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href="/global"> <img alt="The Conversation" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/@theconversation/ui/dist/esm/logos/logo-en-b159aca2598f351db37072c75294e4c8.svg" /> </a> <form class="masthead-search" action="/global/search" accept-charset="UTF-8" method="get"> <fieldset> <legend>Search</legend> <div class="row"> <div class="input-wrapper"> <label for="q"><i class="icon-search"></i></label> <input type="text" name="q" id="q" value="" placeholder="Search analysis, research, academics…" /> </div> <button type="submit" class="button" value="Search"></button> </div> </fieldset> </form> <div class="masthead-tagline"> Academic rigour, journalistic flair </div> </header> <nav id="primary-navigation" class=" nocontent"> <ol> </ol> </nav> </div> </section> <div id="outer"> <article id="article" class="clearfix has-desktop-magazine has-mobile-magazine" data-id="227632" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Article"> <figure class="magazine"> <div class="image" style="background-image: url(https://images.theconversation.com/files/587754/original/file-20240412-20-ao2ys4.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&rect=402%2C0%2C3565%2C1782&q=45&auto=format&w=1356&h=668&fit=crop);"> <div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:66.5625%;--background-color:#94876a"><img alt="A man covered in white cloth gestures to a map of Niger and the surrounding region while another man in a suit looks on." class="lazyloaded" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/587754/original/file-20240412-20-ao2ys4.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=20&auto=format&w=320&fit=clip&dpr=2&usm=12&cs=strip" data-id="587754" itemprop="image"></div> </div> <div class="wrapper"> <figcaption> A Nigerien official explains to U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken the jihadist crisis facing Niger and the surrounding region in March 2023. <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/nigerien-official-explains-to-us-secretary-of-state-antony-news-photo/1248381174?adppopup=true">Boureima Hama/Pool/AFP via Getty Images </a></span> </figcaption> </div> <div class="magazine-title"> <div class="wrapper"> <header class="content-header-container grid-twelve large-grid-eleven"> <div> <div class="content-header-block"> <h1 class="legacy entry-title instapaper_title" itemprop="headline"> <strong> The US is losing access to its bases in Niger − here’s why that’s a big deal </strong> </h1> </div> </div> <div class="timestamps"> <time datetime="2024-04-16T12:30:34Z" itemprop="datePublished" content="2024-04-16T12:30:34Z">Published: April 16, 2024 1.30pm BST</time> </div> </header> </div> </div> </figure> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="content-sidebar grid-four large-grid-four grid-last"> <section class="content-authors"> <div class="content-authors-synopsis"> <a href="#" class="content-authors-toggle"> <i class="icon-caret-down"></i> <i class="icon-caret-up"></i> <span class="nobr">Michael A. Allen</span>, <em class="institution_name">Boise State University</em>, <span class="nobr">Carla Martinez Machain</span>, <em class="institution_name">University at Buffalo</em>, <span class="nobr">Michael E. Flynn</span>, <em class="institution_name">Kansas State University</em> </a> </div> <div class="content-authors-group"> <h3 class="border">Authors</h3> <ol> <li class="vcard" id="author-570118" itemprop="author" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <a rel="author" itemprop="url" href="/profiles/michael-a-allen-680378"> <img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/avatars/680378/width170/image-20220107-25-6hhcsg.jpg" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/author/width170_default-bea415b3a0223821a698f6e3f6d5ab99.jpg" itemprop="image"> <span class="fn author-name" itemprop="name"> Michael A. Allen </span> </a> <p class="role"> Professor of Political Science, Boise State University </p> </li> <li class="vcard" id="author-570119" itemprop="author" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <a rel="author" itemprop="url" href="/profiles/carla-martinez-machain-894256"> <img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/avatars/894256/width170/image-20220202-17-11xoeps.jpg" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/author/width170_default-bea415b3a0223821a698f6e3f6d5ab99.jpg" itemprop="image"> <span class="fn author-name" itemprop="name"> Carla Martinez Machain </span> </a> <p class="role"> Professor of Political Science, University at Buffalo </p> </li> <li class="vcard" id="author-570120" itemprop="author" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <a rel="author" itemprop="url" href="/profiles/michael-e-flynn-890329"> <img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/avatars/890329/width170/file-20191118-66917-1s0qofq.jpg" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/author/width170_default-bea415b3a0223821a698f6e3f6d5ab99.jpg" itemprop="image"> <span class="fn author-name" itemprop="name"> Michael E. Flynn </span> </a> <p class="role"> Professor of Political Science, Kansas State University </p> </li> </ol> </div> </section> <section class="content-disclosure-statement"> <h3 class="border">Disclosure statement</h3> <p><span>Michael A. Allen has previously received funding from the Department of Defense's Minerva Initiative.