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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" data-vue-meta-server-rendered> <head>   <script id="Cookiebot" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="011c3436-7d64-4a27-ac89-ad262dbcfb8f" type="text/javascript"></script>   <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-DTTE7J8M7F" data-cookieconsent="statistics"></script> <script data-cookieconsent="statistics"> window.gaDebug = false; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag() { if (window.gaDebug) { console.log("XXX gaDebug:", arguments); } dataLayer.push(arguments); } gtag('js', new Date()); (function () { try { var g = localStorage.getItem('ga_debug') || ''; window.gaDebug = (g == 'true'); } catch (e) { console.log("ga_debug error:", e); } gtag('config', 'G-DTTE7J8M7F', { 'debug_mode': window.gaDebug, 'send_page_view': false, // 'cookie_domain': 'none', }); })(); </script> <title>Lignin - Chemistry, Structure, and Application | IntechOpen</title> <meta data-vue-meta="ssr" charset="utf-8"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="description" content="Lignin - Chemistry, Structure, and Application. Edited by: Arpit Sand and Jaya Tuteja. ISBN 978-1-83968-545-3, eISBN 978-1-83968-546-0, PDF ISBN 978-1-83968-861-4, Published 2023-04-05"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="title" content="Lignin - Chemistry, Structure, and Application | IntechOpen"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="category" content="Book"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:type" content="book"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:url" content="https://www.intechopen.com/books/11902"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:title" content="Lignin - Chemistry, Structure, and Application | IntechOpen"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:description" content="Lignin, found in the cell walls of trees and plants, is the second-most naturally abundant biopolymer. It is composed of alkyl-aromatic polymer units. This book describes the composition and structure of lignin, strategies for its chemical modification, and studies of biopolymer lignin. It also discusses the synthesis and characterization of lignin, methods for degradation, applications in various materials, and prospects for further development. Other topics covered include the role of lignin in thermosetting and thermoplastic materials and its technical and economic potential for generating green biofuel as an energy source for industrial plants and in the manufacture of fine chemicals."><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="twitter:card" content="summary"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="twitter:title" content="Lignin - Chemistry, Structure, and Application | IntechOpen"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="twitter:description" content="Lignin, found in the cell walls of trees and plants, is the second-most naturally abundant biopolymer. It is composed of alkyl-aromatic polymer units. This book describes the composition and structure of lignin, strategies for its chemical modification, and studies of biopolymer lignin. It also discusses the synthesis and characterization of lignin, methods for degradation, applications in various materials, and prospects for further development. Other topics covered include the role of lignin in thermosetting and thermoplastic materials and its technical and economic potential for generating green biofuel as an energy source for industrial plants and in the manufacture of fine chemicals."><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="DC.Identifier" content="10.5772/intechopen.102263"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="DC.Title" content="Lignin - Chemistry, Structure, and Application"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="DC.Date" content="2023-04-05"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_doi" content="10.5772/intechopen.102263"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_title" content="Lignin - Chemistry, Structure, and Application"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_publication_date" content="2023-04-05"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_online_date" content="2023-04-05"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_isbn" content="978-1-83968-546-0"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:image" 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li[data-v-56230ffb]{position:relative}.aside ul li .submenu[data-v-56230ffb]{display:none;position:absolute;background-color:white;left:0;min-width:100%;z-index:1}.aside ul li:hover>.submenu[data-v-56230ffb]{min-width:200px;display:flex;flex-direction:column;padding:3rem;gap:1rem;line-height:3rem;box-shadow:0 0 10px rgba(0,0,0,0.1)}.aside ul li:hover>.submenu a[data-v-56230ffb]:hover{color:#e10000}} @media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){#app[data-scrolldir="up"] .page-header .wrap{transform:translateY(0)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header .wrap{transform:translateY(-100%)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header.has-subnav .wrap{transform:translateY(-13em)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header.has-double-subnav .wrap{transform:translateY(-17em)}} .search-term[data-v-6047d25e]{position:relative;display:inline-block}.search-term input[data-v-6047d25e]{font-family:'Relative Faux', 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h3[data-v-0935c155]{font-size:18px;text-transform:uppercase;font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:700;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;padding-bottom:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:1}.popup .header p[data-v-0935c155]{font-family:'Relative Pro', sans-serif;line-height:1}.popup .close[data-v-0935c155]{position:relative;top:25px;left:calc(100% - 20px);cursor:pointer}.popup .body[data-v-0935c155]{padding:0px;background-color:#fffdea}.popup .body img[data-v-0935c155]{width:100%}.popup .body .relative-d6[data-v-0935c155]{font-family:'Relative Pro', sans-serif}.popup .body .relative-d6 .bold[data-v-0935c155]{font-weight:700}.popup .body .description[data-v-0935c155]{padding:10px;text-align:center}.popup .body .description p[data-v-0935c155]{line-height:150%}.popup .body .description a[data-v-0935c155]{color:#e10000;text-decoration:none}.popup .body .btn[data-v-0935c155]{display:inline-block;font-family:'Relative Faux', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:1.5rem;text-align:center;color:#fffdea;padding:1rem 1.5rem;border:1px solid #e10000;border-radius:4px;background-color:#e10000}.popup .body .btn[data-v-0935c155]:hover{background-color:#870000;border-color:#870000} .breadcrumbs[data-v-a2e71dd8]{padding-top:3.2rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.breadcrumbs[data-v-a2e71dd8]{padding-top:2.7rem}}.breadcrumbs__items[data-v-a2e71dd8]{display:flex;flex-wrap:nowrap;overflow-x:scroll;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch;color:#fffdea}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.breadcrumbs__items[data-v-a2e71dd8]{overflow-x:visible}} .mathlab[data-v-feee617e]{width:100%;max-width:510px;background:#e10000;color:#FFFAD2;font-size:2rem;margin-bottom:3.5rem;padding:5px}@media screen and (max-width: 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(min-width: 48em){.leadTitle img[data-v-feee617e]{width:2.4rem;height:2.4rem;margin-right:1.5rem}}.title[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:700;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:2.4rem;line-height:3.2rem;margin-bottom:1.8rem}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.title[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:4rem;line-height:5.5rem;margin-top:2.4rem;margin-bottom:2.4rem}}.caption[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.2rem;line-height:1.6rem;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.caption[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem}}.text[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:1.6rem;line-height:2rem}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.text[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:1.8rem;line-height:2.4rem}}.text[data-v-feee617e] img,.text[data-v-feee617e] span{display:none !important}.book-intro[data-v-feee617e]{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr;margin-top:2.4rem}.book-intro__additonal[data-v-feee617e]{margin-top:2.4rem}.book-intro__ito-score[data-v-feee617e]{display:flex;max-width:37.3rem;padding:1.5rem;margin-top:3.2rem;background-color:#ffffff;box-shadow:0px 2.4rem 8.8rem rgba(0,0,0,0.05)}.book-intro__ito-score-ring[data-v-feee617e]{width:8.4rem !important;height:8.4rem !important;margin-right:2rem}.book-intro__ito-score-ring svg[data-v-feee617e]{display:block;max-width:100%;height:100%}.book-intro__ito-score-caption[data-v-feee617e],.book-intro__ito-score-text[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase}.book-intro__ito-score-text[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'Relative Book', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;text-transform:none;margin-top:0.4rem}.book-intro__ito-score-activator[data-v-feee617e]{display:inline-block;font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;margin-top:1.6rem}.book-intro__ito-score-activator img[data-v-feee617e]{display:inline-block;width:2rem;margin-left:1rem}.book-intro__cover[data-v-feee617e]{width:22rem;margin:0 auto}.book-intro__contributors[data-v-feee617e]{margin-top:5.6rem}.book-intro__cta[data-v-feee617e]{position:relative}.book-intro__cta .share-module[data-v-feee617e]{z-index:12;top:3.5rem;left:5rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.book-intro__cta .share-module[data-v-feee617e]{top:3.5rem;left:10rem}}.book-intro__cta .share-module[data-v-feee617e]:before{top:-1rem;border-top:0 !important;border-bottom:1rem solid #000000;right:45%}.book-intro__cta a[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;display:inline-block;margin-right:2rem}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.book-intro__cta a[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:1.6rem;line-height:2.4rem;margin-right:4.2rem}}.book-intro__cta a img[data-v-feee617e]{display:inline-block;width:1.6rem;margin-right:0.8rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.book-intro__cta a img[data-v-feee617e]{width:2.4rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.book-intro[data-v-feee617e]{grid-template-columns:minmax(54.3rem, 79.5rem) 40.5rem}.book-intro__titles[data-v-feee617e]{grid-column:1/2;grid-row:1/2;padding-right:1.6rem;margin-top:2.4rem}.book-intro__additonal[data-v-feee617e]{grid-column:2/3;grid-row:1/4;margin-top:0}.book-intro__contributors[data-v-feee617e]{grid-column:1/2;grid-row:2/3;padding-right:4rem}}.sponsored[data-v-feee617e]{display:flex;margin-top:2.4rem}.sponsored-box[data-v-feee617e]{box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;align-items:center;max-width:69.1rem;padding:1rem;border-radius:0.6rem;background-color:#ffffff;box-shadow:0px 2.4rem 8.8rem rgba(0,0,0,0.05)}@media screen and (min-width: 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0}}.wrapper__body[data-v-27c725c1]{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:2rem;background-color:#fffdea}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.wrapper__body[data-v-27c725c1]{display:flex;flex-direction:column;justify-content:center;width:69rem;padding:3rem 15rem 2.5rem 5.6rem}}.stat[data-v-27c725c1]{display:flex;flex-direction:column;width:100%}.stat__heading[data-v-27c725c1]{display:flex;align-items:center;font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.8rem;line-height:2.4rem;text-align:center;color:#000000;padding:0.6rem;border-radius:0.45rem;margin-bottom:1.6rem}.stat__heading-icon[data-v-27c725c1]{box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;align-items:center;width:5rem;height:5rem;padding:1.7rem 1.4rem;border-radius:0.45rem;margin-right:1.5rem;background-color:#FCE5E5}.stat__heading-icon img[data-v-27c725c1]{display:block;width:100%;height:auto}.stat__box[data-v-27c725c1]{padding:4rem 4rem 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.stat[data-v-27c725c1]{box-sizing:border-box;flex-shrink:0;flex-grow:1;width:50%;padding-left:1.25rem;padding-right:1.25rem}.downloads-and-views .stat+.stat[data-v-27c725c1]{margin-top:0}.citations[data-v-27c725c1]{margin-top:1.6rem}.citations .stat__row[data-v-27c725c1]{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;margin-left:-3rem;margin-right:-3rem}.citations .stat__col[data-v-27c725c1]{flex-grow:1;box-sizing:border-box;width:50%;padding:0 3rem}.citations .stat__box+.stat__box[data-v-27c725c1]{margin-top:0.8rem}.citations .stat__col+.stat__col[data-v-27c725c1]{margin-top:0rem;border-left:1px solid rgba(0,0,0,0.1)}.citations .stat__col+.stat__col[data-v-27c725c1]::before{content:none}}.white-bg[data-v-27c725c1]{background-color:#ffffff;box-shadow:0.6rem 1.8rem 6.4rem rgba(0,0,0,0.05)}.modal[data-v-27c725c1]{position:fixed;z-index:1005;top:0;bottom:0;left:0;right:0;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;overflow:hidden;background-color:#000;background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.4)}.modal__content[data-v-27c725c1]{overflow:auto;height:100%;max-height:100%}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.modal__content[data-v-27c725c1]{height:auto;max-height:calc(100% - 2.4rem)}}.modal-enter-active[data-v-27c725c1],.modal-leave-active[data-v-27c725c1]{transition:opacity .25s}.modal-enter[data-v-27c725c1],.modal-leave-to[data-v-27c725c1]{opacity:0}.close-btn[data-v-27c725c1]{position:absolute;top:1.6rem;right:1.6rem;cursor:pointer}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.close-btn path[data-v-27c725c1]{fill:#e10000}}[data-v-27c725c1] .altmetric-embed a img{margin:auto;vertical-align:middle;display:inline-block} .editor[data-v-6abf993b]{display:flex;align-items:center;margin-top:1.6rem;flex:1}.editor__image[data-v-6abf993b]{margin-right:1.2rem}@media 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img[data-v-6abf993b]{display:block;width:2.4rem;height:2.4rem;margin-right:0.5rem}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.nobel-editor img[data-v-6abf993b]{width:4.8rem;height:4.8rem;margin-right:1.4rem}}.physiology[data-v-6abf993b]{width:310px} .profile-img[data-v-231a3921]{display:inline-block;position:relative}.profile-img>.lazy-image[data-v-231a3921]{display:block;width:4.8rem;height:4.8rem;border-radius:8px;background:transparent}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.profile-img>.lazy-image[data-v-231a3921]{width:11.2rem;height:11.2rem}}.profile-img.filter[data-v-231a3921]:after{content:"";position:absolute;top:0;left:0;right:0;bottom:0;background:rgba(225,0,0,0.1);mix-blend-mode:multiply;border-radius:8px} .lazy-image[data-v-c6fa12ae]{position:relative;display:block;overflow:hidden;width:100%;background-color:#fffcdd}.lazy-image.ar1[data-v-c6fa12ae]{padding-bottom:144.3%}.lazy-image.ar2[data-v-c6fa12ae]{padding-bottom:100%}.image[data-v-c6fa12ae]{position:absolute;left:0;right:0;top:0;bottom:0;margin:auto;width:100%;min-height:100%}.fade-enter-active[data-v-c6fa12ae],.fade-leave-active[data-v-c6fa12ae]{transition:opacity .5s ease-in}.fade-enter[data-v-c6fa12ae],.fade-leave-to[data-v-c6fa12ae]{transform:scale(1);opacity:0} .modal-overlay[data-v-3b1bf31a]{position:fixed;z-index:1001;left:0;top:0;width:100%;height:100%;overflow:hidden;background-color:#000;background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.4)}.modal-overlay .modal-content[data-v-3b1bf31a]{position:relative;overflow:auto;width:100%;height:100%;background:#fffdea}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.modal-overlay .modal-content[data-v-3b1bf31a]{top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%, calc(-50% - 0.5px));width:60rem;max-width:90%;height:auto;max-height:calc(100% - 2.4rem);border-radius:.6rem}}.form[data-v-3b1bf31a]{padding:5.6rem 1.6rem 1.6rem}.form__row[data-v-3b1bf31a]{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap}.form__row+.form__row[data-v-3b1bf31a]{margin-top:1.8rem}.form__group[data-v-3b1bf31a]{flex:1 1 100%;padding:0 1.6rem}.form__group+.form__group[data-v-3b1bf31a]{margin-top:1.8rem}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.form__group[data-v-3b1bf31a]{flex:1}.form__group+.form__group[data-v-3b1bf31a]{margin-top:0}}.form__label[data-v-3b1bf31a],.form__input[data-v-3b1bf31a],.form__text-area[data-v-3b1bf31a],.form__submit[data-v-3b1bf31a]{font-family:'Relative Book', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem}@media screen and (min-width: 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.swiper-pagination-bullet{background-color:#FBB2B2;width:1.0rem;height:0.6rem;border-radius:0;opacity:1}.pages[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet-active{background-color:#E10000}.pages[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet+.swiper-pagination-bullet{margin-left:0.8rem}.pages-light[data-v-32859338]{display:flex;margin-right:2.4rem}.pages-light[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet{background-color:#F08080;width:1.0rem;height:0.6rem;border-radius:0;opacity:1}.pages-light[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet-active{background-color:#FFFDEA}.pages-light[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet+.swiper-pagination-bullet{margin-left:0.8rem} .book-item[data-v-69cc9686]{position:relative;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.book-item__downloads[data-v-69cc9686]{display:flex;align-items:center;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;z-index:10;transform:translate(0%, -50%);font-family:'Relative Bold', 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62.5625em){.title[data-v-69cc9686]{font-size:1.6rem;line-height:2.4rem}}.edited[data-v-69cc9686]{font-family:'Relative Book', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.2rem;line-height:1.6rem;text-align:left}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.edited[data-v-69cc9686]{font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem}}.tag[data-v-69cc9686]{font-family:'Relative Faux', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.3em;line-height:1.69231em;color:#fffdea;padding:1px .76923em 0;background:#e10000;border-radius:2px;display:inline-block;margin-top:1.5rem}.tag[data-v-69cc9686]:hover{background:#b40000}.deadline[data-v-69cc9686]{font-family:'Relative Book', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;text-align:left;margin-bottom:1.6rem}@media screen and (min-width: 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62.5625em){.call-for-authors .inner[data-v-2619f083]{padding-left:10rem;height:30rem}}.call-for-authors .img-container[data-v-2619f083]{height:13.4rem;background:#333}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors .img-container[data-v-2619f083]{height:100%}}.call-for-authors .img-container img[data-v-2619f083]{width:100%;height:100%}.call-for-authors h2[data-v-2619f083]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.2rem;line-height:1.6rem;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors h2[data-v-2619f083]{font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem}}.call-for-authors h3[data-v-2619f083]{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:700;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:2.4rem;line-height:3.2rem;margin-top:1.6rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors h3[data-v-2619f083]{font-size:3.6rem;line-height:4.4rem}}.call-for-authors .cta[data-v-2619f083]{display:inline-block;font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;color:#e10000;background-color:#fffdea;padding:1rem 1.8rem;margin-top:2.4rem;border-radius:4px}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors .cta[data-v-2619f083]{font-size:1.6rem;line-height:2.4rem;padding:1.4rem 4.5rem;margin-top:5.6rem}}.call-for-authors .actions[data-v-2619f083]{position:absolute;right:10%;bottom:0;transform:translateY(50%)}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors .actions[data-v-2619f083]{right:0;top:3.1rem;transform:translateX(50%)}}.call-for-authors .explore-circle[data-v-2619f083],.call-for-authors .ofs-circle[data-v-2619f083]{box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;flex-direction:column;justify-content:center;align-items:center;font-family:'Relative Bold', 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and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors .explore-circle[data-v-2619f083]{transform:translate(-75%, 80%) rotate(-15deg);width:12.4rem;height:12.4rem}} .footer[data-v-e6aca418]{background:#000;color:#fffad2}.inner[data-v-e6aca418]{max-width:117em;margin:0 auto;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0 2em}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.inner[data-v-e6aca418]{padding:0 1.5em}.inner .aside[data-v-e6aca418]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:5rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.inner[data-v-e6aca418]{padding:0 2em}.inner .aside[data-v-e6aca418]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:5rem}.inner .main .inner[data-v-e6aca418]{max-width:60em;margin:0 auto}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.inner .wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{display:table;width:100%}.inner .aside[data-v-e6aca418]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;display:table-cell;vertical-align:top;width:27em;padding-left:2em}.inner .aside 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3);float:left;box-sizing:border-box}.nav-box[data-v-e6aca418]:last-child{clear:both;width:100%;margin-top:5rem}.icr[data-v-e6aca418]{margin-right:0.3rem}.social-wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{width:calc(100% / 3);float:right}.company-info-wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{width:calc((100% / 3)*2);float:left}.address[data-v-e6aca418]{width:50%;float:left;margin:0}.meta-wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{width:50%;float:right}.search-wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{margin:5rem 0}.cta[data-v-e6aca418]{width:calc(100% /3)}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em){.inner[data-v-e6aca418]{padding-top:8rem}.nav-box[data-v-e6aca418]{width:25%;float:left;box-sizing:border-box}.nav-box[data-v-e6aca418]:first-of-type{padding-left:0}.nav-box[data-v-e6aca418]:last-of-type{padding-right:0}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.icr[data-v-e6aca418]{margin-right:2rem}} 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!important}.v-popper__popper.v-popper__popper--hidden[data-v-f9e5df86]{font-size:26px !important}.v-popper--theme-dropdown .v-popper__inner[data-v-f9e5df86]{font-size:26px !important;background:#4d07ff;color:black;border-radius:6px;border:4px solid #ddd;box-shadow:0 6px 30px rgba(0,0,0,0.1)}.login[data-v-f9e5df86]{display:flex;flex-direction:row;padding:2rem;background-color:#fff;border-radius:4px;margin:2rem 0;box-shadow:0px 0px 36px 0px rgba(233,221,126,0.4)}@media screen and (max-width: 62.5em){.login[data-v-f9e5df86]{width:calc(100% - 4rem)}}table.price-brakedown[data-v-f9e5df86]{width:100%}table.price-brakedown td[data-v-f9e5df86]{padding:1rem 0px}table.price-brakedown td.summary[data-v-f9e5df86]{text-align:right}table.price-brakedown .border-b[data-v-f9e5df86]{border-bottom:0.5px solid #807d69} .items[data-v-5ab9f6ad]{padding-bottom:2rem;display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:32px;border-bottom:0.5px solid #807d69;width:99%}.items 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by Arpit Sand and Jaya Tuteja</span></div></a>   </figure></div>  <div class="book-intro__ito-score score" data-v-feee617e><div class="book-intro__ito-score-ring" data-v-feee617e><svg viewBox="0 0 36 36" class="progress-ring" style="cursor:pointer;" data-v-0626afd8 data-v-feee617e><path d="M18 2.0845 a 15.9155 15.9155 0 0 1 0 31.831 a 15.9155 15.9155 0 0 1 0 -31.831" class="progress-ring__background" data-v-0626afd8></path>  <image xlink:href="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/svg/logoSmall.svg" href="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/svg/logoSmall.svg" x="50" y="50" height="50%" width="50%" transform="translate(-40,-40)" data-v-0626afd8></image></svg></div> <div data-v-feee617e><p class="book-intro__ito-score-caption" data-v-feee617e>Book metrics overview</p> <p class="book-intro__ito-score-text" data-v-feee617e> 1,805 Chapter Downloads </p> <a class="book-intro__ito-score-activator" data-v-feee617e> View Full Metrics <img 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data-v-27c725c1></div> <span data-v-27c725c1>IntechOpen Downloads</span></div> <div class="stat__box white-bg" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__box-value" data-v-27c725c1>1,805</div> <p class="stat__box-desc" data-v-27c725c1>Total Chapter Downloads on intechopen.com</p></div></div> </div>  <div class="citations stat" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__heading white-bg" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__heading-icon" data-v-27c725c1><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/quotation_red.svg" alt="Citations" data-v-27c725c1></div> <span data-v-27c725c1>Citations</span></div> <div class="stat__box white-bg" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__logo stat__logo--dimension" data-v-27c725c1><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/institutions/dimension-trimmed.svg" alt="Dimensions" data-v-27c725c1></div> <div class="stat__row" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__col" data-v-27c725c1><div data-style="small_circle" data-doi="10.5772/intechopen.102263" 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class="book-intro__contributors" data-v-feee617e> <div class="profile-group" data-v-feee617e><h2 class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Academic Editor</h2> <div class="editor" data-v-6abf993b data-v-feee617e><div class="editor__image" data-v-6abf993b><figure class="profile-img filter" data-v-231a3921 data-v-6abf993b><span class="lazy-image ar" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-231a3921><img alt="Arpit Sand" class="image cover-image-7265" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span></figure></div> <div class="editor__details" data-v-6abf993b> <a href="/profiles/287032" class="editor__name" data-v-6abf993b>Arpit Sand</a> <p class="editor__position" data-v-6abf993b>Manav Rachna University Faridabad<span data-v-6abf993b>,<br data-v-6abf993b>India</span></p>  </div></div>    </div> <div class="profile-group" data-v-feee617e><h2 class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Co-editor</h2> <div class="editor" data-v-6abf993b data-v-feee617e><div class="editor__image" data-v-6abf993b><figure class="profile-img filter" data-v-231a3921 data-v-6abf993b><span class="lazy-image ar" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-231a3921><img alt="Jaya Tuteja" class="image cover-image-bf72" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span></figure></div> <div class="editor__details" data-v-6abf993b> <a href="/profiles/453331" class="editor__name" data-v-6abf993b>Jaya Tuteja</a> <p class="editor__position" data-v-6abf993b>Galgotias University Greater Noida<span data-v-6abf993b>,<br data-v-6abf993b>India</span></p>  </div></div>    </div> </div></section> <section class="abstract-and-meta" data-v-feee617e><div class="meta" data-v-feee617e><div class="book-meta" data-v-feee617e><div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Published</span>05 April 2023</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Doi</span>10.5772/intechopen.102263</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>ISBN</span>978-1-83968-546-0</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Print ISBN</span>978-1-83968-545-3</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>eBook (PDF) ISBN</span>978-1-83968-861-4</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Copyright year</span>2023</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Number of pages</span>142</p></div>  </div></div> <div class="abstract" data-v-feee617e> <p aria-hidden="true" class="text" style="display:;" data-v-feee617e>Lignin, found in the cell walls of trees and plants, is the second-most naturally abundant biopolymer. It is composed of alkyl-aromatic polymer units. This book describes the composition and structure of lignin, strategies for its chemical modification, and studies of biopolymer lignin. It also discusses the synthesis and characterization of lignin, methods for degradation, applications in various...