title="William J. Casey">William J. Casey</a> supported McFarlane's plan to start selling arms to Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214-31">[31]</a> In early July 1985, the historian <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ledeen" title="Michael Ledeen">Michael Ledeen</a>, a consultant of <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_(United_States)" title="National Security Advisor (United States)">National Security Adviser</a> Robert McFarlane, requested assistance from <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel" title="Prime Minister of Israel">Israeli Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Shimon_Peres" title="Shimon Peres">Shimon Peres</a> for help in the sale of arms to Iran.<a href="#cite_note-JVL-32">[32]</a> Having talked to an Israeli diplomat <a href="/wiki/David_Kimche" title="David Kimche">David Kimche</a> and Ledeen, McFarlane learned that the Iranians were prepared to have <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a> release US hostages in Lebanon in exchange for Israelis shipping Iran US weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214-31">[31]</a> Having been designated a State Sponsor of Terrorism since January 1984,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Iran was in the midst of the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> and could find few Western nations willing to supply it with weapons.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The idea behind the plan was for Israel to ship weapons through an intermediary (identified as <a href="/wiki/Manucher_Ghorbanifar" title="Manucher Ghorbanifar">Manucher Ghorbanifar</a>) to the Islamic Republic as a way of aiding a supposedly moderate, politically influential faction within the regime of <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> who was believed to be seeking a rapprochement with the US; after the transaction, the US would reimburse Israel with the same weapons, while receiving monetary benefits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990504-34">[34]</a> McFarlane in a memo to Shultz and Weinberger wrote: <blockquote>The short term dimension concerns the seven hostages; the long term dimension involves the establishment of a private dialogue with Iranian officials on the broader relations [...]. They sought specifically the delivery from Israel of 100 TOW missiles [...].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214-31">[31]</a></blockquote> The plan was discussed with President Reagan on 18 July 1985 and again on 6 August 1985.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214-31">[31]</a> Shultz at the latter meeting warned Reagan that "we were just falling into the arms-for-hostages business and we shouldn't do it".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214-31">[31]</a> The Americans believed that there was a moderate faction in the Islamic Republic headed by <a href="/wiki/Akbar_Hashemi_Rafsanjani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani">Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani</a>, the powerful speaker of the Majlis who was seen as a leading potential successor to Khomeini and who was alleged to want a rapprochement with the US.<a href="#cite_note-Brogan,_Patrick_page_253-35">[35]</a> The Americans believed that Rafsanjani had the power to order Hezbollah to free the US hostages and establishing a relationship with him by selling Iran arms would ultimately place Iran back within the US sphere of influence.<a href="#cite_note-Brogan,_Patrick_page_253-35">[35]</a> It remains unclear if Rafsanjani really wanted a rapprochement with the US or was just deceiving Reagan administration officials who were willing to believe that he was a moderate who would effect a rapprochement.<a href="#cite_note-Brogan,_Patrick_page_253-35">[35]</a> Rafsanjani, whose nickname is "the Shark", was described by the UK journalist Patrick Brogan as a man of great charm and formidable intelligence known for his subtlety and ruthlessness whose motives in the Iran–Contra affair remain completely mysterious.<a href="#cite_note-Brogan,_Patrick_page_253-35">[35]</a> The Israeli government required that the sale of arms meet high-level approval from the US government, and, when McFarlane convinced them that the US government approved the sale, Israel obliged by agreeing to sell the arms.<a href="#cite_note-JVL-32">[32]</a> In 1985, President Reagan entered <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed_National_Military_Medical_Center" title="Walter Reed National Military Medical Center">Walter Reed National Military Medical Center</a> for <a href="/wiki/Colon_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon cancer">colon cancer</a> surgery. Reagan's recovery was nothing short of miserable, as the 74-year-old President admitted having little sleep for days in addition to his immense physical discomfort. While doctors seemed to be confident that the surgery was successful, the discovery of his localized cancer was a daunting realization for Reagan. From seeing the recovery process of other patients, as well as medical “experts” on television predicting his death to be soon, Reagan's typical optimistic outlook was dampened. These factors were bound to contribute to psychological distress in the midst of an already distressing situation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-36">[36]</a> Additionally, Reagan's invocation of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25th Amendment</a> prior to the surgery was a risky and unprecedented decision that smoothly flew under the radar for the duration of the complex situation. While it only lasted slightly longer than the length of the procedure (approximately seven hours and 54 minutes), this temporary transfer of power was never formally recognized by the White House. It was later revealed that this decision was made on the grounds that "Mr. Reagan and his advisors did not want his actions to establish a definition of incapacitation that would bind future presidents." Reagan expressed this transfer of power in two identical letters that were sent to the speaker of the House of Representatives, Representative <a href="/wiki/Tip_O%27Neill" title="Tip O'Neill">Tip O'Neill</a>, and the president pro tempore of the senate, Senator <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Strom Thurmond</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> While the President was recovering in the hospital, McFarlane met with him and told him that representatives from Israel had contacted the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> to pass on confidential information from what Reagan later described as the "moderate" Iranian faction headed by Rafsanjani opposed to the Ayatollah's hardline anti-US policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990504-34">[34]</a> The visit from McFarlane in Reagan's hospital room was the first visit from an administration official outside of Donald Regan since the surgery. The meeting took place five days after the surgery and only three days after doctors gave the news that his polyp had been malignant. The three participants of this meeting had very different recollections of what was discussed during its 23-minute duration. Months later, Reagan even stated that he "had no recollection of a meeting in the hospital in July with McFarlane and that he had no notes which would show such a meeting". This does not come as a surprise considering the possible short and long-term effects of anesthesia on patients above the age of 60, in addition to his already weakened physical and mental state.<a href="#cite_note-:0-36">[36]</a> According to Reagan, these Iranians sought to establish a quiet relationship with the US, before establishing formal relationships upon the death of the aging Ayatollah.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990504-34">[34]</a> In Reagan's account, McFarlane told Reagan that the Iranians, to demonstrate their seriousness, offered to persuade the Hezbollah militants to release the seven US hostages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505-38">[38]</a> McFarlane met with the Israeli intermediaries;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._24-39">[39]</a> Reagan claimed that he allowed this because he believed that establishing relations with a strategically located country, and preventing the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> from doing the same, was a beneficial move.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990504-34">[34]</a> Although Reagan claims that the arms sales were to a "moderate" faction of Iranians, the Walsh Iran–Contra Report states that the arms sales were "to Iran" itself,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993Part_I-40">[40]</a> which was under the control of the Ayatollah. Following the Israeli–US meeting, Israel requested permission from the US to sell a small number of <a href="/wiki/BGM-71_TOW" title="BGM-71 TOW">BGM-71 TOW</a> antitank missiles to Iran, claiming that this would aid the "moderate" Iranian faction,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505-38">[38]</a> by demonstrating that the group actually had high-level connections to the US government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505-38">[38]</a> Reagan initially rejected the plan, until Israel sent information to the US showing that the "moderate" Iranians were opposed to terrorism and had fought against it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990506-41">[41]</a> Now having a reason to trust the "moderates", Reagan approved the transaction, which was meant to be between Israel and the "moderates" in Iran, with the US reimbursing Israel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505-38">[38]</a> In his 1990 autobiography <a href="/wiki/An_American_Life" title="An American Life">An American Life</a>, Reagan claimed that he was deeply committed to securing the release of the hostages; it was this compassion that supposedly motivated his support for the arms initiatives. The president requested that the "moderate" Iranians do everything in their capability to free the hostages held by Hezbollah.<a href="#cite_note-plain-and-simple-3">[3]</a> Reagan always publicly insisted after the scandal broke in late 1986 that the purpose behind the arms-for-hostages trade was to establish a working relationship with the "moderate" faction associated with Rafsanjani to facilitate the reestablishment of the US–Iranian alliance after the soon to be expected death of Khomeini, to end the Iran–Iraq War and end Iranian support for Islamic terrorism while downplaying the importance of freeing the hostages in Lebanon as a secondary issue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214–215-42">[42]</a> By contrast, when testifying before the Tower Commission, Reagan declared that hostage issue was the main reason for selling arms to Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993215-43">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tow_atm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tow_atm.jpg/220px-Tow_atm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tow_atm.jpg/330px-Tow_atm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tow_atm.jpg/440px-Tow_atm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>A BGM-71 TOW antitank guided missile</figcaption></figure> The following arms were supplied to Iran:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993Part_I-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <ul><li>First arms sales in 1981 (see above)</li> <li>20 August 1985 – 96 <a href="/wiki/BGM-71_TOW" title="BGM-71 TOW">TOW</a> antitank missiles</li> <li>14 September 1985 – 408 more TOWs</li> <li>24 November 1985 – 18 <a href="/wiki/MIM-23_Hawk" title="MIM-23 Hawk">Hawk</a> antiaircraft missiles</li> <li>17 February 1986 – 500 TOWs</li> <li>27 February 1986 – 500 TOWs</li> <li>24 May 1986 – 508 TOWs, 240 Hawk spare parts</li> <li>4 August 1986 – More Hawk spares</li> <li>28 October 1986 – 500 TOWs</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_few_arms_sales">First few arms sales</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First few arms sales">edit</a>]</div> The first arms sales to Iran began in 1981, though the official paper trail has them beginning in 1985 (see above). On 20 August 1985, Israel sent 96 US-made TOW missiles to Iran through an arms dealer <a href="/wiki/Manucher_Ghorbanifar" title="Manucher Ghorbanifar">Manucher Ghorbanifar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamiltonInouye1987-45">[45]</a> Subsequently, on 14 September 1985, 408 more TOW missiles were delivered. On 15 September 1985, following the second delivery, Reverend <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Weir" title="Benjamin Weir">Benjamin Weir</a> was released by his captors, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Jihad_Organization" title="Islamic Jihad Organization">Islamic Jihad Organization</a>. On 24 November 1985, 18 Hawk antiaircraft missiles were delivered. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modifications_in_plans">Modifications in plans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modifications in plans">edit</a>]</div> Robert McFarlane resigned on 4 December 1985,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._1-47">[47]</a> stating that he wanted to spend more time with his family,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990509-48">[48]</a> and was replaced by Admiral <a href="/wiki/John_Poindexter" title="John Poindexter">John Poindexter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JP-49">[49]</a> Two days later, Reagan met with his advisors at the White House, where a new plan was introduced. This called for a slight change in the arms transactions: instead of the weapons going to the "moderate" Iranian group, they would go to "moderate" Iranian army leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990510-50">[50]</a> As each weapons delivery was made from Israel by air, hostages held by Hezbollah would be released.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990510-50">[50]</a> Israel would continue to be reimbursed by the US for the weapons. Though staunchly opposed by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">George Shultz</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a> <a href="/wiki/Caspar_Weinberger" title="Caspar Weinberger">Caspar Weinberger</a>, the plan was authorized by Reagan, who stated that, "We were not trading arms for hostages, nor were we negotiating with terrorists".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990512-51">[51]</a> In his notes of a meeting held in the White House on 7 December 1985, Weinberger wrote he told Reagan that this plan was illegal, writing: <blockquote>I argued strongly that we have an embargo that makes arms sales to Iran illegal and President couldn't violate it and that 'washing' transactions through Israel wouldn't make it legal. Shultz, Don Regan agreed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993216-52">[52]</a></blockquote> Weinberger's notes have Reagan saying he "could answer charges of illegality but he couldn't answer charge [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] that 'big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to free hostages'."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993216-52">[52]</a> Now retired National Security Advisor McFarlane flew to London to meet with Israelis and Ghorbanifar in an attempt to persuade the Iranian to use his influence to release the hostages before any arms transactions occurred; this plan was rejected by Ghorbanifar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990510-50">[50]</a> On the day of McFarlane's resignation, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a>, a military aide to the <a href="/wiki/US_National_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="US National Security Council">US National Security Council</a> (NSC), proposed a new plan for selling arms to Iran, which included two major adjustments: instead of selling arms through Israel, the sale was to be direct at a markup; and a portion of the proceeds would go to the <a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a>, Nicaraguan paramilitary fighters waging <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front#1984_election" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">Sandinista government</a>, claiming power after an election full of irregularities.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">not specific enough to verify</a>] The dealings with the Iranians were conducted via the NSC with Admiral Poindexter and his deputy Colonel North, with the US historians Malcolm Byrne and Peter Kornbluh writing that Poindexter granted much power to North "who made the most of the situation, often deciding important matters on his own, striking outlandish deals with the Iranians, and acting in the name of the president on issues that were far beyond his competence. All of these activities continued to take place within the framework of the president's broad authorization. Until the press reported on the existence of the operation, nobody in the administration questioned the authority of Poindexter's and North's team to implement the president's decisions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993217-54">[54]</a> North proposed a $15 million markup, while contracted arms broker Ghorbanifar added a 41-percent markup of his own.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993vol._I-55">[55]</a> Other members of the NSC were in favor of North's plan; with large support, Poindexter authorized it without notifying President Reagan, and it went into effect.<a href="#cite_note-Avery-56">[56]</a> At first, the Iranians refused to buy the arms at the inflated price because of the excessive markup imposed by North and Ghorbanifar. They eventually relented, and, in February 1986, 1,000 TOW missiles were shipped to the country.<a href="#cite_note-Avery-56">[56]</a> From May to November 1986, there were additional shipments of miscellaneous weapons and parts.<a href="#cite_note-Avery-56">[56]</a> Both the sale of weapons to Iran and the funding of the Contras attempted to circumvent not only stated administration policy, but also the <a href="/wiki/Boland_Amendment" title="Boland Amendment">Boland Amendment</a>. Administration officials argued that, regardless of Congress restricting funds for the Contras, or any affair, the President (or in this case the administration) could carry on by seeking alternative means of funding such as private entities and foreign governments.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher-57">[57]</a> Funding from one foreign country, <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>, was botched when North's secretary, <a href="/wiki/Fawn_Hall" title="Fawn Hall">Fawn Hall</a>, transposed the numbers of North's <a href="/wiki/Swiss_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss bank">Swiss bank</a> account number. A Swiss businessperson, suddenly $10 million richer, alerted the authorities of the mistake. The money was eventually returned to the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of Brunei">Sultan of Brunei</a>, with interest.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> On 7 January 1986, John Poindexter proposed to Reagan a modification of the approved plan: instead of negotiating with the "moderate" Iranian political group, the US would negotiate with "moderate" members of the Iranian government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990516-59">[59]</a> Poindexter told Reagan that Ghorbanifar had important connections within the Iranian government, so, with the hope of the release of the hostages, Reagan approved this plan as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990516-59">[59]</a> Throughout February 1986, weapons were shipped directly to Iran by the US (as part of Oliver North's plan), but none of the hostages were released. Retired National Security Advisor McFarlane conducted another international voyage, this one to <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>—bringing with him a gift of a <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> with a handwritten inscription by Ronald Reagan<a href="#cite_note-Gwertzman-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> and, according to <a href="/wiki/George_W._Cave" title="George W. Cave">George W. Cave</a>, a cake baked in the shape of a key.<a href="#cite_note-Gwertzman-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Howard_Teicher" title="Howard Teicher">Howard Teicher</a> described the cake as a joke between North and Ghorbanifar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETowerMuskieScowcroft1987B-100-62">[62]</a> McFarlane met directly with Iranian officials associated with Rafsanjani, who sought to establish US–Iranian relations in an attempt to free the four remaining hostages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990520–521-63">[63]</a> The US delegation comprised McFarlane, North, Cave (a retired CIA officer who served as the group's translator), Teicher, Israeli diplomat <a href="/wiki/Amiram_Nir" title="Amiram Nir">Amiram Nir</a>, and a CIA communicator.