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id="toc-In_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_reductionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_reductionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Theory reductionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_reductionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>In mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>In science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_computer_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_computer_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>In computer science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_computer_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Free_will" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_will"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Free will</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_will-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Causation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_science_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_science_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>In science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_science_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Reductionism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduksionisme" title="Reduksionisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Reduksionisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اختزالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اختزالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduccionismu" title="Reduccionismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reduccionismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="হ্রাসবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হ্রাসবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Редукционизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Редукционизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduccionisme" title="Reduccionisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reduccionisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redukcionismus" title="Redukcionismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Redukcionismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduktionisme" title="Reduktionisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Reduktionisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduktionismus" title="Reduktionismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Reduktionismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduktsionism" title="Reduktsionism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Reduktsionism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Αναγωγισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αναγωγισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduccionismo" title="Reduccionismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reduccionismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduktismo" title="Reduktismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Reduktismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erredukzionismo" title="Erredukzionismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erredukzionismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="فروکاست‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فروکاست‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9ductionnisme" title="Réductionnisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réductionnisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducionismo" title="Reducionismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reducionismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%98%EC%9B%90%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="환원주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="환원주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ռեդուկցիոնիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռեդուկցիոնիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अवव्याख्यावाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अवव्याख्यावाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduksionisme" title="Reduksionisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reduksionisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riduzionismo_(filosofia)" title="Riduzionismo (filosofia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Riduzionismo (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="רדוקציוניזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רדוקציוניזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Редукционизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Редукционизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionismus" title="Reductionismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Reductionismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%86%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AB%E1%80%92" title="အဆင့်ရှင်းပြည့် ဝါဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အဆင့်ရှင်းပြည့် ဝါဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionisme" title="Reductionisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Reductionisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%82%84%E5%85%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="還元主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="還元主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduksjonisme" title="Reduksjonisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Reduksjonisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduksjonisme" title="Reduksjonisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Reduksjonisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardussionism" title="Ardussionism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Ardussionism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redukcjonizm" title="Redukcjonizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Redukcjonizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducionismo" title="Reducionismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reducionismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduc%C8%9Bionism_%C8%99tiin%C8%9Bific" title="Reducționism științific – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Reducționism științific" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Редукционизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Редукционизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Reductionism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redukcionizmus" title="Redukcionizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Redukcionizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95_(%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95)" title="کشاندنەوە (فەلسەفە) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کشاندنەوە (فەلسەفە)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Редукционизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Редукционизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redukcionizam" title="Redukcionizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Redukcionizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li 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dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Reductionism_(music)" title="Reductionism (music)">reductionist</a> experimental music genre.