</span></p> <p><span>Carla Martinez Machain has previously received funding from the Department of Defense's Minerva Initiative.</span></p> <p><span>Michael E. Flynn has previously received funding from the Minerva Research Initiative, the Department of Defense, and the Army Research Office. The views expressed here are the authors' only and do not represent the views of any outside funder. </span></p> </section> <section class="content-partners"> <h3 class="border">Partners</h3> <p class="disclosure-logo clearfix"><a class="logo" href="/institutions/university-at-buffalo-925"><picture><source srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/partners/905/logos/logo-1490809674.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=170&h=170" media="(min-width:600px)"></source><img alt="University at Buffalo" src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs%3D" /></picture></a></p><p class="disclosure-logo clearfix"><a class="logo" href="/institutions/boise-state-university-1983"><picture><source srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/partners/1033/logos/logo-1509384033.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=170&h=170" media="(min-width:600px)"></source><img alt="Boise State University" src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs%3D" /></picture></a></p> <p 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class="clear-both flex-row flex items-center h-10 !visible sm:hidden mb-2"> <div class="flex grow relative mr-2 h-10 bg-gray-50 border-none rounded-full pr-11 max-[300px]:hidden"> <div id="share-article-url" class="bg-transparent border border-solid !border-transparent cursor-text !rounded-l-full w-0 grow text-xs !overflow-hidden truncate focus:text-clip text-black py-2.5 !pl-3 !pr-0 z-0" tabindex="0"> https://theconversation.com/the-us-is-losing-access-to-its-bases-in-niger-heres-why-thats-a-big-deal-227632 </div> <button aria-label="Copy article link" id="share-article-copy-url" class="bg-black border-none cursor-pointer rounded-full text-white absolute right-0 top-0 w-10 h-10 p-3 z-10 opacity-100 ease-in-out"> <svg aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2.0" stroke="currentColor" class="size-4"> <path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M13.19 8.688a4.5 4.5 0 0 1 1.242 7.244l-4.5 4.5a4.5 4.5 0 0 1-6.364-6.364l1.757-1.757m13.35-.622 1.757-1.757a4.5 4.5 0 0 0-6.364-6.364l-4.5 4.5a4.5 4.5 0 0 0 1.242 7.244" /> </svg> </button> <div id="share-article-message" class="absolute top-0 bottom-0 right-0 bg-green-600 rounded-full !flex flex-row items-center text-center text-transparent py-2 leading-none w-10 text-xs opacity-0 transition-all duration-300 ease-in-out"> <span class="grow"></span> <svg aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2.0" stroke="currentColor" class="size-4 mr-1"> <path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="m4.5 12.75 6 6 9-13.5" /> </svg> <span aria-hidden="true" class="leading-none text-xs text-left grow"> Link copied </span> </div> </div> <button id="share-article-native" class="bg-black border-none cursor-pointer text-white !flex flex-row shrink-0 items-center rounded-full text-black text-center py-3 px-3 max-[300px]:grow"> <span class="grow"></span> <svg aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2.0" stroke="currentColor" class="flex-none size-4 mr-1"> <path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M7.217 10.907a2.25 2.25 0 1 0 0 2.186m0-2.186c.18.324.283.696.283 1.093s-.103.77-.283 1.093m0-2.186 9.566-5.314m-9.566 7.5 9.566 5.314m0 0a2.25 2.25 0 1 0 3.935 2.186 2.25 2.25 0 0 0-3.935-2.186Zm0-12.814a2.25 2.25 0 1 0 3.933-2.185 2.25 2.25 0 0 0-3.933 2.185Z" /> </svg> <span class="leading-none text-xs font-bold mx-1 grow text-left"> Share article </span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="grid-ten large-grid-nine grid-last content-body content entry-content instapaper_body inline-promos" itemprop="articleBody"> <p>The United States was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/mar/17/niger-junta-repudiates-deal-allowing-us-military-bases-on-its-soil">forced to stop its military operations</a> in March 2024 in Niger – a landlocked, western African country in the Sahara desert. Niger may not immediately seem like a key ally for the U.S., but it served as a crucial staging ground for the U.S. military to carry out work and respond to terrorism in the region.</p> <p>U.S. representatives are currently trying to negotiate a deal to maintain some sort of military presence in Niger. But, for now, Niger’s new ruling junta has declared that the U.S. military presence is a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/03/22/niger-american-military-drone-base/">violation of Niger’s constitution</a>. The fate of the U.S.‘ presence, including two military drone bases, remains uncertain.</p> <p>In July 2023, Niger’s <a href="https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/08/31/niger-coup-s-outsized-global-impact-pub-90463">military successfully conducted</a> a <a href="https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3552918/us-says-july-ouster-of-nigers-government-was-a-coup/">coup d'état</a> and overthrew the democratically elected government. Military leaders arrested President Mohamed Bazoum and announced an end to the constitution and the government. The coup plotters set up their own government, a military junta called the National Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland, to run the country – even as the president still refuses to resign.