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> They arrived in Tehran in an Israeli plane carrying forged Irish passports on 25 May 1986.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993249-65">[65]</a> This meeting also failed. Much to McFarlane's disgust, he did not meet ministers, and instead met in his words "third and fourth level officials".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993249-65">[65]</a> At one point, an angry McFarlane shouted: "As I am a Minister, I expect to meet with decision-makers. Otherwise, you can work with my staff."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993249-65">[65]</a> The Iranians requested concessions such as Israel's withdrawal from the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a>, which the US rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990520–521-63">[63]</a> More importantly, McFarlane refused to ship spare parts for the Hawk missiles until the Iranians had Hezbollah release the US hostages, whereas the Iranians wanted to reverse that sequence with the spare parts being shipped first before the hostages were freed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993249-65">[65]</a> The differing negotiating positions led to McFarlane's mission going home after four days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> After the failure of the secret visit to Tehran, McFarlane advised Reagan not to talk to the Iranians anymore, advice that was disregarded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsequent_dealings">Subsequent dealings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Subsequent dealings">edit</a>]</div> On 26 July 1986, <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a> freed the US hostage Father <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Jenco" title="Lawrence Jenco">Lawrence Jenco</a>, former head of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Relief_Services" title="Catholic Relief Services">Catholic Relief Services</a> in Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> Following this, <a href="/wiki/William_J._Casey" title="William J. Casey">William J. Casey</a>, head of the CIA, requested that the US authorize sending a shipment of small missile parts to Iranian military forces as a way of expressing gratitude.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990523-67">[67]</a> Casey also justified this request by stating that the contact in the Iranian government might otherwise lose face or be executed, and hostages might be killed. Reagan authorized the shipment to ensure that those potential events would not occur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990523-67">[67]</a> North used this release to persuade Reagan to switch over to a "sequential" policy of freeing the hostages one by one, instead of the "all or nothing" policy that the Americans had pursued until then.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> By this point, the Americans had grown tired of Ghorbanifar who had proven himself a dishonest intermediary who played off both sides to his own commercial advantage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> In August 1986, the Americans had established a new contact in the Iranian government, Ali Hashemi Bahramani, the nephew of Rafsanjani and an officer in the Revolutionary Guard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> The fact that the Revolutionary Guard was deeply involved in international terrorism seemed only to attract the Americans more to Bahramani, who was seen as someone with the influence to change Iran's policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Secord" title="Richard Secord">Richard Secord</a>, a US arms dealer, who was being used as a contact with Iran, wrote to North: "My judgment is that we have opened up a new and probably better channel into Iran".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> North was so impressed with Bahramani that he arranged for him to secretly visit <a href="/wiki/Washington_DC" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington DC">Washington DC</a> and gave him a guided tour at midnight of the White House.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> North frequently met with Bahramani in the summer and autumn of 1986 in West Germany, discussing arms sales to Iran, the freeing of hostages held by Hezbollah and how best to overthrow President <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> of Iraq and the establishment of "a non-hostile regime in Baghdad".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> In September and October 1986, three more Americans—Frank Reed, Joseph Cicippio, and Edward Tracy—were abducted in Lebanon by a separate terrorist group, who referred to them simply as "G.I. Joe", after the popular US toy. The reasons for their abduction are unknown, although it is speculated that they were kidnapped to replace the freed Americans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanstorp199798–99-68">[68]</a> One more original hostage, David Jacobsen, was later released. The captors promised to release the remaining two, but the release never happened.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990526–527-69">[69]</a> During a secret meeting in Frankfurt in October 1986, North told Bahramani that: "Saddam Hussein must go".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> North also claimed that Reagan had told him to tell Bahramani that: "Saddam Hussein is an asshole."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993250-66">[66]</a> Behramani during a secret meeting in Mainz informed North that Rafsanjani "for his own politics [...] decided to get all the groups involved and give them a role to play".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993251-70">[70]</a> Thus, all the factions in the Iranian government would be jointly responsible for the talks with the Americans and "there would not be an internal war".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993251-70">[70]</a> This demand of Behramani caused much dismay on the US side as it made clear to them that they would not be dealing solely with a "moderate" faction in the Islamic Republic, as the Americans liked to pretend to themselves, but rather with all the factions in the Iranian government—including those who were very much involved in terrorism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993251-70">[70]</a> Despite this, the talks were not broken off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993251-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery_and_scandal">Discovery and scandal</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Discovery and scandal">edit</a>]</div> After a leak by <a href="/wiki/Mehdi_Hashemi" title="Mehdi Hashemi">Mehdi Hashemi</a>, a senior official in the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, the Lebanese magazine <a href="/wiki/Ash-Shiraa" title="Ash-Shiraa">Ash-Shiraa</a> exposed the arrangement on 3 November 1986.<a href="#cite_note-Why_arms_dealings_failed-71">[71]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Hersh" title="Seymour Hersh">Seymour Hersh</a>, an unnamed former military officer told him that the leak may have been orchestrated by a covert team led by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_S._Moreau_Jr." title="Arthur S. Moreau Jr.">Arthur S. Moreau Jr.</a>, assistant to the chair of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, due to fears the scheme had grown out of control.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> This was the first public report of the weapons-for-hostages deal. The operation was discovered only after an airlift of guns (<a href="/wiki/Corporate_Air_Services_HPF821" title="Corporate Air Services HPF821">Corporate Air Services HPF821</a>) was downed over Nicaragua. <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Hasenfus" title="Eugene Hasenfus">Eugene Hasenfus</a>, who was captured by Nicaraguan authorities after surviving the plane crash, initially alleged in a press conference on Nicaraguan soil that two of his coworkers, Max Gomez and Ramon Medina, worked for the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nyt-has1-73">[73]</a> He later said he did not know whether they did or not.<a href="#cite_note-nyt-has2-74">[74]</a> The Iranian government confirmed the Ash-Shiraa story, and, 10 days after the story was first published, President Reagan appeared on national television from the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a> on 13 November, stating: <blockquote>My purpose was [...] to send a signal that the United States was prepared to replace the animosity between [the US and Iran] with a new relationship [...]. At the same time we undertook this initiative, we made clear that Iran must oppose all forms of international terrorism as a condition of progress in our relationship. The most significant step which Iran could take, we indicated, would be to use its influence in Lebanon to secure the release of all hostages held there.<a href="#cite_note-reaganspeech-6">[6]</a></blockquote> The scandal was compounded when <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a> destroyed or hid pertinent documents between 21 November and 25 November 1986. During North's trial in 1989, his secretary, <a href="/wiki/Fawn_Hall" title="Fawn Hall">Fawn Hall</a>, testified extensively about helping North alter and shred official US National Security Council (NSC) documents from the White House. According to The New York Times, enough documents were put into a government shredder to jam it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993vol._I-55">[55]</a> Hall also testified that she smuggled classified documents out of the <a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Executive_Office_Building" title="Eisenhower Executive Office Building">Old Executive Office Building</a> by concealing them in her boots and dress.<a href="#cite_note-wapo87-75">[75]</a> North's explanation for destroying some documents was to protect the lives of individuals involved in Iran and <a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contra</a> operations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993vol._I-55">[55]</a> It was not until 1993, years after the trial, that North's notebooks were made public, and only after the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Archive" title="National Security Archive">National Security Archive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_Citizen" title="Public Citizen">Public Citizen</a> sued the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Office_of_the_Independent_Counsel" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Office of the Independent Counsel">Office of the Independent Counsel</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_(United_States)" title="Freedom of Information Act (United States)">Freedom of Information Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993vol._I-55">[55]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="">The diversion of funds is revealed</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> What is involved is that in the course of the arms transfers, which involved the United States providing the arms to Israel and Israel in turn transferring the arms -- in effect, selling the arms to representatives of Iran. Certain monies which were received in the transaction between representatives of Israel and representatives of Iran were taken and made available to the forces in Central America, which are opposing the Sandinista government there.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">– <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">U.S. Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Edwin Meese</a>, White House news conference on November 25, 1986</cite> </div> During the trial, North testified that on 21, 22 or 24 November, he witnessed Poindexter destroy what may have been the only signed copy of a presidential covert-action finding that sought to authorize CIA participation in the November 1985 <a href="/wiki/MIM-23_Hawk" title="MIM-23 Hawk">Hawk missile</a> shipment to Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993vol._I-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">U.S. Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Edwin Meese</a> admitted on 25 November that profits from weapons sales to Iran were made available to assist the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. On the same day, John Poindexter resigned, and President Reagan fired Oliver North.<a href="#cite_note-sacking-77">[77]</a> Poindexter was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Carlucci" title="Frank Carlucci">Frank Carlucci</a> on 2 December 1986.<a href="#cite_note-Timeline-78">[78]</a> When the story broke, many legal and constitutional scholars expressed dismay that the NSC, which was supposed to be just an advisory body to assist the President with formulating foreign policy, had "gone operational" by becoming an executive body covertly executing foreign policy on its own.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanham-Clyne1992623–624-79">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Act_of_1947" title="National Security Act of 1947">National Security Act of 1947</a>, which created the NSC, gave it the vague right to perform "such other functions and duties related to the intelligence as the National Security Council may from time to time direct."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanham-Clyne1992623-80">[80]</a> However, the NSC had usually, although not always, acted as an advisory agency until the Reagan administration when the NSC had "gone operational", a situation that was condemned by both the Tower Commission and by Congress as a departure from the norm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanham-Clyne1992623-80">[80]</a> The American historian John Canham-Clyne asserted that the Iran–Contra affair and the NSC "going operational" were not departures from the norm, but were the logical and natural consequence of the existence of the "national security state", the plethora of shadowy government agencies with multi-million dollar budgets operating with little oversight from Congress, the courts or the media, and for whom upholding national security justified almost everything.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanham-Clyne1992623-80">[80]</a> Canham-Clyne argued that for the "national security state", the law was an obstacle to be surmounted rather than something to uphold and that the Iran–Contra affair was just "business as usual", something he asserted that the media missed by focusing on the NSC having "gone operational."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanham-Clyne1992623-80">[80]</a> In Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA 1981–1987, journalist <a href="/wiki/Bob_Woodward" title="Bob Woodward">Bob Woodward</a> chronicled the role of the CIA in facilitating the transfer of funds from the Iran arms sales to the Nicaraguan Contras spearheaded by Oliver North. According to Woodward, then-Director of the CIA <a href="/wiki/William_J._Casey" title="William J. Casey">William J. Casey</a> admitted to him in February 1987 that he was aware of the diversion of funds to the Contras.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodward1987580-81">[81]</a> The controversial admission occurred while Casey was hospitalized for a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, and, according to his wife, was unable to communicate. On 6 May 1987, William Casey died the day after Congress began public hearings on Iran–Contra. Independent Counsel <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Walsh" title="Lawrence Walsh">Lawrence Walsh</a> later wrote: "Independent Counsel obtained no documentary evidence showing Casey knew about or approved the diversion. The only direct testimony linking Casey to early knowledge of the diversion came from [Oliver] North."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._15-82">[82]</a> Gust Avrakodos, who was responsible for the arms supplies to the Afghans at this time, was aware of the operation as well and strongly opposed it, in particular the diversion of funds allotted to the Afghan operation. According to his Middle Eastern experts, the operation was pointless because the moderates in Iran were not in a position to challenge the fundamentalists. However, he was overruled by Clair George.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tower_Commission">Tower Commission</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tower Commission">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tower_Commission" title="Tower Commission">Tower Commission</a></div> On 25 November 1986, President Reagan announced the creation of a Special Review Board to look into the matter; the following day, he appointed former Senator <a href="/wiki/John_Tower" title="John Tower">John Tower</a>, former Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Muskie" title="Edmund Muskie">Edmund Muskie</a>, and former National Security Adviser <a href="/wiki/Brent_Scowcroft" title="Brent Scowcroft">Brent Scowcroft</a> to serve as members. This <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Commission_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential Commission (United States)">Presidential Commission</a> took effect on 1 December and became known as the <a href="/wiki/Tower_Commission" title="Tower Commission">Tower Commission</a>. The main objectives of the commission were to inquire into "the circumstances surrounding the Iran–Contra matter, other case studies that might reveal strengths and weaknesses in the operation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a> system under stress, and the manner in which that system has served eight different presidents since its inception in 1947". The Tower Commission was the first presidential commission to review and evaluate the National Security Council.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photograph_of_President_Reagan_receiving_the_Tower_Commission_Report_in_the_Cabinet_Room_-_NARA_-_198581.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Photograph_of_President_Reagan_receiving_the_Tower_Commission_Report_in_the_Cabinet_Room_-_NARA_-_198581.jpg/220px-Photograph_of_President_Reagan_receiving_the_Tower_Commission_Report_in_the_Cabinet_Room_-_NARA_-_198581.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Photograph_of_President_Reagan_receiving_the_Tower_Commission_Report_in_the_Cabinet_Room_-_NARA_-_198581.jpg/330px-Photograph_of_President_Reagan_receiving_the_Tower_Commission_Report_in_the_Cabinet_Room_-_NARA_-_198581.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Photograph_of_President_Reagan_receiving_the_Tower_Commission_Report_in_the_Cabinet_Room_-_NARA_-_198581.jpg/440px-Photograph_of_President_Reagan_receiving_the_Tower_Commission_Report_in_the_Cabinet_Room_-_NARA_-_198581.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2070" /></a><figcaption>President Reagan (center) receives the Tower Commission Report in the White House Cabinet Room; <a href="/wiki/John_Tower" title="John Tower">John Tower</a> is at left and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Muskie" title="Edmund Muskie">Edmund Muskie</a> is at right, 1987.</figcaption></figure> President Reagan appeared before the Tower Commission on 2 December 1986, to answer questions regarding his involvement in the affair. When asked about his role in authorizing the arms deals, he first stated that he had; later, he appeared to contradict himself by stating that he had no recollection of doing so.<a href="#cite_note-tcr-time-85">[85]</a> In his 1990 autobiography, <a href="/wiki/An_American_Life" title="An American Life">An American Life</a>, Reagan acknowledges authorizing the shipments to Israel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990501-86">[86]</a> The report published by the Tower Commission was delivered to the president on 26 February 1987. The commission had interviewed 80 witnesses to the scheme, including Reagan, and two of the arms trade middlemen: <a href="/wiki/Manucher_Ghorbanifar" title="Manucher Ghorbanifar">Manucher Ghorbanifar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adnan_Khashoggi" title="Adnan Khashoggi">Adnan Khashoggi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tcr-time-85">[85]</a> The 200-page report was the most comprehensive of any released,<a href="#cite_note-tcr-time-85">[85]</a> criticizing the actions of Oliver North, John Poindexter, Caspar Weinberger, and others. It determined that President Reagan did not have knowledge of the extent of the program, especially about the diversion of funds to the Contras, although it argued that the president ought to have had better control of the National Security Council staff. The report heavily criticized Reagan for not properly supervising his subordinates or being aware of their actions. A major result of the Tower Commission was the consensus that Reagan should have listened to his National Security Advisor more, thereby placing more power in the hands of that chair. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Congressional_committees_investigating_the_affair">Congressional committees investigating the affair</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Congressional committees investigating the affair">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Congressional_committees_investigating_the_Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Congressional committees investigating the Iran–Contra affair">Congressional committees investigating the Iran–Contra affair</a></div> In January 1987, Congress announced it was opening an investigation into the Iran–Contra affair. Depending upon one's political perspective, the Congressional investigation into the Iran–Contra affair was either an attempt by the legislative arm to gain control over an out-of-control executive arm, a partisan "witch hunt" by the Democrats against a Republican administration or a feeble effort by Congress that did far too little to rein in the "imperial presidency" that had run amok by breaking numerous laws.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The Democratic-controlled <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> issued its own report on 18 November 1987, stating that "If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing, he should have."<a href="#cite_note-reagan_no-bbc-2">[2]</a> The Congressional report wrote that the president bore "ultimate responsibility" for wrongdoing by his aides, and his administration exhibited "secrecy, deception and disdain for the law".<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> It also read that "the central remaining question is the role of the President in the Iran–Contra affair. On this critical point, the shredding of documents by Poindexter, North and others, and the death of Casey, leave the record incomplete". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> Reagan expressed regret with regard to the situation in a nationally televised address from the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a> on 4 March 1987, and in two other speeches.<a href="#cite_note-speeches-89">[89]</a> Reagan had not spoken to the American people directly for three months amidst the scandal,<a href="#cite_note-pbs-speech-90">[90]</a> and he offered the following explanation for his silence: <blockquote>The reason I haven't spoken to you before now is this: You deserve the truth. And as frustrating as the waiting has been, I felt it was improper to come to you with sketchy reports, or possibly even erroneous statements, which would then have to be corrected, creating even more doubt and confusion. There's been enough of that.<a href="#cite_note-pbs-speech-90">[90]</a></blockquote> Reagan then took full responsibility for the acts committed: <blockquote>First, let me say I take full responsibility for my own actions and for those of my administration. As angry as I may be about activities undertaken without my knowledge, I am still accountable for those activities. As disappointed as I may be in some who served me, I'm still the one who must answer to the American people for this behavior.<a href="#cite_note-pbs-speech-90">[90]</a></blockquote> Finally, the president acknowledged that his previous assertions that the U.S. did not trade arms for hostages were incorrect: <blockquote>A few months ago I told the American people I did not trade arms for hostages. My heart and my best intentions still tell me that's true, but the facts and the evidence tell me it is not. As the Tower board reported, what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages. This runs counter to my own beliefs, to administration policy, and to the original strategy we had in mind.<a href="#cite_note-pbs-speech-90">[90]</a></blockquote> Reagan's role in these transactions is still not definitively known. It is unclear exactly what Reagan knew and when, and whether the arms sales were motivated by his desire to save the U.S. hostages. <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a> wrote that "Ronald Reagan knew of and approved a great deal of what went on with both the Iranian initiative and private efforts on behalf of the contras and he received regular, detailed briefings on both...I have no doubt that he was told about the use of residuals for the Contras, and that he approved it. Enthusiastically."<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Handwritten notes by Defense Secretary Weinberger indicate that the President was aware of potential hostage transfers[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] with Iran, as well as the sale of Hawk and TOW missiles to what he was told were "moderate elements" within Iran.<a href="#cite_note-gwu.edu-92">[92]</a> Notes taken by Weinberger on 7 December 1985 record that Reagan said that "he could answer charges of illegality but he couldn't answer charge that 'big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to free hostages'".<a href="#cite_note-gwu.edu-92">[92]</a> The Republican-written "Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair" made the following conclusion: <blockquote>There is some question and dispute about precisely the level at which he chose to follow the operation details. There is no doubt, however, ... [that] the President set the US policy towards Nicaragua, with few if any ambiguities, and then left subordinates more or less free to implement it.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></blockquote>Domestically, the affair precipitated a drop in President Reagan's popularity. His approval ratings suffered "the largest single drop for any U.S. president in history", from 67% to 46% in November 1986, according to a <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a>/<a href="/wiki/CBS_News" title="CBS News">CBS News</a> poll.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The "Teflon President", as Reagan was nicknamed by critics,<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> survived the affair, however, and his approval rating recovered.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Internationally, the damage was more severe. <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Ranstorp" title="Magnus Ranstorp">Magnus Ranstorp</a> wrote, "U.S. willingness to engage in concessions with Iran and the Hezbollah not only signaled to its adversaries that hostage-taking was an extremely useful instrument in extracting political and financial concessions for the West but also undermined any credibility of U.S. criticism of other states' deviation from the principles of no-negotiation and no concession to terrorists and their demands."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanstorp1997203-97">[97]</a> In Iran, <a href="/wiki/Mehdi_Hashemi" title="Mehdi Hashemi">Mehdi Hashemi</a>, the leaker of the scandal, was executed in 1987, allegedly for activities unrelated to the scandal. Though Hashemi made a full video confession to numerous serious charges, some observers find the coincidence of his leak and the subsequent prosecution highly suspicious.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In 1994, just five years after leaving office, President Reagan announced that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Lawrence Walsh, who was appointed Independent Counsel in 1986 to investigate the transactions later implied Reagan's declining health may have played a role in his handling of the situation. However, Walsh did note that he believed President Reagan's "instincts for the country's good were right".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indictments">Indictments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Indictments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg/220px-Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg/330px-Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg/440px-Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">North</a>'s mugshot,<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> after his arrest</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_Weinberger" title="Caspar Weinberger">Caspar Weinberger</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a>, was indicted on two counts of <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a> and one count of <a href="/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruction of justice">obstruction of justice</a> on 16 June 1992.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> However, he was pardoned by <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> on 24 December 1992, before he could be tried.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._McFarlane" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert C. McFarlane">Robert C. McFarlane</a>, National Security Adviser, convicted of withholding evidence, but after a plea bargain was given only two years of probation. Later pardoned by President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Abrams" title="Elliott Abrams">Elliott Abrams</a>, Assistant <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a>, convicted of withholding evidence, but after a plea bargain was given only two years probation. Later pardoned by President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993xxiii-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_D._Fiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan D. Fiers">Alan D. Fiers</a>, Chief of the CIA's Central American Task Force, convicted of withholding evidence and sentenced to one year probation. Later pardoned by President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clair_George" title="Clair George">Clair George</a>, Chief of Covert Ops-CIA, convicted on two charges of perjury, but pardoned by President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> before sentencing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._17-106">[106]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a>, member of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a> was indicted on 16 charges.<a href="#cite_note-indictment-107">[107]</a> A jury convicted him of accepting an illegal gratuity, obstruction of a Congressional inquiry, and destruction of documents. The convictions were overturned on appeal because his <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> rights may have been violated by use of his immunized public testimony<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> and because the judge had incorrectly explained the crime of destruction of documents to the jury.<a href="#cite_note-dc-north-109">[109]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fawn_Hall" title="Fawn Hall">Fawn Hall</a>, Oliver North's secretary, was given immunity from prosecution on charges of conspiracy and destroying documents in exchange for her testimony.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></li> <li>Jonathan Scott Royster, Liaison to Oliver North, was given immunity from prosecution on charges of conspiracy and destroying documents in exchange for his testimony.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li> <li>National Security Advisor <a href="/wiki/John_Poindexter" title="John Poindexter">John Poindexter</a> was convicted of five counts of conspiracy, obstruction of justice, <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a>, defrauding the government, and the alteration and destruction of evidence. A panel of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">D.C. Circuit</a> overturned the convictions on 15 November 1991 for the same reason the court had overturned Oliver North's, and by the same 2 to 1 vote.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> refused to hear the case.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_Clarridge" title="Duane Clarridge">Duane Clarridge</a>. An ex-CIA senior official, he was indicted in November 1991 on seven counts of perjury and false statements relating to a November 1985 shipment to Iran. Pardoned before trial by President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_V._Secord" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard V. Secord">Richard V. Secord</a>. Former Air Force major general, who was involved in arms transfers to Iran and diversion of funds to Contras, he pleaded guilty in November 1989 to making false statements to Congress and was sentenced to two years of probation. As part of his plea bargain, Secord agreed to provide further truthful testimony in exchange for the dismissal of remaining criminal charges against him.<a href="#cite_note-The_Iran-Contra_Defendants-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnston-15">[15]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hakim" title="Albert Hakim">Albert Hakim</a>. A businessman, he pleaded guilty in November 1989 to supplementing the salary of North by buying a $13,800 fence for North with money from "the Enterprise," which was a set of foreign companies Hakim used in Iran–Contra. In addition, Swiss company Lake Resources Inc., used for storing money from arms sales to Iran to give to the Contras, plead guilty to stealing government property.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Hakim was given two years of probation and a $5,000 fine, while Lake Resources Inc. was ordered to dissolve.<a href="#cite_note-The_Iran-Contra_Defendants-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-nytimesobit-118">[118]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Clines" title="Thomas G. Clines">Thomas G. Clines</a>. A former CIA clandestine service officer. According to Special Prosecutor Walsh, he earned nearly $883,000 helping retired Air Force Maj. Gen. Richard V. Secord and Albert Hakim carry out the secret operations of "the Enterprise". He was indicted for concealing the full amount of his Enterprise profits for the 1985 and 1986 tax years, and for failing to declare his foreign financial accounts. He was convicted and served 16 months in prison, the only Iran–Contra defendant to have served a prison sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._11-119">[119]</a></li></ul> The <a href="/wiki/Independent_Counsel" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Counsel">Independent Counsel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Edward_Walsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Edward Walsh">Lawrence E. Walsh</a>, chose not to re-try North or Poindexter.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_1992-120">[120]</a> In total, several dozen people were investigated by Walsh's office.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="George_H._W._Bush's_involvement">George H. W. Bush's involvement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: George H. W. Bush's involvement">edit</a>]</div> On 27 July 1986, Israeli counterterrorism expert <a href="/wiki/Amiram_Nir" title="Amiram Nir">Amiram Nir</a> briefed Vice President Bush in Jerusalem about the weapon sales to Iran.<a href="#cite_note-apnews.com;_2_December_1988-122">[122]</a> In an interview with The Washington Post in August 1987, Bush stated that he was denied information about the operation and did not know about the diversion of funds.<a href="#cite_note-The_Washington_Post;_6_August_1987-123">[123]</a> Bush said that he had not advised Reagan to reject the initiative because he had not heard strong objections to it.<a href="#cite_note-The_Washington_Post;_6_August_1987-123">[123]</a> The Post quoted him as stating, "We were not in the loop."<a href="#cite_note-The_Washington_Post;_6_August_1987-123">[123]</a> The following month, Bush recounted meeting Nir in his September 1987 autobiography Looking Forward, stating that he began to develop misgivings about the Iran initiative.<a href="#cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times;_6_September_1987-124">[124]</a> He wrote that he did not learn the full extent of the Iran dealings until he was briefed by Senator <a href="/wiki/David_Durenberger" title="David Durenberger">David Durenberger</a> regarding a Senate inquiry into them.<a href="#cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times;_6_September_1987-124">[124]</a> Bush added the briefing with Durenberger left him with the feeling he had "been deliberately excluded from key meetings involving details of the Iran operation".<a href="#cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times;_6_September_1987-124">[124]</a> In January 1988 during a live interview with Bush on <a href="/wiki/CBS_Evening_News" title="CBS Evening News">CBS Evening News</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dan_Rather" title="Dan Rather">Dan Rather</a> told Bush that his unwillingness to speak about the scandal led "people to say 'either George Bush was irrelevant or he was ineffective, he set himself outside of the loop.'"<a href="#cite_note-NPR;_6_December_2018-125">[125]</a> Bush replied, "May I explain what I mean by 'out of the loop'? No operational role."<a href="#cite_note-NPR;_6_December_2018-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Although Bush publicly insisted that he knew little about the operation, his statements were contradicted by excerpts of his diary released by the White House in January 1993.<a href="#cite_note-NPR;_6_December_2018-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_New_York_Times;_16_January_1993-127">[127]</a> An entry dated 5 November 1986 stated: "On the news at this time is the question of the hostages... I'm one of the few people that know fully the details, and there is a lot of flak and misinformation out there. It is not a subject we can talk about..."<a href="#cite_note-NPR;_6_December_2018-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_New_York_Times;_16_January_1993-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pardons">Pardons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pardons">edit</a>]</div> On 24 December 1992, after he had been defeated for <a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">reelection</a>, President George H. W. Bush pardoned five administration officials who had been found guilty on charges relating to the affair.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> They were: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Abrams" title="Elliott Abrams">Elliott Abrams</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_Clarridge" title="Duane Clarridge">Duane Clarridge</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Fiers" title="Alan Fiers">Alan Fiers</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clair_George" title="Clair George">Clair George</a>; and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_McFarlane_(American_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert McFarlane (American politician)">Robert McFarlane</a>.</li></ol> Bush also pardoned <a href="/wiki/Caspar_Weinberger" title="Caspar Weinberger">Caspar Weinberger</a>, who had not yet come to trial.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Attorney General <a href="/wiki/William_P._Barr" class="mw-redirect" title="William P. Barr">William P. Barr</a> advised the President on these pardons, especially that of Caspar Weinberger.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> In response to these Bush pardons, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Office_of_Special_Counsel" title="United States Department of Justice Office of Special Counsel">Independent Counsel</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_E._Walsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence E. Walsh">Lawrence E. Walsh</a>, who headed the investigation of Reagan administration officials' criminal conduct in the Iran–Contra scandal, stated that "the Iran-contra cover-up, which has continued for more than six years, has now been completed." Walsh noted that in issuing the pardons Bush appears to have been preempting being implicated himself in the crimes of Iran–Contra by evidence that was to come to light during the Weinberger trial, and noted that there was a pattern of "deception and obstruction" by Bush, Weinberger and other senior Reagan administration officials.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_1992-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-ghwbush-pardons-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Firewall-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_interpretations">Modern interpretations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern interpretations">edit</a>]</div> The Iran–Contra affair and the ensuing deception to protect senior administration officials (including President Reagan) was cast as an example of <a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">post-truth politics</a> by Malcolm Byrne of George Washington University.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reports_and_documents">Reports and documents</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reports and documents">edit</a>]</div> The 100th Congress formed a <a href="/wiki/Joint_Committee_of_the_United_States_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Committee of the United States Congress">Joint Committee of the United States Congress</a> (<a href="/wiki/Congressional_committees_investigating_the_Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Congressional committees investigating the Iran–Contra affair">Congressional committees investigating the Iran–Contra affair</a>) and held hearings in mid-1987. Transcripts were published as: Iran-Contra Investigation: Joint Hearings Before the Senate Select Committee on Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Nicaraguan Opposition and the House Select Committee to Investigate Covert Arms Transactions with Iran (<a href="/wiki/U.S._GPO" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. GPO">U.S. GPO</a> 1987–88). A closed Executive Session heard classified testimony from North and Poindexter; this transcript was published in a <a href="/wiki/Redaction" title="Redaction">redacted</a> format. The joint committee's final report was Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair With Supplemental, Minority, and Additional Views (U.S. GPO 17 November 1987). The records of the committee are at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a>, but many are still non-public.