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For term used phenomenological tradition in Western philosophy, see <a href="/wiki/Phenomenological_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenological reduction">phenomenological reduction</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophical view explaining systems in terms of smaller parts</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Digesting_Duck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Digesting_Duck.jpg/300px-Digesting_Duck.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Digesting_Duck.jpg/450px-Digesting_Duck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Digesting_Duck.jpg/600px-Digesting_Duck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="935" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, in <a href="/wiki/The_World_(Descartes)" class="mw-redirect" title="The World (Descartes)">De homine</a> (1662), claimed that non-human animals could be explained reductively as <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">automata</a>; meaning essentially as more mechanically complex versions of this <a href="/wiki/Digesting_Duck" title="Digesting Duck">Digesting Duck</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Reductionism</b> is any of several related <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> ideas regarding the associations between <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</a> which can be described in terms of simpler or more fundamental phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-MerriamWebster_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MerriamWebster-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also described as an intellectual and philosophical position that interprets a <a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">complex system</a> as the sum of its parts.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy" title="The Oxford Companion to Philosophy">The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</a></i> suggests that reductionism is "one of the most used and abused terms in the philosophical lexicon" and suggests a three-part division:<sup id="cite_ref-Ruse_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruse-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Ontological reductionism</b>: a belief that the whole of reality consists of a minimal number of parts.</li> <li><b>Methodological reductionism</b>: the scientific attempt to provide an explanation in terms of ever-smaller entities.</li> <li><b>Theory reductionism</b>: the suggestion that a newer theory does not replace or absorb an older one, but reduces it to more basic terms. Theory reduction itself is divisible into three parts: translation, derivation, and explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ney_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ney-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Reductionism can be applied to any <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a>, problems, <a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a>, and meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-Ney_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ney-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Polkinghorne_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polkinghorne-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the sciences, application of methodological reductionism attempts explanation of entire systems in terms of their individual, constituent parts and their interactions. For example, the temperature of a gas is reduced to nothing beyond the average kinetic energy of its molecules in motion. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a> and others speak of 'psychophysical reductionism' (the attempted reduction of psychological phenomena to physics and chemistry), and 'physico-chemical reductionism' (the attempted reduction of biology to physics and chemistry).<sup id="cite_ref-Nagel_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagel-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a very simplified and sometimes contested form, reductionism is said to imply that a system is nothing but the sum of its parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Polkinghorne_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polkinghorne-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GodfreySmith_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GodfreySmith-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, a more nuanced opinion is that a system is composed entirely of its parts, but the system will have features that none of the parts have (which, in essence is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">emergentism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The point of mechanistic explanations is usually showing how the higher level features arise from the parts."<sup id="cite_ref-GodfreySmith_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GodfreySmith-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other definitions are used by other authors. For example, what <a href="/wiki/John_Polkinghorne" title="John Polkinghorne">John Polkinghorne</a> terms 'conceptual' or 'epistemological' reductionism<sup id="cite_ref-Polkinghorne_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polkinghorne-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the definition provided by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Blackburn" title="Simon Blackburn">Simon Blackburn</a><sup id="cite_ref-Blackburn_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackburn-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by <a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that form of reductionism which concerns a program of replacing the facts or entities involved in one type of discourse with other facts or entities from another type, thereby providing a relationship between them. Richard Jones distinguishes ontological and epistemological reductionism, arguing that many ontological and epistemological reductionists affirm the need for different concepts for different degrees of complexity while affirming a reduction of theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of reductionism can be expressed by "levels" of explanation, with higher levels reducible if need be to lower levels. This use of levels of understanding in part expresses our human limitations in remembering detail. However, "most philosophers would insist that our role in conceptualizing reality [our need for a hierarchy of "levels" of understanding] does not change the fact that different levels of organization in reality do have different 'properties'."<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reductionism does not preclude the existence of what might be termed <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent phenomena</a>, but it does imply the ability to understand those phenomena completely in terms of the processes from which they are composed. This reductionist understanding is very different from ontological or strong <a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">emergentism</a>, which intends that what emerges in "emergence" is more than the sum of the processes from which it emerges, respectively either in the ontological sense or in the epistemological sense.