</p> <p class="text" style="display:none;" data-v-feee617e>Lignin, found in the cell walls of trees and plants, is the second-most naturally abundant biopolymer. It is composed of alkyl-aromatic polymer units. This book describes the composition and structure of lignin, strategies for its chemical modification, and studies of biopolymer lignin. It also discusses the synthesis and characterization of lignin, methods for degradation, applications in various materials, and prospects for further development. Other topics covered include the role of lignin in thermosetting and thermoplastic materials and its technical and economic potential for generating green biofuel as an energy source for industrial plants and in the manufacture of fine chemicals.</p> <a class="caption cta-toggle" data-v-feee617e>Read more</a> <div class="cta-box" data-v-feee617e><a class="cta-button cta-button--red" data-v-feee617e>Order Print Copy</a> <button class="cta-button cta-button--outline" data-v-feee617e>Recommend to Your Library</button> <span data-v-3b1bf31a data-v-feee617e><div class="modal-overlay" style="display:none;" data-v-3b1bf31a><div class="modal-content" data-v-3b1bf31a><button class="close-btn" data-v-3b1bf31a><svg width="32" height="32" viewBox="0 0 32 32" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" data-v-3b1bf31a><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M25.0607 9.06066C25.6464 8.47487 25.6464 7.52513 25.0607 6.93934C24.4749 6.35355 23.5251 6.35355 22.9393 6.93934L16 13.8787L9.06066 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Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Structure Properties and Application of Lignin</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Jaya Tuteja and Arpit Sand</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>280</span></div>   </div></div>  </div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/83779" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>2. Composition and Role of Lignin in Biochemicals</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Tawaf Ali Shah, Li Zhihe, Li Zhiyu and Zhang Andong</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>344</span></div> <div class="stat-row" data-v-05b13c55><div class="badge" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/industry/crossref.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> <div class="number-box" data-v-05b13c55>1</div></div> <div data-doi="10.5772/intechopen.106527" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="hover-top" data-style="large_rectangle" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat-row" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div></div>  <div class="chapter__abstract" data-v-05b13c55><button role="button" class="abstract-toggle" data-v-05b13c55> View Abstract <img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-pointer.svg" class="abstract-toggle__icon" data-v-05b13c55></button> </div></div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/85056" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>3. Perspective Chapter: Potential of Lignin Valorization with Emphasis on Bioepoxy Production</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Mohamed H. El-Moayed, Justin Kühn, Sea-Hyun Lee, Mahmoud Farag and Sherif Mehanny</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>227</span></div> <div class="stat-row" data-v-05b13c55><div class="badge" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/industry/crossref.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> <div class="number-box" data-v-05b13c55>2</div></div> <div data-doi="10.5772/intechopen.108263" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="hover-top" data-style="large_rectangle" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat-row" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div></div>  <div class="chapter__abstract" data-v-05b13c55><button role="button" class="abstract-toggle" data-v-05b13c55> View Abstract <img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-pointer.svg" class="abstract-toggle__icon" data-v-05b13c55></button> </div></div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/83868" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>4. Emulsion Stabilization with Lignosulfonates</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Jost Ruwoldt</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>276</span></div> <div class="stat-row" data-v-05b13c55><div class="badge" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/industry/crossref.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> <div class="number-box" data-v-05b13c55>4</div></div> <div data-doi="10.5772/intechopen.107336" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="hover-top" data-style="large_rectangle" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat-row" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div></div>  <div class="chapter__abstract" data-v-05b13c55><button role="button" class="abstract-toggle" data-v-05b13c55> View Abstract <img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-pointer.svg" class="abstract-toggle__icon" data-v-05b13c55></button> </div></div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/84728" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>5. Fractionation of Lignin for Valorization</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Zhenglun Li</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>155</span></div>   </div></div>  <div class="chapter__abstract" data-v-05b13c55><button role="button" class="abstract-toggle" data-v-05b13c55> View Abstract <img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-pointer.svg" class="abstract-toggle__icon" data-v-05b13c55></button> </div></div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/84496" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>6. Perspective Chapter: Flaxseed (Linumusitatissimum L) – Chemical Structure and Health-Related Functions</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Mehran Rahimlou and Jalal Hejazi</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>133</span></div> <div class="stat-row" data-v-05b13c55><div class="badge" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/industry/crossref.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> <div class="number-box" data-v-05b13c55>1</div></div> <div data-doi="10.5772/intechopen.108259" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="hover-top" data-style="large_rectangle" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat-row" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div></div>  <div class="chapter__abstract" data-v-05b13c55><button role="button" class="abstract-toggle" data-v-05b13c55> View Abstract <img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-pointer.svg" class="abstract-toggle__icon" data-v-05b13c55></button> </div></div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/85606" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>7. Lignin as Feedstock for Nanoparticles Production</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Ana Lourenço and Jorge Gominho</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>390</span></div> <div class="stat-row" data-v-05b13c55><div class="badge" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/industry/crossref.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> <div class="number-box" data-v-05b13c55>2</div></div> <div data-doi="10.5772/intechopen.109267" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="hover-top" data-style="large_rectangle" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat-row" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div></div>  <div class="chapter__abstract" data-v-05b13c55><button role="button" class="abstract-toggle" data-v-05b13c55> View Abstract <img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.122/series/icons/ic-pointer.svg" class="abstract-toggle__icon" data-v-05b13c55></button> </div></div></div> </div></div> </div></div></div> <div id="statistics" class="container book-statistics" data-v-7164251b data-v-2048a31b><h4 data-v-7164251b>IMPACT OF THIS BOOK AND ITS CHAPTERS</h4> <div class="stats" data-v-3f5a7fa5 data-v-7164251b><div class="item" data-v-3f5a7fa5><p data-v-3f5a7fa5><span data-v-3f5a7fa5>1,805</span> Total Chapter Downloads</p></div><div class="item" data-v-3f5a7fa5><p data-v-3f5a7fa5><span data-v-3f5a7fa5>12</span> Crossref Citations</p></div><div class="item" data-v-3f5a7fa5><p data-v-3f5a7fa5><span data-v-3f5a7fa5>20</span> Dimensions Citations</p></div></div></div> <div id="order-boook-section" class="container" data-v-3b3d8430 data-v-2048a31b><div class="order-book-container" data-v-3b3d8430><p class="title" data-v-3b3d8430>Order a print copy of this book</p> <p class="order-type mobile" 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L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-170f" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>New Polymers for Special Applications</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Ailton De Souza Gomes</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/3043" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>New Polymers for Special Applications</span></a></h4> 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C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-23c5" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Thermoplastic Elastomers</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Adel El-Sonbati</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/1573" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Thermoplastic Elastomers</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/98324" data-v-69cc9686>Adel El-Sonbati</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/467" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Carbon Nanotubes" class="image cover-image-06db" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 C-3.45070423e-05,0.417880282 0.94908169,-0.243792254 1.84298662,0.08575 L18.3356275,6.16347535 C18.7472965,6.3151338 18.791638,6.87932394 18.4091275,7.09361268 M38.2955359,22.6833768 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20.0211239,16.8006162 20.5000817,16.7141761 C21.1293176,16.6008204 21.6765993,17.0811585 21.6765993,17.6893451 L21.6765993,22.2984507 L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-5ad5" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Carbon Nanotubes</span> <span class="sub-title" data-v-eb7322e6>Polymer Nanocomposites</span>  <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Siva Yellampalli</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/467" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Carbon Nanotubes</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/62863" data-v-69cc9686>Siva Yellampalli</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/2003" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Polyurethane" class="image cover-image-9f79" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 C-3.45070423e-05,0.417880282 0.94908169,-0.243792254 1.84298662,0.08575 L18.3356275,6.16347535 C18.7472965,6.3151338 18.791638,6.87932394 18.4091275,7.09361268 M38.2955359,22.6833768 C38.178212,23.1238592 37.8226169,23.4794542 37.382307,23.5967782 C36.3688352,23.8671408 35.4695817,22.9675423 35.7401169,21.9540704 C35.8576134,21.5139331 36.2132085,21.158338 36.6536908,21.0411866 C37.6666451,20.7715141 38.565381,21.6704225 38.2955359,22.6833768 M48.0927754,30.247493 C47.5629197,30.0078415 46.9350641,30.1798592 46.5494479,30.614993 L46.5221873,30.6455317 C45.2633704,32.0789542 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data-v-eb7322e6>Polymerization</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Ailton De Souza Gomes</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/2385" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Polymerization</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/135416" data-v-69cc9686>Ailton De Souza Gomes</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/2383" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Polyester" class="image cover-image-e231" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text 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C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-56ca" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Polyester</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Hosam Saleh</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/2383" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Polyester</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/144691" data-v-69cc9686>Hosam Saleh</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div 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The award is given annually to recognize excellence in publication by an Academy member or corresponding member in the field of life sciences.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","introHomepage":"\u003Cp\u003EWe are thrilled that the International Academy of Astronautics has chosen IntechOpen's book "Preparation of Space Experiments", edited by Dr. Vladimir Pletser, to receive the IAA Life Science Book Award. The award is given annually to recognize excellence in publication by an Academy member or corresponding member in the field of life sciences.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","publishedDatetime":"March 28, 2023","mainMedia":{"id":"325","caption":"","originalUrl":"\u002Fmedia\u002Foriginal\u002F325"}},{"id":"416","slug":"intechopen-retains-its-dominant-position-in-growing-oa-market-20230217","title":"IntechOpen Retains Its Dominant Position in Growing OA Market","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EIn their analysis of the latest data from the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB), Delta Think, a strategic consulting and advisory firm, confirmed that IntechOpen remains the largest publisher across all years, with a share of 9.6%.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","introHomepage":"\u003Cp\u003EIn their analysis of the latest data from the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB), Delta Think, a strategic consulting and advisory firm, confirmed that IntechOpen remains the largest publisher across all years, with a share of 9.6%.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","publishedDatetime":"February 17, 2023","mainMedia":{"id":"357","caption":"","originalUrl":"\u002Fmedia\u002Foriginal\u002F357"}},{"id":"346","slug":"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915","title":"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EWith the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","introHomepage":"\u003Cp\u003EWe are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format for OA books: IntechOpen Book Series. Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Series feature a Topic structure, \u003Cstrong\u003Ealways open for submissions\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E, covering the most relevant sub-disciplines.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","publishedDatetime":"September 15, 2021","mainMedia":{"id":"132","caption":"","originalUrl":"\u002Fmedia\u002Foriginal\u002F132"}},{"id":"444","slug":"intechopen-journals-presents-engaging-with-open-science-2023-webinar-series-20230407","title":"IntechOpen Journals Presents: 'Engaging with Open Science 2023' Webinar Series","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EThis year, to continue to support our community, we are launching our 'Engaging with Open Science 2023' webinar series, where we will discuss key developments in open science with industry-leading experts and academics. 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We believe that equitable access to knowledge is essential for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 and fostering global advancement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","publishedDatetime":"October 29, 2024","endDate":null,"newsType":"1","isClimateNews":false,"mainMedia":null},{"slug":"intechopen-launches-open-science-hub-20241028","title":"IntechOpen Launches Open Science Hub","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EAs a natural step forward in our commitment to open access and open science, we are introducing the Open Science Hub - a centralised platform dedicated to advancing openness and accessibility in scientific research\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","publishedDatetime":"October 28, 2024","endDate":null,"newsType":"1","isClimateNews":false,"mainMedia":{"caption":"","originalUrl":"\u002Fmedia\u002Foriginal\u002F419"}},{"slug":"2024-best-paper-award-from-the-ai-computer-science-and-robotics-technology-journal-20241004","title":"2024 Best Paper Award From the AI, Computer Science, and Robotics Technology Journal","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EThis award aims to highlight the most impactful research published in the journal's 2023 volume, recognizing the innovative contributions of our authors whose work advances the understanding of AI, computer science, and robotics. 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ISU has seven colleges: Agriculture and Life Sciences, Business, Design, Engineering, Human Sciences, Liberal Arts and Sciences, and Veterinary Medicine. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen is a pioneer in the open access books movement, having published over 6,900 open access books, many from leading scholars in their field.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe funding for this deal is provided by Iowa State University Library with the goals to both promote open access and openness for ISU’s research publications, and to support author choice by making open access publishing an affordable option. 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ISU has seven colleges: Agriculture and Life Sciences, Business, Design, Engineering, Human Sciences, Liberal Arts and Sciences, and Veterinary Medicine. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen is a pioneer in the open access books movement, having published over 6,900 open access books, many from leading scholars in their field.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe funding for this deal is provided by Iowa State University Library with the goals to both promote open access and openness for ISU’s research publications, and to support author choice by making open access publishing an affordable option. 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He received his BSc in Science and MSc in Chemistry from the University of Allahabad, India, in 2004 and 2006, respectively. He received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from the same university in 2010. Dr. Sand is an editorial board member for Polymer Synthesis and Journal of Polymer Science. He is an academic book editor and a reviewer for international journals including Carbohydrate Polymers, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, and Fibers and Polymers, among others.\r\n\r\nDr. Sand’s previous roles include assistant professor (guest faculty) in the Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad; research associate at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) New Delhi; postdoctoral fellow at Gwangju Institute of Science & Technology (GIST), Korea; postdoctoral fellow at Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; junior researcher at Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic; and researcher at Soongsil University, South Korea.\r\n\r\nHe has more than 10 years of teaching and research experience. He is also a life member of the Indian Science Congress and Green Chemistry Network center. He has made significant contributions to the modification and characterization of graft copolymers and films decorated with chalcogenide quantum dots to tune the energy band gap for solar energy harvesting applications. His research interests include polymer synthesis using different polymerization techniques. He has authored more than twenty-four international research and review articles in reputed SCI journals.","institutionString":"Manav Rachna University Faridabad","position":null,"outsideEditionCount":0,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"2","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"3","institution":null,"countryString":"India"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":{"id":"453331","title":"Dr.","name":"Jaya","middleName":null,"surname":"Tuteja","slug":"jaya-tuteja","fullName":"Jaya Tuteja","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F453331\u002F1710154140\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Dr. Jaya Tuteja is an assistant professor in the School of Basic Science, Galgotias University, India. She earned her Ph.D. in Materials Science from the Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (JAIST) in 2015, where she was recognized as an “Excellent Doctorate Student.” \r\n\r\nShe has published eight research papers in reputed international journals, eight book chapters, and two books. Her research articles have garnered many citations and one award. She has also filed two patents. \r\n\r\nBefore joining Galgotias University, Dr. Tuteja worked at Manav Rachna University, India. She also has three years of industry experience as a chromatography specialist. Her research areas include the development, characterization, and application of heterogeneous catalysts for effective conversion of biomass to value-added products, nanoparticle synthesis and nanoparticle-based heterogeneous catalysts, bimetallic nanoparticles, carbohydrate chemistry, and analytical techniques for compound identification.","institutionString":"Galgotias University Greater Noida","position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"0","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"2","institution":null,"countryString":"India"},"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"915","title":"Polymers","slug":"materials-science-biochemistry-polymers"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"subseries":null,"tags":null,"_preview":0,"chapters":[{"id":"86050","title":"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Structure Properties and Application of Lignin","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.110024","slug":"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-structure-properties-and-application-of-lignin","totalDownloads":280,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":1,"abstract":null,"signatures":"Jaya Tuteja and Arpit Sand","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F86050","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F86050","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"287032","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Arpit","surname":"Sand","slug":"arpit-sand","fullName":"Arpit Sand"},{"id":"517944","title":"Dr.","name":"Jaya","surname":"Tuteja","slug":"jaya-tuteja","fullName":"Jaya Tuteja"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"83779","title":"Composition and Role of Lignin in Biochemicals","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.106527","slug":"composition-and-role-of-lignin-in-biochemicals","totalDownloads":344,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":4,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":2,"abstract":"The term lignin is derived from lignum, which means plant wood. Plant wood are mainly composed of extractives, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. The lignin is a cross-linked polymer, made of three phenylpropanoid precursors, p-coumaryl, synapyl, and conniferyl alcohols. It is the most abundant polymer in plant world and act mechanically as a natural glue to bind hemicellulose and cellulose. Lignin is amorphous, soluble in alkali, condenses with phenol and has high melting temperature. The function of lignin is to protect the carbohydrates of the biomass from degradation, thus provide stability. The chapter includes information on types of lignin, structure, isolation, degradation, and transformation in to market value chemicals. The application of lignin and lignin base monomers for synthesis of plastic, hydrogels, adhesives, chemicals, fuels and other value added materials at industrial scale.","signatures":"Tawaf Ali Shah, Li Zhihe, Li Zhiyu and Zhang Andong","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F83779","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F83779","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"469288","title":"Dr.","name":"Tawaf Ali","surname":"Shah","slug":"tawaf-ali-shah","fullName":"Tawaf Ali Shah"},{"id":"469884","title":"Prof.","name":"Li","surname":"Zhihe","slug":"li-zhihe","fullName":"Li Zhihe"},{"id":"469885","title":"Dr.","name":"Li","surname":"Zhiyu","slug":"li-zhiyu","fullName":"Li Zhiyu"},{"id":"477660","title":"Dr.","name":"Zhang","surname":"Andong","slug":"zhang-andong","fullName":"Zhang Andong"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"85056","title":"Perspective Chapter: Potential of Lignin Valorization with Emphasis on Bioepoxy Production","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.108263","slug":"perspective-chapter-potential-of-lignin-valorization-with-emphasis-on-bioepoxy-production","totalDownloads":227,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"totalDimensionsCites":5,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":3,"abstract":"Lignin is the second most abundant natural polymer after cellulose. It has high molecular weight and poor dispersity, which lowers its compatibility with other polymeric materials. Accordingly, it is hard to integrate lignin into polymer-based applications in its native form. Recently, lignin valorization, which aims to boost lignin value and reactivity with other materials, has captured the interest of many researchers. The volatility of oil and gas prices is one strong incentive for them to consider lignin as a potential replacement for many petroleum-based materials. In this chapter, lignin valorization processes, namely hydrogenolysis, pyrolysis, hydro-thermal liquefaction, and hydro-thermal carbonization, are discussed in brief. The chapter also discusses the synthesis of lignin-based epoxy resin as an already existing example of a lignin-based product.","signatures":"Mohamed H. El-Moayed, Justin Kühn, Sea-Hyun Lee, Mahmoud Farag and Sherif Mehanny","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F85056","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F85056","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"189039","title":"Prof.","name":"Sherif","surname":"Mehanny","slug":"sherif-mehanny","fullName":"Sherif Mehanny"},{"id":"302358","title":"Prof.","name":"Mahmoud","surname":"Farag","slug":"mahmoud-farag","fullName":"Mahmoud Farag"},{"id":"474969","title":"Mr.","name":"Mohamed","surname":"H. El-Moayed","slug":"mohamed-h.