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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maritime_trade_in_16th_century_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maritime_trade_in_16th_century_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Maritime trade in 16th century China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maritime_trade_in_16th_century_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"wokou"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"wokou""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>The "wokou"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"wokou"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coastal_defence_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coastal_defence_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Coastal defence and politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coastal_defence_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shuangyu,_the_illegal_entrepôt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shuangyu,_the_illegal_entrepôt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Shuangyu, the illegal entrepôt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shuangyu,_the_illegal_entrepôt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_campaigns_of_Zhu_Wan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_campaigns_of_Zhu_Wan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The campaigns of Zhu Wan</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_campaigns_of_Zhu_Wan-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The campaigns of Zhu Wan subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_campaigns_of_Zhu_Wan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_fall_of_Shuangyu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_fall_of_Shuangyu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The fall of Shuangyu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_fall_of_Shuangyu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Zoumaxi_incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Zoumaxi_incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Zoumaxi incident</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Zoumaxi_incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_acceleration_of_wokou_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_acceleration_of_wokou_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The acceleration of wokou activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_acceleration_of_wokou_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attempts_at_wokou_suppression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attempts_at_wokou_suppression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Attempts at wokou suppression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attempts_at_wokou_suppression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supreme_Commander_Hu_Zongxian_and_the_raid_of_1556" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supreme_Commander_Hu_Zongxian_and_the_raid_of_1556"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Supreme Commander Hu Zongxian and the raid of 1556</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Supreme_Commander_Hu_Zongxian_and_the_raid_of_1556-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Supreme Commander Hu Zongxian and the raid of 1556 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Supreme_Commander_Hu_Zongxian_and_the_raid_of_1556-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_policy_of_appeasement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_policy_of_appeasement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>A policy of appeasement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_policy_of_appeasement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_battle_of_Zaolin_and_the_siege_of_Tongxiang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_battle_of_Zaolin_and_the_siege_of_Tongxiang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>The battle of Zaolin and the siege of Tongxiang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_battle_of_Zaolin_and_the_siege_of_Tongxiang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breakdown_of_the_marauder_alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breakdown_of_the_marauder_alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Breakdown of the marauder alliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breakdown_of_the_marauder_alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Showdown_at_the_Shen_Family_Estate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Showdown_at_the_Shen_Family_Estate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Showdown at the Shen Family Estate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Showdown_at_the_Shen_Family_Estate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capture_of_Wang_Zhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capture_of_Wang_Zhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Capture of Wang Zhi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capture_of_Wang_Zhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_end_of_the_wokou_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_end_of_the_wokou_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The end of the wokou crisis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_end_of_the_wokou_crisis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">16th-century conflicts</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Jiajing wokou raids</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Wokou.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Wokou.jpg/220px-Wokou.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Wokou.jpg/330px-Wokou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Wokou.jpg/440px-Wokou.