</p> <p>Niger is a former French colony and up until recently was home to 1,500 French troops, who mostly all left by December 2023. When the military junta <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67772422">expelled the French troops</a>, it initially allowed the U.S. to continue to operate the base. Yet in March 2024, it ordered the U.S. to leave. </p> <p>Though approximately <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/17/world/africa/niger-orders-american-troops-out.html">1,000 U.S. troops remain in Niger</a>, the prospects for the U.S. maintaining its current presence and reactivating the drone bases do not look promising. Aside from the military junta, thousands of Nigeriens have participated in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/13/world/africa/niger-us-military-russia.html?ugrp=u&unlocked_article_code=1.kU0.wWWw.-4vXOiAnUj-w&smid=url-share">large-scale protests</a> calling for the <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/beyond-the-wire-9780197633403?cc=us&lang=en&">U.S. military to leave</a>.</p> <p>As a further complication, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-has-sent-military-instructors-niger-says-niger-state-tv-2024-04-11/">Russian military personnel arrived in Niger</a> in April 2024 to train Nigerien forces. They delivered military equipment and stated that they planned to build an <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20240412-russian-military-instructors-air-defence-system-arrive-in-niger-amid-deepening-ties">air defense system</a> in Niger. This deployment is part of the increased military cooperation with Russia that Niger is pursuing. </p><div class="slot clear" data-id="17"> <div class="inline-promos-skeleton"> <h5></h5> <button></button> </div> </div> <p>As <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/beyond-the-wire-9780197633403?cc=us&lang=en&">experts in U.S. military deployments</a>, we think it is clear that the loss of these bases creates problems for <a href="https://academic.oup.com/fpa/article-abstract/19/1/orac027/6916934">U.S. regional interests</a> in Africa and cedes ground to <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2024-03-19/next-africa-us-right-to-operate-drone-base-in-niger-terminated-by-junta">Russia and China</a>. This places the U.S. in a disadvantageous position for creating political influence in Africa.</p> <figure class="align-center zoomable"> <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/587751/original/file-20240412-18-je9cq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:66.71087533156499%;--background-color:#2d294d"><img alt="A white large drone in an airport hanger." class="lazyload" data-src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/587751/original/file-20240412-18-je9cq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" data-srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/587751/original/file-20240412-18-je9cq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587751/original/file-20240412-18-je9cq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587751/original/file-20240412-18-je9cq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587751/original/file-20240412-18-je9cq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587751/original/file-20240412-18-je9cq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587751/original/file-20240412-18-je9cq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></div></a> <figcaption> <span class="caption">A U.S. military drone is seen at a French military base in Niamey, Niger, in December 2019.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/this-picture-taken-on-december-22-shows-a-us-military-drone-news-photo/1190091419?adppopup=true">Ludovic Marin/Pool/AFP via Getty Images</a></span> </figcaption> </figure> <h2>Why the US has military bases in Niger</h2> <p>The U.S. has a military presence in several <a href="https://theintercept.com/2023/09/08/africa-air-base-us-military/">African countries</a>. </p> <p>In Niger, the U.S. has had two military bases, called Air Base 101 and Air Base 201, and first started <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/american-deaths-highlight-us-military-role-niger/story?id=50303954">drone operations in 2013</a>. </p> <p>While Niger is one of the <a href="https://gfmag.com/data/economic-data/poorest-country-in-the-world/">poorest countries in the world</a>, its <a href="https://gfmag.com/data/economic-data/poorest-country-in-the-world/">geographic location and natural resources</a> have increased its importance to global powers. Specifically, Niger’s location gives the U.S. ability to engage in counterterrorism throughout much of West Africa. </p> <p>There has been increased <a href="https://doi.org/10.1787/24142026">political insurgency and violence</a> in this region of Africa in the past several years. Drones from Air Base 201 have <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/19/did-russia-iran-provoke-niger-walkout-from-us-military-pact">increasingly monitored and collected intelligence on</a> the Islamic State and al-Qaida. The U.S. <a href="https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_us-constructed-air-base-niger-begins-operations/6178666.html">monitors