-el-moayed","fullName":"Mohamed H. El-Moayed"},{"id":"489733","title":"Mr.","name":"Justin","surname":"Kühn","slug":"justin-kuhn","fullName":"Justin Kühn"},{"id":"489734","title":"Mr.","name":"Sea-Hyun","surname":"Lee","slug":"sea-hyun-lee","fullName":"Sea-Hyun Lee"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"83868","title":"Emulsion Stabilization with Lignosulfonates","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.107336","slug":"emulsion-stabilization-with-lignosulfonates","totalDownloads":276,"totalCrossrefCites":4,"totalDimensionsCites":4,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":4,"abstract":"Lignosulfonates are biobased surfactants and specialty chemicals. Due to their amphiphilic nature, they can be utilized in many technical applications, such as plasticizers, dispersants, stabilizers, and agrochemical formulations. Here, their ability to stabilize emulsions plays an important role. This chapter hence explains the fundamentals of emulsion stabilization with lignosulfonates. First, basic concepts are introduced along with the production and chemical make-up of lignosulfonates. Second, the interfacial activity is discussed. Parameters that affect interfacial activity and emulsion stabilization efficiency of lignosulfonates are furthermore treated. Such parameters may include salinity, pH, the presence of cosolvents and cosurfactants. Third, the underlying mechanisms of emulsion stabilization are outlined. The goal of this chapter is to introduce the reader to important fundamentals, and to draw the link between basic research and industrial practice.","signatures":"Jost Ruwoldt","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F83868","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F83868","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"469193","title":"Dr.","name":"Jost","surname":"Ruwoldt","slug":"jost-ruwoldt","fullName":"Jost Ruwoldt"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"84728","title":"Fractionation of Lignin for Valorization","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.107338","slug":"fractionation-of-lignin-for-valorization","totalDownloads":155,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":5,"abstract":"Biorefining produces technical lignins that are not readily usable as a precursor for the production of value-added materials and chemicals, thus yielding a technological gap in complete utilization of lignocellulosic biomass. Various processes have been developed and demonstrated for fractionation of technical lignins, with the purpose of increasing the suitability of technical lignins as a precursor for commercial production of fuels and chemicals. Fractionation of lignins reduces the amount of impurities and generates lignin streams with smaller internal variations in chemical and structural properties. Examples of such processes, including membrane filtration, solvent extraction, and acid gradient precipitation, are reviewed in this chapter.","signatures":"Zhenglun Li","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F84728","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F84728","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"471049","title":null,"name":"Zhenglun","surname":"Li","slug":"zhenglun-li","fullName":"Zhenglun Li"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"84496","title":"Perspective Chapter: Flaxseed (Linumusitatissimum L) – Chemical Structure and Health-Related Functions","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.108259","slug":"perspective-chapter-flaxseed-linumusitatissimum-l-chemical-structure-and-health-related-functions","totalDownloads":133,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":6,"abstract":"Flaxseed (Linumusitatissimum L.), one of the oldest cultivated crops, continues to be widely grown for oil, fiber, and food. This herb is used in the food culture of some countries with different purposes. Flaxseed is one of the richest plants in terms of some nutrients. Numerous studies have shown that in terms of omega-3 fatty acids, this herb is one of the richest sources in the diet. Also, the lignan content in flaxseed is significantly higher than that in other plants. Also, the lignan content in flaxseed is significantly higher than that in other plants. In this chapter, the structure and chemical properties of this plant have been investigated first, and then the effectiveness of flaxseed in some chronic diseases has been mentioned.","signatures":"Mehran Rahimlou and Jalal Hejazi","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F84496","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F84496","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"473320","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Mehran","surname":"Rahimlou","slug":"mehran-rahimlou","fullName":"Mehran Rahimlou"},{"id":"473325","title":"Dr.","name":"Jalal","surname":"Hejazi","slug":"jalal-hejazi","fullName":"Jalal Hejazi"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"85606","title":"Lignin as Feedstock for Nanoparticles Production","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.109267","slug":"lignin-as-feedstock-for-nanoparticles-production","totalDownloads":390,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"totalDimensionsCites":4,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":7,"abstract":"Lignin is an interesting natural polymer with characteristics that contribute for the development and growth of plants. Lignin presents high variability associated with the diversity of plants, which presents great challenges for its recovery after delignification (technical lignin), because lignin is prone to irreversible degradation, producing recalcitrant condensed structures that are difficult to disassemble afterward. Although researchers have made efforts to obtain lignin in high yields and with good characteristics for specific uses, this is not an easy task. The mind-set has changed and new biorefinery concepts are emerging, where lignin is the primary goal to achieve, and the so-called lignin-first approach has arisen. Lignin can be obtained firstly to prevent structural degradations, enabling an efficient and highly selectivity of the lignin monomers. Therefore, this concept places lignin and its valorization at the head of the biorefinery. However, lignin valorization is still a challenge, and to overcome this, lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) production presents a good way to achieve this goal. This chapter presents a resume of the several techniques to attain lignin, how to produce LNPs, and their possible applications (from pharmaceutical to the automobile and polymer industries).","signatures":"Ana Lourenço and Jorge Gominho","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F85606","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F85606","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"208775","title":"Dr.","name":"Ana","surname":"Lourenço","slug":"ana-lourenco","fullName":"Ana Lourenço"},{"id":"251143","title":"Dr.","name":"Jorge","surname":"Gominho","slug":"jorge-gominho","fullName":"Jorge Gominho"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0}]},"relatedBooks":[{"type":"book","id":"10776","title":"Cellulose Science and Derivatives","subtitle":null,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"947660259ce1915c3cac58bf7d990424","slug":"cellulose-science-and-derivatives","bookSignature":"Arpit Sand and Sangita 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Translation transfers cultural wisdom and historical value from one language-speaking swath to another and traverses seemingly distant worlds in a vehicle of languages. Nonetheless, translators are often challenged to find an equivalent expression or concept in a different culture. Thus, they navigate the diversities of languages, cultures, perceptive frames, and ideologies to bridge words of different tongues, connect disjoint worlds, embark on the search for shared wisdom, and, most importantly, facilitate cross-cultural understandings. In addition to multilingual skills, a plural and hybrid consciousness runs through the translator as his\u002Fher second nature.\r\n\r\nIn the postmodern, digital, and AI era, self-contained mindsets and siloed worldviews have crumbled. To reconfigure cross-cultural and cross-lingual horizons with disintegrated pieces, this book will dive into an interdisciplinary area of translation studies by moulding theories that galvanize an intersected and multidimensional reality and designing practices that address the needs of a pluralistic audience and readership. This project will unpack the realms hidden behind words, ramified from textual lines, and woven with writers’ horizons when translation occurs. These realms include linguistic and cognitive dimensions, sociopolitical, historical, and geographic contexts\u002Ftexts, and, most significantly, a cross-cultural power structure that erects hierarchies in languages, cultures, and people of different traditions, races, and religions. Instead of seeking an equivalence paradigm in translation studies, this book will advocate translation in the 21st century as a multimodal interaction in all human realms. It will postulate that the field of translation studies is an evolving and thriving platform for translators’ interpretations of these realms.","isbn":"978-1-83634-778-1","printIsbn":"978-1-83634-779-8","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83634-780-4","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1006252","price":0,"priceEur":null,"priceUsd":null,"oapfPrice":1400,"slug":null,"numberOfPages":0,"isOpenForSubmission":true,"isSalesforceBook":true,"isNomenclature":false,"hash":"b485e1443bc83b4eebec503afecb853b","bookSignature":"Dr. Mimi Yang","publishedDate":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000008lIl0IAE\u002F0016348_TrikoderCover%20%282024-07-29%2010%3A16%3A31%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004444\u002F1728386867-448982414\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004444\u002F1728386867-448982414\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004444\u002F1731575086-1581515789\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004444\u002F1731575086-1581515789\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","keywords":"Inter-lingual, Intercultural, Multilingual, Polyglottism, Linguistic Fluidity, Discursive Identities, Applied Linguistics, Interpreting, Syntax, Translation Studies, Edited Translation, Paraphrasing","numberOfDownloads":null,"numberOfWosCitations":null,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":0,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"November 20th 2024","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"December 23rd 2024","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"February 19th 2025","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"May 10th 2025","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"July 9th 2025","dateConfirmationOfParticipation":"December 18th 2024","remainingDaysToSecondStep":"a month","secondStepPassed":false,"areRegistrationsClosed":false,"currentStepOfPublishingProcess":2,"editedByType":null,"kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":false,"biosketch":"A multilingual and multicultural thinker who believes that translation is transculturation, a prolific writer whose work crosses multiple disciplines and continents, a professor emerita at Carthage College, and a recipient of numerous awards and grants in research and teaching.","equalEditorOneBiosketch":null,"equalEditorTwoBiosketch":null,"equalEditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorOneBiosketch":null,"coeditorTwoBiosketch":null,"coeditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorFourBiosketch":null,"coeditorFiveBiosketch":null,"isPublished":false,"isDeactivated":false,"editors":[{"id":"470193","title":"Dr.","name":"Mimi","middleName":null,"surname":"Yang","slug":"mimi-yang","fullName":"Mimi Yang","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F470193\u002F1730974375\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Mimi Yang, Ph.D., is Professor Emerita at Carthage College, Wisconsin, USA. Trilingual in English, Spanish, and Chinese, she is a prolific author on various topics in culture and language studies. These include Latin American culture and literary studies, US history and culture, Hispanics in the United States, and the Chinese American experience. Her book Tricultural Personality (Chinese, Hispanic, English): A Paradigm for Connecting Cultural Differences (Edwin Mellen Press, 2014) has gained international traction. She is a recipient of a research fellowship from the Massachusetts Historical Society and the Wisconsin Global Educator Award in Higher Education. Multilingualism defines her life and career.","institutionString":null,"countryString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"1","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"0","institution":{"name":"Carthage College","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United States of America"}}}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"assistantEditorOne":null,"assistantEditorTwo":null,"assistantEditorThree":null,"assistantEditorFour":null,"assistantEditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"270","title":"Humanities","slug":"humanities"}],"chapters":null,"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"subseries":null,"personalPublishingAssistant":{"id":"1001041","firstName":"Dominik","lastName":"Samardzija","middleName":null,"title":"Mr.","imageUrl":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","email":"dominik@info.intechopen.com","biography":null},"_preview":0},"regionStatistics":[{"id":"1","name":"Southern Europe","contributorCount":21370},{"id":"2","name":"Northern Europe","contributorCount":6960},{"id":"3","name":"Western Europe","contributorCount":10652},{"id":"4","name":"Northern America","contributorCount":17996},{"id":"5","name":"Eastern Asia","contributorCount":20252},{"id":"6","name":"Australia and New Zealand","contributorCount":2718}],"intechStatistics":{"openAccessBooks":"7,200","internationalAuthorsAndEditors":"192,000","downloads":"210M","deliversInCountries":"154","authorsAmongMostCitedScientists":"TOP 1%","authorsAndEditorsFromTopUniversities":"14%"}},"ofsBook_old1":{"item":{},"relatedBooks":[]},"chapter":{"item":{"type":"chapter","id":"56287","title":"Retail Brand Extension: From Theory to Practice. A Multi- Country Study of European Grocery Retailers","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.69990","slug":"retail-brand-extension-from-theory-to-practice-a-multi-country-study-of-european-grocery-retailers","body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EBrand extension is one of the most important and often used branding strategies.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EIt is commonly employed by companies to bond new product categories that are going to launch in the market with an existing and established brand name.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EDespite the relevance of the topic, most previous research into brand extension has mainly focused on manufacturer brands, paving the way to a rich empirical research, predominantly experimental, conducted in order to understand the factors affecting a brand extension success (e.g. in [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]). On the contrary, retail brand extension has been rarely studied by the literature [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In fact, “research into brand extensions in a retail context has focused on manufacturers’ brand extensions sold within a retailer’s store, rather than analysis of a retailer’s own brand extensions” ([\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], p. 395). Moreover, very little is known about customer perceptions and buying behaviour when retailers extend their brands, in particular when this strategy is pursued in non-traditional businesses. In this context, the chapter would contribute to filling in this literature gap reviewing the literature on retail brand extension strategies, with particular reference to grocery retailers, and presenting and discussing the results emerged from a survey intended at measuring customers’ perceptions of retailers’ brand extension strategy in non-traditional businesses.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EThe increasing competition and emerging saturation in the grocery sector have strengthened grocery retailers in extending their assortments through their private labels (PLs) [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. As a result, the PLs offer covers now not only the traditional fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) categories but also non-food categories (e.g. clothes, over-the-counter products, etc.) and services (travel booking, financial services, phone services, etc.). Consequently, a retailing context is a useful framework to study brand extension, given this recent and unusual brand extension strategy [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and the limited theoretical and empirical literature on the topic. Apart from [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], all focused to investigate the grocery retail brand extension to financial services, no other specific research, to our knowledge, has addressed this issue. Last but not the least, extant literature on retail brand extension is mainly based on hypothetical brand extensions rather than actual implemented brand extensions [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This is why we offer a study aimed at capturing customers’ perceptions related to a real retail brand extension case and in doing so, we believe to contribute also to the empirical evidence on this study field.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EThe survey consisted in administering a structured questionnaire aimed at investigating the main antecedents of brand extension success to samples of retail customers interviewed in two different retail national contexts, namely, Italy and France. Even if these countries are geographically and culturally closed, the level of evolution of the grocery retail structure differs as it developed more recently in Italy compared to France. As a consequence, the brand extension strategies operated by French retailers have a long tradition compared to a similar, but more recent trend, that is now developing in the Italian grocery retailing system.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EAccordingly, the chapter would also stimulate a managerial interest. In fact, retail managers and business practitioners require to determine which brand extensions are consistent with their brand and could be rightly perceived by the clientele in order to be potentially successful.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EAfter having discussed retail brand extension purposes, advantages and disadvantages, and types of extensions, the chapter would describe the state of the art of the studies on retail brand extension. Then, the empirical study performed is depicted, highlighting the research hypotheses and the survey accomplished to test them. Methodology issues, samples features and the main results emerged from the survey are then illustrated and discussed. The chapter ends with a conclusion paragraph aimed at depicting limits and further research avenues of the study performed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Brand extension: Aims, advantages and disadvantages and types\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EBrand extension consists of the use of a renowned brand name when launching new products [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and it is a strategy usually adopted in order to reach a number of purposes. In particular, the extant literature on brand extension identified the following possible aims, resulting in several advantages:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003Ereducing the risk of product failure;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003Eleveraging the company’s brand image;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003Estrengthening customer loyalty;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003Ediminishing marketing costs;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003Eboost profitability;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003Edifferentiate the core offer from that proposed by competitors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EBrand extension has been extensively used as a strategy to reduce the risk of product failure [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Actually, employing an established brand familiar to consumers may lead them to accept more favourably a new product and to be more prone and willing to buy it, decreasing the possibility of an unsuccessful launch [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EBrand extension could also be used to reinforce the relationship with customers [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In fact, ‘the probability of a customer’s staying within a corporate brand family (or, equivalently, a brand system or a brand portfolio) will be proportionally greater than the number of brands offered by that corporation, all other factors being equal’ [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, p. 7]. Leveraging of brand equity [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and enhancement of the core brand [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] have also been identified as important purposes pursued by companies in choosing to extend their brands. Moreover, this strategy could also be beneficial from the marketing point of view, not only increasing the targeting ability of the company responding to distinguishable groups of consumers with diverse needs, but also by facilitating distribution and by lowering needed promotion costs [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and advertising costs [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Sinapuelas et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] found that innovative line extensions tend to have a higher level of average trial probability rather than non-innovative line extensions that, instead, can gain higher trial from greater distribution. From the advertising point of view, an elaborate publicity strategy was found to mitigate the negative effects of lower fit on extension evaluations [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Moreover, a positive comparison-framed ad message stimulates more favourable extension assessments and higher purchase intentions than a negative comparison-framed ad message in case of related brand extension; on the opposite, both positive and negative comparison-framed ad messages contribute equally to brand extension evaluations and purchase intentions under dissimilar extension conditions [\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EMany businesses try to leverage their brands to maximize their returns [\u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and extending a core brand to a new product is a commonly used strategy to reach this goal [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003EConversely, researchers have noted that the development of a distinct yet related extension carries with it considerable marketing risks and possible disadvantages. Managing many brands can complicate and create dangers and problems for the core corporate structure. Then, having the same name on a large number of products can also deteriorate the parent brand’s equity. The literature stated (e.g. in [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]) that a poorly implemented brand extension strategy may affect the reputation and subsequent performance of the parent brand. A number of studies highlighted that unsuccessful extensions could jeopardize brand equity, or the future value of the brand as the basis on which to introduce extensions, by hurting and weakening the positive associations with the original brand [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Sometimes, a reverse-effect could arise from the extension product, affecting the core offer [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In fact, for a brand extension to be successful, there usually must be some logical association between the original product\u002Fbrand, so-called parent brand, and the new one. Consumers perceive the launch of a brand extension as a type of behaviour on part of a parent brand [\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Consequently, the main risk associated with the practice of this growth strategy is the possibility that the extended category product cannot be recognized by the consumer as consistent with the parent brand.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EBrand extension success depends on the product category and types. For instance, Albrecht et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] found that the functional value of the parent brand is more important for non-luxury brands, while luxury brands rely more on the hedonic value of the parent brand.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003ETwo main types of brand extension strategies are recognized in the literature: line extension and brand extension. Line extension occurs when a new product is introduced in the same product category as the core brand. This is the most common way of extending a core brand [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The other type is a brand extension, occurring when a new product is introduced in a product category different from the product category of the core brand [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Some studies compared line and brand extension strategies: for instance, in Ref. [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], parent brand attitude resulted as highly associated with line-extension attitude rather than with brand-extension attitude; moreover, line extension leads to lower perceived functional risk and higher storing predisposition than brand extension.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EFocusing on brand extension, it might be acknowledged that the extended category can then be related, that is, ‘similar’ [\u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or unrelated with the existing product categories. More distant and unrelated is the extended category, higher the risk of dilution for the parent brand. Indeed, weak or non-existent association can result in brand dilution or negative reciprocity effects leading to harm the parent brand [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Brand extension in unrelated markets may lead to the loss of reliability if a brand name is extended too far, damaging the image of the core\u002Foriginal brand. In some cases, the extension product may not generate new revenues but eat into the parent brand’s market share itself.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1. Retail brand extension\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EThe literature on brand extension in retailing contexts appears scarce.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EOnly a few papers are specifically focusing on the topic [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], starting to look at the phenomenon quite recently, as all these papers dated back to the new millennium. And, even if the issue to what extent can retailers extend into new unrelated product categories under their store brand has been raised in the literature [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], research on this peculiar topic dramatically lacks.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EThis could be explained by a number of reasons. First of all, the scholars’ attention was traditionally attracted by the store, with a large number of studies on store image, while the retail brand image started to be considered only recently. Burt and Sparks [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] reviewing the literature on the ‘retailer as a brand’ concluded that although many retailers have become very sophisticated in managing their brands, extant literature has not analyzed the use of their brands consistently. These authors argue that it is ‘erroneous to continue to refer to retailers ‘own labels’ or ‘private brands’, when for a number of leading retailers, the retailer has become the brand’ [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, p. 199]. Actually, a retailer can be considered as a brand [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and the PL is actually a brand extension of a retailer as the parent brand. But, this view has been looser in the retailing literature so far. In fact, the literature on PLs is quite rich and flourishing, but it is not theoretically rooted in the brand extension perspective.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003EApart from these acknowledgements, the restricted number of papers facing the challenge to study retail brand extension ended in using very different approaches and methodologies, reporting contradictory results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EIn Ref. [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], the phenomenon has been studied in a promotional perspective evidencing that in aisle-promotion materials which add additional cues for consumers to evaluate new brand extensions may have an effect on consumers’ attitudes and their purchase intentions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EThe literature evidenced that high parent quality negatively affects an extension’s sales when functional fit is high [\u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], that is, low parent quality can increase an extension’s sales when specific circumstances happen.