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="530" /></a></span><br />Map of early wokou raids (violet) and later Jiajing wokou raids (blue), with sea routes from Japan</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>1540s to 1567</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Ming victory</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Wokou</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhi_(pirate)" title="Wang Zhi (pirate)">Wang Zhi</a><br />Xu Hai</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Wan" title="Zhu Wan">Zhu Wan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jing_(Ming_dynasty)" title="Zhang Jing (Ming dynasty)">Zhang Jing</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Wenhua" title="Zhao Wenhua">Zhao Wenhua</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hu_Zongxian" title="Hu Zongxian">Hu Zongxian</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Qi_Jiguang" title="Qi Jiguang">Qi Jiguang</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Yu_Dayou" title="Yu Dayou">Yu Dayou</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Jiajing wokou raids</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">嘉靖大倭寇</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Jiajing Great Wo Raids</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Jiājìng Dà Wō Kòu</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">嘉靖倭亂</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">嘉靖倭乱</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Jiajing Wo Crisis</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Jiājìng Wō Luàn</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Jiajing wokou raids</b> caused extensive damage to the coast of China in the 16th century, during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Jiajing_Emperor" title="Jiajing Emperor">Jiajing Emperor</a> (r. 1521–67) in the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. The term "<a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">wokou</a>" originally referred to Japanese pirates who crossed the sea and raided Korea and China; however, by the mid-Ming, the wokou consisted of multinational crewmen that included the Japanese and the Portuguese, but a great majority of them were Chinese instead. Mid-Ming wokou activity began to pose a serious problem in the 1540s, reached its peak in 1555, and subsided by 1567, with the extent of the destruction spreading across the coastal regions of <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maritime_trade_in_16th_century_China">Maritime trade in 16th century China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Maritime trade in 16th century China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Economy of the Ming dynasty">Economy of the Ming dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></div> <p>Up until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368, China had had a great maritime trading tradition that extended the Chinese trading network by sea all the way into the Indian Ocean. In 1371, the Ming founder <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> implemented the "<a href="/wiki/Haijin" title="Haijin">maritime prohibitions</a>" (<i>haijin</i>), banning all private sea trade in order to clear the seas of all piratical elements. Under the prohibition, all maritime trade were to be conducted through the officially sanctioned "tribute trade", which was a kind of trade where foreign tributary states presented tributes to the Chinese court, acknowledged themselves as vassals of the Ming, and received gifts as a sign of imperial favour. This trade, in addition to being humiliating to the foreigners involved (<a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a>), was inadequate to the demands of the markets, both domestic and foreign, since the Ming had strict rules about how often a vassal could come to present tribute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198031_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198031-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, the tribute trade, being the only legal form of trade with China, was extremely profitable. Hence many states, including Japan were willing to subject themselves to the rituals of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_tributary_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese tributary system">Chinese tributary system</a>. </p><p>The Japanese were assigned the Zhejiang city of <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> as their port of entry into China, and were allowed to present tribute once every 10 years. These <a href="/wiki/Japanese_missions_to_Ming_China" title="Japanese missions to Ming China">Japanese missions to Ming China</a> continued up to Japan's <a href="/wiki/Sengoku_period" title="Sengoku period">Sengoku period</a>, when the hold of the <a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Ashikaga shogunate</a> waned and power became divided by the warring regional <i><a href="/wiki/Daimy%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Daimyō">daimyōs</a></i>. These internecine feuds reached China in the <a href="/wiki/Ningbo_incident" title="Ningbo incident">Ningbo incident</a> of 1523, when traders from the <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cuchi_clan" title="Ōuchi clan">Ōuchi clan</a> fought with those of the <a href="/wiki/Hosokawa_clan" title="Hosokawa clan">Hosokawa clan</a> in Ningbo for the right to present tribute, which spiralled out of hand and resulted in the widespread pillage of Ningbo. When a Ming fleet appeared onto the scene to restore peace, the fleet was defeated instead and the Japanese traders got away. After this episode, the Ming banned all Japanese from trading in Ningbo, who would have to join the pirates on offshore islands in order to trade Chinese goods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo19755_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo19755-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1513, Portuguese explorers reached the coast of Guangdong, bringing the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exchange">Columbian Exchange</a> into China. This created a new global demand for Chinese products, while European firearms and <a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a> were introduced to China for the first time. However, the potential of the China market was limited by the Ming's insistence of the maritime prohibitions. Early Portuguese attempts at trade negotiations were unsuccessful, and the Portuguese presence at the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl River (China)">Pearl River</a> was driven off in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tunmen" title="Battle of Tunmen">Battle of Tunmen</a> of 1521 and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xicaowan" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Xicaowan">Battle of Xicaowan</a> of 1522. The Portuguese, like the Japanese, were hence forced to conduct their trade illegally on the islands along the coast of China, away from the reach of the Ming authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills201032–3_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills201032–3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, both the Japanese and the Portuguese were left out of the tributary trade by the first decades of the 16th century. By the middle of the century though, Japan and Portugal became the premier suppliers of silver in East Asia by bringing in silver from mines such as the <a href="/wiki/Iwami_Ginzan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iwami Ginzan">Iwami Ginzan</a> in Japan and the <a href="/wiki/Cerro_de_Potos%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerro de Potosí">Cerro de Potosí</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>. Silver