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ontological_reductionism">Ontological reductionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ontological reductionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Richard Jones divides ontological reductionism into two: the reductionism of substances (e.g., the reduction of mind to matter) and the reduction of the number of structures operating in nature (e.g., the reduction of one physical force to another). This permits scientists and philosophers to affirm the former while being anti-reductionists regarding the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nancey_Murphy" title="Nancey Murphy">Nancey Murphy</a> has claimed that there are two species of ontological reductionism: one that claims that wholes are nothing more than their parts; and atomist reductionism, claiming that wholes are not "really real". She admits that the phrase "really real" is apparently senseless but she has tried to explicate the supposed difference between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ontological reductionism denies the idea of ontological <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a>, and claims that emergence is an <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> phenomenon that only exists through analysis or description of a system, and does not exist fundamentally.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some scientific disciplines, ontological reductionism takes two forms: <b>token-identity theory</b> and <b>type-identity theory</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, "token" refers to a biological process.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Token ontological reductionism is the idea that every item that exists is a sum item. For perceivable items, it affirms that every perceivable item is a sum of items with a lesser degree of complexity. Token ontological reduction of biological things to chemical things is generally accepted. </p><p>Type ontological reductionism is the idea that every type of item is a sum type of item, and that every perceivable type of item is a sum of types of items with a lesser degree of complexity. Type ontological reduction of biological things to chemical things is often rejected. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Michael Ruse</a> has criticized ontological reductionism as an improper argument against <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methodological_reductionism">Methodological reductionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methodological reductionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a biological context, methodological reductionism means attempting to explain all biological phenomena in terms of their underlying biochemical and molecular processes.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_religion">In religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anthropologists <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_George_Frazer" title="James George Frazer">James George Frazer</a> employed some <a href="/wiki/Metatheories_of_religion_in_the_social_sciences#Edward_Burnett_Tylor_and_James_George_Frazer" class="mw-redirect" title="Metatheories of religion in the social sciences">religious reductionist arguments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_reductionism">Theory reductionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theory reductionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theory reduction is the process by which a more general theory absorbs a special theory.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be further divided into translation, derivation, and explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, both <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler's</a> laws of the motion of the <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>'s theories of motion formulated for terrestrial objects are reducible to Newtonian theories of mechanics because all the explanatory power of the former are contained within the latter. Furthermore, the reduction is considered beneficial because <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian mechanics">Newtonian mechanics</a> is a more general theory—that is, it explains more events than Galileo's or Kepler's. Besides scientific theories, theory reduction more generally can be the process by which one explanation subsumes another. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_mathematics">In mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, reductionism can be interpreted as the philosophy that all mathematics can (or ought to) be based on a common foundation, which for modern mathematics is usually <a href="/wiki/Axiomatic_set_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiomatic set theory">axiomatic set theory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Zermelo" title="Ernst Zermelo">Ernst Zermelo</a> was one of the major advocates of such an opinion; he also developed much of axiomatic set theory. It has been argued that the generally accepted method of justifying mathematical <a href="/wiki/Axioms" class="mw-redirect" title="Axioms">axioms</a> by their usefulness in common practice can potentially weaken Zermelo's reductionist claim.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jouko Väänänen has argued for <a href="/wiki/Second-order_logic" title="Second-order logic">second-order logic</a> as a foundation for mathematics instead of set theory,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas others have argued for <a href="/wiki/Category_theory" title="Category theory">category theory</a> as a foundation for certain aspects of mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems" title="Gödel's incompleteness theorems">incompleteness theorems</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a>, published in 1931, caused doubt about the attainability of an axiomatic foundation for all of mathematics. Any such foundation would have to include axioms powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (a subset of all mathematics). Yet Gödel proved that, for any <i>consistent</i> recursively enumerable axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers, there are (model-theoretically) <i>true</i> propositions about the natural numbers that cannot be proved from the axioms. Such propositions are known as formally <a href="/wiki/Undecidable_problem" title="Undecidable problem">undecidable propositions</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis" title="Continuum hypothesis">continuum hypothesis</a> is undecidable in the <a href="/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory" title="Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory">Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory</a> as shown by <a href="/wiki/Forcing_(mathematics)" title="Forcing (mathematics)">Cohen</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_science">In science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reductionist thinking and methods form the basis for many of the well-developed topics of modern <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, including much of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> in particular is seen as a reductionist framework. For instance, we understand the solar system in terms of its components (the sun and the planets) and their interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical mechanics</a> can be considered as a reconciliation of <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic laws">thermodynamic laws</a> with the reductionist method of explaining macroscopic properties in terms of <a href="/wiki/Microscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic">microscopic</a> components, although it has been argued that reduction in physics 'never goes all the way in practice'.