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EOther authors [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] aimed at understanding the impact of a brand extension on the core retail brand, trying to prove if a successful implementation of financial services brand extension impacts positively\u002Fnegatively on the core retail brand. They performed it by measuring satisfaction with the extended offer and proving that the company receives benefits with respect to its core brand when it offers satisfying financial services to its customers. Oppositely, its core brand suffers when these financial services are poorly perceived. However, Alexander and Colgate [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] did not test a simultaneous model taking into consideration the traditional antecedents used by the literature on brand extension.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EConsumers’ perceptions in retail brand extension (applied to financial services, again) was the interest of Laforet [\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], using a discriminant analysis and considering the role of three antecedents, namely, fit, risk and trust. She concluded that when consumers knew the store or were store loyal, they tended to trust the store brand extension, while when consumers did not have previous knowledge or were new to the store, fit and risks were impacting on the store brand extension.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003EIn Ref. [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], retail brand extension has been proved to influence consumers’ relationship evaluations with a parent brand prior to a subsequent impact on parent brand equity. That is, brand extension feedback phenomenon entails an underlying process of conversion of brand extension attitudes to bring change in brand equity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EEight dimensions relevant to retail brand extensions were postulated by Mitchell and Chaudhury [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] for a non-tangible offering, such as a service or retailer, highlighting that it is the image that will drive attribute clusters to form categories. These authors concluded that retail brand extension success is based on perceptual extension-fit judgments of relevance, concept fit, typicality and understanding, with the role of transfer (in the model proposed in this chapter: R&C) playing a more crucial role in service sectors—and specifically in retailing—than in manufacturing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EInvestigating the relationship between customer loyalty to the retail brand and the purchase of non-traditional products and services offered by grocery retailers with their private labels, Ref. [\u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] showed that attitudinal loyalty plays a significant role as buying predictor, but this depends on the non-traditional product\u002Fservice category offered.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003EIn order to contribute in filling in the gap on the retail brand extension literature, the following study was performed, leading to some interesting results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Consumers’ perceptions of retail brand extension: A comparison between Italy and France\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1. The research hypotheses\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EThe model proposed is aimed at verifying the effect of attitude towards the extension (ATEX) as a mediator of a number of antecedents—conceptual fit (FIT), National Brand Preference (NBP) and Resources and Competences (R&C)—on retail brand extension success. The proxy used to evaluate retail brand extension success is the intention to buy the extended product (INTB).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003EThe extant literature on brand extension traditionally suggests that the transfer of brand associations from the parent brand to the extension product depends on the extent to which consumers perceive a logical and coherent association, called fit, between the brand and the extension product [\u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In this perspective, brand extension fit is defined as ‘the perceived similarity (e.g. product category, usage situation) and relevance of parent brand associations (i.e. attributes or benefits) for the extension category’ [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, p. 967]. Prior product brand extension research findings suggest that a higher level of fit results in a better evaluation of any type of extension [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], directly influencing consumers’ attitude towards brand extension. Moreover, the literature agrees in recognizing a major role played by the FIT construct on ATEX compared to other antecedents [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The primary role played by FIT has been verified in a retailing context too [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHp1: Fit has a significant positive impact on brand extension attitude\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EPLs literature found that consumers perceive national brands (NBs) as superior to store brands. This is due to their perceived higher quality [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and to a broader knowledge of national brands compared to private labels [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In fact, traditionally, PLs have been positioned as low price\u002Fgood value for money offerings [\u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and were perceived as more risky than NBs [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Accordingly, preferences for NBs can result in a negative ATEX.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHp2: Preference for national brands has a significant negative impact on brand extension attitude\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EConsumer perceptions of the expertise of a company can be a key determinant in shaping brand extension evaluations [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This antecedent was termed as “Transfer” by [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] p. 97, defining it as “the extent to which the skills, facilities and people used in developing and making the original product may be useful in making the extension product”, that is: the more experienced, skilful and capable is the brand company who makes the extension, the better the attitude toward the extension. To clarify the direction of this link and accordingly to [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], but using a more intuitively label (resources and capabilities), we hypothesize as follows:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHp3: Resources and capabilities have a significant and positive impact on brand extension attitude\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EIn line with the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], attitudes have been shown to strongly influence purchasing behaviour and intentions in various contexts (e.g. [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]). This has also been found true when ATEX is considered [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHp4: Consumers’ attitude towards the brand extension positively affects intention to buy the extension product\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2. Empirical analysis across countries\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003ETo empirically investigate similarities and differences between Italy and France in consumers’ perceptions of retail brand extension in non-traditional business, an in-store survey was conducted administering a structured questionnaire to two convenience samples of retail customers. The questionnaire was pre-tested and then administered to comparable samples of respondents, both in Italy and in France, during their grocery shopping in hypermarkets offering a fuel station service labelled with the retailer’s brand. In this way, we have drawn a representative sample of retailer’s shoppers in both countries [\u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Moreover, both samples are loyal customers of retailers as in Italy, 88.8% of respondents own the fidelity card of the retailer, and in France, the owners of the retailer’s fidelity card are 56.1% of the French sample.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E3.2.1. The sample\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003EOur sample consisted of 320 Italian respondents and 240 French respondents; however, due to some uncompleted questionnaire, the final sample used in this analysis consisted of 123 French responses.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003EAs resulting from the socio-demographic analysis of the two samples, we can consider the two shoppers’ groups as sufficiently representative of the Italian and French grocery shoppers, although young adults are prevalent in the French sample (\u003Ca href=\"#tab1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003EItaly\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003EFrance\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EMen (%)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EWomen (%)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EMen (%)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EWomen (%)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E>25 years\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E3.1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E5.0\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E13.0\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E52.8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E25–35\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E6.9\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E11.3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E12.2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E17.1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E36–50\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E7.8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E34.1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E2.4\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E51–65\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E5.9\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E23.8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.0\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E<65 years\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E1.9\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.0\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003EDemographic characteristics.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003EIn terms of employment, because of the young age of the sample, 55.4% of French respondents are students and 9.9% are unemployed. About 31.4% of the sample is employees, while 0.8% is retired and 2.5% is housewives. Conversely, in Italy, 71.9% is employees, 2.8% is unemployed, 11.3% is retired, 3.1% housewives and just a 10.9% of respondents are students.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E3.2.2. The measurements employed\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003ETo assess differences in consumers’ intention to buy fuel from the retailer, we performed a structural equation model for both countries. In fact, as emerges from the literature, Structural Equation Models (SEM) are the main methodology to compare differences across groups [\u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The structured questionnaire is based on constructs derived from the main brand extension literature. Items and original constructs are presented in \u003Ca href=\"#tab2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Using the software Lisrel 8.80, we first compute a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the convergent and discriminant validity of constructs. All items are significant and loaded onto the expected latent construct [\u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. As reported in \u003Ca href=\"#tab3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, values for the average variance extracted (AVE) and for constructs’ composite reliability (CR) support the convergent validity of the investigated constructs for both groups [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EOriginal scale\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EScales\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003EMeasurements\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EItalian factor loadings\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EFrench factor loadings\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003EAdapted by [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003EIntention to buy extension\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EINTB1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EI am willing to fill in my car with the car fuel offered in the retailer X’s petrol station in the future\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.956\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.897\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EINTB2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EIf I were going to fill in the car with car fuel again, I would consider to go to the retailer X’s petrol station\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.850\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.867\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EINTB3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EThe likelihood of filling in the car with car fuel of the retailer X’s petrol station is very high\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.943\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.877\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003EAttitude towards extension\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EATEX1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EMy attitude towards the retailer X’s extension to petrol stations is very positive\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.951\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.789\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EATEX2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EOverall, I am very positive towards the retailer X’s extension to petrol stations\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.974\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.956\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EATEX3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EMy opinion about the retailer X’s extension to petrol stations is positive\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.964\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.900\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003EConceptual fit\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EThe extension of the PL X to offer car fuel is:\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EFIT1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENot logical-logical\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.889\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.882\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EFIT2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENot similar-similar\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.946\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.953\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EFIT3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENot appropriate-appropriate\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.951\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.903\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EFIT4\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EIncoherent-coherent\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.984\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.931\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003ENational brand preference\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENBP1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EI prefer to buy car fuel from traditional suppliers\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.816\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.708\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENBP2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EI consider branded car fuel better than that of the retailer X\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.916\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.906\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENBP3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EThere is a significant quality difference between branded and PL car fuel\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.903\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.865\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003EResource and capabilities\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ER&C1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EThe retailer X’s resources have been useful to enable the retailer to offer car fuel\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.838\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.787\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ER&C2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EThe retailer X’s skills and experience in offering PLs are similar to those needed to offer car fuel\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.913\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.871\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ER&C3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EThe retailer X’s personnel, infrastructure and capabilities were useful in developing and launching petrol stations branded with the retail brand\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.940\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.856\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 2.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003EConstructs and factor loadings.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\"\u003EItaly\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\"\u003EFrance\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EConstructs\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EAVE\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003ECR\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003ECorrelation matrix\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EAVE\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003ECR\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003ECorrelation matrix\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EIntention to buy extension\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EINTB\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.842\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.941\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.917\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.775\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.912\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.880\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EAttitude towards extension\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EATEX\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.928\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.975\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.811\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.963\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.782\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.915\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.739\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.884\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EConceptual fit\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EFIT\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.890\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.970\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.569\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.702\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.943\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.842\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.955\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.514\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.696\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.918\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENational brand preference\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENBP\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.773\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.911\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E−0.510\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E−0.629\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E−0.479\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.879\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.690\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.869\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.268\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.362\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.341\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.831\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EResource and capabilities\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ER&C\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.806\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.926\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.529\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.652\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.614\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E−0.490\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.898\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.704\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.877\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.533\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.722\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.641\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E0.540\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E0.839\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 3.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003EReliability, convergent and discriminant validity coefficients.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ENote\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Diagonal elements in bold are the square root of average variance extracted (AVE).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EUsing the Fornell and Larcker criterion [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], the discriminant validity of the surveyed constructs in both Italy and France was confirmed. In fact, the square root of AVE by the underlying construct is larger than the correlation of this construct and the other constructs (\u003Ca href=\"#tab3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E3.2.3. The structural model\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003EOnce identified the validity of constructs underling our analysis, we performed a SEM for each group to verify differences and similarities in consumers’ intention to buy the extension product. The structural model in both countries evidenced a good model fit. Although significant Satorra and Bentler chi-squares were found both in Italy \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(SB)(180)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 190.960, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E < 0.00 and in France \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(SB)(180)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 121.700, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E < 0.00 due to the violation of the assumption of multivariate normality, the normed chi-square indicated a good model fit in both countries: \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u002Fdf\u003Csub\u003E(IT)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 1.968; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u002Fdf\u003Csub\u003E(FR)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 1.337. Accordingly, the Root of Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA\u003Csub\u003E(IT)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 0.0551; RMSEA\u003Csub\u003E(FR)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 0.0457) and close-fit RMSEA\u003Csub\u003E(IT)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E < 0.05 = 0.224 and close-fit RMSEA\u003Csub\u003E(FR)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E < 0.05 = 0.593 are not significant in both cases. The models have no substantial problem with the residuals (SRMR\u003Csub\u003E(IT)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 0.0514; SRMR\u003Csub\u003E(FR)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 0.0672). The incremental fit measurements resulted greater than 0.95 both in Italy (NNFI = 0.992; CFI = 0.993) and in France (NNFI = 0.992; CFI = 0.993). The structural models showed a good predictive ability for both INTB (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(IT)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 0.658; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(FR)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 0.546) and ATEX (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(IT)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 0.642; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(FR)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 0.614).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Results\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003EAnalysing the results for Italian shoppers, we found a few differences compared to the results emerged in the French sample. In fact, in the case of Italy (\u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), the main antecedent of the attitude towards the extension product is FIT (FIT → 0.394* → ATEX) confirming H1. The NBP plays a negative role in determining ATEX (NBP → −0.315* → ATEX) supporting H2. In agreement with H3, R&C has a positive and significant effect on ATEX (R&C → 0.257* → ATEX). Finally, in line with the literature, ATEX has a strong effect on INTB confirming H4 (ATEX → 0.811* → INTB).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F56287\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p56\"\u003EStructural model: Italian results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003EAlso in France (\u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), ATEX has a positive effect on INTB (ATEX → 0.739* → INTB). Nevertheless, the main antecedent of attitude towards an extended product in France is R&C (R&C → 0.488* → ATEX), while FIT represents the second element that influences ATEX (FIT → 0.396* → ATEX). What emerges from French results is that NBP has no significant effect on the attitude towards a retailer’s fuel offer; consequently, H2 was not verified (NBP → −0.036 (n.s.) → ATEX).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F56287\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p58\"\u003EStructural model: French results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003EFinally, ATEX resulted as a mediator of the effects of FIT and R&C on INTB in both national contexts. In fact, as proved by the Sobel test (\u003Ca href=\"#tab4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), all the indirect effects are significant apart from the indirect effect of NBP in France, where the effect of NBP on ATEX is not significant and consequently its indirect effect too.