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Testimony was also heard before the <a href="/wiki/House_Foreign_Affairs_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="House Foreign Affairs Committee">House Foreign Affairs Committee</a>, <a href="/wiki/House_Permanent_Select_Committee_on_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence">House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Senate_Select_Committee_on_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Select Committee on Intelligence">Senate Select Committee on Intelligence</a> and can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Record" title="Congressional Record">Congressional Record</a> for those bodies. The Senate Intelligence Committee produced two reports: Preliminary Inquiry into the Sale of Arms to Iran and Possible Diversion of Funds to the Nicaraguan Resistance (2 February 1987) and Were Relevant Documents Withheld from the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair? (June 1989).<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The Tower Commission Report was published as the Report of the President's Special Review Board (U.S. GPO 26 February 1987). It was also published as The Tower Commission Report by Bantam Books (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-26968-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-26968-2">0-553-26968-2</a>). The Office of Independent Counsel/Walsh investigation produced four interim reports to Congress. Its final report was published as the Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters. Walsh's records are available at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg/25px-Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg/38px-Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg/51px-Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="530" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:1980s" title="Portal:1980s">1980s portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Israel–United States relations">Israel–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel%27s_role_in_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel's role in the Iran–Iraq War">Israel's role in the Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Timeline of the Iran–Contra affair">Timeline of the Iran–Contra affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brokers_of_Death_arms_case" title="Brokers of Death arms case">Brokers of Death arms case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_involvement_in_Contra_cocaine_trafficking" title="CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking">CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_committees_investigating_the_Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Congressional committees investigating the Iran–Contra affair">Congressional committees investigating the Iran–Contra affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_relations" title="Iran–Iraq relations">Iran–Iraq relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_relations" title="Iran–Israel relations">Iran–Israel relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Iran–United States relations">Iran–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq%E2%80%93Israel_relations" title="Iraq–Israel relations">Iraq–Israel relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Iraq–United States relations">Iraq–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Latin America–United States relations">Latin America–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">List of federal political scandals in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Northrop" title="William Northrop">William Northrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_October_Surprise_theory" title="1980 October Surprise theory">1980 October Surprise theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tipped_Kettle" title="Operation Tipped Kettle">Operation Tipped Kettle</a> (the transfer of PLO weapons which were seized by Israel in Lebanon to the Contras)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_state-sponsored_terrorism" title="United States and state-sponsored terrorism">United States and state-sponsored terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_foreign_policy_in_the_Middle_East" title="United States foreign policy in the Middle East">United States foreign policy in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change_in_Latin_America" title="United States involvement in regime change in Latin America">United States involvement in regime change in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/">The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320063803/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/">Archived</a> 20 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The National Security Archive (George Washington University), 2006-11-24 </li> <li id="cite_note-reagan_no-bbc-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reagan_no-bbc_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reagan_no-bbc_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reagan_no-bbc_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/213195.stm">"Reagan's mixed White House legacy"</a>. BBC. 6 June 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110209052941/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/213195.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Reagan%27s+mixed+White+House+legacy&rft.date=2004-06-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Famericas%2F213195.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-plain-and-simple-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-plain-and-simple_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-plain-and-simple_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterfield1988" class="citation news cs1">Butterfield, Fox (27 November 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/27/books/arms-for-hostages-plain-and-simple.html">"Arms for Hostages – Plain and Simple"</a>. The New York Times (National ed.). sec. 7. p. 10. Retrieved 29 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Arms+for+Hostages+%E2%80%93+Plain+and+Simple&rft.pages=sec.+7.+p.+10&rft.date=1988-11-27&rft.aulast=Butterfield&rft.aufirst=Fox&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1988%2F11%2F27%2Fbooks%2Farms-for-hostages-plain-and-simple.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbshire2005" class="citation book cs1">Abshire, David (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uYZA3d2I82sC&dq=ghorbanifar+arms+hostages&pg=PA60">Saving the Reagan Presidency: Trust Is the Coin of the Realm</a>. Texas A&M University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781603446204" title="Special:BookSources/9781603446204"><bdi>9781603446204</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411121031/https://books.google.com/books?id=uYZA3d2I82sC&dq=ghorbanifar+arms+hostages&pg=PA60">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saving+the+Reagan+Presidency%3A+Trust+Is+the+Coin+of+the+Realm&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781603446204&rft.aulast=Abshire&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuYZA3d2I82sC%26dq%3Dghorbanifar%2Barms%2Bhostages%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValentine2008" class="citation book cs1">Valentine, Douglas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r71u_AgE7iYC&dq=ghorbanifar+arms+hostages&pg=PA82">Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War</a>. Praeger Security International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313352416" title="Special:BookSources/9780313352416"><bdi>9780313352416</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405193201/https://books.google.com/books?id=r71u_AgE7iYC&dq=ghorbanifar%20arms%20hostages&pg=PA82">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2023. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessweek.com/1997/25/b353254.htm">the original</a> on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Week&rft.atitle=Pointing+a+Finger+at+Reagan&rft.au=Dwyer%2C+Paula&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessweek.com%2F1997%2F25%2Fb353254.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ghwbush-pardons-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ghwbush-pardons_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ghwbush-pardons_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201223060117/https://www.justice.gov/pardon/ghwbush-pardons">"Pardons Granted by President George H. W. Bush (1989–1993)"</a>. 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The New York Times (National ed.). sec. A. p. 24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181118183321/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/09/us/secord-is-guilty-of-one-charge-in-contra-affair.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 November 2018. 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The New York Times (National ed.). sec. 1. p. 6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719234902/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/19/world/ortega-faulting-reagan-warns-of-coming-war.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 15 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Ortega%2C+Faulting+Reagan%2C+Warns+of+Coming+War&rft.pages=sec.+1.+p.+6&rft.date=1986-10-19&rft.aulast=Lemoyne&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F10%2F19%2Fworld%2Fortega-faulting-reagan-warns-of-coming-war.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayton1988" class="citation news cs1">Payton, Brenda (4 April 1988). "Is U.S. Backing Contras with Drug Funds?". 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London. pp. 260–269. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78738-247-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78738-247-3"><bdi>978-1-78738-247-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1100767741">1100767741</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apartheid+guns+and+money+%3A+a+tale+of+profit&rft.place=London&rft.pages=260-269&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1100767741&rft.isbn=978-1-78738-247-3&rft.aulast=Van+Vuuren&rft.aufirst=Hennie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHgyXDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-26"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlaut2018" class="citation web cs1">Plaut, Martin (3 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qz.com/africa/1449906/china-soviets-backed-both-south-africa-apartheid-and-liberation/">"The Chinese and Soviets had a bigger role in supporting apartheid than we previously knew"</a>. 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Retrieved 3 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+San+Diego+Union+Tribune&rft.atitle=From+the+Archives%3A+Ronald+Regan+first+invoked+the+25th+Amendment+in+1985&rft.date=2021-01-08&rft.aulast=Monteagudo&rft.aufirst=Merrie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sandiegouniontribune.com%2Fnews%2Flocal-history%2Fstory%2F2021-01-08%2Ffrom-the-archives-ronald-regan-first-invoked-the-25th-amendment-in-1985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990505_38-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFReagan1990">Reagan 1990</a>, p. 505. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._24-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._24_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalsh1993">Walsh 1993</a>, chpt. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993Part_I-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993Part_I_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993Part_I_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalsh1993">Walsh 1993</a>, Part I. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990506-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990506_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReagan1990">Reagan 1990</a>, p. 506. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214–215-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993214–215_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKornbluhByrne1993">Kornbluh & Byrne 1993</a>, pp. 214–215. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993215-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluhByrne1993215_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKornbluhByrne1993">Kornbluh & Byrne 1993</a>, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/19/world/iran-contra-report-arms-hostages-contras-secret-foreign-policy-unraveled.html">"Arms, Hostages and Contras: How a Secret Foreign Policy Unraveled"</a>. 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Retrieved 7 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Arms%2C+Hostages+and+Contras%3A+How+a+Secret+Foreign+Policy+Unraveled&rft.pages=sec.+A.+p.+12&rft.date=1987-11-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F11%2F19%2Fworld%2Firan-contra-report-arms-hostages-contras-secret-foreign-policy-unraveled.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamiltonInouye1987-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamiltonInouye1987_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHamiltonInouye1987">Hamilton & Inouye 1987</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140320212108/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1985/120485d.htm">"Letter Accepting the Resignation of Robert C. 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Retrieved 4 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+Accepting+the+Resignation+of+Robert+C.+McFarlane+as+Assistant+to+the+President+for+National+Security+Affairs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reagan.utexas.edu%2Farchives%2Fspeeches%2F1985%2F120485d.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._1-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalsh1993chpt._1_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalsh1993">Walsh 1993</a>, chpt. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990509-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990509_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReagan1990">Reagan 1990</a>, p. 509. </li> <li id="cite_note-JP-49"><a href="#cite_ref-JP_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/profile-poindexter.php">"Understanding the Iran-Contra Affairs - The Legal Aftermath"</a>. www.brown.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220517095623/https://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/profile-poindexter.php">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2022. 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Retrieved 28 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Brunei+Regains+%2410+Million&rft.pages=sec.+A.+p.+9&rft.date=1987-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F07%2F22%2Fworld%2Firan-contra-hearings-brunei-regains-10-million.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990516-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990516_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990516_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFReagan1990">Reagan 1990</a>, p. 516. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gwertzman-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gwertzman_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gwertzman_60-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGwertzman1987" class="citation news cs1">Gwertzman, Bernard (11 January 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/11/us/mcfarlane-took-cake-and-bible-to-teheran-ex-cia-man-says.html">"McFarlane Took Cake and Bible to Teheran, Ex-C.I.A. Man Says"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190928033814/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/11/us/mcfarlane-took-cake-and-bible-to-teheran-ex-cia-man-says.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=McFarlane+Took+Cake+and+Bible+to+Teheran%2C+Ex-C.I.A.+Man+Says&rft.date=1987-01-11&rft.aulast=Gwertzman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F01%2F11%2Fus%2Fmcfarlane-took-cake-and-bible-to-teheran-ex-cia-man-says.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-01-28-mn-1439-story.html">"Calls President Courageous but Weak : Iranian Exhibits Bible Signed by Reagan"</a>. Los Angeles Times. 28 January 1987. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111120052254/http://articles.latimes.com/1987-01-28/news/mn-1439_1_rafsanjani">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Calls+President+Courageous+but+Weak+%3A+Iranian+Exhibits+Bible+Signed+by+Reagan&rft.date=1987-01-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1987-01-28-mn-1439-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETowerMuskieScowcroft1987B-100-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETowerMuskieScowcroft1987B-100_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTowerMuskieScowcroft1987">Tower, Muskie & Scowcroft 1987</a>, p. B-100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReagan1990520–521-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990520–521_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReagan1990520–521_63-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFReagan1990">Reagan 1990</a>, pp. 520–521. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReport_of_the_President's_Special_Review_Board1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tower_Commission" title="Tower Commission">President's Special Review Board</a> (26 February 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pur1.32754062647601;view=2up;seq=1">Report of the President's Special Review Board</a>. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/15243889">15243889</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160205142211/http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pur1.32754062647601;view=2up;seq=1">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2016. 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Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060707232328/http://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0994/9409008.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2006. Retrieved 9 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Secret+1986+U.S.%E2%80%93Iran+%22Arms+for+Hostages%22+Negotiations+Failed&rft.pub=Washington+Report+on+Middle+Eastern+Affairs&rft.aulast=Cave&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wrmea.com%2Fbackissues%2F0994%2F9409008.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHersh2019" class="citation journal cs1">Hersh, Seymour M. 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Retrieved 18 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=London+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=The+Vice+President%27s+Men&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=9-12&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Hersh&rft.aufirst=Seymour+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lrb.co.uk%2Fv41%2Fn02%2Fseymour-m-hersh%2Fthe-vice-presidents-men&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-has1-73"><a href="#cite_ref-nyt-has1_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/12/weekinreview/in-summary-nicaragua-downs-plane-and-survivor-implicates-cia.html">"Nicaragua Downs Plane and Survivor Implicates C.I.A."</a> The New York Times (National ed.). 12 October 1986. p. 4004001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719054836/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/12/weekinreview/in-summary-nicaragua-downs-plane-and-survivor-implicates-cia.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nicaragua+Downs+Plane+and+Survivor+Implicates+C.I.A.&rft.pages=4004001&rft.date=1986-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F10%2F12%2Fweekinreview%2Fin-summary-nicaragua-downs-plane-and-survivor-implicates-cia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-has2-74"><a href="#cite_ref-nyt-has2_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/03/world/hasenfus-tempers-comments-on-cia.html">"Hasenfus Tempers Comments on C.I.A."</a> The New York Times (National ed.). 3 November 1986. sec. A. p. 6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719054743/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/03/world/hasenfus-tempers-comments-on-cia.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hasenfus+Tempers+Comments+on+C.I.A.&rft.pages=sec.+A.+p.