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_computer_science">In computer science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In computer science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The role of reduction in <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> can be thought as a precise and unambiguous mathematical formalization of the philosophical idea of "<a href="#Types">theory reductionism</a>". In a general sense, a problem (or set) is said to be reducible to another problem (or set), if there is a computable/feasible method to translate the questions of the former into the latter, so that, if one knows how to computably/feasibly solve the latter problem, then one can computably/feasibly solve the former. Thus, the latter can only be at least as "<a href="/wiki/NP-hardness" title="NP-hardness">hard</a>" to solve as the former. </p><p>Reduction in <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a> is pervasive in both: the mathematical abstract foundations of computation; and in real-world <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">performance or capability analysis of algorithms</a>. More specifically, reduction is a foundational and central concept, not only in the realm of mathematical logic and abstract computation in <a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">computability (or recursive) theory</a>, where it assumes the form of e.g. <a href="/wiki/Turing_reduction" title="Turing reduction">Turing reduction</a>, but also in the realm of real-world computation in time (or space) complexity analysis of algorithms, where it assumes the form of e.g. <a href="/wiki/Polynomial-time_reduction" title="Polynomial-time reduction">polynomial-time reduction</a>. Further, in the even more practical domain of software development, reduction can be seen as the inverse of composition and the conceptual process a programmer applies to a problem in order to produce an alogrithm which solves the problem using a composition of existing algorithms (encoded as subroutines, or subclasses). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_will">Free will</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Free will"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></div> <p>Philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> worked to insulate human <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> from reductionism. <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> separated the material world of mechanical necessity from the world of mental free will. German philosophers introduced the concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">noumenal</a>" realm that is not governed by the deterministic laws of "<a href="/wiki/Phenomena_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena (philosophy)">phenomenal</a>" nature, where every event is completely determined by chains of causality.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most influential formulation was by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, who distinguished between the causal deterministic framework the mind imposes on the world—the phenomenal realm—and the world as it exists for itself, the noumenal realm, which, as he believed, included free will. To insulate theology from reductionism, 19th century post-Enlightenment German theologians, especially <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a>, used the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> method of basing religion on the human spirit, so that it is a person's feeling or sensibility about spiritual matters that comprises religion.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causation">Causation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Causation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most common philosophical understandings of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a> involve reducing it to some collection of non-causal facts. Opponents of these reductionist views have given arguments that the non-causal facts in question are insufficient to determine the causal facts.<sup id="cite_ref-Carroll_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carroll-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>'s metaphysics opposed reductionism. He refers to this as the "<a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">fallacy of the misplaced concreteness</a>". His scheme was to frame a rational, general understanding of phenomena, derived from our reality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_science_2">In science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: In science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An alternative term for ontological reductionism is <i>fragmentalism</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often used in a <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a> sense.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Kelly_(psychologist)" title="George Kelly (psychologist)">George Kelly</a> developed "constructive alternativism" as a form of <a href="/wiki/Personal_construct_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal construct psychology">personal construct psychology</a> and an alternative to what he considered "accumulative fragmentalism". For this theory, knowledge is seen as the construction of successful <a href="/wiki/Mental_model" title="Mental model">mental models</a> of the exterior world, rather than the accumulation of independent "nuggets of truth".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others argue that inappropriate use of reductionism limits our understanding of complex systems. In particular, ecologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ulanowicz" title="Robert Ulanowicz">Robert Ulanowicz</a> says that science must develop techniques to study ways in which larger scales of organization influence smaller ones, and also ways in which feedback loops create structure at a given level, independently of details at a lower level of organization. He advocates and uses <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a> as a framework to study <a href="/wiki/Propensity_probability" title="Propensity probability">propensities</a> in natural systems.