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Ccol align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EItaly\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EFrance\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003EFIT → ATEX → INTB\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E′ = 0.393; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E-value = 0.000\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E′ = 0.278; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E-value = 0.001\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ENBP → ATEX → INTB\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E′ = 0.300; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E-value = 0.000\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E′ = 0.031; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E-value = 0.722\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr valign=\"top\"\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003ER&C → ATEX → INTB\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E′ = 0.268; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E-value = 0.000\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E′ = 0.456; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E-value = 0.001\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 4.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003EIndirect effects and Sobel test.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Discussion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p61\"\u003EOur findings are generally confirming the significance and expected direction of the major relationships verified by scholars in the brand extension study field, contributing to the current literature by testing them in an under investigated context such as grocery retailing. Specifically, our study confirms that INTB is strongly influenced by ATEX. Our results also evidenced that grocery retailers are recognized as having the right equipment, people and capabilities to extend their brand even in non-traditional businesses, and that this effect occurs independently from the level of evolution (long tradition\u002Frecent offer) of the non-traditional offer in the retailing systems observed. From this point of view, the grocery retailers’ brand looks as more elastic than other brands when grocers decide to launch extension into distant product categories [\u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In this way, our findings also support [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] statement that broad brands tend to have more associated benefits than narrow brands and can therefore be potentially used more successfully when companies decide to implement brand extensions in distant businesses. Store brands were predicted to succeed in categories that were not complex, for which there is relatively little variance in the (functional) quality across the competing brands [\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. From this point of view, grocery retailers seem to perfectly fit this requirement, they are well positioned on service convenience provision, a key aspect in the buying decision process of car fuel consumers, the extended category used in this study. But, this can be true for many other unusual categories in which grocery retailers are now operating, such as mobile phone services, utilities, travel booking, etc. This is why there might be a scope for extending the brand to new categories, even if distant.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p62\"\u003EHowever, if we look in detail at our findings comparing the different national contexts investigated, some interesting differences from the empirical analysis emerge. A different tradition in the relationship between retailers and consumers seems to lead to a different response by the latter respect on some specific antecedents of brand extension success in France differently from Italy. Focusing on the Italian context, where retailers have begun to extend their core business only a few years ago, we found that retailers suffer the comparison with national brands, and this result is expected and in line with the extant literature on brand extension, the NBP construct is significantly and negatively affecting ATEX. On the contrary, the NBP construct did not report any significance in the model regarding the French context. This could be related to the fact that familiarity with the PL is still low in Italy (around 18% of market share [\u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]) and therefore buying an extension product offered with the retailer’s brand could be perceived as more risky than buying it from a well-known NBs supplier [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This is reinforced by a cultural issue concerned with the Italian people’s proneness to be more sensitive to well-known brands than other foreign population. Differently, French people are used to a highly evolved retailing system, very well known and famous retail brands and are quite accustomed to the brand extension strategies made since long by them.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p63\"\u003EFurthermore, Italians consumers pay greater attention on the logical similarity between the extended category product and the core offer as FIT resulted as the major ATEX antecedent, confirming literature’s findings [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p64\"\u003EHowever, when the retailer acquires a strong role in the market and the relationship between the retailer and the consumer is consolidated, the situation radically changes. In fact, as in the case of France, although the retailer must prove its own resources and expertise to offer an extended product and the FIT should be coherent with the core business, the comparison with national brands do not penalize the retailer. As a consequence, on one hand, the role of the retailer is dramatically reshaped: the retailer can propose an offer in alternative product categories and competitive strategies among retailers affect not only the core business but also an extended offer less comparable by consumers. On the other hand, considering the advanced maturity stage reached by the grocery retailing system in France and the greater use of assortment extension performed by the local retailers, the future scholars need to rethink antecedents involved in brand extension in retailing contexts.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p65\"\u003EIf retailers want to be successful in extending their brands in distant product categories, they should strengthen the positive attitude created around their product extension mainly leveraging FIT perceptions and investing in better communicating how skilful, experienced and well-equipped they are in distributing products and serving customers, no matter which kind of product category\u002Fservice they are offering on the market through their brand.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Conclusions\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p66\"\u003EThis chapter contributes to the current literature on brand extension focusing on a poorly investigated area such as retail brand extension.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p67\"\u003ESpecifically, an empirical research was performed to test a model in two different national contexts, Italy and France. Findings support the belief that grocery retailers are well positioned to take advantage from a wide brand extension strategy. Our findings aim to assist them in their brand extension decision-making and implementation, particularly when it comes to enter unusual and distant businesses, where performing a brand extension strategy can be very risky. But, our research evidenced that in grocery retailing, brand extension in dissimilar businesses can result in a positive attitude towards the retailer and, consequently, into purchase intentions. In order to convert this potential heritage in a successful strategy, grocery retailers should be able to leverage the similarity that their customers perceive in the extended offer. This should be fulfilled giving particular emphasis on their capabilities in managing store infrastructures and creating value through their service offer. Stimulating trials and using communication tools retailers could better acknowledge customers on their extended offer and in particular on their capabilities to extend their core competences to offer a good extension product even in very distant products and services categories such as car fuel apparently is. From this point of view, we suggest retailers to give particular attention to the way in which they design and manage the car fuel branded with the retailer’s brand name: logos, colors, the level of service offered, etc. should be immediately let customers reconnect this offer to the retail chain.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p68\"\u003EAnother key point emerging from our results could be quite useful: retail brand extension could be differently perceived by retail customers of different national contexts. Even if this is beyond the scope of our research, our findings seem to acknowledge that the higher the level of evolution of a retailing system when it comes to brand extension issues, the higher the likelihood to report different results in testing traditional models of customers’ perceptions of brand extension success strategies. Accordingly, scholars studying retail branding should be acknowledged that a rethinking of the antecedents involved in brand extension could be appropriate.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p69\"\u003EIn sum, as customer loyalty has been found to act as a buying purchase predictor [\u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], our results evidenced a potential great success for this kind of offer. Relevant factors for a successful brand extension strategy in retail should be FIT and R&C. Consequently, retailers should enhance the perceived similarity with the parent brand in order to have favourable extension evaluations. But, this depends on the level of retail evolution of the national context in which the retailer operates: in Italy it is important to reduce the perceived gap within NBs and PLs, as this antecedent influence PL proneness, while in a highly evolved retailing context such as France, this is uninteresting, while R&C is key to succeed and even more powerful than FIT.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p70\"\u003EDespite the contributions made by this chapter, we are aware of the limitations affecting our study. First, the model is applied to only one product category, highly specific, namely car fuel branded with the retailer’s brand name, while it would be interesting to test it also in other non-traditional business contexts. In particular, it could be thought provoking to test the model in product categories that entails a high level of involvement and trust in the supplier such as pharmaceutical products and\u002For financial services. Moreover, familiarity with the retailer’s PLs could be included in future analyses in order to check for a possible moderating role on the relationship between NPB and ATEX.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p71\"\u003ELast but not the least, it would be beneficial for the possible contribution to the brand extension literature to survey constructs able to measure the feedback effects of the retail brand extension in non-traditional businesses. In particular, retailer brand equity could be introduced in the model as dependent variable. The understanding of the possible implications for the core offer and the retailer image are crucial points when diversification strategies are to be evaluated.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"brand extension, grocery retailing, private labels (PLs), multi-country analysis, SEM","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F56287.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F56287.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F56287\u002F1671988893\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F56287","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F56287","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F56287\u002F1512345123\u002F","totalDownloads":1660,"totalViews":888,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"introChapter":null,"impactScore":1,"impactScorePercentile":50,"impactScoreQuartile":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"dateSubmitted":"November 24th 2016","dateReviewed":"June 2nd 2017","datePrePublished":null,"datePublished":"November 8th 2017","dateFinished":"June 30th 2017","readingETA":"0","abstract":"This chapter reviews the literature on brand extension, with particular reference to retail brand extension strategies performed by grocery retailers. Aims, advantages and disadvantages, as well as types of this strategy are described. Then, the results of a survey aimed at comparing the customers’ perceptions and buying behaviour when retailers extend their brands, in particular when this strategy is pursued in non-traditional businesses, are presented. The survey consisted in administering a structured questionnaire aimed at investigating the main antecedents of brand extension success to samples of retail customers interviewed in two different retail national contexts, namely, Italy and France. The extension product investigated is car fuel offered through a fuel station branded with the retailer’s brand name. Applying Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), the mediating role of attitude towards the extension (ATEX) in generating brand extension success (INTEX) and the key role of fit and of the perceived capability of the retailer to offer the extension product (R&C) as antecedents were verified in both national contexts. On the contrary, the impact of customers’ preference towards national brands (NBP) reported mixed results.","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F56287","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F56287","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"5990","type":"book","title":"Brand Management","subtitle":"Advancing Insights on","fullTitle":"Advancing Insights on Brand Management","slug":"advancing-insights-on-brand-management","publishedDate":"November 8th 2017","bookSignature":"Paolo 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Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Brand extension: Aims, advantages and disadvantages and types","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1. Retail brand extension","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4","title":"3. Consumers’ perceptions of retail brand extension: A comparison between Italy and France","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"3.1. The research hypotheses","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"3.2. Empirical analysis across countries","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_3","title":"Table 1.","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_6_3","title":"Table 2.","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_7_3","title":"3.2.3. The structural model","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_10","title":"4. Results","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_11","title":"5. Discussion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_12","title":"6. Conclusions","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003EAaker D, Keller K. Consumer evaluations of brand extensions. 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Losing Share [Internet]. 2016. Available from: \u003Cext-link ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.iriworldwide.com\u002FIRI\u002Fmedia\u002FIRI-Clients\u002FIRI-articlePDF\u002FPrivate-Label-Special-Report_Final-2.pdf\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.iriworldwide.com\u002FIRI\u002Fmedia\u002FIRI-Clients\u002FIRI-articlePDF\u002FPrivate-Label-Special-Report_Final-2.pdf\u003C\u002Fext-link\u003E\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"}],"footnotes":[],"contributors":[{"corresp":"yes","contributorFullName":"Elisa Martinelli","address":"elisa.martinelli@unimore.it","affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003EDepartment of Economics Marco Biagi, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"},{"corresp":null,"contributorFullName":"Francesca De Canio","address":null,"affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003EDepartment of Economics, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, 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Nascimento","authors":[{"id":"102015","title":"MSc.","name":"Daniel","middleName":null,"surname":"Macedo","fullName":"Daniel Macedo","slug":"daniel-macedo"},{"id":"112309","title":"MSc","name":"Moisés","middleName":"Romolos","surname":"Cesário","fullName":"Moisés Cesário","slug":"moises-cesario"},{"id":"112310","title":"Ms.","name":"Graziele","middleName":null,"surname":"Souza","fullName":"Graziele Souza","slug":"graziele-souza"},{"id":"112311","title":"MSc.","name":"Beatriz","middleName":null,"surname":"Cela","fullName":"Beatriz Cela","slug":"beatriz-cela"},{"id":"112312","title":"Prof.","name":"Carlos","middleName":null,"surname":"Paskocimas","fullName":"Carlos Paskocimas","slug":"carlos-paskocimas"},{"id":"112314","title":"Prof.","name":"Antonio","middleName":null,"surname":"Martinelli","fullName":"Antonio Martinelli","slug":"antonio-martinelli"},{"id":"112315","title":"Prof.","name":"Dulce","middleName":null,"surname":"Melo","fullName":"Dulce Melo","slug":"dulce-melo"},{"id":"112316","title":"Dr.","name":"Rubens","middleName":"Maribondo Do","surname":"Nascimento","fullName":"Rubens Nascimento","slug":"rubens-nascimento"}]},{"id":"36186","title":"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles","slug":"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles","signatures":"Perla E. García Casillas, Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez and Carlos A. Martínez Pérez","authors":[{"id":"104636","title":"Dr.","name":"Perla E.","middleName":null,"surname":"García Casillas","fullName":"Perla E. García Casillas","slug":"perla-e.-garcia-casillas"},{"id":"112440","title":"Dr.","name":"Carlos A.","middleName":null,"surname":"Martínez Pérez","fullName":"Carlos A. Martínez Pérez","slug":"carlos-a.-martinez-perez"},{"id":"112441","title":"Dr.","name":"Claudia A.","middleName":null,"surname":"Rodriguez Gonzalez","fullName":"Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez","slug":"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{"id":"36187","title":"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis","slug":"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect","signatures":"Tarik Chafik","authors":[{"id":"107310","title":"Prof.","name":"Tarik","middleName":null,"surname":"Chafik","fullName":"Tarik Chafik","slug":"tarik-chafik"}]},{"id":"36188","title":"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra","slug":"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra","signatures":"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. Marais","authors":[{"id":"112229","title":"Prof.","name":"Chris","middleName":null,"surname":"Aldrich","fullName":"Chris Aldrich","slug":"chris-aldrich"},{"id":"112232","title":"Prof.","name":"Hansie","middleName":null,"surname":"Knoetze","fullName":"Hansie Knoetze","slug":"hansie-knoetze"},{"id":"135327","title":"Ms.","name":"Corne","middleName":null,"surname":"Marais","fullName":"Corne Marais","slug":"corne-marais"}]},{"id":"36189","title":"Optical Technologies for Determination of Pesticide Residue","slug":"optical-technology-for-determination-of-pesticide-residue","signatures":"Yankun Peng, Yongyu Li and Jingjing Chen","authors":[{"id":"113343","title":"Prof.","name":"Yankun","middleName":null,"surname":"Peng","fullName":"Yankun Peng","slug":"yankun-peng"},{"id":"116636","title":"Dr.","name":"Yongyu","middleName":null,"surname":"Li","fullName":"Yongyu Li","slug":"yongyu-li"},{"id":"116637","title":"Dr.","name":"Jingjing","middleName":null,"surname":"Chen","fullName":"Jingjing Chen","slug":"jingjing-chen"}]},{"id":"36190","title":"High Resolution Far Infrared Spectra of the Semiconductor Alloys Obtained Using the Synchrotron Radiation as Source","slug":"high-resolution-spectra-of-semiconductor-s-alloys-obtained-using-the-far-infrared-synchrotron-radi","signatures":"E.M. Sheregii","authors":[{"id":"102655","title":"Prof.","name":"Eugen","middleName":null,"surname":"Sheregii","fullName":"Eugen Sheregii","slug":"eugen-sheregii"}]},{"id":"36191","title":"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes","slug":"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes","signatures":"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier","authors":[{"id":"109019","title":"Dr.","name":"Christian","middleName":null,"surname":"Braunshier","fullName":"Christian Braunshier","slug":"christian-braunshier"},{"id":"111798","title":"MSc.","name":"Daniel","middleName":null,"surname":"Lumpi","fullName":"Daniel Lumpi","slug":"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}],"publishedBooks":[],"publishedBooksByAuthor":[]},"onlineFirst":{"chapter":{"type":"chapter","id":"1187899","title":"Impact of Unsaturated Fat Supplementation on Mammary Gland Growth and Development in Dairy Animals","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1005637","slug":null,"body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EThe significance of milk as a nutrient is widely recognized in both academic and business settings. Ancient records found on stone tablets in the Great Sahara, located in North Africa, demonstrate that the importance of milk and dairy products has been understood since 4000 BC. Even today, the role of these substances in meeting the nutritional needs of human societies in terms of energy, high-quality protein, minerals, and key vitamins is well-defined [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThe capacity for milk production is primarily determined by the number of milk-producing cells. Any manipulation of these cells can directly impact the amount of milk production [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Accordingly, the factors that influence the number of epithelial cells have the most significant effect on milk production. Mammary gland growth control is a complex process influenced by many hormones and external factors, such as photoperiods and diet [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EFat supplements have long been crucial for providing energy to dairy animals. However, the use of unsaturated oils instead of saturated fats not only avoids the adverse effects of the latter but also offers a range of benefits [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In recent years, unsaturated fatty acids have emerged as the primary regulators in biological tissues. Given their role as the key components of cell membranes, the composition of fatty acids greatly influences the function of cell membranes. Moreover, the presence of fatty acids in diverse biological systems and processes, such as the immune system, blood coagulation and vascular resistance, enzyme activities, cell proliferation and differentiation, and the expression of receptors, has been widely acknowledged. Omega-3 family fatty acids, owing to their unique biological properties like long chain length and the presence of double bonds on carbon number three, are considered potent regulators in these pathways [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EPolyunsaturated fatty acids play a critical role in many physiological actions, particularly in stimulating cell growth. As such, feeding foods containing omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids at the end of the first pregnancy is highly recommended. This period is crucial for mammary gland growth as it promotes an increase in parenchymal tissue relative to the surrounding stroma, thereby positively and stimulatingly affecting the growth, proliferation, and organization of mammary gland tissue. Notably, enhancing the growth and development of mammary gland tissue can lead to improved production performance in the animal. It is expected that the supplementation of dairy animal feed with polyunsaturated fatty acids during the physiologically critical periods for mammary gland growth will increase both the quantity and quality of milk produced. To achieve the optimal results, this feeding practice must be implemented during the appropriate developmental stage of the animal. Such an approach has the potential to be an effective strategy for enhancing milk production and quality in the dairy industry.