activity</a> in the Lake Chad Basin that includes Niger’s neighboring countries of <a href="https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/violent-extremism-sahel">Cameroon, Chad and Nigeria</a>. </p> <h2>The impact of the Niger base loss</h2> <p>Since Niger’s military coup, the country has become <a href="https://theconversation.com/niger-and-russia-are-forming-military-ties-3-ways-this-could-upset-old-allies-221696">increasingly isolated</a> from others. The French and U.S. governments have reduced aid to Niger, and the European Union and Nigeria have all <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/what-sanctions-have-been-imposed-niger-since-coup-2023-08-08/">instituted economic sanctions</a>. </p> <p>In response, Niger’s ruling junta has strengthened military <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-niger-agree-develop-military-ties-moscow-says-2024-01-16/">cooperation with Russia</a> <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/19/did-russia-iran-provoke-niger-walkout-from-us-military-pact">and Iran</a>.</p> <p>If U.S. forces are removed from Niger entirely, this may also provide opportunities for China to increase its influence there. In recent years, <a href="https://oec.world/en/profile/country/ner?latestTrendsViewSelectorNonSubnat=latestTrendsViewOption0&depthSelector1=HS4Depth&yearlyTradeFlowSelector=flow0">China has been one of</a> Niger’s top trading partners. In 2022, China took in approximately 9% of Niger’s exports and accounted for 22% of Niger’s imports. </p> <p>The U.S. accounts for a relatively small share of <a href="https://oec.world/en/profile/country/ner?latestTrendsViewSelectorNonSubnat=latestTrendsViewOption0&depthSelector1=HS4Depth&yearlyTradeFlowSelector=flow0">Niger’s total trade</a>.</p> <figure class="align-center zoomable"> <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/587755/original/file-20240412-20-uvpeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:66.71087533156499%;--background-color:#9e6d58"><img alt="A Black young man stands in army green with a large rifle and his arm across his Chester, in front of other soldiers who are at barricades on a street." class="lazyload" data-src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/587755/original/file-20240412-20-uvpeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" data-srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/587755/original/file-20240412-20-uvpeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587755/original/file-20240412-20-uvpeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587755/original/file-20240412-20-uvpeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587755/original/file-20240412-20-uvpeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587755/original/file-20240412-20-uvpeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/587755/original/file-20240412-20-uvpeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></div></a> <figcaption> <span class="caption">A Nigerien soldier stands guard as supporters of the military coup gather at a demonstration outside Niger and French air bases in Niamey, Niger, on Aug. 7, 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/officers-of-the-niger-national-police-and-nigerien-soldiers-news-photo/1628177912?adppopup=true">AFP via Getty Images</a></span> </figcaption> </figure> <h2>Why the US is building military bases in Africa</h2> <p>The U.S., China and Russia have all created a growing military footprint in Africa over the past two decades. </p> <p>Before 2001, U.S. aid to Africa was <a href="https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pdacq555.pdf">focused on goals</a> such as eradicating HIV/AIDS and creating more educational opportunities for children. </p> <p>Following the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks in the U.S. and the subsequent <a href="https://www.georgewbushlibrary.gov/research/topic-guides/global-war-terror">war on terrorism</a>, the U.S. continued to carry out health and other work in Africa but also increased its military footprint there. President George W. Bush’s administration tried to eradicate al-Qaida affiliates and other extremist movements in Africa and elsewhere. African countries that were the targets of al-Qaida terrorism also saw an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343317702708">increase in the proportion of U.S. military aid</a> they received. </p> <p>In 2007, the U.S. Department of Defense unified its work in Africa by creating a new command called <a href="https://www.africom.mil/history-of-us-africa-command">Africa Command</a>, or AFRICOM. Under AFRICOM, the U.S. military has <a href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/us-security-force-assistance-africa">trained, advised and assisted</a> the militaries of other African countries and has also tried to combat militant groups such as Boko Haram. </p> <p>China established its first permanent foreign military base in Djibouti in 2017. It is now reportedly trying to get another in <a href="https://ecfr.eu/article/chinas-new-military-base-in-africa-what-it-means-for-europe-and-america/">Equatorial Guinea</a>. Beyond military bases, China has poured billions of dollars into <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Belt-and-Road/China-s-Belt-and-Road-came-at-right-time-for-Africa-says-AU-official2">economic development across Africa</a> through its Belt and Road Initiative, which aims to develop new <a href="https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/09/what-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-bri">trade routes for China</a>. </p> <p>The U.S. has also worked with China to <a href="https://theconversation.com/somali-piracy-once-an-unsolvable-security-threat-has-almost-completely-stopped-heres-why-213872">fight piracy off the Horn of Africa</a> and promote stability in international shipping lanes.