+6&rft.date=1986-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F11%2F03%2Fworld%2Fhasenfus-tempers-comments-on-cia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wapo87-75"><a href="#cite_ref-wapo87_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/longterm/tours/scandal/fawnhall.htm">"washingtonpost.com: Hall Testifies of Necessity 'To Go Above Written Law'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210128070311/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/longterm/tours/scandal/fawnhall.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2021. 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A. p. 12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190629151545/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/26/world/white-house-shake-up-task-handed-state-dept-poindexter-north-have-limited.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Poindexter+and+North+Have+Limited+Options&rft.pages=sec.+A.+p.+12&rft.date=1986-11-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F11%2F26%2Fworld%2Fwhite-house-shake-up-task-handed-state-dept-poindexter-north-have-limited.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Timeline-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Timeline_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100421212207/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/reagan/timeline/index_5.html">"Timeline of Ronald Reagan's life"</a>. PBS. 2000. 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Retrieved 5 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Bush+Asserts+Vindication+in+Iran+Affair&rft.date=1987-08-06&rft.aulast=Broder&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1987%2F08%2F06%2Fbush-asserts-vindication-in-iran-affair%2Fedd22f72-7177-4c22-a25a-dbba3b1524ad%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times;_6_September_1987-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Los_Angeles_Times;_6_September_1987_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Los_Angeles_Times;_6_September_1987_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Los_Angeles_Times;_6_September_1987_124-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-09-06-mn-6282-story.html">"Bush Barred From Iran Talks, He Writes"</a>. Los Angeles Times. 6 September 1987. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421063300/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-09-06-mn-6282-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 5 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Bush+Barred+From+Iran+Talks%2C+He+Writes&rft.date=1987-09-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1987-09-06-mn-6282-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPR;_6_December_2018-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NPR;_6_December_2018_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPR;_6_December_2018_125-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPR;_6_December_2018_125-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPR;_6_December_2018_125-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelna2018" class="citation news cs1">Welna, David (6 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2018/12/06/674079779/george-h-w-bushs-mixed-legacy-in-a-reagan-era-scandal">"George H.W. Bush's Mixed Legacy in a Reagan-Era Scandal"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190531031324/https://www.npr.org/2018/12/06/674079779/george-h-w-bushs-mixed-legacy-in-a-reagan-era-scandal">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 14 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=George+H.W.+Bush%27s+Mixed+Legacy+in+a+Reagan-Era+Scandal&rft.date=2018-12-06&rft.aulast=Welna&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2018%2F12%2F06%2F674079779%2Fgeorge-h-w-bushs-mixed-legacy-in-a-reagan-era-scandal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBush1988" class="citation interview cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush, George</a> (25 January 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1988/01/27/text-of-dan-rathers-interview-with-george-bush/7ae836b4-c06a-45b1-8138-24efbd59a944/">"Text of Dan Rather's Interview With George Bush"</a>. CBS Evening News (Interview). Interviewed by <a href="/wiki/Dan_Rather" title="Dan Rather">Dan Rather</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201116090018/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1988/01/27/text-of-dan-rathers-interview-with-george-bush/7ae836b4-c06a-45b1-8138-24efbd59a944/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 14 November 2020 – via The Washington Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBS+Evening+News&rft.atitle=Text+of+Dan+Rather%27s+Interview+With+George+Bush&rft.date=1988-01-25&rft.aulast=Bush&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Flifestyle%2F1988%2F01%2F27%2Ftext-of-dan-rathers-interview-with-george-bush%2F7ae836b4-c06a-45b1-8138-24efbd59a944%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_New_York_Times;_16_January_1993-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_New_York_Times;_16_January_1993_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_New_York_Times;_16_January_1993_127-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/16/us/excerpts-from-the-portions-of-bush-s-diaries-released-by-the-white-house.html">"Excerpts From the Portions of Bush's Diaries Released by the White House"</a>. The New York Times. 16 January 1993. sec. 1. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201115010519/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/16/us/excerpts-from-the-portions-of-bush-s-diaries-released-by-the-white-house.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 14 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Excerpts+From+the+Portions+of+Bush%27s+Diaries+Released+by+the+White+House&rft.pages=sec.+1.+p.+8&rft.date=1993-01-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1993%2F01%2F16%2Fus%2Fexcerpts-from-the-portions-of-bush-s-diaries-released-by-the-white-house.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoppler1993" class="citation journal cs1">Doppler, Jack (January 1993). "No Longer News: The Trial of the Century That Wasn't". ABA Journal. 79 (1): 56–59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABA+Journal&rft.atitle=No+Longer+News%3A+The+Trial+of+the+Century+That+Wasn%27t&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=56-59&rft.date=1993-01&rft.aulast=Doppler&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBush1992" class="citation web cs1">Bush, George H. W. (24 December 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/print.php?pid=20265">"Proclamation 6518 – Grant of Executive Clemency"</a>. The American Presidency Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080514002544/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/print.php?pid=20265">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Proclamation+6518+%E2%80%93+Grant+of+Executive+Clemency&rft.pub=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.date=1992-12-24&rft.aulast=Bush&rft.aufirst=George+H.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Fprint.php%3Fpid%3D20265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history-assistant-attorney-general">"William P. Barr Oral History, Assistant Attorney General; Deputy Attorney General; Attorney General"</a>. Miller Center. 27 October 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181207045728/https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history-assistant-attorney-general">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Miller+Center&rft.atitle=William+P.+Barr+Oral+History%2C+Assistant+Attorney+General%3B+Deputy+Attorney+General%3B+Attorney+General&rft.date=2016-10-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fthe-presidency%2Fpresidential-oral-histories%2Fwilliam-p-barr-oral-history-assistant-attorney-general&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB567-Iran-Contra-Reagan-Oliver-North-and-Post-Truth-30-years-later/">The Iran-Contra Affair 30 Years Later: A Milestone in Post-Truth Politics: Declassified Records Recall Official Deception in the Name of Protecting a Presidency</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211223140903/https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/iran/2016-11-25/iran-contra-affair-30-years-later-milestone-post-truth-politics">Archived</a> 23 December 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 25 November 2016; National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 567; Edited by Malcolm Byrne, Retrieved 26 November 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/senate/chapter-18-1969-1988.html#18F-2">Iran-Contra joint committee</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170719181116/https://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/senate/chapter-18-1969-1988.html#18F-2">Archived</a> 19 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> documents, at the National Archives. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> The two Senate Intelligence Committee reports are online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://intelligence.senate.gov/pub100thcongress.html">senate.gov, 100th Congress</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110407151245/http://intelligence.senate.gov/pub100thcongress.html">Archived</a> 7 April 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://intelligence.senate.gov/pub101stcongress.html">101st Congress</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/investigations/walsh.html">"Records of Lawrence Walsh relating to Iran/Contra"</a>. 4 October 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170819021931/https://www.archives.gov/research/investigations/walsh.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Records+of+Lawrence+Walsh+relating+to+Iran%2FContra&rft.date=2012-10-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fresearch%2Finvestigations%2Fwalsh.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanham-Clyne1992" class="citation journal cs1">Canham-Clyne, John (Fall–Winter 1992). "Business as Usual: Iran-Contra and the National Security State". <a href="/wiki/World_Policy_Journal" title="World Policy Journal">World Policy Journal</a>. 9 (4): 617–637. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0740-2775">0740-2775</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209272">40209272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Policy+Journal&rft.atitle=Business+as+Usual%3A+Iran-Contra+and+the+National+Security+State&rft.chron=fall%E2%80%93winter&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=617-637&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40209272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0740-2775&rft.aulast=Canham-Clyne&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamiltonInouye1987" class="citation report cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lee_Hamilton" title="Lee Hamilton">Hamilton, Lee H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Inouye" title="Daniel Inouye">Inouye, Daniel K.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ew_K3auTwEgC">Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran–Contra Affair</a> (Report). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Government Printing Office">U.S. Government Printing Office</a> (published 1995).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Congressional+Committees+Investigating+the+Iran%E2%80%93Contra+Affair&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Lee+H.&rft.au=Inouye%2C+Daniel+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dew_K3auTwEgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks1996" class="citation journal cs1">Hicks, D. Bruce (Fall 1996). "Presidential Foreign Policy Prerogative after the Iran-Contra Affair: A Review Essay". <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Studies_Quarterly" title="Presidential Studies Quarterly">Presidential Studies Quarterly</a>. 26 (4): 962–977. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0360-4918">0360-4918</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551664">27551664</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/215685196">215685196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Presidential+Foreign+Policy+Prerogative+after+the+Iran-Contra+Affair%3A+A+Review+Essay&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=962-977&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27551664%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0360-4918&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=D.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornbluhByrne1993" class="citation book cs1">Kornbluh, Peter; Byrne, Malcolm, eds. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/irancontrascanda00korn">The Iran-contra scandal: the declassified history</a>. A National Security Archive documents reader. New York: <a href="/wiki/New_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="New Press">New Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-024-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-024-9"><bdi>978-1-56584-024-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iran-contra+scandal%3A+the+declassified+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=A+National+Security+Archive+documents+reader&rft.pub=New+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-56584-024-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Firancontrascanda00korn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanstorp1997" class="citation book cs1">Ranstorp, Magnus (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hizballahinleban00rans">Hizb'allah in Lebanon: the politics of the western hostage crisis</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Press" title="St. Martin's Press">St. Martin's Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-16288-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-16288-7"><bdi>978-0-312-16288-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hizb%27allah+in+Lebanon%3A+the+politics+of+the+western+hostage+crisis&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-312-16288-7&rft.aulast=Ranstorp&rft.aufirst=Magnus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhizballahinleban00rans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReagan1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan, Ronald</a> (1990). <a href="/wiki/An_American_Life" title="An American Life">An American life</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-69198-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-69198-1"><bdi>978-0-671-69198-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+American+life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-671-69198-1&rft.aulast=Reagan&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShenonEngelberg1987" class="citation news cs1">Shenon, Philip; Engelberg, Stephen (5 July 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/05/world/eight-important-days-in-november-unraveling-the-iran-contra-affair.html">"Eight Important Days in November: Unraveling of the Iran–Contra Affair"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> (National ed.). sec. 1. p. 10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181005111911/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/05/world/eight-important-days-in-november-unraveling-the-iran-contra-affair.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 15 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Eight+Important+Days+in+November%3A+Unraveling+of+the+Iran%E2%80%93Contra+Affair&rft.pages=sec.+1.+p.+10&rft.date=1987-07-05&rft.aulast=Shenon&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Engelberg%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F07%2F05%2Fworld%2Feight-important-days-in-november-unraveling-the-iran-contra-affair.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTowerMuskieScowcroft1987" class="citation report cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Tower" title="John Tower">Tower, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Muskie" title="Edmund Muskie">Muskie, Edmund</a>; <a href="/wiki/Brent_Scowcroft" title="Brent Scowcroft">Scowcroft, Brent</a> (26 February 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TowerCommission">Report of the President's Special Review Board</a> (Report). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Government Printing Office">U.S. Government Printing Office</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/15243889">15243889</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+President%27s+Special+Review+Board&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1987-02-26&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F15243889&rft.aulast=Tower&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Muskie%2C+Edmund&rft.au=Scowcroft%2C+Brent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTowerCommission&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh1993" class="citation report cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Walsh" title="Lawrence Walsh">Walsh, Lawrence E.</a> (4 August 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/WalshReport">Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters</a> (Report). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Government Printing Office">U.S. Government Printing Office</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/622094674">622094674</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Final+Report+of+the+Independent+Counsel+for+Iran%2FContra+Matters&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1993-08-04&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F622094674&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FWalshReport&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodward1987" class="citation book cs1">Woodward, Bob (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kO2ySFSqRaQC">Veil: the secret wars of the CIA, 1981-1987</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-60117-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-60117-1"><bdi>978-0-671-60117-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Veil%3A+the+secret+wars+of+the+CIA%2C+1981-1987&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-671-60117-1&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkO2ySFSqRaQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIran%E2%80%93Contra+affair" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/">Understanding the Iran–Contra Affairs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190117012125/http://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/">Archived</a> 17 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130313145043/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552513">The Iranian Arms Scandal</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120312181034/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120728041441/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552661">The Contras: a question of US Funding</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li> <li>Busby, Robert (2011-02-03) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110205125404/http://www.salon.com/news/politics/war_room/2011/02/03/busby_iran_contra/index.html">The scandal that almost destroyed Ronald Reagan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salon.com" title="Salon.com">Salon.com</a></li> <li>Church, George J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,962858,00.html">"The U.S. and Iran"</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130824211212/https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C962858%2C00.html">Archive</a>). <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Monday 17 November 1986.