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Mammary gland growth\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EThe mammary gland is an epithelial skin appendage comprising different tissues and cell types that undergo significant morphological and functional changes throughout the reproductive cycle in association with growth, functional differentiation, and regression [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The growth and development of mammary tissue can be categorized into distinct stages, including: (1) mammogenesis, which encompasses the growth and differentiation of ductal and alveolar mammary tissue; (2) colostrogenesis, the transfer of immunoglobulins to mammary secretions before parturition; (3) lactogenesis, the initiation of the secretion of a suitable volume of prepartum milk; (4) lactation, which involves the continuous production and secretion of milk; and (5) regression, which entails the cessation of lactation and the return of the mammary gland to a less differentiated state [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EThe lactating mammary gland comprises parenchymal and stromal connective tissues. The former consists of epithelial structures, such as ducts and alveoli that are closely associated with the stromal connective tissue. The stroma is characterized by cellular and noncellular components, with the cellular constituents encompassing fibroblasts, endothelial cells of blood vessels, and leukocytes that accumulate in the tissue. The noncellular parts comprise collagen and other connective tissue proteins. Significant white fat tissue is formed in the mammary gland during the early stages of fetal development and remains until pregnancy in the animal, representing an extra-parenchymal tissue that forms part of the developing stroma of the gland [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 Growth and development of the mammary gland during pregnancy\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EThe mammary gland’s function is the primary determinant of milk production per animal. The differences in milk production between dairy and beef cattle are predominantly attributed not only to the increase in parenchymal mammary mass of dairy animals but also to the heightened activity of most secretory cells alone [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The structural development of the mammary gland can be classified into five (or six) stages: (1) development during the embryonic period, (2) development during the prepuberty period, (3) development during the postpuberty period, (4) development during pregnancy, (5) development during lactation [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and (6) development during regression [\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EMammary growth resumes during pregnancy after entering the isometric growth stage following puberty. Milk-secreting cells develop solely during pregnancy, and the amount of milk produced is directly dependent on the number of secretory cells and their functional differentiation. As such, factors that maintain or increase the number of existing alveoli during the lactation period, along with those that affect the functional differentiation of these cells, significantly affect milk production. Thus, this period is pivotal in determining the number of secretory cells and future milk production in the mammary gland. During the second half of pregnancy, the size of the alveoli continues to increase, and new alveoli are added until a vast area of the mammary gland is covered. Alveolar cells gradually undergo the necessary biochemical and structural changes to begin abundant milk secretion, lactogenesis, at the time of parturition. Although it was previously believed that terminally differentiated cells do not multiply, recent observations have shown that cells continue to proliferate during the initial phases of lactogenesis. At this time, epithelial cells exhibit a net appearance in the apical region of the cell, resulting from the abundance and accumulation of secretory vesicles. In fully differentiated cells, the basal-lateral part of the cytoplasm appears darker in staining and is devoted to absorbing precursors and synthesizing proteins and lipids. The cytoplasm of the apical region, which is full of Golgi apparatus, structures, processes and packages proteins and lactose for secretion from the cell [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.1 Metabolic changes during pregnancy\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EIn the last 3 to 4 weeks of pregnancy, a rapid growth of the fetus occurs, along with mammary gland development and favorable metabolic adjustments for the mobilization of fat and other nutrients. However, during this period, nutrient intake is reduced, and the metabolism of glucose and fatty acids undergoes significant changes. Metabolic adaptations occur in other tissues of the mother’s body to ensure the supply of glucose required by the uterus and lactating mammary gland, even under conditions of maternal nutritional changes. Hormonal changes that occur before parturition are also well-defined. The adaptive changes start in the prenatal period and continue after parturition and lactation. These changes involve increased lipolysis, decreased lipogenesis, increased gluconeogenesis, increased glycogenolysis, increased consumption of fats, and decreased consumption of glucose as energy sources. They also involve increased mobilization of protein reserves, increased absorption of minerals and mobilization of mineral reserves, increased feed consumption, and increased absorption capacity for nutrients [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Extensive metabolic and hormonal adjustments occur during the transition period from late pregnancy to early lactation. During this period, the plasma concentration of insulin decreases, and the responsiveness of muscle and skeletal tissue to insulin decreases. These adaptations may be crucial factors in the initiation of catabolic activities of the transition period [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.2 Metabolic changes during the transition period\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EThe transition period in dairy breeds, which includes about 3 weeks before to 3 weeks after calving, is widely considered a sensitive and critical stage [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. During this period, significant changes occur in the nutritional, behavioral, physiological, and anatomical patterns of livestock, particularly in the mammary, reproductive, immune, metabolic, and digestive systems. Appropriate management during this period is essential to ensure that the animal moves from the nonproductive to the productive stage with full health. The future performance and health of dairy cattle depends on successfully navigating this period [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.2 Mammary gland growth and development during lactation\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EMammary milk production is a two-step process called lactogenesis. The first stage commences during the final trimester of pregnancy, characterized by the limited structural and functional differentiation of the alveolar epithelium. The second stage follows immediately before parturition and is characterized by the completion of structural and biochemical differentiation, coinciding with the onset of milk production and secretion [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. During lactation, mammary epithelial cells become highly specialized in the production of milk proteins, including casein and whey proteins [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The number and activity of these cells determine the shape of the lactation curve and, consequently, the volume of milk produced [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Notably, an increase in mammary cell growth can have severe and permanent effects on milk production in response to frequent milking in early-stage dairy cows [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The growth of the mammary gland is minimal when lactation is fully established. The relative contribution of hypertrophy and hyperplasia to this phenomenon remains unclear. Approximately 40% of the parenchymal tissue comprises closely packed alveoli, while the remainder comprises alveoli that are greatly expanded in the stromal matrix [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The number of cells reflects the sum of the relative rates of cell proliferation and death. The mammary gland grows when the rate of cell proliferation exceeds the rate of cell death, and when the rate of cell death exceeds the rate of cell proliferation, it diminishes [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.2.1 Metabolic changes during lactation\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003EIn the first 3 to 4 weeks after calving, there is a slight increase in dry matter intake, accompanied by a rapid drop in nutrients to support milk production. During this period, there is continued rapid growth of mammary tissue and hypertrophy of key digestive and metabolic organs. Metabolically, the cow mobilizes its nutrient reserves, primarily from fat tissue, labile proteins, and bones. A crucial adjustment during this period is the stabilization of the homeostatic control mechanisms of essential nutrients such as glucose and calcium to support lactation. This process is known as homeorhesis and is considered a long-term adaptation to a change in stage, such as a transition from non-lactating to lactating or non-ruminant to ruminant. It involves a coordinated set of changes in metabolism that enables the animal to cope with the challenge and adapt to the new stage. Any inefficiency in a metabolic process can undoubtedly affect the efficiency of other processes as well [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Genes involved in the growth and development of the mammary gland\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EGrowth factors are central to the growth and development of many cells. These factors, which include EGF, IGF, FGF, and TNF-α, play a unique role in controlling growth [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The production of IGF-I is regulated by both growth hormone and nutritional status [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The concentration of IGF-I mRNA, which is essential for growth, is higher in the stromal part of the mammary gland compared to its epithelial parts, indicating that the stromal segment is responsible for the local synthesis of IGF-I. During pregnancy, as the population of IGF receptors increases, the role of IGFs in mammary gland growth becomes more pronounced. Moreover, the synergistic effects of IGFs, EGF, and TGF-α on cow udder growth have been observed in some studies. The growth factors EGF and TGF-α have a stimulating effect on mammary gland growth, and their activity increases significantly in the presence of IGF-I, indicating a mainly supportive role in intensifying growth stimulation. The regulation of mammary functions during pregnancy is also attributed to these growth factors [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EIGFBP1 to IGFBP6 are six structurally related proteins that regulate the activity of IGFs. These IGF-binding proteins modulate the transport of IGFs to specific cells and tissues, enhancing their access to receptors, by prolonging the half-life of IGF. One of the vital functions of IGFs is to inhibit cell death in some cells, where programmed cell death is due to apoptosis, and growth factors play a crucial role in its regulation [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Nutritional solutions\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EAdequate consumption compounds providing net energy and metabolizable protein are crucial for the healthy functioning of cows [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, during the transition period, animals face increased challenges due to the heightened demand for nutrients and the reduced capacity of their digestive system. Inadequate nutrition during the dry period can lead to postpartum problems such as metabolic diseases, susceptibility to infections, infertility, and reduced milk production [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Despite the high energy demand during late pregnancy and early lactation, cows cannot consume enough feed to satisfy their metabolic and production needs. To address this issue, it is advisable to incorporate energy-dense compounds, such as fat, into their diet during this period.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.1 The importance of fats in animal nutrition\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EFats are a rich source of energy for animals, owing to their high energy and storage properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Incorporating fat supplements into animal diets increases the energy density, resulting in improved lactation performance and metabolic efficiency in lactating cows. Other benefits of using fat supplements include improved reproductive efficiency and reduced incidence of metabolic abnormalities. Inadequate energy consumption during the prenatal period and early lactation is linked to increased risk of metabolic abnormalities and poor reproductive performance [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The essentiality of certain fats for optimal growth and development in animals and humans has been studied for almost 80 years, and the theory of their necessity is well-established. There is growing evidence that long-chain fatty acids with polyunsaturated bonds can modulate the expression of genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation [\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. When incorporating unsaturated fats into the diet of ruminants, it is important to be aware of the permissible limit of consumption of these fats in their unprotected form, which is up to 5%. If there is a need to consume more than this amount, it is recommended to use protected fats in order to avoid disturbing the rumen function and endangering the health of the animal.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E4.1.1 The role of fatty acids in the growth and development of mammary tissue\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EAlthough the lipogenic activities of adipose tissue in non-lactating ruminants in response to long-chain fatty acids have been studied, few studies have examined the effects of these compounds on mammary gland and adipose tissue in lactating animals. The effect of fatty acids on the different tissue is summarized in \u003Ca href=\"#tab1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EAuthor\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ESubjects\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ESupplement type\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ETime of consumption\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EEffect\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EBernard et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ECow\u002FGoat\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EOilseeds\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EMiddle of lactation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ESuppress \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ede novo\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E lipid production\u002FNo effect.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EBagga et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EWomen\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EFish oil\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EDaily for 3 months\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EIncreasing ω-3\u002Fω-6 ratio approximately fourfold.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EMcFadden et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EPrepubertal ewe lamb\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EFormaldehyde-protected sunflower seed supplement\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EFrom 7 to 22 week of age\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EIncreasing mammary parenchymal weight, parenchymal dry fat-free tissue, and DNA content.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EJavaheri Barfourooshi et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ECow\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EFish oil\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EDry period and early lactation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EIncreasing the mammary gland relative percentage of epithelial area.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EJavaheri Barfourooshi et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EPrimiparous Saanen goat\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ERoasted soybean and extruded flaxseed\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ETwo months before kidding to 4 months after parturition\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EImproving the volume, environment, and size of mammary halves.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EMach et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ECow\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ERapeseed, soybean, linseed, or a mixture of three oils (unprotected)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EMiddle of lactation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EDownregulation of gene sets related to cell development and remodeling, apoptosis, nutrient metabolic process, and immune system response.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EJavaheri Barfourooshi et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ECow\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EFish oil\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EDry period and early lactation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EDecreasing of relative expression of IGF-I and TNF-α genes, increasing of relative expression of Bcl-2 gene, increasing the ratio of Bcl-2\u002FBax gene expression.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ESeti et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EHuman colorectal cancer cell line\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EAlpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) and Linoleic acid (LA)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003E24 hours (treatment time of cells)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EA potential mitogenic effect on cells, reduction in apoptotic activity.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EManna et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ERat (carcinogenic model)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EFish oil\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003E7 weeks of age to 32 weeks of age\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EIncrease in Bax immunolabeling and reduction of Bcl-2 immunopositivity and TUNEL-positive apoptotic cells.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ELennie et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EHuman (Patients with heart failure)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EPolyunsaturated fat\u002FOmega-3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003E4 days\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EReduction of sTNF-R1 and sTNF-R2.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EHuang et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EBarrows\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003ELinseed\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EGrowing-finishing period\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"top\"\u003EIncreasing the expression of PPARγ in longissimus muscle and spleen, reduction in TNF-α gene expression level in longissimus muscle, spleen, and adipose tissue and serum concentration of TNF-α.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003EEffect of polyunsaturated fatty acids on the different tissue in human or animals.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EConsumption of oilseeds in the middle of lactation by dairy cows has a suppressive effect on \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ede novo\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E production of lipids in the mammary gland, while no such effect is observed in goats [\u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003EMammary epithelial cells grow and organize only when they come into contact with the fat pad. This interaction is influenced by specific fatty acids produced by the fat pad that can trigger changes in epithelial development. Unsaturated fatty acids, especially, stimulate the growth of mammary epithelial cells and can enhance the external effects of other growth factors such as IGF-I and EGF [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A diet lacking essential fatty acids can stunt ductal growth and alveolar regression, while a diet rich in unsaturated fats can increase parenchymal growth and tumorigenesis. The growth of epithelial cells can be stimulated by unsaturated fatty acids and their derivatives. Furthermore, unsaturated fatty acids and their derivatives can enhance the proliferative effects of EGF. Fatty acids derived from adipocytes can regulate epithelial growth and potentially morphogenesis through direct and indirect mechanisms involving lipids and their derivatives [\u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EStudies have shown that polyunsaturated fatty acids can increase prepubertal mammary growth in sheep. Additionally, studies using bovine and human mammary epithelial cells have suggested that mammary growth may be influenced by retinoids and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The fatty acid composition in adipose tissue reflects the long-term consumption of fatty acids through food. Altering the stored fatty acids in mammary gland fat is crucial for storing and releasing the fatty acids required for the differentiation, proliferation, and normal morphogenesis of mammary epithelial cells [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EOmega-3 fatty acids have been shown to have a wide range of effects on cellular activity. These fatty acids are a source of energy production while also determining the physicochemical properties of cell membranes. Further, they act as substrates for the production of signaling molecules or acting mediators and moderate the regulation of gene expression. Therefore, omega-3 fatty acids have significant impacts on physiological activity and pathological processes through different mechanisms [\u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EIn most mammalian species, the histological appearance of the parenchymal tissue is similar, with wide areas of alveolar cavity and compressed stromal tissue between alveoli visible from late pregnancy until lactation. The relative area occupied by the epithelium and the alveolar cavity space is similar, with approximately 40% for each, and the remaining 20% is covered by stromal tissue. Alveolar cells undergo progressive biochemical and structural differentiations necessary for the initiation of abundant milk secretion (lactogenesis) at parturition [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EStudies conducted on laboratory animals have shown that polyunsaturated fatty acids stimulate the growth of mammary parenchymal tissue by promoting the proliferation of epithelial cells, while saturated fats inhibit growth. In ruminants, unsaturated fatty acids have a stimulating effect on the growth of mammary epithelial tissue in the prepubertal age, despite an increase in dietary energy. It has also been demonstrated that lambs receiving diets containing unsaturated fatty acids exhibit increased mammary growth before puberty and a larger amount of empty fat pad, which allows for further development of parenchymal parts [\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In a recent study, Javaheri Barfourooshi et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] showed that incorporating fish oil into the diet of Holstein cows during the dry period and the first 2 months of lactation led to an increase in the percentage of epithelial cells and a decrease in the stromal tissue of the mammary gland compared to cows consuming palm oil (\u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1187899\u002F1732084840-987031626\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003EPercentage of different parts of alveoli (LSMEANS±SEM) at the first and second biopsy (7 and 63 DIM, respectively) for two diets, palm oil (PO) and fish oil (FO). * Referred to significance at \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E < 0.05 level.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EIt is important to note that histological assessments alone are insufficient to accurately measure the effects of treatments that may affect the total number of cells in the entire mammary gland. Akers and Capuco [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] demonstrated differences in the relative proportions of well-differentiated alveolar epithelial cells, which were related to higher milk production in Holstein cows compared to similar Hereford cows. Differences in the relative proportions of luminal versus stromal space have been shown to correspond with differences in milk production; that is, more luminal space per stromal tissue is associated with increased milk production.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EFurthermore, the increase in the number of epithelial cells per alveolus in cows consuming fish oil suggests that the number of epithelial cells per alveolus was higher than in those receiving palm oil. Additionally, the number of alveoli with a diameter ranging between 50 and 90 micrometers in cows consuming fish oil increased significantly compared to those consuming palm oil, leading to uniformity in the size of the alveoli. This can increase the surface-to-volume ratio in the alveoli, which may be one of the possible reasons for higher milk production in this group [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EComparable results were obtained in Saanen goats that consumed extruded flaxseeds and roasted soybeans in their late pregnancy and early lactation diets, relative to goats that consumed palm oil or a diet without any fat source (Javaheri Barfourooshi, unpublished data). These changes were also visible in the context of mammary gland morphology, as the volume, circumference, and other dimensions of the mammary gland of goats that consumed extruded flaxseed and roasted soybeans were compared to those that received palm oil and those that did not receive any fat supplements in their diet [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. These histological findings have indicated that the consumption of diets containing unsaturated fatty acids promotes the growth and development of the epithelial parts of the mammary gland. At the time of parturition, the mammary gland tissue had a fully mature structure with active epithelial cells, compared to the groups that consumed saturated fat or a fat-free diet (\u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1187899\u002F1732084840-987031626\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EMammary tissue sections for palm oil (PO) and fish oil (FO) groups at two different biopsy times. (A) FO mammary tissue section in the first biopsy, (B) PO mammary tissue section in the first biopsy, (C) FO mammary tissue section in the second biopsy, and (D) PO mammary tissue section in the second biopsy. The arrows show large and small alveoli.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003EIt has been demonstrated that consuming a diet deficient in essential fatty acids leads to ductal growth damage and alveolar regression, while a diet rich in unsaturated acids increases the growth of epithelial cells. Research has shown that unsaturated fatty acids increase mammary gland growth during prepuberty in sheep [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EIn the context of dairy cow farming, it has been observed that incorporating unsaturated fatty acids into their diet induces significant alterations in the transcription of various genes in the mammary gland. Such findings are of notable interest as they provide insight into the complex mechanisms underlying milk production in dairy cows. Similar to the changes made in milk production and composition, the effects of unsaturated fatty acid supplementation on gene expression may also change with the stage of lactation and different amounts of protein and energy in the cow’s diet [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003ENutritional status is known to regulate blood insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins (IGFBPs) levels. During food deprivation, the somatotropin-IGF-I axis does not pair, leading to an increase in somatotropin levels and a decrease in IGF-I levels. The uncoupling of the ST-IGF-I axis causes somatotropin to increase the availability of nutrients by affecting the lipolysis of adipose tissue for non-mammary tissues while minimizing the consumption of nutrients by the mammary gland [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003ESeveral studies have reported the stimulatory effects of IGF-I on DNA synthesis or on increasing the number of cells \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in the mammary gland of ruminants. The growth-stimulating effect of IGF-I depends on the period of time when the tissue is affected by it, rather than the amount of IGF-I. In the mammary tissue of nonpregnant sheep or in early pregnancy, this effect is minimal, but in late pregnancy, its effect (tissue responsiveness to IGF-I) reaches its maximum value. While it is now known that growth factors affect the control of the cell cycle machinery both positively (IGF-I) and negatively (TGF-β), the mechanisms by which hormones capable of initiating mammary development control growth factors that may mediate their effects are still mostly unknown [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In some \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E studies, IGF-I and IGF-II have been shown to be powerful mitogens for normal mammary epithelial cells, as well as mammary tumors in rodents, sheep, and cattle. Both IGF-I and IGF-II are expressed in the mammary fat plate of sheep, confirming the previous theory that IGFs produced in the mammary act as paracrine mitogens for the mammary epithelium. The interaction between the stromal and epithelial parts of the mammary gland has significant effects on cell growth and morphogenesis. Based on these results, it is suggested that the proliferating epithelium exerts a positive feedback on its surrounding stroma, likely through the local release of diffusible factors, to increase the expression of IGF-I and IGF-II [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EThe growth of mammary epithelial cells and the \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eex vivo\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E effects of growth factors such as IGF-I and EGF have been the focus of multiple studies with regard to the impact of fatty acids, particularly unsaturated fatty acids. The fat pad of the mammary gland is believed to mediate the effects of synthetic hormones on the development of the mammary epithelium [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is postulated that synthetic hormones alter the expression of growth factors, such as IGF-I, which then act through specific receptors on epithelial cells, resulting in either positive or negative effects on epithelial cell proliferation. The fat pad’s response to multiple signals might be altered by interacting with the epithelium, for example, by producing IGFBP or other growth factors. Proliferative responses are correlated with a higher concentration of mammary IGF-I protein and a lower concentration of mammary IGFBP-3 protein. As a result, proliferative processes are linked to a net increase in