was the lifeblood of the Ming Chinese economy, but the Ming government placed many restrictions on mining due to fears that the bullion would pool into private hands. Even without the restrictions, China's silver veins were too small and located too far away in the southwest from the commercialized and populous coastal provinces to keep up with the huge demand. This situation made unofficial dealings with foreigners very profitable and enticing for Chinese merchants, despite the risks and illegality of their trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo201178_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo201178-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_"wokou""><span id="The_.22wokou.22"></span>The "wokou"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The "wokou""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "wokou" literally means "dwarf pirates", with "<a href="/wiki/Wa_(Japan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wa (Japan)">wo</a>" (倭; "dwarf") being the <a href="/wiki/Graphic_pejoratives_in_written_Chinese" title="Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese">Classical Chinese pejorative</a> for the Japanese people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo19751,_13_note_1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo19751,_13_note_1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was first used to refer to Japanese invaders on the <a href="/wiki/Gwanggaeto_Stele" title="Gwanggaeto Stele">Gwanggaeto Stele</a> in 414 AD,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991239_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991239-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was reused in 1223 when Japanese pirates raided the Korean coast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo19751_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo19751-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These pirates eventually broadened their area of operations to the coast of China, and were active throughout East Asian coasts up to the establishment of the Ming dynasty in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo19751_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo19751-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the 16th century, the pirates nominally called the "wokou" were mostly not Japanese, but actually Chinese. According to the <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i> and other contemporary Chinese records, only thirty percent of the 16th century wokou were Japanese, while seventy percent were ethnic Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197517–36_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197517–36-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the Chinese played the leading role in these later wokou raids, with the Japanese and those of other nationalities being mere associates and hired hands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197532_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197532-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chinese people at the forefront of the wokou activities were merchants whose trade overseas was deemed illegal by the Ming government. Since the Ming government prohibited people from travelling heading out to sea and forbid those who had from returning home, a large number of Chinese maritime merchants were forced to establish themselves on offshore islands or even overseas trading ports.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201049_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201049-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the traders stationed overseas, of note were Xu Dong (許棟) and his brothers who began their fortunes in <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patani_(historical_region)" title="Patani (historical region)">Patani</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhi_(pirate)" title="Wang Zhi (pirate)">Wang Zhi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Xu_Hai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xu Hai (page does not exist)">Xu Hai</a> (徐海) who based themselves in the southern Japanese island of <a href="/wiki/Kyushu" title="Kyushu">Kyushu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201049–51_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201049–51-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese traders in Kyushu had deep ties with the local daimyo, who provided patronage and refuge for the merchant-pirates in return for a share of their profits. For example, Xu Hai's right-hand man was described to be the younger brother of the <a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Province" title="Satsuma Province">Satsuma</a> lord <a href="/wiki/Shimazu_Takahisa" title="Shimazu Takahisa">Shimazu Takahisa</a>, while his associate Chen Dong (陳東) held a high position in the Satsuma court as the chief of Shimazu's secretariat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991258–9_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991258–9-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To protect their cargo from rival pirate gangs and the Ming navy, the merchant-pirates armed themselves with Portuguese guns and cannons and hired Japanese fighters. Despite the Ming being introduced to Portuguese firearms in the 1520s, these firearms were mostly deployed on the northern frontier and not on the coast. Furthermore, Wang Zhi helped the Portuguese traders reach <a href="/wiki/Tanegashima" title="Tanegashima">Tanegashima</a> in 1543, where the Portuguese introduced the <a href="/wiki/Arquebus" title="Arquebus">arquebus</a> to the Japanese for the first time. This armed the Japanese, who already had a reputation for being fearsome swordsmen, with firearms more advanced than what the Chinese coastal defense forces had at the time. The Ming aboriginal troops were said to be especially afraid of the pirates' arquebuses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975148–9_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975148–9-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coastal_defence_and_politics">Coastal defence and politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Coastal defence and politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The blunder of the Ming navy during the 1523 Ningbo incident highlighted the decline of Chinese naval capabilities since the cessation of the famed <a href="/wiki/Treasure_voyages" class="mw-redirect" title="Treasure voyages">treasure voyages</a> in 1433. The early Ming had a system of coastal patrols and island bases for the defence of the Chinese coast, but these were withdrawn as the Ming foreign policy turned from proactive to passive during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Zhengtong_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengtong Emperor">Zhengtong Emperor</a> (r. 1435–49). The official reason for the withdrawal was that these forward bases in the sea were a heavy burden on the civilians who had to supply them, and that the Ming army could focus on defence after the invaders had landed. Since then, warships were no longer used to patrol the coast and remained anchored in ports, where they rotted away from neglect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELo1958158_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELo1958158-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an extreme example, the <a href="/wiki/Penglai_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Penglai City">Dengzhou</a> naval garrison in Shandong had a fleet of 100 warships in its heyday, but by the beginning of the 16th century, only 3 ships remained after years of retrenchment and disrepair.