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The limits of the application of reductionism are claimed to be especially evident at levels of organization with greater <a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complexity</a>, including living <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Huber2013_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huber2013-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neural_networks_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural networks (biology)">neural networks (biology)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>, and other systems formed from assemblies of large numbers of diverse components linked by multiple <a href="/wiki/Feedback_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback loop">feedback loops</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huber2013_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huber2013-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Clayton2006_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clayton2006-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Further_facts" title="Further facts">Further facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_realizability" title="Multiple realizability">Multiple realizability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">Technological determinism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-MerriamWebster-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MerriamWebster_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWendy_Doniger1999" class="citation book cs1">Wendy Doniger, ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&q=reductionism+%22simpler+or+more+basic%22&pg=PA911">"Reductionism"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/911"><i>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions</i></a>. Merriam-Webster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/911">911</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0877790440" title="Special:BookSources/978-0877790440"><bdi>978-0877790440</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reductionism&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Encyclopedia+of+World+Religions&rft.pages=911&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0877790440&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZP_f9icf2roC%26q%3Dreductionism%2B%2522simpler%2Bor%2Bmore%2Bbasic%2522%26pg%3DPA911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKricheldorf2016" class="citation book cs1">Kricheldorf, Hans R. (2016). <i>Getting It Right in Science and Medicine: Can Science Progress through Errors? Fallacies and Facts</i>. Cham: Springer. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319303864" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319303864"><bdi>978-3319303864</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Getting+It+Right+in+Science+and+Medicine%3A+Can+Science+Progress+through+Errors%3F+Fallacies+and+Facts&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3319303864&rft.aulast=Kricheldorf&rft.aufirst=Hans+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruse-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ruse_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Ruse2005" class="citation book cs1">Michael Ruse (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bJFCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1884">"Entry for "reductionism"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. In Ted Honderich (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 793. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191037474" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191037474"><bdi>978-0191037474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Entry+for+%22reductionism%22&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=793&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0191037474&rft.au=Michael+Ruse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbJFCAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT1884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ney-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ney_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ney_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlyssa_Ney" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alyssa_Ney" title="Alyssa Ney">Alyssa Ney</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/red-ism/">"Reductionism"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. IEP, University of Tennessee<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 13,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reductionism&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=IEP%2C+University+of+Tennessee&rft.au=Alyssa+Ney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fred-ism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polkinghorne-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Polkinghorne_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Polkinghorne_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Polkinghorne_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Polkinghorne2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">John Polkinghorne (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.disf.org/en/Voci/104.asp">"Reductionism"</a>. <i>Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science</i>. Advanced School for Interdisciplinary Research; Pontifical University of the Holy Cross.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reductionism&rft.btitle=Interdisciplinary+Encyclopedia+of+Religion+and+Science&rft.pub=Advanced+School+for+Interdisciplinary+Research%3B+Pontifical+University+of+the+Holy+Cross&rft.date=2002&rft.au=John+Polkinghorne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.disf.org%2Fen%2FVoci%2F104.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For reductionism referred to <a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a>, and meanings, see <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i>. Quine objected to the <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivistic</a>, reductionist "belief that each meaningful statement is equivalent to some logical construct upon terms which refer to immediate experience" as an intractable problem.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nagel-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nagel_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Nagel2012" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Nagel (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sFRpAgAAQBAJ&q=%22psychophysical+reductionism,+a+position+in+the+philosophy+of+mind%22&pg=PA4"><i>Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature is Almost Certainly False</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199919758" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199919758"><bdi>978-0199919758</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind+and+Cosmos%3A+Why+the+Materialist+Neo-Darwinian+Conception+of+Nature+is+Almost+Certainly+False&rft.pages=4-5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0199919758&rft.au=Thomas+Nagel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsFRpAgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522psychophysical%2Breductionism%2C%2Ba%2Bposition%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bphilosophy%2Bof%2Bmind%2522%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GodfreySmith-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GodfreySmith_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GodfreySmith_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Godfrey-Smith2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Godfrey-Smith (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hfvsAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA16"><i>Philosophy of Biology</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400850440" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400850440"><bdi>978-1400850440</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Biology&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1400850440&rft.au=Peter+Godfrey-Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhfvsAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_H._Jones2000" class="citation book cs1">Richard H. Jones (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sUgnio874NUC&q=%22+has+some+properties+that+other+levels+do+not+share%22&pg=PA19">"Clarification of terminology"</a>. <i>Reductionism: Analysis and the Fullness of Reality</i>. Bucknell University Press. pp. 19– [27–28, 32]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0838754399" title="Special:BookSources/978-0838754399"><bdi>978-0838754399</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Clarification+of+terminology&rft.btitle=Reductionism%3A+Analysis+and+the+Fullness+of+Reality&rft.pages=19-+27-28%2C+32&rft.pub=Bucknell+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0838754399&rft.au=Richard+H.