the biological supply of IGF-I in the mammary gland [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003EFew studies have delved into the effect of polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids on the proteins of the IGF pathway. These studies have shown that such fatty acids reduce proteins related to carcinogenesis and growth and increase the proteins linked to the negative regulatory effect on the IGF pathway, such as IGFBP-3 [\u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Mach et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] have reported that the consumption of diets rich in unsaturated fatty acids affects the transcription of several genes related to cell growth, cell cycle, regeneration, apoptosis, and mTOR and JAK\u002FSTAT signaling pathways [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EAdipocytes are primarily responsible for the expression of IGF-I in the mammary gland, and its expression is at its highest in the mammary tissue of heifers at the end of pregnancy, reaching its lowest level during lactogenesis and galactopoiesis [\u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. With the onset of lactation, the expression of genes involved in milk component production is upregulated, while genes related to cell proliferation are inhibited. In goats, the growth and development of mammary tissue persist to a small extent during early lactation; in contrast, mammogenesis is completed at the time of parturition in sheep [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EJavaheri Barfourooshi et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] conducted a study on Holstein cows and found that fish oil, rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, affects the expression and early production of IGF-I and, thereby, the proliferation and development of mammary epithelial cells. Fish oil significantly increased the number of epithelial cells and decreased the stroma in the mammary tissue of cows during the first week of lactation compared to palm saturated fat. However, while higher IGF-I was observed in the cows receiving palm oil, this may not necessarily indicate higher impact on mammary tissue, as IGF-I’s effects are influenced by various binding proteins (IGFBPs) [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003ESimilarly, in a separate study conducted by Javaheri Barfourooshi et al. (unpublished data) on Saanen goats in their first pregnancy, it was discovered that the administration of fat supplements led to the maintenance of high expression of IGF-I throughout the entire period, with a greater effect observed during peak production. Sustaining high IGF-I expression levels may contribute to the modulation of apoptosis and stimulation of cell survival. The expression of the IGFBP-3 gene changed concurrently with the expression of the IGF-I gene, indicating that IGFBP-3 plays an intermediate role in controlling the growth, development, and activity of milk secretory cells. IGF-I and IGFBP-3 gene expression was not significantly different among goats at the time of parturition. However, during the first weeks of lactation until peak production, the activity of IGF-I in the goats consuming saturated fat, omega-3, and omega-6 stimulated cell development and preserved parenchymal tissue, resulting in better performance of the cells. In the absence of fat, a certain level of IGFBP-3 helped to maintain the existing situation to control the death of secretory cells and maintain the secretory activity of parenchymal tissue cells. The majority of IGFBPs in the mammary gland are in the form of IGFBP-3, and its concentration in blood and milk decreases during the lactation period compared to prepartum and postpartum stages [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EJavaheri Barfourooshi et al. (unpublished data) found the impact of different fat sources on the expression of IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 genes during early and mid-lactation periods in Saanen goats. The study discovered that the expression of the IGFBP-3 gene decreased during early lactation and continued until mid-lactation, particularly for goats consuming omega-3 and omega-6 (\u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1187899\u002F1732084840-987031626\u002Fmedia\u002FF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EChanges in IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 gene expression in Saanen goats during three sampling periods (0: time of parturition, 2: 2 months after kidding, 4: 4 months after kidding). C–: negative control group; C+: positive control group (palm oil); SB: omega-6 group (roasted soybean); FS: omega-3 group (extruded flaxseed). * Significance was considered at the level of 5% (p < 0.05).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EHistological studies revealed that goats consuming omega-3 and omega-6 sources had a higher ratio of parenchymal tissue to stroma and more compressed secretory cells as well as more parenchymal cells compared to those consuming saturated fat and those not receiving any type of fat supplement. The increasing trend of IGFBP-3 gene expression at the end of the lactation period for goats consuming unsaturated fat and its decreasing trend in those consuming saturated fat may be due to the maintenance of the function of IGF-I in controlling apoptosis. The expression of the IGFBP-5 gene was higher in goats consuming omega-3 compared to other goats. Over time, the changes in the expression of the IGFBP-5 gene for goats receiving omega-3 and palm fat were completely opposite to the previous two genes, with its value increasing as it approached the production peak and decrease at the end of the period. In contrast, the trend of changes in this gene for goats consuming roasted soybeans and those not receiving fat supplements was the opposite of goats receiving omega-3 and palm oil.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EIGFs play a critical role in inhibiting programmed cell death in some cells, with growth factors playing a vital role in regulating apoptosis [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Fatty acids affect both systemic physiological processes and intracellular events such as gene expression, apoptosis, signal transduction, and cell proliferation [\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. TNF-α inhibits the stimulation of IGF-I in DNA synthesis. Therefore, by removing IGFBP-3, the ability of IGF-I to increase DNA synthesis is weakened. The deletion of IGFBP-3 results in a decrease in base DNA synthesis, indicating that a certain level of IGFBP-3 is required for cell proliferation [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Additionally, the expression of the IGFBP-5 gene in mammary gland epithelial cells suggests that this protein is suitable for inhibiting IGF-I activity. Studies have also shown that IGFBP-5 regulates apoptosis by modulating IGFs [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EJavaheri Barfourooshi (unpublished data) conducted a study on Saanen goats to investigate the expression of the Bcl-2 and Bax genes, which are anti- and pro-apoptotic factors, respectively. The study was conducted during peak lactation periods to examine the potential effects of dietary factors on gene expression. The results of the study indicated that the relative expression of the Bcl-2 gene increased and then decreased in goats receiving palm oil and omega-6. In contrast, the expression of the Bax gene increased significantly during peak lactation for goats receiving palm oil and omega-6, with lower expression levels in those consuming omega-3. The expression ratio of these two genes (Bax\u002FBcl-2) increased for goats receiving palm oil and omega-6 as the lactation peak approached, followed by a decrease in 4 months after parturition. However, this ratio was higher in goats receiving omega-6 than in those receiving palm oil. The increase in Bax gene expression during peak lactation in goats consuming omega-6 compared to other goats indicates an acceleration in the rate of the apoptosis process at this time. This leads to an earlier and more intense apoptosis process, resulting in the earlier cell death of epithelial cells and alveolar structures that produce milk. Consequently, this leads to a shorter duration of maximum milk production compared to the normal state. These findings suggest that the consumption of omega-6 in the diet may have an adverse effect on milk production in Saanen goats during peak lactation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003EPrevious studies have indicated that the expression of Bax protein in the mammary gland of goats is low during peak lactation and increases at the end of lactation and during the dry period. Additionally, it has been reported that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega-3 fatty acid, can stimulate the expression of Bcl-2 protein [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Another study revealed that feeding mice with fish oil resulted in morphological changes in the breast tissue, including changes in the size of the nucleus of the epithelial cells of the mammary gland, as well as distinct morphological changes in chromatin and nucleus [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Furthermore, omega-3 fatty acids have been reported to control the regression function and decrease apoptosis by upregulating the expression of Bcl-2 family genes [\u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003EJavaheri Barfourooshi et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] conducted a study on the mammary gland of dairy cows that consumed fish oil. The study observed an increase in the expression of anti-apoptotic genes and a decrease in the expression of apoptosis-initiating genes. Therefore, they suggested that the consumption of fish oil and other omega-3 sources could delay the process of apoptosis that naturally occurs in the cells of the mammary epithelial tissue as the peak of lactation approaches. In their study, the expression of the Bcl-2 gene in the cows consuming fish oil tended to increase over time, and the expression of the Bcl-2\u002FBax ratio increased as the peak of production approached in the cows consuming fish oil. Conversely, the opposite trend was observed in the group receiving saturated palm oil. The expression of anti-apoptotic genes increased, while the expression of pro-apoptotic genes decreased in the cows consuming fish oil. Therefore, they concluded that by postponing the process of apoptosis that naturally occurs in the epithelial cells of the mammary gland during the peak of lactation, the alveolar structures that produce milk can be preserved, leading to higher milk production for a more extended period in cows consuming fish oil (\u003Ca href=\"#tab2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"middle\"\u003EGene Symbol\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003EPO\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003EFO\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003ESEM\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003EP value\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003ETreatment\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003ETime\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003ETreatment× Time\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"middle\"\u003EBax\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.62\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.59\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.08\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.75\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.38\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.89\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"middle\"\u003EBcl-2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.67\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.70\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.02\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.29\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.05\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.67\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"middle\"\u003EBcl-2\u002FBax\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.04\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.07\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.06\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.58\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.58\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.66\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"middle\"\u003ECox-2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.45\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.44\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.05\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.87\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.27\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.26\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"left\" valign=\"middle\"\u003ETNF-α\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.69\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E1.60\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.04\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.06\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.17\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\" valign=\"top\"\u003E0.64\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 2.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003EMammary gland apoptotic gene expression \u003Ca href=\"#tfn1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table-fn\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E in cows during 8 weeks after parturition.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"note\"\u003E\u003Clabel\u003E\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Flabel\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003EExpression of genes is based on the logarithm in Section 10.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cbr\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003EPO: Palm oil group; FO: Fish oil group.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003EIn Saanen goats, the consumption of omega-6 has been found to result in a significant increase in TNF-α level compared to other groups, potentially leading to PGE2 production. Moreover, at the peak of production, the level of TNF-α was higher in goats consuming omega-6 than other goats, with goats receiving palm oil ranking second (Javaheri Barfourooshi et al., unpublished data). These conclusions were drawn based on the research conducted by Lennie et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], that saturated fat has also been reported to elevate the level of inflammatory markers. A study conducted by Lennie et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] found that the increase in the level of omega-6 compared to omega-3 and the imbalance between them is directly related to the increase in the level of inflammatory markers. Furthermore, their experiments compared the relationship between fatty acid consumption and the level of the inflammatory marker TNF-α in a group of heart patients. The excessive consumption of saturated fatty acid and trans fatty acid (unsaturated) was directly linked to increase TNF-α levels in cardiac patients. In contrast, Javaheri Barfourooshi et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] reported that the expression of TNF-α in cows consuming fish oil was considerably lower than those consuming palm oil. Various animal species have demonstrated that omega-3 fatty acids with polyunsaturated bonds can reduce TNF-α production [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. These fatty acids may regulate the expression of TNF-α through the activation of one or more transcription factors such as PPARγ [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003EDue to the limited number of studies investigating the effect of these fatty acids on the healthy mammary tissue of pregnant and lactating animals, it is challenging to provide a definitive opinion on this matter and identify the exact mechanisms involved. More research is needed in this area to gain a better understanding of the relationship between fatty acid consumption and the inflammatory response in lactating animals.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003EThe following most important conclusions can be drawn from the latest research results discussed in this chapter.\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: order;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EAdding unsaturated fat sources, particularly sources containing omega-3 fatty acids such as fish oil or extruded flaxseed, to the diet during critical periods of mammary gland development (such as late first pregnancy or dry period) can stimulate the proliferation and development of alveolar epithelial cells.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003EBy delaying the natural process of apoptosis in the mammary tissue, it preserves the milk-producing units for a longer period of time, leading to increased milk production and persistency of lactation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003EOmega-3 fatty acids have been found to reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α in the mammary tissue. While maintaining the health of the mammary gland, they also significantly reduce the microbial load of milk.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003EThe produced milk has a higher health index for human consumption due to having significant amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, offering countless benefits to the consumer.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003EFurther research is needed to ascertain the optimal dosage and duration of unsaturated fat supplementation for maximum benefit.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_13\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p58\"\u003EUniversity of Tehran financially supported the study [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] under the grant number 7108017\u002F6\u002F18.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003EAnimal Science Research Institute of Iran (ASRI), Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), and Ministry of Agriculture of Iran financially supported the study [33, 42, unpublished data], Project code: 01-13-13-022-95014.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"polyunsaturated fatty acid,mammary gland,functional foods,Holstein cow,Saanen goat","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAVQA0\u002Fa09Tc000000TpojIAC\u002FFinal-Impact%20of%20Unsaturated%20Fat%20Supplementation%20on%20Mamma%20%282024-10-14%2010%3A25%3A57%29.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAVQA0\u002Fa09Tc000000TpojIAC\u002FFinal%20%28xml%29-Impact%20of%20Unsaturated%20Fat%20Supplementation%20on%20Mamma%20%282024-10-14%2018%3A59%3A33%29.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F1187899\u002F1730300840-1906976681\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F1187899","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F1187899","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1187899\u002F1732084840-987031626\u002F","totalDownloads":23,"totalViews":12,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"dateSubmitted":"April 24th 2024","dateReviewed":"April 27th 2024","datePrePublished":"June 27th 2024","datePublished":"November 20th 2024","dateFinished":null,"readingETA":"0","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThe dairy industry plays a pivotal role in promoting food security across human societies globally by providing high-quality protein sources, primarily raw milk, sourced from animal husbandry. A key factor contributing to the economy of the dairy industry is the enhancement of both the quality and quantity of milk produced in dairy farms. One of the strategies used to increase milk production is the use of fats in livestock feeding. Despite the long history of adding fats to animal diets, information on the effects of varying types and amounts of fat consumption at different stages of animal breeding remains scarce. Unsaturated fats, particularly polyunsaturated fatty acids, are commonly used in dairy farms. In addition to their nutritional value in providing energy for animals, they have been shown to have positive effects on growth and overall health. This has led to their categorization as functional foods. These compounds increase milk production by promoting the growth and development of mammary tissue through changing gene expression. This section aims to present a brief summary of the impact of consuming unsaturated fats on the growth and development of the mammary gland.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F1187899","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F1187899","signatures":"Hoda Javaheri Barfourooshi","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"1003546","type":"book","title":"Latest Scientific Findings in Ruminant Nutrition","subtitle":"Research for Practical Implementation","fullTitle":"Latest Scientific Findings in Ruminant Nutrition - Research for Practical Implementation","slug":null,"isPublished":true,"publishedDate":"November 20th 2024","bookSignature":"László Babinszky","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAVQA0\u002F0015450_TrikoderCover%20%282023-04-28%2008%3A13%3A03%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003546\u002F1713449767-1781003707\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003546\u002F1713449767-1781003707\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003546\u002F1730899652-1799865876\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003546\u002F1730899652-1799865876\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003546\u002F1732084812-724528261\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003546\u002F1732084812-724528261\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-0-85466-976-9","printIsbn":"978-0-85466-977-6","pdfIsbn":"978-0-85466-978-3","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"53998","title":"Emeritus Prof.","name":"László","middleName":null,"surname":"Babinszky","slug":"laszlo-babinszky","fullName":"László Babinszky"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"585079","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Hoda","middleName":null,"surname":"Javaheri Barfourooshi","fullName":"Hoda Javaheri Barfourooshi","slug":"hoda-javaheri-barfourooshi","email":"hoda.javaheribarfourooshi@gmail.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F585079\u002F1718145927\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institution":null}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Mammary gland growth","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1 Growth and development of the mammary gland during pregnancy","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_2_3","title":"2.1.1 Metabolic changes during pregnancy","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_3_3","title":"2.1.2 Metabolic changes during the transition period","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"2.2 Mammary gland growth and development during lactation","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_3","title":"2.2.1 Metabolic changes during lactation","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_8","title":"3. Genes involved in the growth and development of the mammary gland","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_9","title":"4. Nutritional solutions","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_9_2","title":"4.1 The importance of fats in animal nutrition","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9_3","title":"Table 1.","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_12","title":"5. Conclusion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_13","title":"Acknowledgments","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EBauman DE, Mather IH, Wall RJ, Lock AL. Major advances associated with the biosynthesis of milk. Journal of Dairy Science. 2006;\u003Cbold\u003E89\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(4):1235-1243. DOI: 10.3168\u002Fjds.s0022-0302(06)72192-0\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B2","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B2\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003ESejrsen K, Purup S, Vestergaard M, Foldager J. High body weight gain and reduced bovine mammary growth: Physiological basis and implications for milk yield potential. Domestic Animal Endocrinology. 2000;\u003Cbold\u003E19\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(2):93-104. 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DOI: 10.1079\u002F9780851994635.0329\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B48","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B48\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EMarshman E, Green KA, Flint DJ, White A, Streuli CH, Westwood M. Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 5 and apoptosis in mammary epithelial cells. Journal of Cell Science. 2003;\u003Cbold\u003E116\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(4):675-682. DOI: 10.1242\u002Fjcs.00263\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B49","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B49\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003ENørgaard JV, Nielsen MO, Theil PK, Sørensen MT, Safayi S, Sejrsen K. Development of mammary glands of fat sheep submitted to restricted feeding during late pregnancy. Small Ruminant Research. 2008;\u003Cbold\u003E76\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(3):155-165. DOI: 10.1016\u002Fj.smallrumres.2007.11.001\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B50","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B50\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"book\"\u003EHardman WE. Omega-3 fatty acids as an adjuvant to cancer therapy. In: Claudio PP, Niles RM, editors. Nutrition and Cancer from Epidemiology to Biology. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates: Bentham Science Publisher; 2012. pp. 26-38. 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Among the approximately 8500 plant species, legume trees play a crucial role in biodiversity dynamics, being also key socioeconomic and environmental players. From the ecological point of view, they contribute significantly to ecosystem’s stability as well as to water, carbon, and energy balance. Additionally, legume species represent an immensurable source of timber and nontimber products. Research in Miombo-Mopane biodiversity has been mainly focused on the analysis of ecosystem drivers by means of ecological parameters and models, lacking interdisciplinary with relevant cross-cutting tools, such as the application of molecular markers to assess genetic diversity within the region. In this chapter, the applications and biodiversity dynamics of typical legume species from Miombo (Brachystegia spp., Julbernardia globiflora, and Pterocarpus angolensis) and Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) are reviewed. 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Ribeiro-Barros","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F171036\u002F1604448294\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Ana I. Ribeiro-Barros, Ph.D., is the director of the Tropical College, University of Lisbon (ULisboa). She obtained a Ph.D. in Plant Molecular Biology from Wageningen University, the Netherlands. She is also a senior researcher, head of the lab, and professor at the School of Agriculture, ULisboa, and an invited professor at Nova University Lisbon (NOVA), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), and Gorongosa National Park (GNP). She is a member of the Coordination and Scientific Committees of the doctoral program “Tropical Knowledge and Management” (NOVA), Master in Biotechnology (UEM), and Master in Conservation Biology (GNP); and a national expert for Food and Nutrition Security and Sustainable Agriculture - High-Level Policy Dialogue EU-Africa. 