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELo1958158_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELo1958158-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the start of the wokou crisis in the 1540s, there were only 68 government warships on the coast of Fujian, while funds allotted for ship construction were apparently embezzled. Furthermore, naval garrisons along the coast were unwilling to build and accommodate for new ships since each ship needed people and resources for its maintenance. Ships confiscated from the pirates and redistributed to the naval garrisons ended up being stolen, exchanged, or <a href="/wiki/Scuttled" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuttled">scuttled</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197562_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197562-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the deterioration of the warships, decades of peace along the coast had relegated the military to a low importance, and garrisons became severely understaffed due to desertion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELo1958160_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELo1958160-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 1550s these garrisons were reduced to roughly one third of their full complements of soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197652_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197652-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the wokou crisis, defenders had to augment their forces with various militia and mercenary groups like gentry guards, local ruffians, and even <a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin</a> monks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197677._For_further_information_about_Shaolin_monks'_involvement_in_wokou_suppression,_see_[[Shaolin_Kung_Fu#Pirates|Shaolin_Kung_Fu_§&nbsp;Pirates]]_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197677._For_further_information_about_Shaolin_monks'_involvement_in_wokou_suppression,_see_[[Shaolin_Kung_Fu#Pirates|Shaolin_Kung_Fu_§&nbsp;Pirates]]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ming government, being committed to the northern frontier defence against the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, could only spare reinforcements to the coast in the form of bandit fighters, ex-pirates, and aboriginal "wolf troops" (狼兵, <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh">langbing</i></span>) led by <a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">government-recognized tribal headmen</a>. These assorted troops, euphemistically called "guest troops" (客兵, <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh">kebing</i></span>), were generally ineffective in battle, and were often a burden to the local populace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197677Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT137_137]_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197677Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT137_137]-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The general dilapidation of the military was a symptom of the confused administration of the coastal provinces. The Ming provincial administration was split into three parallel hierarchies: one for civil, one for military, and one for surveillance. This deliberately fragmented structure was meant to provide checks against <a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">regionalism</a> and the rise of powerful officials at the provincial level; however, it also made for an ineffective response during emergencies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197610_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197610-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the middle of the 15th century, <a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinators" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand coordinators">grand coordinators</a> (<i>xunfu</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy (China)">supreme commanders</a> (<i>zongdu</i>) were sent to the provinces undergoing military emergencies to override the existing provincial hierarchies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197611_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197611-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the wokou-stricken provinces, however, a grand coordinator had not been appointed until 1547 due to the interference of the coastal gentry who were involved with the illegal foreign trade. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Doing away with foreign pirates is easy, but doing away with Chinese pirates is difficult. Doing away with Chinese pirates along the coast is still easy, but doing away with Chinese pirates in gowns and caps is particularly difficult. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—Zhu Wan, from <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i> vol. 205, "Biography of Zhu Wan"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198030_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198030-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>The coastal gentry, well-represented in the Ming court due to the abundance of successful <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> candidates from among their numbers,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197620_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197620-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compounded their wealth by sponsoring the smugglers with seagoing vessels and profiteered by reselling the smuggled goods at a higher value, sometimes delaying or even refusing to pay the smugglers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were able to keep the smugglers' dissatisfaction in check by cajolery, marriage alliances, and threatening to summon the Ming military on the smugglers. On the other hand, they protected themselves by