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycommons.org/project.jsp?project=irancontra">Iran–Contra and Arms-for-Hostages Scandals</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210314180714/http://www.historycommons.org/project.jsp?project=irancontra">Archived</a> 14 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) on History Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/index.htm">The Iran–Contra Affair 20 Years On</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150219062114/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/index.htm">Archived</a> 19 February 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: Documents Spotlight Role of Reagan, Top Aides. By the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Archive" title="National Security Archive">National Security Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070617230049/http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2007/issue2/jv11no2a5.html">How the Reagan Administration Taught Iran the Wrong Lessons</a> – Middle East Review of International Affairs, June, 2007 article by Nathan Thrall</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheSecretGovernmentTheConstitutioninCrisis">Audio</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3505348655137118430">"The Secret Government: The Constitution in Crisis"</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070611090100/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3505348655137118430">Archived</a> 11 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>), 1987 <a href="/wiki/Bill_Moyers" title="Bill Moyers">Bill Moyers</a> special on the Iran–Contra Affair</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051026005928/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ir/Irancont.html">Condensed article outlining Iran–Contra</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2011/11/29/the-importance-of-the-iran-contra-scandal-25-years-later/">The Importance of the Iran–Contra Scandal, 25 Years Later</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170727144342/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2011/11/29/the-importance-of-the-iran-contra-scandal-25-years-later/">Archived</a> 27 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB483/">Iran–Contra: Reagan's Scandal and the Unchecked Abuse of Presidential Power</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150204082930/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB483/">Archived</a> 4 February 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) by Malcolm Byrne (University Press of Kansas, 2014)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150526131250/http://adst.org/2015/04/the-iran-contra-scandal/">Personal accounts of the U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon and other State Department officials</a>—Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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California">33rd</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_California" title="Governor of California">Governor of California</a> (1967–1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birthplace_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Birthplace of Ronald Reagan">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._C._Pitney_Variety_Store_Building" title="H. C. Pitney Variety Store Building">Pitney Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Boyhood_Home" title="Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home">Boyhood home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rancho_del_Cielo" title="Rancho del Cielo">Rancho del Cielo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_filmography" title="Ronald Reagan filmography">Filmography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Political positions of Ronald Reagan">Political positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorship_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Governorship of Ronald Reagan">Governorship of California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Presidential_Library" title="Ronald Reagan Presidential Library">Presidential Library and Museum </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Era">Reagan Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan">Death and state funeral</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Portrait_of_President_Reagan_1981-cropped.jpg/100px-Official_Portrait_of_President_Reagan_1981-cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Portrait_of_President_Reagan_1981-cropped.jpg/150px-Official_Portrait_of_President_Reagan_1981-cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Portrait_of_President_Reagan_1981-cropped.jpg/200px-Official_Portrait_of_President_Reagan_1981-cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1793" data-file-height="2355" /> <a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidential transition of Ronald Reagan">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="First inauguration of Ronald Reagan">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Domestic policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Economic policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981" title="Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981">Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Reform_Act_of_1986" title="Tax Reform Act of 1986">Tax Reform Act of 1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan">Assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">1st term</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">2nd term</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union summits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">Geneva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Summit_(1987)" title="Washington Summit (1987)">Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty" title="Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty">INF Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Summit_(1988)" title="Moscow Summit (1988)">Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governors_Island_Summit" title="Governors Island Summit">Governors Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_engagement" title="Constructive engagement">Constructive engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iran–Contra affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_United_States_bombing_of_Libya" title="1986 United States bombing of Libya">Libya bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Cannabis policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Cannabis policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_presidential_trips_made_by_Ronald_Reagan" title="List of international presidential trips made by Ronald Reagan">International trips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Grace_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="The Grace Commission">The Grace Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan#Administration_and_Cabinet" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Ronald_Reagan" title="List of federal judges appointed by Ronald Reagan">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Ronald Reagan judicial appointment controversies">controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_administration_scandals" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan administration scandals">Administration scandals</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_begin_bombing_in_five_minutes" title="We begin bombing in five minutes">We begin bombing in five minutes</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Ronald_Reagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Efforts to impeach Ronald Reagan">Impeachment efforts</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Ronald_Wilson_Reagan/Executive_orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Ronald Wilson Reagan/Executive orders">Executive orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Ronald_Wilson_Reagan/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Ronald Wilson Reagan/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential proclamations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidential transition of George H. W. Bush">Bush transition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speeches_and_debates_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Speeches and debates of Ronald Reagan">Speeches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Speaks_Out_Against_Socialized_Medicine" title="Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine">Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Time_for_Choosing" title="A Time for Choosing">"A Time for Choosing"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan%27s_Neshoba_County_Fair_%22states%27_rights%22_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan's Neshoba County Fair "states' rights" speech">Reagan's Neshoba County Fair "states' rights" speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="First inauguration of Ronald Reagan">First inaugural address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan">Second inaugural address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ash_heap_of_history" title="Ash heap of history">"Ash heap of history"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_Empire_speech" title="Evil Empire speech">"Evil empire"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tear_down_this_wall!" title="Tear down this wall!">"Tear down this wall!"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_1981_Ronald_Reagan_speech_to_a_joint_session_of_Congress" title="February 1981 Ronald Reagan speech to a joint session of Congress">Joint session of Congress</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1982_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1982 State of the Union Address">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1983 State of the Union Address">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1984 State of the Union Address">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1985 State of the Union Address">1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1986 State of the Union Address">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1987 State of the Union Address">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1988 State of the Union Address">1988</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Bibliography of Ronald Reagan">Books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/An_American_Life" title="An American Life">An American Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Reagan_Diaries" title="The Reagan Diaries">The Reagan Diaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Electoral history of Ronald Reagan">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1966_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1966 California gubernatorial election">1966 California gubernatorial election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Eleventh_Commandment_(Ronald_Reagan)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Eleventh Commandment (Ronald Reagan)">11th commandment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1970 California gubernatorial election">1970 California gubernatorial election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Republican Party presidential primaries">Republican presidential primaries (1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1976 Republican Party presidential primaries">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1980 Republican Party presidential primaries">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1984 Republican Party presidential primaries">1984)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention" title="1968 Republican National Convention">Republican National Convention (1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Republican_National_Convention" title="1976 Republican National Convention">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_National_Convention" title="1980 Republican National Convention">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_National_Convention" title="1984 Republican National Convention">1984)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_1976_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1976 presidential campaign">1976 presidential campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_1980_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign">1980 presidential campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/There_you_go_again" title="There you go again">"There you go again"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again" title="Make America Great Again">"Let's make America great again"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_1984_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1984 presidential campaign">1984 presidential campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morning_in_America" title="Morning in America">"Morning in America"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_in_the_woods" title="Bear in the woods">"Bear in the woods"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election" title="1976 United States presidential election">United States presidential election (1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election" title="1984 United States presidential election">1984)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan">Cultural depictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Bibliography of Ronald Reagan">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_in_music" title="Ronald Reagan in music">In music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Let_Them_Eat_Jellybeans!" title="Let Them Eat Jellybeans!">Let Them Eat Jellybeans!</a> (1981)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rap_Master_Ronnie" title="Rap Master Ronnie">Rap Master Ronnie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_the_Happy_Clown" title="Ed the Happy Clown">Ed the Happy Clown</a> (1983 comic series)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spitting_Image" title="Spitting Image">Spitting Image (TV series)</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Mind_Forever_Voyaging" title="A Mind Forever Voyaging">A Mind Forever Voyaging</a> (1985 game)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_Returns" title="The Dark Knight Returns">The Dark Knight Returns</a> (1986) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batman:_The_Dark_Knight_Returns_(film)" title="Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (film)">film adaptation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pizza_Man_(1991_film)" title="Pizza Man (1991 film)">Pizza Man</a> (1991 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Day_Reagan_Was_Shot" title="The Day Reagan Was Shot">The Day Reagan Was Shot</a> (2001 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan%27s_War" title="Reagan's War">Reagan's War</a> (2002 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Reagans" title="The Reagans">The Reagans</a> (2003 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_(2011_film)" title="Reagan (2011 film)">Reagan</a> (2011 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Butler" title="The Butler">The Butler</a> (2013 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_Reagan" title="Killing Reagan">Killing Reagan</a> (2015 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_Reagan_(film)" title="Killing Reagan (film)">Killing Reagan</a> (2016 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_of_Duty:_Black_Ops_Cold_War" title="Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War">Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War</a> (2020 game)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Reagans_(2020_miniseries)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Reagans (2020 miniseries)">The Reagans</a> (2020 miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_(2023_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan (2023 film)">Reagan</a> (2023 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_would_Reagan_do%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What would Reagan do?">"What would Reagan do?"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjavik_(film)" title="Reykjavik (film)">Reykjavik</a> (TBA)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Ronald_Reagan_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Ronald Reagan (U.S. Capitol)">U.S. Capitol statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Ronald_Reagan" title="USS Ronald Reagan">USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Ronald_Reagan" title="List of things named after Ronald Reagan">Namesakes and memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Day" title="Ronald Reagan Day">Ronald Reagan Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Dinner" title="Lincoln Dinner">Reagan Day Dinner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Wyman" title="Jane Wyman">Jane Wyman</a> (first wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Reagan" title="Nancy Reagan">Nancy Reagan</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maureen_Reagan" title="Maureen Reagan">Maureen Reagan</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Reagan" title="Michael Reagan">Michael Reagan</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patti_Davis" title="Patti Davis">Patti Davis</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Reagan" title="Ron Reagan">Ron Reagan</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Reagan" title="Jack Reagan">Jack Reagan</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelle_Wilson_Reagan" title="Nelle Wilson Reagan">Nelle Wilson Reagan</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Reagan" title="Neil Reagan">Neil Reagan</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_(Ronald_Reagan%27s_dog)" title="Rex (Ronald Reagan's dog)">Rex</a> (dog)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">← Jimmy Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush →</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ronald_Reagan" title="Category:Ronald Reagan">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_intervention_in_Latin_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_intervention_in_Latin_America" title="Template:United States intervention in Latin America"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_intervention_in_Latin_America" title="Template talk:United States intervention in Latin America"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_intervention_in_Latin_America" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States intervention in Latin America"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_intervention_in_Latin_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Latin_America%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Latin America–United States relations">United States intervention in Latin America</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platt_Amendment" title="Platt Amendment">Platt Amendment</a> (1901–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary" title="Roosevelt Corollary">Roosevelt Corollary</a>/<a href="/wiki/Big_Stick_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Stick ideology">Big Stick ideology</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Neighbor_policy" title="Good Neighbor policy">Good Neighbor policy</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dollar_diplomacy" title="Dollar diplomacy">Dollar diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> (1846–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Border_War_(1910%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Border War (1910–1919)">Mexican Border War</a> (1910–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_the_Mexican_Revolution" title="United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution">United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution</a> (1916–1919)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overt actions and occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paraguay_expedition" title="Paraguay expedition">Paraguay expedition</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military Government in Cuba">First Occupation of Cuba</a> (1899–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_Panama_from_Colombia" title="Separation of Panama from Colombia">Separation of Panama from Colombia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hay%E2%80%93Bunau-Varilla_Treaty" title="Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty">Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Honduras#The_internationalization_of_the_north,_1899–1932" title="History of Honduras">Occupations of Honduras</a> (1903–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Cuba" title="Provisional Government of Cuba">Second Occupation of Cuba</a> (1906–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Nicaragua" title="United States occupation of Nicaragua">Occupation of Nicaragua</a> (1912–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Veracruz" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of Veracruz">Occupation of Veracruz</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">Occupation of Haiti</a> (1915–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic_(1916%E2%80%931924)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)">Occupation of the Dominican Republic</a> (1916–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic_(1965%E2%80%931966)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1965–1966)">Occupation of the Dominican Republic</a> (1965–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a> (1989)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert actions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Paraguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Paraguayan coup d'état">1954 Paraguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mongoose" title="Operation Mongoose">Operation Mongoose</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Bolivian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Bolivian coup d'état">1964 Bolivian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation Condor</a> (1968–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_FUBELT" title="Project FUBELT">Project FUBELT</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Bolivian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Bolivian coup d'état">1971 Bolivian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limazo" title="Limazo">Limazo</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Salvadoran_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1979 Salvadoran coup d'état">1979 Salvadoran coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Paraguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1989 Paraguayan coup d'état">1989 Paraguayan coup