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Rija was born in Kigoma Region of western Tanzania. He is a Lecturer in conservation and ecology at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Tanzania. He has a PhD degree in Biology specializing in spatial patterns of illegal activities in protected areas from the University of York in UK (2017), MSc Conservation Biology from Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand (2009) and BSc Wildlife Management from SUA(2003). Dr Rija’s research interests span a wide range of themes focusing on understanding the intricate interactions between humans and the wildlife and biodiversity to designing appropriate strategies for sustainability. He has over 15 years of experiences working at the forefront of conservation challenges in protected areas in Tanzania and has researched and published widely on related fields.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Sokoine University of Agriculture","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Tanzania"}}},{"id":"374108","title":"Dr.","name":"Isabel","surname":"Moura","slug":"isabel-moura","fullName":"Isabel Moura","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":null}]},"generic":{"page":{"slug":"team","title":"Meet our Team","intro":"\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cem\u003EWe are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. 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Her role further developed to Head of Book Publishing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ENatalia Reinić Babić, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003ENatalia Reinić Babić has worked at IntechOpen since 2010. As a Managing Editor, she was in charge of the expansion and development of IntechOpen's flagship journal - the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- and managing the wider portfolio as Head of the Journal Department. Natalia has initiated projects to strengthen and grow the journal brand. She has worked at IntechOpen's London HQ on strategic projects focused on network expansion. This led to the development of the new, interdisciplinary Open Science journal portfolio launched in May 2022 and Natalia's current role heading up Journal Publishing and Open Science. Natalia holds a Computer Science and English Language & Literature degree and is passionate about Science & Tech.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EViktorija Žgela, Head of Editorial Development \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EViktorija Žgela is the Head of Editorial Development at IntechOpen. With over 12 years of experience in scholarly publishing, she has held various roles across both book and journal departments, and led diversity and inclusion initiatives such as IntechOpen's Women in Science project. Her team is responsible for the publishing program, research integrity and legal affairs, publishing and production standards, abstracting and indexing, and scientometrics and bibliometrics. Viktorija actively contributes to the development of new products across the IntechOpen portfolio. She was recently appointed to lead the company's commitment to the United Nations SDG Publishers Compacts.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EJelena Čevizović, Head of Logistics and Print\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EJelena Čevizović joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Logistics and Print Sales. She oversees the printing, logistics, and sales processes and contributes to the global sales strategy for IntechOpen's print books. 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Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing with the responsibility to build the department and expand the portfolio through the launch of new titles and the relaunch of existing journals. She became Managing Director at the beginning of 2014. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, an MA in Media Management from the University of Lugano in Switzerland and a PhD in Communication Sciences. Sara was awarded a professional degree in publishing from Yale University. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EUnder Sara’s mandates, IntechOpen achieved the status of the world’s leading publisher of OA books, became a member of leading industry associations and initiatives (COPE, STM, ALPSP, UN Publishers Compact) and she led the successful exit when the portfolio of journals has been acquired by SAGE Publications. Sara is steering the company towards sustainability, integrity,  and Open Science, continuing and expanding IntechOpen’s fundamental commitments.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAdrian Assad De Marco, Chief Analytics & Planning Officer\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company in 2017 as Director of the operations unit at IntechOpen. Building on extensive experience working for regional and global leaders, he took on the direction and control of the company's publishing processes. In his current role as Chief Analytics & Planning Officer Adrian manages planning, performance and analytics. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. 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He oversees the company's investments, capital structure, funding management and long-term financial strategy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EJelena Maru&scaron;ić, Head of Book Publishing\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EOne of the initial members of the IntechOpen team, Jelena helped launch and develop its unique Open Access book concept and its in-house manuscript tracking system. In 2010, Jelena set up and led the company's Book Publishing Department, helping IntechOpen reach its first milestone of 1000 published books by 2012. Jelena then spent some time building on her MA in Law by focusing on legislative issues in the sciences and arts in the public sector. Following four years as a member of the diplomatic corps in Oslo, Norway, Jelena rejoined IntechOpen in 2022 as Head of Funder Alliance and Strategic Institutional Relations. Her role further developed to Head of Book Publishing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ENatalia Reinić Babić, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003ENatalia Reinić Babić has worked at IntechOpen since 2010. As a Managing Editor, she was in charge of the expansion and development of IntechOpen's flagship journal - the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- and managing the wider portfolio as Head of the Journal Department. Natalia has initiated projects to strengthen and grow the journal brand. She has worked at IntechOpen's London HQ on strategic projects focused on network expansion. This led to the development of the new, interdisciplinary Open Science journal portfolio launched in May 2022 and Natalia's current role heading up Journal Publishing and Open Science. Natalia holds a Computer Science and English Language & Literature degree and is passionate about Science & Tech.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EViktorija Žgela, Head of Editorial Development \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EViktorija Žgela is the Head of Editorial Development at IntechOpen. With over 12 years of experience in scholarly publishing, she has held various roles across both book and journal departments, and led diversity and inclusion initiatives such as IntechOpen's Women in Science project. Her team is responsible for the publishing program, research integrity and legal affairs, publishing and production standards, abstracting and indexing, and scientometrics and bibliometrics. Viktorija actively contributes to the development of new products across the IntechOpen portfolio. She was recently appointed to lead the company's commitment to the United Nations SDG Publishers Compacts.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EJelena Čevizović, Head of Logistics and Print\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EJelena Čevizović joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Logistics and Print Sales. She oversees the printing, logistics, and sales processes and contributes to the global sales strategy for IntechOpen's print books. 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Allen, were challenged with hyperbaric medical dogma conflicting with their experience in new applications, they set out to understand the reasons for this disparity.","institutionString":"Microbaric® Oxygen Systems (MBOS) , NEMO Therapeutics","institution":null},{"id":"586999","title":"M.D.","name":"Mustafa","middleName":null,"surname":"Kaplangoray","slug":"mustafa-kaplangoray","fullName":"Mustafa Kaplangoray","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F586999\u002F1715660435\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University Faculty of Medicine Department of Cardiology","institution":null},{"id":"514320","title":"Prof.","name":"Ernest","middleName":"A.","surname":"Adeghate","slug":"ernest-adeghate","fullName":"Ernest Adeghate","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F514320\u002F1724219653\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Prof Dr. Adeghate obtained his MD from Semmelweis University Medical School, Budapest, Hungary and his PhD and DSc from the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He has a Master of Family Medicine degree from Monash University, Australia. Dr. Adeghate is a professor of Anatomy at the College of Medicine & Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates and a past Chairperson of the Diabetes and Cardiovascular Research Priority Group, United Arab Emirates University. His research interest is in the field of experimental diabetes and has published more than 200 full-length articles in peer-reviewed journals, 15 book chapters, 116 abstracts and attended over 72 scientific conferences. He edited a book entitled 'Diabetes Mellitus & its Complications: Molecular Mechanisms, Epidemiology & Clinical Medicine” which was published in 2006 by Wiley & Sons. He is the Editor in Chief of The Open Medicinal Chemistry Journal.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"United Arab Emirates University","country":{"name":"United Arab Emirates"}}},{"id":"192448","title":"Dr.","name":"Takashi","middleName":null,"surname":"Murashita","slug":"takashi-murashita","fullName":"Takashi Murashita","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F192448\u002F1718777397\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Takashi Murashita, MD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Surgery at the University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA. Dr. Murashita received his MD from Kyoto University Medical School, in Japan. His main interest is cardiac surgery, and he is a member of the Society of Thoracic Surgery, Eastern Cardiothoracic Surgical Society, and Asian Society for Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery. He has published 53 papers in peer-reviewed journals and 10 book chapters in open-access journals. He has been a member of editorial boards for 2 medical journals, and a member of ad-hoc manuscript reviewers for 16 medical journals.","institutionString":"University of Missouri","institution":{"name":"University of Missouri","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"592599","title":"Dr.","name":"Radu","middleName":null,"surname":"Darciuc","slug":"radu-darciuc","fullName":"Radu Darciuc","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F592599\u002F1713135978\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"In 2004 I graduated „Nicolae Testemitanu” State University of Medicine and Pharmacy of the Republic of Moldova.\n\nIn 2007 graduated the residency training in Internal Disease at the same university and in 2009 the cardiology training.\n\nFrom 2009 till 2012 I was an assistant professor at Cardiology Department, led by profesor Valeriu Revenco, at „Nicolae Testemitanu” State University of Medicine and Pharmacy of the Republic of Moldova.\n\nI was passionate by the electrophysiology field for years but with the help of my colleague Rajin Choudhury, from the early 2014 my interest was definitely caught by the that field and I started additional trainings in various centers from Belgium, Turkey, Slovakia and Hungary.\n\n\nFrom 2013 I am working in Medpark International Hospital in Chisinau, Republic of Moldova.\n\nFrom 2015 we started the ablation program in Medpark International Hospital, led by professor Erdem Diker from Ankara, Turkey.\nDuring years, we also collaborated with very experienced professors as Basri Amasyalı, Alper Canbay and Osman Can Yontar.\n\nAt the moment, together with my colleague Irina Boiciuc, we perform implantation of the pacemakers, ICDs, CRTDs and also lead extractions in our center.\nFrom 2018 perform cryoballoon ablation of the atrial fibrillation and from 2024 do complex procedures with 3D mapping.","institutionString":"Medpark International Hospital (Chisinau, Republic of Moldova)","institution":null},{"id":"477804","title":"Dr.","name":"Brisha","middleName":null,"surname":"Best","slug":"brisha-best","fullName":"Brisha Best","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F477804\u002F1713420994\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"68531","title":"Dr.","name":"P. Syamasundar","middleName":null,"surname":"Rao","slug":"p.-syamasundar-rao","fullName":"P. Syamasundar Rao","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F68531\u002F1708465144\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. P. Syamasundar Rao, MD, DCH, FAAP, FACC, FSCAI, is a Professor of Pediatrics and Medicine and Emeritus Chief of Pediatric Cardiology, University of Texas-Houston Medical School, USA. He received his medical degree from Andhra Medical College, India, and subsequently received post-graduate training both in India and the United States before joining the faculty at the Medical College of Georgia, USA, in 1972. His subsequent positions were Chairman of Pediatrics at King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Saudi Arabia; Professor and Director of the Division of Pediatric Cardiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA; and Professor and Director of the Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Missouri, USA. He has authored 430 papers, 16 monographs\u002Fbooks, and 150 book chapters. Dr. Rao is a recipient of several honors and awards.","institutionString":"University of Texas at Houston McGovern Medical School","institution":{"name":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"455931","title":"Dr.","name":"Chawannuch","middleName":null,"surname":"Ruaengsri","slug":"chawannuch-ruaengsri","fullName":"Chawannuch Ruaengsri","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F455931\u002F1713420989\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Chawannuch Ruaengsri is a Clinical Assistant Professor, at the Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, at Stanford University, USA. She spent almost 4 years in a postdoctoral position working in the arrhythmia surgery lab at Washington University in St. Louis under Professor Ralph Damiano, who developed the Cox-Maze IV procedure that made the operation easier, less invasive and remains the gold standard for the surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation. During her research career, Dr. Ruaengsri developed a controllable, reversible mitral regurgitation model using a modified ventriculoatrial shunt and used this model to characterize the structural, electrical, and mechanical remodeling of the atria.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Stanford University","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"563843","title":"Dr.","name":"Daniel M.","middleName":null,"surname":"Bethencourt","slug":"daniel-m.-bethencourt","fullName":"Daniel M. Bethencourt","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F563843\u002F1713421002\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Daniel M. Bethencourt, M.D. is a graduate of MIT and Yale Medical School. He completed General Surgery Residency at the University of Texas, Houston and Cardiothoracic Surgery at UCLA. He is certified by the American Board of Surgeons and the American Board of Thoracic Surgery.\r\n\r\nDr. Bethencourt has specialized in minimally invasive cardiac surgery. Since 1996 he has performed Minimally Invasive Aortic Valve Replacements, Minimally Invasive Coronary Artery Bypass, DaVinci Robotic-Assisted Mitral Valve Repair, and Robotic Atrial Fibrillation ablations. He initiated and led the Robotic Cardiac Surgery Program at Long Beach and Orange Coast Memorial Medical Centers 2006 - 2018, completing over 1,100 Da Vinci cardiac procedures. In October 2021 Dr Bethencourt was appointed Assistant Clinical Professor of Surgery, Division Cardiothoracic Surgery at Stanford University.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Stanford University School of Medicine","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"418019","title":"Dr.","name":"Yasuhiro","middleName":null,"surname":"Shudo","slug":"yasuhiro-shudo","fullName":"Yasuhiro Shudo","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F418019\u002F1729755136\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Stanford University","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"200199","title":"Dr.","name":"Zesergio","middleName":null,"surname":"Melo","slug":"zesergio-melo","fullName":"Zesergio Melo","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F200199\u002F1721202662\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Dr. Zesergio Melo, from Colombia, holds a BSc in Bacteriology from Universidad Industrial de Santander, Colombia, and a Ph.D. in Biochemical Sciences from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), specializing in renal salt transport mechanisms. He completed a postdoc at the Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM, focusing on prolactin variants. He has worked with the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social. With more than thirty scientific publications to his credit, Dr. Melo has received awards including the Statal Research Award in Organ and Tissue Donation, Procurement, and Transplantation, the Meritorious Research Award, and the Young Researcher Award. He supervises several theses and leads his research on the regulatory mechanisms of renal ischemia-reperfusion injury.","institutionString":"Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social","institution":null},{"id":"284629","title":"Dr.","name":"Norihide","middleName":null,"surname":"Fukushima","slug":"norihide-fukushima","fullName":"Norihide Fukushima","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F284629\u002F1718873056\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Norihide Fukushima is a Professor and President of Senri Kinran University Graduate School of Nursing, Japan, a Visiting Director at the National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, and a Recruit Professor at the Department of Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan. After graduating from Osaka University Medical School, Dr. Fukushima finished clinical training in the 1st Department of Surgery, Osaka University Hospital, and obtained his Ph.D. in Prolonged Cardiac Immerse Storage in 1992. Dr. Fukushima worked at Loma Linda University, USA as a research and clinical fellow from 1991 to 1994. His team performed the first heart transplantation in Japan in 1999. He and his colleagues revised the Transplant Act in 2010 to increase deceased organ donation and heart transplantation in Japan. He has been working to develop therapeutic strategies for advanced heart failure, such as mechanical circulatory support and medical care.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Senri Kinran University","country":{"name":"Japan"}}},{"id":"308082","title":"Dr.","name":"Robbert","middleName":null,"surname":"Bipat","slug":"robbert-bipat","fullName":"Robbert Bipat","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F308082\u002F1721202641\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Anton de Kom University of Suriname","country":{"name":"Suriname"}}},{"id":"589961","title":"Prof.","name":"Daniel","middleName":"L.","surname":"Beckles","slug":"daniel-beckles","fullName":"Daniel Beckles","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F589961\u002F1724014907\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Beckles was Director of Minimally Invasive Cardiac and Thoracic surgery at the University of Texas Medical Branch, Surgical Director of Heart Transplantation at Baylor Scott and White Health in Central Texas, and an adjunct Clinical Professor at Texas A&M University. He specializes in minimally invasive and robotic cardiac and thoracic surgery and performs Convergent Hybrid Atrial Fibrillation Ablations. He is currently the Director of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Ochsner Christus Health in SWLA, Louisiana.","institutionString":null,"institution":null},{"id":"570030","title":"Dr.","name":"Mohamed","middleName":null,"surname":"Salah Mohamed Saleh Hendawy","slug":"mohamed-salah-mohamed-saleh-hendawy","fullName":"Mohamed Salah Mohamed Saleh Hendawy","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F570030\u002F1708460177\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":null},{"id":"600670","title":"Prof.","name":"Javier","middleName":null,"surname":"De Miguel Diez","slug":"javier-de-miguel-diez","fullName":"Javier De Miguel Diez","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Neumologia. Hospital Gregorio Marañon. Madrid. Spain","institution":null},{"id":"588389","title":"Dr.","name":"Lara Almudena","middleName":null,"surname":"Fernandez Bermejo","slug":"lara-almudena-fernandez-bermejo","fullName":"Lara Almudena Fernandez Bermejo","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Universidad de Alcala de Henares","institution":null},{"id":"600671","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Maria Angeles","middleName":null,"surname":"Muñoz Lucas","slug":"maria-angeles-munoz-lucas","fullName":"Maria Angeles Muñoz Lucas","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Hospital Central de la Defensa. Docencia. Madrid. Spain","institution":null},{"id":"592198","title":"Dr.","name":"Aishwarya","middleName":null,"surname":"Singh","slug":"aishwarya-singh","fullName":"Aishwarya Singh","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Tianjin Medical University","country":{"name":"China"}}},{"id":"613392","title":"Dr.","name":"Monika","middleName":null,"surname":"Moni","slug":"monika-moni","fullName":"Monika Moni","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":"The Christ Hospital, Cincinnati, OH","institution":null},{"id":"603603","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Kaveh","middleName":null,"surname":"Hedayati Emami","slug":"kaveh-hedayati-emami","fullName":"Kaveh Hedayati Emami","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Department of anesthesiology, Yas Hospital Complex, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran","institution":null},{"id":"603602","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Kian","middleName":null,"surname":"Alipasandi","slug":"kian-alipasandi","fullName":"Kian Alipasandi","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Department of cardiology, Yas Hospital Complex, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran","institution":null},{"id":"349695","title":"Dr.","name":"Ernest","middleName":null,"surname":"Tsiaze","slug":"ernest-tsiaze","fullName":"Ernest Tsiaze","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Solothurner Spitäler","country":{"name":"Switzerland"}}},{"id":"589187","title":"Dr.","name":"Manuel Alejandro","middleName":null,"surname":"Vera Fuentes","slug":"manuel-alejandro-vera-fuentes","fullName":"Manuel Alejandro Vera Fuentes","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Mexican Social Security Institute","country":{"name":"Mexico"}}},{"id":"589186","title":"Dr.","name":"Sandra","middleName":null,"surname":"Sánchez Cassio","slug":"sandra-sanchez-cassio","fullName":"Sandra Sánchez Cassio","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Mexican Social Security Institute","country":{"name":"Mexico"}}},{"id":"583388","title":"Dr.","name":"Somshukla","middleName":null,"surname":"Ghosh","slug":"somshukla-ghosh","fullName":"Somshukla Ghosh","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":"St. Louis University Hospital, SSM Health","institution":null},{"id":"610603","title":"M.D.","name":"Ashley","middleName":null,"surname":"Diaz","slug":"ashley-diaz","fullName":"Ashley Diaz","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.122\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Duke University Hospital","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}}]}},"subseries":{"item":{"id":"22","type":"subseries","title":"Applied Intelligence","keywords":"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence","scope":"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.","coverUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fseries_topics\u002Fcovers\u002F22.jpg","hasOnlineFirst":true,"hasPublishedBooks":true,"annualVolume":null,"isSalesforceSubseries":true,"editor":{"id":"27170","title":"Prof.","name":"Carlos M.","middleName":null,"surname":"Travieso-Gonzalez","slug":"carlos-m.-travieso-gonzalez","fullName":"Carlos M. Travieso-Gonzalez","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F27170\u002F1731397107\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Carlos M. Travieso-González received an M.Sc. degree in 1997 in telecommunication engineering at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain, and a Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is the head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification systems, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched 54 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of four books, co-editor of 25 proceedings books, and guest editor for eight JCR-ISI international journals and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 500 papers published in international journals and conferences (100 of them indexed on JCR–ISI–Web of Science). He has published 7 patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 12 Ph.D. theses (with seven more under supervision) and 150 masters theses. He is the founder of the IEEE IWOBI conference series and president of its Steering Committee, the InnoEducaTIC conference series, and the APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (Horizon Europe and H2020—EU), Medical Research Council (MRC—UK), Spanish government (ANECA—Spain), Spanish Research Agency (AEI—Spain), Croatian Science Foundation (HRZZ—Croatia), Research National Agency (ANR—France), DAAD in Spain (Germany), the Argentinian government, and Colombian institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (\u003C75) and conferences (\u003C250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. He has been APPIS 2018, 2019, and 2022–2024 general chair; IEEE-IWOBI 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019, and 2022 general chair, ACM-APPIS 2020 general chair, InnoEducaTIC 2014 and 2017 general chair; IEEE-INES 2013 general chair, NoLISP 2011 general chair, JRBP 2012 general chair, and IEEE-ICCST 2005 co-chair. He is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience journal (Hindawi—Q2 JCR-ISI) in entropy (MDPI—Q2 JCR-ISI) and sensors (MDPI—Q1 JCR-ISI). He was vice-dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC, and vice-dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the 'Catedra Telefonica” Awards in the modality of Knowledge Transfer in 2017, 2018, and 2019; in 2020, in the modality of COVID Research; and in 2021, 2022, and 2023 in the modality of Research Project. He received the Spanish national award in the second edition of E-nnova Health 2022 of Diario Médico and Correo Farmacéutico in the category of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, for the proposal entitled 'Implementation of the digital twin in SARS-COV-2 patient as a prognostic prediction,” in October 2022. He was a finalist in the ABB Award in 2023 with a proposal entitled 'Energy Predictor” in the modality of public administration.\r\n\r\nIn 2022, he was one of the researchers included as a member of the 2% most influential group in the world, according to the 2022 edition of the Stanford ranking compiled by John P. A. Ioannidis (Stanford University), Kevin W. 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