hiring mercenaries as guards and bribing the local officials to look the other way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Wan" title="Zhu Wan">Zhu Wan</a>, who became the Grand Coordinator of Zhejiang in 1547, called these gentry members "pirates in gowns and caps" (衣冠之盜), and identified them as the root cause of the coastal disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1540s, this gentry-led equilibrium began to fall apart as the dissatisfied smugglers went rogue from their gentry sponsors. The <i><a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records_of_the_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Veritable Records of the Ming">Veritable Records of the Ming</a></i> points to a raid in 1547 as the start of the wokou troubles, where smugglers and foreigners burned down the Xie family estate in <a href="/wiki/Yuyao" title="Yuyao">Yuyao</a> after the prominent Xie clan (謝氏) refused to pay their debts to the smugglers and threatened to inform the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo201181_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo201181-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shuangyu,_the_illegal_entrepôt"><span id="Shuangyu.2C_the_illegal_entrep.C3.B4t"></span>Shuangyu, the illegal entrepôt</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Shuangyu, the illegal entrepôt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:362px"><div style="position:relative;width:360px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Zhejiang_adm.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Jiajing wokou raids is located in Zhejiang"><img alt="Jiajing wokou raids is located in Zhejiang" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_Zhejiang_adm.png/360px-Map_Zhejiang_adm.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_Zhejiang_adm.png/540px-Map_Zhejiang_adm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_Zhejiang_adm.png/720px-Map_Zhejiang_adm.png 2x" data-file-width="1730" data-file-height="1653" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:38.105%;left:81.89%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Shuangyu"><img alt="Shuangyu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Shuangyu</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:9.639%;left:55.119%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wangjiangjing"><img alt="Wangjiangjing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Wangjiangjing</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:17.341%;left:51.64%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Tongxiang"><img alt="Tongxiang" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Tongxiang</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:12.507%;left:69.889%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Zhelin"><img alt="Zhelin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Zhelin</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:17.767%;left:62.641%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Zhapu"><img alt="Zhapu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Zhapu</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:34.961%;left:71.456%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Ningbo"><img alt="Ningbo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Ningbo</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:1.628%;left:53.01%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Suzhou"><img alt="Suzhou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Suzhou</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:3.307%;left:70.254%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Shanghai"><img alt="Shanghai" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Shanghai</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:24.884%;left:44.697%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hangzhou"><img alt="Hangzhou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Hangzhou</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:62.868%;left:67.573%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Taizhou"><img alt="Taizhou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Taizhou</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:78.372%;left:54.951%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wenzhou"><img alt="Wenzhou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Wenzhou</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:14.031%;left:55.922%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Jiaxing"><img alt="Jiaxing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Jiaxing</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:8.359%;left:65.194%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Songjiang"><img alt="Songjiang" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Songjiang</div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Zhejiang_adm.png" title="File:Map Zhejiang adm.png">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Wokou activity in the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Delta">Yangtze River Delta</a> and Zhejiang</div></div></div> <p>After their ouster from the coastal ports of China, Japanese and Portuguese traders collaborated with illegal smugglers on island ports along the Zhejiang and Fujian coast. Among these ports, <a href="/wiki/Shuangyu" title="Shuangyu">Shuangyu</a> on Liuheng Island (六橫島) off the coast of Ningbo emerged as the primary <a href="/wiki/Emporium_(antiquity)" title="Emporium (antiquity)">emporium</a> of clandestine trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201046_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201046-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, Shuangyu only had temporary mat-sheds for the smugglers to house themselves and their goods during the trading season.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201047_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201047-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1539, Fujianese traders started to guide foreign traders from Patani and Malacca to barter in Shuangyu and started to occupy the island. They were soon joined by the Fujianese merchants Jinzi Lao (金子老, "Gold Elder") and Li Guangtou (李光頭, "Baldy Li"), who led the Portuguese and assorted adventurers to Shuangyu. Attracted by the growing trade on the Zhejiang coast, the Xu brothers' syndicate moved their base of operations from the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a> to Shuangyu. The existing clout of the Xu syndicate and its close partnership with the Portuguese made it the foremost smuggling bloc by 1542 after a series of mergers among the merchant-pirates in Shuangyu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201047_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201047-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ming navy began to clamp down on smuggling activities in 1543, but the Xu syndicate was able to repulse the Ming attacks in Shuangyu with the aid of Portuguese firepower. Hardened by their victories against the Ming navy, the smugglers expanded their network of activities down the coast of China all the way to Guangdong and inland to the metropolis of Nanjing, with Shuangyu being their hub.