</p> <p>Russia, meanwhile, had used the Wagner Group, a state-funded private military organization, to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68322230">provide military assistance and negotiate new economic deals</a> with African leaders. After a failed Wagner Group mutiny and the death of its leader, Yevgeny Prigozhin, the Wagner Group in Africa was <a href="https://theconversation.com/wagner-group-is-now-africa-corps-what-this-means-for-russias-operations-on-the-continent-223253">rebranded as Africa Corps</a> and continues much of this work in Africa.</p> <p>These countries’ interest in building new <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2023.2271387">military bases in Africa</a> is rooted in their desire to promote their interests and secure access to commercial and security resources. </p> <h2>An unclear path ahead</h2> <p>The U.S. is now looking for alternatives to its lost drone bases in Niger, but there are few options in the region that are both <a href="https://www.airforcetimes.com/flashpoints/2023/08/18/us-readying-plans-to-evacuate-drone-bases-in-niger-if-necessary/">allies with the U.S. and do not have a military government</a>. While the U.S. has historically worked with and can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002720957713">influence</a> nations where the military also runs the government, in the post-Cold War period the U.S. generally <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/beyond-the-wire-9780197633403?cc=us&lang=en&">aligns itself with democratic countries</a>. </p> <p>In addition, as U.S. rivals such as China and Russia gain influence in the region, it may become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2023.2271387">more expensive for the U.S.</a> to set up new military bases in Africa. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2023.2271387">Research shows</a> that when host states can choose between major powers to cooperate with, it requires more economic incentives to gain their favor. This means that it is not clear to what extent the U.S. can maintain a presence in western and central Africa.</p> </div> <div class="grid-ten grid-prepend-two large-grid-nine grid-last content-topics topic-list"> <i class="icon-tag"></i> <ul> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/terrorism-518">Terrorism</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/al-shabab-2471">Al Shabab</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/us-foreign-policy-4028">US foreign policy</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/joe-biden-4046">Joe Biden</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/boko-haram-10177">Boko Haram</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/al-qaeda-10783">Al-Qaeda</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/west-africa-11739">West Africa</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/us-africa-relations-11872">US-Africa relations</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a 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0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:{};return this.i18nFormat?.getResource?this.i18nFormat.getResource(t,e,n,r):this.resourceStore.getResource(t,e,n,r)}getUsedParamsDetails(){let t=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};const e=["defaultValue","ordinal","context","replace","lng","lngs","fallbackLng","ns","keySeparator","nsSeparator","returnObjects","returnDetails","joinArrays","postProcess","interpolation"],n=t.replace&&!l(t.replace);let r=n?t.replace:t;if(n&&void 0!==t.count&&(r.count=t.count),this.options.interpolation.defaultVariables&&(r={...this.options.interpolation.defaultVariables,...r}),!n){r={...r};for(const t of e)delete r[t]}return r}static hasDefaultValue(t){const e="defaultValue";for(const n in t)if(Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(t,n)&&e===n.substring(0,12)&&void 0!==t[n])return!0;return!1}}class I{constructor(t){this.options=t,this.supportedLngs=this.options.supportedLngs||!1,this.logger=E.create("languageUtils")}getScriptPartFromCode(t){if(!(t=L(t))||t.indexOf("-")<0)return null;const e=t.split("-");return 2===e.length?null:(e.pop(),"x"===e[e.length-1].toLowerCase()?null:this.formatLanguageCode(e.join("-")))}getLanguagePartFromCode(t){if(!