+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsUgnio874NUC%26q%3D%2522%2Bhas%2Bsome%2Bproperties%2Bthat%2Bother%2Blevels%2Bdo%2Bnot%2Bshare%2522%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blackburn-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blackburn_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon_Blackburn2005" class="citation book cs1">Simon Blackburn (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5wTQtwB1NdgC&pg=PA311">"Entry on 'reductionism'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press, UK. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198610137" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198610137"><bdi>978-0198610137</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Entry+on+%E2%80%98reductionism%E2%80%99&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+UK&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0198610137&rft.au=Simon+Blackburn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5wTQtwB1NdgC%26pg%3DPA311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kim-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kim_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaegwon_Kim2005" class="citation book cs1">Jaegwon Kim (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bJFCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1885">"Entry for 'mental reductionism'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. In Ted Honderich (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 794. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191037474" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191037474"><bdi>978-0191037474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Entry+for+%E2%80%98mental+reductionism%E2%80%99&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=794&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0191037474&rft.au=Jaegwon+Kim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbJFCAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT1885&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Axelrod and Cohen "Harnessing Complexity"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard H. Jones (2000), <i>Reductionism: Analysis and the Fullness of Reality</i>, pp. 24—26, 29–31. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nancey Murphy, "Reductionism and Emergence. A Critical Perspective." In <i>Human Identity at the Intersection of Science, Technology and Religion</i>. Edited by Nancey Murphy, and Christopher C. Knight. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010. 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"Personal construction of formal knowledge". <i>Interchange</i>. <b>13</b> (4): 3–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01191417">10.1007/BF01191417</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198195182">198195182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Interchange&rft.atitle=Personal+construction+of+formal+knowledge&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=3-14&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01191417&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A198195182%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Pope+ML&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopeWatts1988" class="citation journal cs1">Pope ML, Watts M (1988). "Constructivist Goggles: Implications for Process in Teaching and Learning Physics". <i>Eur. J. Phys</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 101–109. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988EJPh....9..101P">1988EJPh....9..101P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F9%2F2%2F004">10.1088/0143-0807/9/2/004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250876891">250876891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eur.+J.+Phys.&rft.atitle=Constructivist+Goggles%3A+Implications+for+Process+in+Teaching+and+Learning+Physics&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=101-109&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A250876891%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F9%2F2%2F004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988EJPh....9..101P&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Watts%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R.E. Ulanowicz, <i>Ecology: The Ascendant Perspective</i>, Columbia University Press (1997) (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231108281" title="Special:BookSources/0231108281">0231108281</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huber2013-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huber2013_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huber2013_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuberSchnaussRoenickeRauch2013" class="citation journal cs1">Huber, F; Schnauss, J; Roenicke, S; Rauch, P; Mueller, K; Fuetterer, C; Kaes, J (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3985726">"Emergent complexity of the cytoskeleton: from single filaments to tissue"</a>. <i>Advances in Physics</i>. <b>62</b> (1): 1–112. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AdPhy..62....1H">2013AdPhy..62....1H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00018732.2013.771509">10.1080/00018732.2013.771509</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3985726">3985726</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24748680">24748680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Physics&rft.atitle=Emergent+complexity+of+the+cytoskeleton%3A+from+single+filaments+to+tissue&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-112&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3985726%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24748680&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00018732.2013.771509&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013AdPhy..62....1H&rft.aulast=Huber&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Schnauss%2C+J&rft.au=Roenicke%2C+S&rft.au=Rauch%2C+P&rft.au=Mueller%2C+K&rft.au=Fuetterer%2C+C&rft.au=Kaes%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3985726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00018732.2013.771509">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clayton2006-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clayton2006_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaytonDavies2006" class="citation journal cs1">Clayton, P; Davies, P, eds. (2006). "The Re-emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion". New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Re-emergence+of+Emergence%3A+The+Emergentist+Hypothesis+from+Science+to+Religion&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReductionism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Churchland, Patricia (1986), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hAeFMFW3rDUC&q=reductionism">Neurophilosophy: Toward a Unified Science of the Mind-Brain</a></i>. MIT Press.