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201047_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201047-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1544, this network was further expanded when Wang Zhi joined the Xu syndicate, bringing along his Japanese connections to Shuangyu. Thus Shuangyu reached its zenith as the biggest <a href="/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Entrepôt">entrepôt</a> in maritime East Asia trading goods from Europe and Asia until its downfall in 1548.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201048–9_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201048–9-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_campaigns_of_Zhu_Wan">The campaigns of Zhu Wan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The campaigns of Zhu Wan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_fall_of_Shuangyu">The fall of Shuangyu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The fall of Shuangyu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After several years of debate over the disturbances on the coast, the Ming court under <a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat">Senior Grand Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Xia_Yan_(Ming_dynasty)" title="Xia Yan (Ming dynasty)">Xia Yan</a> decided to appoint a new <a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand coordinator">grand coordinator</a> to manage coastal defense in the two provinces most affected by the turbulence, Zhejiang and Fujian. In 1547, the veteran general <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Wan" title="Zhu Wan">Zhu Wan</a> was made the Grand Coordinator of Zhejiang and Concurrent Superintendent of Military Affairs for Zhejiang and Fujian Coastal Defense (巡撫浙江兼提督浙閩海防軍務), a new position specifically created to deal with the resurgent wokou problem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198032_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198032-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the first time in many decades that Zhejiang had a single administrative head instead of having three provincial heads each in charge of the military, provincial, and surveillance hierarchies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick19794,_7_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick19794,_7-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The situation on the coast had become very dire at the start of Zhu Wan's tenure as grand coordinator. In December 1547, the Portuguese had plundered <a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou" title="Zhangzhou">Zhangzhou</a>, and in February the next year the cities of Ningbo and <a href="/wiki/Taizhou,_Zhejiang" title="Taizhou, Zhejiang">Taizhou</a> were struck by an unprecedented 1,000 raiders aboard a hundred ships. This raid happened whilst Zhu Wan was inspecting in Fujian, and the government troops could not stop the raiders from killing, looting, and burning government offices and homes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins1980167–9_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins1980167–9-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the dismal state of coastal defence and the widespread collusion between the gentry and the pirates, Zhu Wan carried out his task energetically. He strictly enforced the maritime prohibitions, forbidding anyone from venturing out to sea on penalty of death, and put all ships to use for defence of the coast. He also publicized the names of the influential persons involved in the illegal trade, to the annoyance of the local gentry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 15 April 1548, Zhu Wan's fleet in <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a> set sail for Shuangyu under the command of <a href="/wiki/Lu_Tang" title="Lu Tang">Lu Tang</a> and Ke Qiao (柯喬).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fleet descended onto Shuangyu one night in June, under the cover of thick weather. Fifty-five to a few hundred smugglers perished in the attack, but the leading figures such as Li Guangtou and Wang Zhi were able to escape. Lu Tang then razed the town and rendered the harbour permanently unusable by filling it in with stones under Zhu Wan's orders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxviiGoodrichFang1976374_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxviiGoodrichFang1976374-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhu Wan and his generals were greatly rewarded in silver for the victory, but he also drew the ire of his political enemies among the gentry, whose profits were directly affected by the destruction of Shuangyu. Eventually a pretense was found to demote Zhu Wan to the temporary position of inspector general (巡視), the argument being one man cannot control two provinces at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Zoumaxi_incident">The Zoumaxi incident</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Zoumaxi incident"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jiajing wokou raids is located in Fujian"><img alt="Jiajing wokou raids is located in Fujian" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg/300px-China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg/450px-China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg/600px-China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="818" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:94.375%;left:33.418%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Zoumaxi"><img alt="Zoumaxi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div style="background-color:white">Zoumaxi</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:78.556%;left:42.743%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Yuegang"><img alt="Yuegang" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div style="background-color:white">Yuegang</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:78.077%;left:51.455%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Kinmen"><img alt="Kinmen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div style="background-color:white">Kinmen</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:58.974%;left:63.939%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Xinghua"><img alt="Xinghua" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div style="background-color:white">Xinghua</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:76.603%;left:39.091%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Zhangzhou"><img