(t=L(t))||t.indexOf("-")<0)return t;const e=t.split("-");return this.formatLanguageCode(e[0])}formatLanguageCode(t){if(l(t)&&t.indexOf("-")>-1){let e;try{e=Intl.getCanonicalLocales(t)[0]}catch(t){}return e&&this.options.lowerCaseLng&&(e=e.toLowerCase()),e||(this.options.lowerCaseLng?t.toLowerCase():t)}return this.options.cleanCode||this.options.lowerCaseLng?t.toLowerCase():t}isSupportedCode(t){return("languageOnly"===this.options.load||this.options.nonExplicitSupportedLngs)&&(t=this.getLanguagePartFromCode(t)),!this.supportedLngs||!this.supportedLngs.length||this.supportedLngs.indexOf(t)>-1}getBestMatchFromCodes(t){if(!t)return null;let e;return t.forEach((t=>{if(e)return;const n=this.formatLanguageCode(t);this.options.supportedLngs&&!this.isSupportedCode(n)||(e=n)})),!e&&this.options.supportedLngs&&t.forEach((t=>{if(e)return;const n=this.getLanguagePartFromCode(t);if(this.isSupportedCode(n))return e=n;e=this.options.supportedLngs.find((t=>t===n?t:t.indexOf("-")<0&&n.indexOf("-")<0?void 0:t.indexOf("-")>0&&n.indexOf("-")<0&&t.substring(0,t.indexOf("-"))===n||0===t.indexOf(n)&&n.length>1?t:void 0))})),e||(e=this.getFallbackCodes(this.options.fallbackLng)[0]),e}getFallbackCodes(t,e){if(!t)return[];if("function"==typeof t&&(t=t(e)),l(t)&&(t=[t]),Array.isArray(t))return t;if(!e)return t.default||[];let n=t[e];return n||(n=t[this.getScriptPartFromCode(e)]),n||(n=t[this.formatLanguageCode(e)]),n||(n=t[this.getLanguagePartFromCode(e)]),n||(n=t.default),n||[]}toResolveHierarchy(t,e){const n=this.getFallbackCodes(e||this.options.fallbackLng||[],t),r=[],o=t=>{t&&(this.isSupportedCode(t)?r.push(t):this.logger.warn(`rejecting language code not found in supportedLngs: ${t}`))};return l(t)&&(t.indexOf("-")>-1||t.indexOf("_")>-1)?("languageOnly"!==this.options.load&&o(this.formatLanguageCode(t)),"languageOnly"!==this.options.load&&"currentOnly"!==this.options.load&&o(this.getScriptPartFromCode(t)),"currentOnly"!==this.options.load&&o(this.getLanguagePartFromCode(t))):l(t)&&o(this.formatLanguageCode(t)),n.forEach((t=>{r.indexOf(t)<0&&o(this.formatLanguageCode(t))})),r}}const F={zero:0,one:1,two:2,few:3,many:4,other:5},D={select:t=>1===t?"one":"other",resolvedOptions:()=>({pluralCategories:["one","other"]})};class M{constructor(t){let e=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};this.languageUtils=t,this.options=e,this.logger=E.create("pluralResolver"),this.pluralRulesCache={}}addRule(t,e){this.rules[t]=e}clearCache(){this.pluralRulesCache={}}getRule(t){let e=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};const n=L("dev"===t?"en":t),r=e.ordinal?"ordinal":"cardinal",o=JSON.stringify({cleanedCode:n,type:r});if(o in this.pluralRulesCache)return this.pluralRulesCache[o];let i;try{i=new Intl.PluralRules(n,{type:r})}catch(n){if(!Intl)return this.logger.error("No Intl support, please use an Intl polyfill!"),D;if(!t.match(/-|_/))return D;const r=this.languageUtils.getLanguagePartFromCode(t);i=this.getRule(r,e)}return this.pluralRulesCache[o]=i,i}needsPlural(t){let e=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{},n=this.getRule(t,e);return n||(n=this.getRule("dev",e)),n?.resolvedOptions().pluralCategories.length>1}getPluralFormsOfKey(t,e){let n=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{};return this.getSuffixes(t,n).map((t=>`${e}${t}`))}getSuffixes(t){let e=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{},n=this.getRule(t,e);return n||(n=this.getRule("dev",e)),n?n.resolvedOptions().pluralCategories.sort(((t,e)=>F[t]-F[e])).map((t=>`${this.options.prepend}${e.ordinal?`ordinal${this.options.prepend}`:""}${t}`)):[]}getSuffix(t,e){let n=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{};const r=this.getRule(t,n);return r?`${this.options.prepend}${n.ordinal?`ordinal${this.options.prepend}`:""}${r.select(e)}`:(this.logger.warn(`no plural rule found for: ${t}`),this.getSuffix("dev",e,n))}}const V=function(t,e,n){let r=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:".",o=!(arguments.length>4&&void 0!==arguments[4])||arguments[4],i=((t,e,n)=>{const r=m(t,n);return void 0!==r?r:m(e,n)})(t,e,n);return!i&&o&&l(n)&&(i=j(t,n,r),void 0===i&&(i=j(e,n,r))),i},U=t=>t.replace(/\$/g,"$$$$");class _{constructor(){let t=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};this.logger=E.create("interpolator"),this.options=t,this.format=t?.interpolation?.format||(t=>t),this.init(t)}init(){let t=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};t.interpolation||(t.interpolation={escapeValue:!0});const{escape:e,escapeValue:n,useRawValueToEscape:r,prefix:o,prefixEscaped:i,suffix:s,suffixEscaped:a,formatSeparator:u,unescapeSuffix:c,unescapePrefix:l,nestingPrefix:f,nestingPrefixEscaped:p,nestingSuffix:h,nestingSuffixEscaped:d,nestingOptionsSeparator:g,maxReplaces:v,alwaysFormat:y}=t.interpolation;this.escape=void 0!==e?e:O,this.escapeValue=void 0===n||n,this.useRawValueToEscape=void 0!==r&&r,this.prefix=o?x(o):i||"{{",this.suffix=s?x(s):a||"}}",this.formatSeparator=u||",",this.unescapePrefix=c?"":l||"-",this.unescapeSuffix=this.unescapePrefix?"":c||"",this.nestingPrefix=f?x(f):p||x("$t("),this.nestingSuffix=h?x(h):d||x(")"),this.nestingOptionsSeparator=g||",",this.maxReplaces=v||1e3,this.alwaysFormat=void 0!==y&&y,this.resetRegExp()}reset(){this.options&&this.init(this.options)}resetRegExp(){const t=(t,e)=>t?.source===e?(t.lastIndex=0,t):new RegExp(e,"g");this.regexp=t(this.regexp,`${this.prefix}(.+?)${this.suffix}`),this.regexpUnescape=t(this.regexpUnescape,`${this.prefix}${this.unescapePrefix}(.+?)${this.unescapeSuffix}${this.suffix}`),this.nestingRegexp=t(this.nestingRegexp,`${this.nestingPrefix}(.+?)${this.nestingSuffix}`)}interpolate(t,e,n,r){let o,i,s;const a=this.options&&this.options.interpolation&&this.options.interpolation.defaultVariables||{},u=t=>{if(t.indexOf(this.formatSeparator)<0){const o=V(e,a,t,this.options.keySeparator,this.options.ignoreJSONStructure);return this.alwaysFormat?this.format(o,void 0,n,{...r,...e,interpolationkey:t}):o}const o=t.split(this.formatSeparator),i=o.shift().trim(),s=o.join(this.formatSeparator).trim();return this.format(V(e,a,i,this.options.keySeparator,this.options.ignoreJSONStructure),s,n,{...r,...e,interpolationkey:i})};this.resetRegExp();const c=r?.missingInterpolationHandler||this.options.missingInterpolationHandler,f=void 0!