</li> <li>Dawkins, Richard (1976), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene" title="The Selfish Gene">The Selfish Gene</a></i>. Oxford University Press; 2nd edition, December 1989.</li> <li>Dennett, Daniel C. (1995) <i>Darwin's Dangerous Idea</i>. Simon & Schuster.</li> <li>Descartes (1637), <i>Discourses</i>, Part V.</li> <li>Dupre, John (1993), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ev3HvgSjb1EC&q=reductionism">The Disorder of Things</a></i>. Harvard University Press.</li> <li>Galison, Peter and David J. Stump, eds. (1996), <i>The Disunity of the Sciences: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power</i>. Stanford University Press.</li> <li>Jones, Richard H. (2013), <i>Analysis & the Fullness of Reality: An Introduction to Reductionism & Emergence</i>. Jackson Square Books.</li> <li>Laughlin, Robert (2005), <i>A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down.</i> Basic Books.</li> <li>Nagel, Ernest (1961), <i>The Structure of Science</i>. New York.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinker,_Steven" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinker, Steven">Pinker, Steven</a> (2002), <i>The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature</i>. Viking Penguin.</li> <li>Ruse, Michael (1988), <i>Philosophy of Biology</i>. Albany, NY.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenberg,_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosenberg, Alexander">Rosenberg, Alexander</a> (2006), <i>Darwinian Reductionism or How to Stop Worrying and Love Molecular Biology</i>. University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Eric Scerri The reduction of chemistry to physics has become a central aspect of the philosophy of chemistry. See several articles by this author.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weinberg,_Steven" class="mw-redirect" title="Weinberg, Steven">Weinberg, Steven</a> (1992), <i>Dreams of a Final Theory: The Scientist's Search for the Ultimate Laws of Nature</i>, Pantheon Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weinberg,_Steven" class="mw-redirect" title="Weinberg, Steven">Weinberg, Steven</a> (2002) describes what he terms the culture war among physicists in his review of <i><a href="/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="A New Kind of Science (book)">A New Kind of Science</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritjof_Capra" title="Fritjof Capra">Capra, Fritjof</a> (1982), <i>The Turning Point</i>.</li> <li>Lopez, F., Il pensiero olistico di Ippocrate. Riduzionismo, antiriduzionismo, scienza della complessità nel trattato sull'Antica Medicina, vol. IIA, Ed. Pubblisfera, Cosenza Italy 2008.</li> <li>Maureen L Pope, <i>Personal construction of formal knowledge,</i> Humanities Social Science and Law, 13.4, December, 1982, pp. 3–14</li> <li>Tara W. Lumpkin, <i>Perceptual Diversity: Is Polyphasic Consciousness Necessary for Global Survival?</i> December 28, 2006, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioregionalanimism.com/2006/12/is-polyphasic-consciousness-necessary.html">bioregionalanimism.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160410233733/http://www.bioregionalanimism.com/2006/12/is-polyphasic-consciousness-necessary.html">Archived</a> 2016-04-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Vandana Shiva, 1995, <i>Monocultures, Monopolies and the Masculinisation of Knowledge.</i> International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Reports: Gender Equity. 23: 15–17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051015164356/http://idrinfo.idrc.ca/archive/ReportsINTRA/pdfs/v23n2e/109174.htm">Gender and Equity (v. 23, no. 2, July 1995)</a></li> <li>The Anti-Realist Side of the Debate: A Theory's Predictive Success does not Warrant Belief in the Unobservable Entities it Postulates Andre Kukla and Joel Walmsley.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reductionism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Reductionism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Reductionism">Reductionism</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alyssa_Ney" title="Alyssa Ney">Alyssa Ney</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/red-ism/">"Reductionism"</a> in: <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</li> <li>Ingo Brigandt and Alan Love, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reduction-biology/">"Reductionism in Biology"</a> in: <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galilean-library.org/dupre.html">John Dupré: The Disunity of Science</a>—an interview at the Galilean Library covering criticisms of reductionism.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hplusmagazine.com/2011/03/31/reduction-considered-harmful/">Monica Anderson: Reductionism Considered Harmful</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190416134011/http://hplusmagazine.com/2011/03/31/reduction-considered-harmful/">Archived</a> 2019-04-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/red-chem/">Reduction and Emergence in Chemistry</a>, <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Analytic_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Analytic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of focus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Aretaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity">Performative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviant_logic" title="Deviant logic">Deviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">Paraconsistent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Scientific structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">paradox of analysis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">Natural kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">Supervenience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modality" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">Possibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">Rigid designator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cambridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arif_Ahmed_(philosopher)" title="Arif Ahmed (philosopher)">Arif Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Lewy" title="Casimir Lewy">Casimir Lewy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Oxford</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harvard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notre Dame</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh School">Pittsburgh School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Adolf Grünbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Princeton</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Salmon" title="Nathan Salmon">Nathan Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">James F. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_Diamond" title="Cora Diamond">Cora Diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_School" title="Stanford School">Stanford School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Peter Galison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lwow-Warsaw</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophy" title="Category:Analytic philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_analytic_philosophy_articles" title="Index of analytic philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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