alt="Zhangzhou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div style="background-color:white">Zhangzhou</div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:China Fujian adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Wokou activity in Fujian</div></div></div> <p>After the loss of Shuangyu, the smugglers scattered along the coast of Zhejiang and Fujian to find good hideouts to trade. The deep water inlet of Zoumaxi (走馬溪, "Running Horse Creek") by the <a href="/wiki/Dongshan_County" title="Dongshan County">Dongshan Peninsula</a> near the Fujian-Guangdong border was found to be a suitable place for trade since the terrain sheltered the ships from the winds,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxvii,_note_3_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxvii,_note_3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the inhabitants of nearby Meiling (梅嶺) had been greatly involved in the illicit trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197566_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197566-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 19 March 1549, Lu Tang and Ke Qiao ambushed two junks in Zoumaxi while they were trading with the Portuguese aboard resulting in 33 deaths and 206 smugglers captured.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197566GoodrichFang1976374–5_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197566GoodrichFang1976374–5-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the captured were Li Guangtou and a number of Portuguese men, and Lu Tang had four of the more good-looking Portuguese pretend to be kings of <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> in order to make the victory seem more complete.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953195_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953195-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fearing that the captives might bribe their way out, Zhu Wan executed 96 of the Chinese smugglers using his discretionary powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197567_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197567-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zhu Wan's unauthorized executions of the Zoumaxi captives provided an excellent opportunity for his political enemies. On April 27, Zhu Wan was impeached for exceeding his authority since executions had to be sanctioned by the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976375_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976375-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jiajing Emperor dismissed Zhu Wan from his post and ordered a full investigation on the matter. Seeing that the odds were against him, especially since his backer Xia Yan had been executed in disgrace in October last year,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197584–5Higgins1981179–180_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197584–5Higgins1981179–180-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhu Wan wrote his own <a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">epitaph</a> and committed suicide by drinking poison in January 1550. The investigation confirmed the allegations that Zhu Wan had killed the prisoners without imperial authorization, and so a posthumous death sentence was handed down.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976375_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976375-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lu Tang and Ke Qiao were also condemned to death,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxx_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxx-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Portuguese smugglers were let off lightly, with exile as their punishment. The ordeal left <a href="/wiki/Galeote_Pereira" title="Galeote Pereira">Galeote Pereira</a>, one of the Portuguese crewmen captured in Zoumaxi, very impressed by what he perceived as the impartiality of the Chinese justice system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills201034_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills201034-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_acceleration_of_wokou_activity">The acceleration of wokou activity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The acceleration of wokou activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wokou_raid_at_the_Chinese_coast.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wokou_raid_at_the_Chinese_coast.png/220px-Wokou_raid_at_the_Chinese_coast.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wokou_raid_at_the_Chinese_coast.png/330px-Wokou_raid_at_the_Chinese_coast.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wokou_raid_at_the_Chinese_coast.png/440px-Wokou_raid_at_the_Chinese_coast.png 2x" data-file-width="1135" data-file-height="1484" /></a><figcaption>20th-century illustration of a wokou raid at the Chinese coast.</figcaption></figure> <p>The death of Zhu Wan was followed by the wholesale reversion of his policies, and the fleet that Zhu had assembled was dispersed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins1981199_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins1981199-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For three years the position held by Zhu Wan remained vacant, and during these years apparently no government official dared to mention the coastal situation in the adverse political atmosphere. Despite the coastal gentry's political victory over Zhu Wan, they had destroyed their trump card against the merchant-pirates — the threat of the Ming army — and the wokou raiders took full advantage of the military vacuum.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins1981216–7_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins1981216–7-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gentry, now facing frequent attacks on their own estates, begrudgingly began to assist the state in putting down the wokou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo201198_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo201198-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Their illicit trading networks disrupted, the overseas traders banded together against the perceived intensification of the Ming anti-pirate campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991252_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991252-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wang Zhi emerged as the leader of the most prominent of these armed bands after Xu Dong exited the scene. The Xu brothers had placed Wang Zhi in charge of their fleets, finances, and foreign contacts, so Wang did not have much trouble taking over the whole