==r?.interpolation?.skipOnVariables?r.interpolation.skipOnVariables:this.options.interpolation.skipOnVariables;return[{regex:this.regexpUnescape,safeValue:t=>U(t)},{regex:this.regexp,safeValue:t=>this.escapeValue?U(this.escape(t)):U(t)}].forEach((e=>{for(s=0;o=e.regex.exec(t);){const n=o[1].trim();if(i=u(n),void 0===i)if("function"==typeof c){const e=c(t,o,r);i=l(e)?e:""}else if(r&&Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(r,n))i="";else{if(f){i=o[0];continue}this.logger.warn(`missed to pass in variable ${n} for interpolating ${t}`),i=""}else l(i)||this.useRawValueToEscape||(i=p(i));const a=e.safeValue(i);if(t=t.replace(o[0],a),f?(e.regex.lastIndex+=i.length,e.regex.lastIndex-=o[0].length):e.regex.lastIndex=0,s++,s>=this.maxReplaces)break}})),t}nest(t,e){let n,r,o,i=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{};const s=(t,e)=>{const n=this.nestingOptionsSeparator;if(t.indexOf(n)<0)return t;const r=t.split(new RegExp(`${n}[ ]*{`));let i=`{${r[1]}`;t=r[0],i=this.interpolate(i,o);const s=i.match(/'/g),a=i.match(/"/g);((s?.length??0)%2==0&&!a||a.length%2!=0)&&(i=i.replace(/'/g,'"'));try{o=JSON.parse(i),e&&(o={...e,...o})}catch(e){return this.logger.warn(`failed parsing options string in nesting for key ${t}`,e),`${t}${n}${i}`}return o.defaultValue&&o.defaultValue.indexOf(this.prefix)>-1&&delete o.defaultValue,t};for(;n=this.nestingRegexp.exec(t);){let a=[];o={...i},o=o.replace&&!l(o.replace)?o.replace:o,o.applyPostProcessor=!1,delete o.defaultValue;let u=!1;if(-1!==n[0].indexOf(this.formatSeparator)&&!/{.*}/.test(n[1])){const t=n[1].split(this.formatSeparator).map((t=>t.trim()));n[1]=t.shift(),a=t,u=!0}if(r=e(s.call(this,n[1].trim(),o),o),r&&n[0]===t&&!l(r))return r;l(r)||(r=p(r)),r||(this.logger.warn(`missed to resolve ${n[1]} for nesting ${t}`),r=""),u&&(r=a.reduce(((t,e)=>this.format(t,e,i.lng,{...i,interpolationkey:n[1].trim()})),r.trim())),t=t.replace(n[0],r),this.regexp.lastIndex=0}return t}}const H=t=>{const e={};return(n,r,o)=>{let i=o;o&&o.interpolationkey&&o.formatParams&&o.formatParams[o.interpolationkey]&&o[o.interpolationkey]&&(i={...i,[o.interpolationkey]:void 0});const s=r+JSON.stringify(i);let a=e[s];return a||(a=t(L(r),o),e[s]=a),a(n)}};class K{constructor(){let t=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};this.logger=E.create("formatter"),this.options=t,this.formats={number:H(((t,e)=>{const n=new Intl.NumberFormat(t,{...e});return t=>n.format(t)})),currency:H(((t,e)=>{const n=new Intl.NumberFormat(t,{...e,style:"currency"});return t=>n.format(t)})),datetime:H(((t,e)=>{const n=new Intl.DateTimeFormat(t,{...e});return t=>n.format(t)})),relativetime:H(((t,e)=>{const n=new Intl.RelativeTimeFormat(t,{...e});return t=>n.format(t,e.range||"day")})),list:H(((t,e)=>{const n=new Intl.ListFormat(t,{...e});return t=>n.format(t)}))},this.init(t)}init(t){let e=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{interpolation:{}};this.formatSeparator=e.interpolation.formatSeparator||","}add(t,e){this.formats[t.toLowerCase().trim()]=e}addCached(t,e){this.formats[t.toLowerCase().trim()]=H(e)}format(t,e,n){let r=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:{};const o=e.split(this.formatSeparator);if(o.length>1&&o[0].indexOf("(")>1&&o[0].indexOf(")")<0&&o.find((t=>t.indexOf(")")>-1))){const t=o.findIndex((t=>t.indexOf(")")>-1));o[0]=[o[0],...o.splice(1,t)].join(this.formatSeparator)}return o.reduce(((t,e)=>{const{formatName:o,formatOptions:i}=(t=>{let e=t.toLowerCase().trim();const n={};if(t.indexOf("(")>-1){const r=t.split("(");e=r[0].toLowerCase().trim();const o=r[1].substring(0,r[1].length-1);"currency"===e&&o.indexOf(":")<0?n.currency||(n.currency=o.trim()):"relativetime"===e&&o.indexOf(":")<0?n.range||(n.range=o.trim()):o.split(";").forEach((t=>{if(t){const[e,...r]=t.split(":"),o=r.join(":").trim().replace(/^'+|'+$/g,""),i=e.trim();n[i]||(n[i]=o),"false"===o&&(n[i]=!1),"true"===o&&(n[i]=!0),isNaN(o)||(n[i]=parseInt(o,10))}}))}return{formatName:e,formatOptions:n}})(e);if(this.formats[o]){let e=t;try{const s=r?.formatParams?.[r.interpolationkey]||{},a=s.locale||s.lng||r.locale||r.lng||n;e=this.formats[o](t,a,{...i,...r,...s})}catch(t){this.logger.warn(t)}return e}return this.logger.warn(`there was no format function for ${o}`),t}),t)}}class z extends C{constructor(t,e,n){let r=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:{};super(),this.backend=t,this.store=e,this.services=n,this.languageUtils=n.languageUtils,this.options=r,this.logger=E.create("backendConnector"),this.waitingReads=[],this.maxParallelReads=r.maxParallelReads||10,this.readingCalls=0,this.maxRetries=r.maxRetries>=0?r.maxRetries:5,this.retryTimeout=r.retryTimeout>=1?r.retryTimeout:350,this.state={},this.queue=[],this.backend?.init?.