d'état</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change_in_Latin_America" title="United States involvement in regime change in Latin America">United States involvement in regime change in Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a> (1979–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_v._United_States" title="Nicaragua v. United States">Nicaragua's case against the United States</a> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">Foreign policy of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Latin America–United States relations">Latin America–United States relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:US history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:US history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iran&#124;link=Iran_Iran–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Template:Iran–United States relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Template talk:Iran–United States relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iran–United States relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iran&#124;link=Iran_Iran–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><img alt="Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/46px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Iran–United States relations">Iran–United States relations</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Iran,_Washington,_D.C." title="Embassy of Iran, Washington, D.C.">Embassy of Iran, Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Iran_to_the_United_States" title="List of ambassadors of Iran to the United States">Ambassadors of Iran to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_States,_Tehran" title="Embassy of the United States, Tehran">Embassy of the United States, Tehran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Iran" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to Iran">Ambassadors of the United States to Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interests_Section_of_Iran_in_the_United_States" title="Interests Section of Iran in the United States">Interests Section of Iran in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate-General_of_the_United_States,_Tabriz" title="Consulate-General of the United States, Tabriz">Consulate-General of the United States, Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Near_Eastern_Affairs" title="Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs">Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_Claims_Tribunal" title="Iran–United States Claims Tribunal">Iran–United States Claims Tribunal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Directorate" title="Iranian Directorate">Iranian Directorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Syria_Policy_and_Operations_Group" title="Iran Syria Policy and Operations Group">Iran Syria Policy and Operations Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Corridor" title="Persian Corridor">Persian Corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Command" title="Persian Gulf Command">Persian Gulf Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_the_Iranian_oil_industry" title="Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry">Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Abadan_Crisis" title="Timeline of the Abadan Crisis">Abadan Crisis Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity,_Economic_Relations_and_Consular_Rights" title="Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights">Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exercise_Delawar" title="Exercise Delawar">Exercise Delawar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Dark_Gene" title="Project Dark Gene">Project Dark Gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_of_Stability_(speech)" title="Island of Stability (speech)">Island of Stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad%27s_letter_to_George_W._Bush" title="Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. Bush">Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_between_Barack_Obama_and_Ali_Khamenei" title="Correspondence between Barack Obama and Ali Khamenei">Correspondence between Barack Obama and Ali Khamenei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phone_conversation_between_Barack_Obama_and_Hassan_Rouhani" title="Phone conversation between Barack Obama and Hassan Rouhani">Phone conversation between Barack Obama and Hassan Rouhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negotiations_leading_to_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Negotiations leading to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Negotiations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Plan of Action">Joint Plan of Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_nuclear_deal_framework" title="Iran nuclear deal framework">Framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Reactions to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Criticism of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Aftermath of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">U.S. withdrawal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_support_for_Iraq_during_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War">United States support for Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridgeton_incident" title="Bridgeton incident">Bridgeton incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655" title="Iran Air Flight 655">Iran Air Flight 655</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Ajr" title="Iran Ajr">Iran Ajr</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iran–Contra affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Staunch" title="Operation Staunch">Operation Staunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Eager_Glacier" title="Operation Eager Glacier">Operation Eager Glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Earnest_Will" title="Operation Earnest Will">Operation Earnest Will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Prime_Chance" title="Operation Prime Chance">Operation Prime Chance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Nimble_Archer" title="Operation Nimble Archer">Operation Nimble Archer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Praying_Mantis" title="Operation Praying Mantis">Operation Praying Mantis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_alliance_against_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab–Israeli alliance against Iran">Arab–Israeli alliance against Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Accords" title="Abraham Accords">Abraham Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_2019_Warsaw_Conference" title="February 2019 Warsaw Conference">February 2019 Warsaw Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Israel proxy conflict">Iran–Israel proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict">Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Syria%E2%80%93Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_coalition" title="Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition">Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Maritime_Security_Construct" title="International Maritime Security Construct">International Maritime Security Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Qasem_Soleimani" title="Assassination of Qasem Soleimani">Assassination of Qasem Soleimani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_assassination_of_Qasem_Soleimani" title="Reactions to the assassination of Qasem Soleimani">reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_revenge_scenarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteen revenge scenarios">Thirteen revenge scenarios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump%27s_threat_for_the_destruction_of_Iranian_cultural_sites" title="Donald Trump's threat for the destruction of Iranian cultural sites">Donald Trump's threat for the destruction of Iranian cultural sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Martyr_Soleimani" title="Operation Martyr Soleimani">Operation Martyr Soleimani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Camp_Taji_attacks" title="2020 Camp Taji attacks">2020 Camp Taji attacks</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations_after_1979" title="Iran–United States relations after 1979">Incidents after 1979</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Paul_R._Shaffer_and_John_H._Turner" title="Assassination of Paul R. Shaffer and John H. Turner">Assassination of Paul R. Shaffer and John H. Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Iranian_hostage_crisis" title="Timeline of the Iranian hostage crisis">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe_Conference" title="Guadeloupe Conference">Guadeloupe Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Credible_Sport" title="Operation Credible Sport">Operation Credible Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw" title="Operation Eagle Claw">Operation Eagle Claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Caper" title="Canadian Caper">Canadian Caper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter%27s_engagement_with_Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Jimmy Carter's engagement with Ruhollah Khomeini">Jimmy Carter's engagement with Ruhollah Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_October_Surprise_theory" title="1980 October Surprise theory">1980 October Surprise theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis_negotiations" title="Iran hostage crisis negotiations">Negotiations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_Accords" title="Algiers Accords">Algiers Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_can%27t_do_a_damn_thing_against_us" title="America can't do a damn thing against us">America can't do a damn thing against us</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_Beirut_barracks_bombings" title="1983 Beirut barracks bombings">Beirut barracks bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khobar_Towers_bombing" title="Khobar Towers bombing">Khobar Towers bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Franklin_espionage_scandal" title="Lawrence Franklin espionage scandal">Lawrence Franklin espionage scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_Robert_Levinson" title="Disappearance of Robert Levinson">Disappearance of Robert Levinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_kill_or_capture_strategy_in_Iraq" title="United States kill or capture strategy in Iraq">United States kill or capture strategy in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_raid_on_the_Iranian_Liaison_Office_in_Erbil" title="United States raid on the Iranian Liaison Office in Erbil">United States raid on the Iranian Liaison Office in Erbil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_of_Jalal_Sharafi" title="Kidnapping of Jalal Sharafi">Kidnapping of Jalal Sharafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Iran%E2%80%93United_States_naval_dispute" title="2008 Iran–United States naval dispute">2008 Naval dispute</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_Monkey" title="Filipino Monkey">Filipino Monkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Cassandra" title="Project Cassandra">Project Cassandra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009%E2%80%932011_detention_of_American_hikers_by_Iran" title="2009–2011 detention of American hikers by Iran">Detention of American hikers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contents_of_the_United_States_diplomatic_cables_leak_(Iran)" title="Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (Iran)">United States diplomatic cables leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_alleged_Iran_assassination_plot" title="2011 alleged Iran assassination plot">2011 alleged Iran assassination plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011%E2%80%932012_Strait_of_Hormuz_dispute" title="2011–2012 Strait of Hormuz dispute">Strait of Hormuz dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93U.S._RQ-170_incident" title="Iran–U.S. RQ-170 incident">RQ-170 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_Maersk_Tigris" title="MV Maersk Tigris">MV Maersk Tigris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_U.S.%E2%80%93Iran_naval_incident" title="2016 U.S.–Iran naval incident">2016 Naval incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program of Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Timeline of the nuclear program of Iran">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P5%2B1" title="P5+1">P5+1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Merlin" title="Operation Merlin">Operation Merlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charming_Kitten" title="Charming Kitten">Charming Kitten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuxnet" title="Stuxnet">Stuxnet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_of_Hossein_Alikhani" title="Kidnapping of Hossein Alikhani">Kidnapping of Hossein Alikhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_case_of_Meng_Wanzhou" title="Extradition case of Meng Wanzhou">Arrest of Meng Wanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Iranian_students_at_US_airports" title="Deportation of Iranian students at US airports">Deportation of Iranian students at US airports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_2019_Gulf_of_Oman_incident" title="May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident">May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_2019_Gulf_of_Oman_incident" title="June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident">June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Iranian_shoot-down_of_American_drone" title="2019 Iranian shoot-down of American drone">2019 Iranian shoot-down of American drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_K-1_Air_Base_attack" title="2019 K-1 Air Base attack">2019 K-1 Air Base attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_2019_United_States_airstrikes_in_Iraq_and_Syria" title="December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria">December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_the_United_States_embassy_in_Baghdad" title="Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad">Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Iran_explosions" title="2020 Iran explosions">2020 Iran explosions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Erbil_rocket_attacks" title="2021 Erbil rocket attacks">2021 Erbil rocket attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Natanz_incident" title="2021 Natanz incident">2021 Natanz incident</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_2021_United_States_airstrike_in_Syria" title="February 2021 United States airstrike in Syria">February 2021 United States airstrike in Syria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaked_Mohammad_Javad_Zarif_audiotape" title="Leaked Mohammad Javad Zarif audiotape">Leaked Mohammad Javad Zarif audiotape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_2021_United_States_airstrike_in_Syria" title="June 2021 United States airstrike in Syria">June 2021 United States airstrike in Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_2021_Gulf_of_Oman_incident" title="July 2021 Gulf of Oman incident">July 2021 Gulf of Oman incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_2021_Gulf_of_Oman_incident" title="August 2021 Gulf of Oman incident">August 2021 Gulf of Oman incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_U.S.%E2%80%93Iran_naval_incident" title="2021 U.S.–Iran naval incident">2021 U.S.–Iran naval incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Erbil_missile_attacks" title="2022 Erbil missile attacks">2022 Erbil missile attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_2023_Northeastern_Syria_clashes" class="mw-redirect" title="March 2023 Northeastern Syria clashes">2023 Northeastern Syria clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Rajan" class="mw-redirect" title="Suez Rajan">Seizure of Suez Rajan and St Nikolas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_U.S._bases_in_Iraq,_Jordan,_and_Syria_(2023%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria (2023–present)">Attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria (2023–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Erbil_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Erbil attack">2024 Erbil attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_22_drone_attack" title="Tower 22 drone attack">Tower 22 drone attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_interference_in_the_2024_United_States_elections" title="Iranian interference in the 2024 United States elections">Iranian interference in the 2024 United States elections</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iran">Legislation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_sanctions_against_Iran" title="United States sanctions against Iran">United States sanctions against Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_pressure_campaign" title="Maximum pressure campaign">Maximum pressure campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_12170" title="Executive Order 12170">Executive Order 12170</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_12172" title="Executive Order 12172">Executive Order 12172</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13769" title="Executive Order 13769">Executive Order 13769</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_Executive_Order_13769" title="Reactions to Executive Order 13769">reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump_travel_ban" title="Trump travel ban">Trump travel ban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13780" title="Executive Order 13780">Executive Order 13780</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13876" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive Order 13876">Executive Order 13876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_Libya_Sanctions_Act" title="Iran and Libya Sanctions Act">Iran and Libya Sanctions Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Nonproliferation_Act_of_2000" title="Iran Nonproliferation Act of 2000">Iran Nonproliferation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran,_North_Korea,_Syria_Nonproliferation_Act" title="Iran, North Korea, Syria Nonproliferation Act">Iran, North Korea, Syria Nonproliferation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Freedom_and_Support_Act" title="Iran Freedom and Support Act">Iran Freedom and Support Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Sanctions_Enhancement_Act_of_2007" title="Iran Sanctions Enhancement Act of 2007">Iran Sanctions Enhancement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyl%E2%80%93Lieberman_Amendment" title="Kyl–Lieberman Amendment">Kyl–Lieberman Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Iran_Sanctions,_Accountability,_and_Divestment_Act_of_2010" title="Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010">Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Freedom_and_Counter-Proliferation_Act" title="Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act">Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_113-100" title="Public Law 113-100">Public Law 113-100</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Nuclear_Agreement_Review_Act_of_2015" title="Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act of 2015">Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countering_America%27s_Adversaries_Through_Sanctions_Act" title="Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act">Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dames_%26_Moore_v._Regan" title="Dames & Moore v. Regan">Dames & Moore v. Regan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Diplomatic_and_Consular_Staff_in_Tehran" title="United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran">United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_Platforms_case" title="Oil Platforms case">Oil Platforms case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Banki" title="United States v. Banki">United States v. Banki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_Markazi_v._Peterson" title="Bank Markazi v. Peterson">Bank Markazi v. Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certain_Iranian_Assets" title="Certain Iranian Assets">Certain Iranian Assets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubin_v._Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran">Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alleged_Violations_of_the_1955_Treaty_of_Amity_(Iran_v._United_States)" title="Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity (Iran v. United States)">Alleged violations of Treaty of Amity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Groups and individuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Action_Group" title="Iran Action Group">Iran Action Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93America_Society" title="Iran–America Society">Iran–America Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Students_Association_in_the_United_States" title="Iranian Students Association in the United States">Iranian Students Association in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_American_Council" title="National Iranian American Council">National Iranian American Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Iranian_American_Communities" title="Organization of Iranian American Communities">Organization of Iranian American Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Against_Nuclear_Iran" title="United Against Nuclear Iran">United Against Nuclear Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farashgard" title="Farashgard">Farashgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps" title="Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps">Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jundallah_(Iran)" title="Jundallah (Iran)">Jundallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_Assembly_of_Iran" title="Kingdom Assembly of Iran">Kingdom Assembly of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="National Council of Iran">National Council of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Resistance_of_Iran" title="National Council of Resistance of Iran">National Council of Resistance of Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Mojahedin_Organization_of_Iran" title="People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran">People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Abrams" title="Elliott Abrams">Elliott Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Baskerville" title="Howard Baskerville">Howard Baskerville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Fallon" title="William J. Fallon">William J. Fallon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Hook" title="Brian Hook">Brian Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Macmanus" title="Joseph Macmanus">Joseph Macmanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Malley" title="Robert Malley">Robert Malley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Mull" title="Stephen D. Mull">Stephen D. Mull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_David_Rabhan" title="Erwin David Rabhan">Erwin David Rabhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Rezaian" title="Jason Rezaian">Jason Rezaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Ritter" title="Scott Ritter">Scott Ritter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Wadsworth" title="Craig Wadsworth">Craig Wadsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_R._White_(U.S._veteran)" title="Michael R. White (U.S. veteran)">Michael R. White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roxana_Saberi" title="Roxana Saberi">Roxana Saberi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saeed_Abedini" title="Saeed Abedini">Saeed Abedini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saeid_Aboutaleb" title="Saeid Aboutaleb">Saeid Aboutaleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahram_Amiri" title="Shahram Amiri">Shahram Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirous_Asgari" title="Sirous Asgari">Sirous Asgari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Reza_Banki" title="Mahmoud Reza Banki">Mahmoud Reza Banki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haleh_Esfandiari" title="Haleh Esfandiari">Haleh Esfandiari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amir_Mirza_Hekmati" title="Amir Mirza Hekmati">Amir Mirza Hekmati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezedin_Abdel_Aziz_Khalil" title="Ezedin Abdel Aziz Khalil">Ezedin Abdel Aziz Khalil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahrzad_Mirgholikhan" title="Shahrzad Mirgholikhan">Shahrzad Mirgholikhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hosseini_(showman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Hosseini (showman)">Mohammad Hosseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esha_Momeni" title="Esha Momeni">Esha Momeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammad Mosaddegh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baquer_Namazi" title="Baquer Namazi">Baquer Namazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamak_Namazi" title="Siamak Namazi">Siamak Namazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahar_Nowrouzzadeh" title="Sahar Nowrouzzadeh">Sahar Nowrouzzadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Pahlavi,_Crown_Prince_of_Iran" title="Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran">Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noor_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Noor Pahlavi">Noor Pahlavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trita_Parsi" title="Trita Parsi">Trita Parsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryam_Rajavi" title="Maryam Rajavi">Maryam Rajavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdolreza_Shahlaei" title="Abdolreza Shahlaei">Abdolreza Shahlaei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shakeri" title="Ali Shakeri">Ali Shakeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masoud_Soleimani" title="Masoud Soleimani">Masoud Soleimani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morad_Tahbaz" title="Morad Tahbaz">Morad Tahbaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kian_Tajbakhsh" title="Kian Tajbakhsh">Kian Tajbakhsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karan_Vafadari" title="Karan Vafadari">Karan Vafadari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiyue_Wang" title="Xiyue Wang">Xiyue Wang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizar_Zakka" title="Nizar Zakka">Nizar Zakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_detainees_at_Guantanamo_Bay" title="List of Iranian detainees at Guantanamo Bay">Iranian Guantanamo Bay detainees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Majid_Muhammed" title="Abdul Majid Muhammed">Abdul Majid Muhammed</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v_Iran_(1998_FIFA_World_Cup)" title="United States v Iran (1998 FIFA World Cup)">1998 FIFA World Cup match</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_relations_between_Iran_and_the_United_States" title="Academic relations between Iran and the United States">Academic relations between Iran and the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Islam_(term)" title="American Islam (term)">American Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_Iran" title="Anti-American sentiment in Iran">Anti-American sentiment in Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_of_evil" title="Axis of evil">Axis of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Iran" title="CIA activities in Iran">CIA activities in Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_copyright_relations" title="Iran–United States copyright relations">Copyright relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_to_America" title="Death to America">Death to America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_containment" title="Dual containment">Dual containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Satan" title="Great Satan">Great Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Hollywoodism" title="International Conference on Hollywoodism">International Conference on Hollywoodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism" title="Iran and state-sponsored terrorism">Iran and state-sponsored terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_frozen_assets" title="Iranian frozen assets">Iranian frozen assets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_military_action_against_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to military action against Iran">Opposition to military action against Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_enemy_is_here,_they_are_lying_that_it_is_America" title="Our enemy is here, they are lying that it is America">Our enemy is here, they are lying that it is America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Sponsors_of_Terrorism_(U.S._list)" title="State Sponsors of Terrorism (U.S. list)">State Sponsor of Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_state-sponsored_terrorism" title="United States and state-sponsored terrorism">United States and state-sponsored terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/650_Fifth_Avenue" title="650 Fifth Avenue">650 Fifth Avenue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alavi_Foundation" title="Alavi Foundation">Alavi Foundation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alborz_High_School" title="Alborz High School">Alborz High School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Iranian_Studies" title="American Institute of Iranian Studies">American Institute of Iranian Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_School_of_Isfahan" title="American School of Isfahan">American School of Isfahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_School,_Tehran" title="Community School, Tehran">Community School, Tehran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damavand_College" title="Damavand College">Damavand College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Bethel_School" title="Iran Bethel School">Iran Bethel School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranzamin_School" title="Iranzamin School">Iranzamin School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter_Church,_Tehran" title="Saint Peter Church, Tehran">Saint Peter Church, Tehran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_American_School" title="Tehran American School">Tehran American School</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Bomb_Iran" title="Bomb Iran">Bomb Iran</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_(book)" title="Overthrow (book)">Overthrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Not_for_the_Faint_of_Heart" title="Not for the Faint of Heart">Not for the Faint of Heart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Category:Iran–United States relations">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Special_prosecutors_and_independent_counsels_of_the_U.S." style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Special_prosecutors_and_independent_counsels_of_the_U.S." title="Template:Special prosecutors and independent counsels of the U.S."><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Special_prosecutors_and_independent_counsels_of_the_U.S." title="Template talk:Special prosecutors and independent counsels of the U.S."><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Special_prosecutors_and_independent_counsels_of_the_U.S." title="Special:EditPage/Template:Special 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Henderson">John B. Henderson</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Broadhead" title="James Broadhead">James Broadhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Ring" title="Whiskey Ring">Whiskey Ring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Cook_(lawyer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Cook (lawyer) (page does not exist)">William Cook</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Star_Route_scandal" title="Star Route scandal">Star Route scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmes_Conrad" title="Holmes Conrad">Holmes Conrad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Charles Joseph Bonaparte">Charles Bonaparte</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department" title="United States Post Office Department">Post Office</a> bribery</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_J._Heney" title="Francis J. Heney">Francis J. Heney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_land_fraud_scandal" title="Oregon land fraud scandal">Oregon land fraud scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlee_Pomerene" title="Atlee Pomerene">Atlee Pomerene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">Owen Roberts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teapot_Dome_scandal" title="Teapot Dome scandal">Teapot Dome scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newbold_Morris" title="Newbold Morris">Newbold Morris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newbold_Morris#Special_prosecutor" title="Newbold Morris">DOJ corruption allegations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Cox" title="Archibald Cox">Archibald Cox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Jaworski" title="Leon Jaworski">Leon Jaworski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_S._Ruth_Jr." title="Henry S. Ruth Jr.">Henry S. Ruth Jr.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Ruff" title="Charles Ruff">Charles Ruff</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_Christy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur Christy (page does not exist)">Arthur Christy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Jordan" title="Hamilton Jordan">Jordan drug allegations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Curran" title="Paul J. Curran">Paul J. Curran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bert_Lance" title="Bert Lance">Carter business loans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerald_Gallinghouse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerald Gallinghouse (page does not exist)">Gerald Gallinghouse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Kraft" title="Timothy Kraft">Kraft drug allegations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Silverman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leon Silverman (page does not exist)">Leon Silverman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_J._Donovan" title="Raymond J. Donovan">Donovan organized crime allegations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacob_Stein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacob Stein (page does not exist)">Jacob Stein</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Bechtel scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._McKay" title="James C. McKay">James C. McKay</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexia_Morrison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexia Morrison (page does not exist)">Alexia Morrison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Olson" title="Theodore Olson">Olson perjury</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_North_Seymour_Jr." title="Whitney North Seymour Jr.">Mike Seymour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Deaver" title="Michael Deaver">Deaver perjury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_v._Olson" title="Morrison v. Olson">Morrison v. Olson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Walsh" title="Lawrence Walsh">Lawrence Walsh</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rauh" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Rauh">Carl Rauh</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Harper_(lawyer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Harper (lawyer) (page does not exist)">James Harper</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Lawrence_Wallace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W. Lawrence Wallace (page does not exist)">Lawrence Wallace</a>'s taxes</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._McKay" title="James C. McKay">James C. McKay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wedtech_scandal" title="Wedtech scandal">Wedtech scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Unknown <ul><li>sealed</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arlin_Adams" title="Arlin Adams">Arlin Adams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larry_Thompson" title="Larry Thompson">Larry Thompson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pierce" title="Samuel Pierce">Pierce HUD mismanagement</a></li></ul></li> <li>Unknown <ul><li>sealed</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_John_Bua" title="Nicholas John Bua">Nicholas John Bua</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inslaw" title="Inslaw">Inslaw scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Richard_Wilkey" title="Malcolm Richard Wilkey">Malcolm Richard Wilkey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_banking_scandal" title="House banking scandal">House banking scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Bernard_Lacey" title="Frederick Bernard Lacey">Frederick Bernard Lacey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqgate" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqgate">Iraqgate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_diGenova" title="Joseph diGenova">Joseph diGenova</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Zeldin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Zeldin (page does not exist)">Michael Zeldin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_diGenova" title="Joseph diGenova">1992 Bush administration search of Clinton passport files</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Fiske" title="Robert B. Fiske">Robert B. Fiske</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Ken Starr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ray_(prosecutor)" title="Robert Ray (prosecutor)">Robert Ray</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Julie_Thomas_(prosecutor)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Julie Thomas (prosecutor) (page does not exist)">Julie Thomas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_controversy" title="Whitewater controversy">Whitewater controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starr_Report" title="Starr Report">Starr Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Smaltz" title="Donald Smaltz">Donald Smaltz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Espy#Corruption_trial_and_acquittal" title="Mike Espy">Espy trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Barrett_(prosecutor)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Barrett (prosecutor)">David Barrett</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cisneros_payments_controversy" title="Henry Cisneros payments controversy">Cisneros payments controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrett_Report" title="Barrett Report">Barrett Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Pearson_(attorney)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Pearson (attorney) (page does not exist)">Daniel Pearson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Department_trade_mission_controversy" title="Commerce Department trade mission controversy">DOC trade mission controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Curtis_von_Kann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Curtis von Kann (page does not exist)">Curtis von Kann</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Segal" title="Eli Segal">Segal conflict of interest investigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carol_Elder_Bruce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carol Elder Bruce (page does not exist)">Carol Elder Bruce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wampumgate" title="Wampumgate">Wampumgate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Lancaster_(lawyer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ralph Lancaster (lawyer) (page does not exist)">Ralph Lancaster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Herman" title="Alexis Herman">Herman corruption allegations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Danforth" title="John Danforth">John Danforth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Fitzgerald" title="Patrick Fitzgerald">Patrick Fitzgerald</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plame_affair" title="Plame affair">Plame affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mueller" title="Robert Mueller">Robert Mueller</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mueller_special_counsel_investigation" title="Mueller special counsel investigation">2016 election interference allegations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_of_the_Mueller_special_counsel_investigation" title="Topics of the Mueller special counsel investigation">topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mueller_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Mueller Report">Mueller Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Durham" title="John Durham">John Durham</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durham_special_counsel_investigation" title="Durham special counsel investigation">Crossfire Hurricane FBI origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Smith_(lawyer)" title="Jack Smith (lawyer)">Jack Smith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smith_special_counsel_investigation" title="Smith special counsel investigation">2020 election obstruction efforts and Trump classified materials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hur" title="Robert Hur">Robert Hur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden_classified_documents_incident" title="Joe Biden classified documents incident">Biden classified materials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_C._Weiss" title="David C. Weiss">David C. Weiss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weiss_special_counsel_investigation" title="Weiss special counsel investigation">Hunter Biden investigation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q273659#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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