(n,r.backend,r)}queueLoad(t,e,n,r){const o={},i={},s={},a={};return t.forEach((t=>{let r=!0;e.forEach((e=>{const s=`${t}|${e}`;!n.reload&&this.store.hasResourceBundle(t,e)?this.state[s]=2:this.state[s]<0||(1===this.state[s]?void 0===i[s]&&(i[s]=!0):(this.state[s]=1,r=!1,void 0===i[s]&&(i[s]=!0),void 0===o[s]&&(o[s]=!0),void 0===a[e]&&(a[e]=!0)))})),r||(s[t]=!0)})),(Object.keys(o).length||Object.keys(i).length)&&this.queue.push({pending:i,pendingCount:Object.keys(i).length,loaded:{},errors:[],callback:r}),{toLoad:Object.keys(o),pending:Object.keys(i),toLoadLanguages:Object.keys(s),toLoadNamespaces:Object.keys(a)}}loaded(t,e,n){const r=t.split("|"),o=r[0],i=r[1];e&&this.emit("failedLoading",o,i,e),!e&&n&&this.store.addResourceBundle(o,i,n,void 0,void 0,{skipCopy:!0}),this.state[t]=e?-1:2,e&&n&&(this.state[t]=0);const s={};this.queue.forEach((n=>{((t,e,n)=>{const{obj:r,k:o}=v(t,e,Object);r[o]=r[o]||[],r[o].push(n)})(n.loaded,[o],i),((t,e)=>{void 0!==t.pending[e]&&(delete t.pending[e],t.pendingCount--)})(n,t),e&&n.errors.push(e),0!==n.pendingCount||n.done||(Object.keys(n.loaded).forEach((t=>{s[t]||(s[t]={});const e=n.loaded[t];e.length&&e.forEach((e=>{void 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n=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{},r=arguments.length>3?arguments[3]:void 0;if(!this.backend)return this.logger.warn("No backend was added via i18next.use. Will not load resources."),r&&r();l(t)&&(t=this.languageUtils.toResolveHierarchy(t)),l(e)&&(e=[e]);const o=this.queueLoad(t,e,n,r);if(!o.toLoad.length)return o.pending.length||r(),null;o.toLoad.forEach((t=>{this.loadOne(t)}))}load(t,e,n){this.prepareLoading(t,e,{},n)}reload(t,e,n){this.prepareLoading(t,e,{reload:!0},n)}loadOne(t){let e=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:"";const n=t.split("|"),r=n[0],o=n[1];this.read(r,o,"read",void 0,void 0,((n,i)=>{n&&this.logger.warn(`${e}loading namespace ${o} for language ${r} failed`,n),!n&&i&&this.logger.log(`${e}loaded namespace ${o} for language ${r}`,i),this.loaded(t,n,i)}))}saveMissing(t,e,n,r,o){let i=arguments.length>5&&void 0!==arguments[5]?arguments[5]:{},s=arguments.length>6&&void 0!==arguments[6]?arguments[6]:()=>{};if(!this.services?.utils?.hasLoadedNamespace||this.services?.utils?.hasLoadedNamespace(e)){if(null!=n&&""!==n){if(this.backend?.create){const a={...i,isUpdate:o},u=this.backend.create.bind(this.backend);if(u.length<6)try{let o;o=5===u.length?u(t,e,n,r,a):u(t,e,n,r),o&&"function"==typeof o.then?o.then((t=>s(null,t))).catch(s):s(null,o)}catch(t){s(t)}else u(t,e,n,r,s,a)}t&&t[0]&&this.store.addResource(t[0],e,n,r)}}else this.logger.warn(`did not save key "${n}" as the namespace "${e}" was not yet loaded`,"This means something IS WRONG in your setup. You access the t function before i18next.init / i18next.loadNamespace / i18next.changeLanguage was done. 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o=function(t,e){let i;if("object"!=typeof e){for(var s=arguments.length,a=new Array(s>2?s-2:0),u=2;u<s;u++)a[u-2]=arguments[u];i=r.options.overloadTranslationOptionHandler([t,e].concat(a))}else i={...e};i.lng=i.lng||o.lng,i.lngs=i.lngs||o.lngs,i.ns=i.ns||o.ns,""!==i.keyPrefix&&(i.keyPrefix=i.keyPrefix||n||o.keyPrefix);const c=r.options.keySeparator||".";let l;return l=i.keyPrefix&&Array.isArray(t)?t.map((t=>`${i.keyPrefix}${c}${t}`)):i.keyPrefix?`${i.keyPrefix}${c}${t}`:t,r.t(l,i)};return l(t)?o.lng=t:o.lngs=t,o.ns=e,o.keyPrefix=n,o}t(){for(var t=arguments.length,e=new Array(t),n=0;n<t;n++)e[n]=arguments[n];return this.translator?.translate(...e)}exists(){for(var t=arguments.length,e=new Array(t),n=0;n<t;n++)e[n]=arguments[n];return this.translator?.exists(...e)}setDefaultNamespace(t){this.options.defaultNS=t}hasLoadedNamespace(t){let e=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};if(!this.isInitialized)return this.logger.warn("hasLoadedNamespace: i18next was not 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r=this.options.preload||[],o=t.filter((t=>r.indexOf(t)<0&&this.services.languageUtils.isSupportedCode(t)));return o.length?(this.options.preload=r.concat(o),this.loadResources((t=>{n.resolve(),e&&e(t)})),n):(e&&e(),Promise.resolve())}dir(t){if(t||(t=this.resolvedLanguage||(this.languages?.length>0?this.languages[0]:this.language)),!t)return"rtl";const e=this.services?.languageUtils||new I(B());return["ar","shu","sqr","ssh","xaa","yhd","yud","aao","abh","abv","acm","acq","acw","acx","acy","adf","ads","aeb","aec","afb","ajp","apc","apd","arb","arq","ars","ary","arz","auz","avl","ayh","ayl","ayn","ayp","bbz","pga","he","iw","ps","pbt","pbu","pst","prp","prd","ug","ur","ydd","yds","yih","ji","yi","hbo","men","xmn","fa","jpr","peo","pes","prs","dv","sam","ckb"].indexOf(e.getLanguagePartFromCode(t))>-1||t.toLowerCase().indexOf("-arab")>1?"rtl":"ltr"}static createInstance(){return new J(arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{},arguments.length>1?arguments[1]:void 0)}cloneInstance(){let t=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{},e=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:G;const n=t.forkResourceStore;n&&delete t.forkResourceStore;const r={...this.options,...t,isClone:!0},o=new J(r);void 0===t.debug&&void 0===t.prefix||(o.logger=o.logger.clone(t));if(["store","services","language"].forEach((t=>{o[t]=this[t]})),o.services={...this.services},o.services.utils={hasLoadedNamespace:o.hasLoadedNamespace.bind(o)},n){const t=Object.keys(this.store.data).reduce(((t,e)=>(t[e]={...this.store.data[e]},Object.keys(t[e]).reduce(((n,r)=>(n[r]={...t[e][r]},n)),{}))),{});o.store=new N(t,r),o.services.resourceStore=o.store}return o.translator=new T(o.services,r),o.translator.on("*",(function(t){for(var e=arguments.length,n=new 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