syndicate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201051_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201051-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He settled on the <a href="/wiki/Got%C5%8D_Islands" title="Gotō Islands">Gotō Islands</a> of Japan after the Ming made him an outlaw. There he called himself the King of <a href="/wiki/Huizhou_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huizhou (region)">Hui</a> (徽王) and established good relations not only with the local daimyo <a href="/wiki/Matsura_Takanobu" title="Matsura Takanobu">Matsura Takanobu</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills1979212_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1979212-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also with regional hegemons like <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Ctomo_S%C5%8Drin" title="Ōtomo Sōrin">Ōtomo Sōrin</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cuchi_Yoshitaka" title="Ōuchi Yoshitaka">Ōuchi Yoshitaka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991260_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991260-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his great power, Wang Zhi initially sought to appease the Ming government in hope of getting the maritime prohibitions relaxed, so he turned the rival pirate leaders that he captured over to the authorities. Instead, the Ming authorities tightened the restrictions in 1551, banning even fishing boats from going out to sea. Indignant, Wang Zhi set his pirate fleets upon the Chinese coast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988495_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988495-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The wokou attacks started as swift raids on coastal settlements to obtain provisions and goods for trade, then returned to their ships and left. By the summer of 1553, the situation escalated to the point where a pirate raid could number hundreds of ships, defeat garrisons, and besiege district seats. In 1554, the wokou set up bases along the coast from where they could conduct their raids, threatening the great cities of <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988496_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988496-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attempts_at_wokou_suppression">Attempts at wokou suppression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Attempts at wokou suppression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1552, the Grand Coordinator of <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> Wang Yu (王忬) was summoned to take Zhu Wan's old grand coordinator position in Zhejiang. As grand coordinator, Wang Yu recruited talents like <a href="/wiki/Yu_Dayou" title="Yu Dayou">Yu Dayou</a> and Tang Kekuan (湯克寬),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT112_112]_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT112_112]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as releasing Lu Tang and Ke Qiao from death row to make use of their experience against the wokou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang19761004_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang19761004-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He initiated a program to strengthen the towns and villages, which led to many towns being walled for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974277_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974277-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Wang Yu's armies suffered repeated defeats in 1553 and 1554, during which the cities of Hangzhou, <a href="/wiki/Songjiang_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Songjiang District">Songjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tongzhou_District,_Nantong" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongzhou District, Nantong">Tongzhou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jiaxing" title="Jiaxing">Jiaxing</a> were attacked by the pirates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988496_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988496-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The raids on these cities along the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> were especially worrying to the court in Beijing since they threatened the tax-grain shipments from the <a href="/wiki/Breadbasket" title="Breadbasket">breadbasket</a> of southern China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT112_112]_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT112_112]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wang Yu was sacked in 1554 for his failure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang19761004_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang19761004-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Wang Yu's place, Li Tianchong (李天寵) took the position of Grand Coordinator of Zhejiang. Furthermore, the Nanjing Minister of War <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jing_(Ming_dynasty)" title="Zhang Jing (Ming dynasty)">Zhang Jing</a> was appointed <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy (China)">Supreme Commander</a> of the armed forces in six coastal provinces: Shandong, the <a href="/wiki/South_Zhili" class="mw-redirect" title="South Zhili">Southern Metropolitan Region</a>, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, and <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>. This new position, ranked higher than grand coordinators, was made specifically in response to the wokou crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WokouInvasionsFrom1555.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/WokouInvasionsFrom1555.jpg/220px-WokouInvasionsFrom1555.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/WokouInvasionsFrom1555.jpg/330px-WokouInvasionsFrom1555.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/WokouInvasionsFrom1555.jpg/440px-WokouInvasionsFrom1555.jpg 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="983" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the wokou attacks of 1555.</figcaption></figure> <p>By this time, 8 out of 11 prefectures of Zhejiang had been ravaged by the pirates, and 1555 was on its way to become the most disastrous year of the wokou crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974278_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974278-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pirates, numbering up to 20,000 men, had established fortifications along the Zhejiang coast and placed their headquarters at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhelin_Town&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhelin Town (page does not exist)">Zhelin</a> (柘林) on the coast south of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>. Their warships controlled the <a href="/wiki/Huangpu_River" title="Huangpu River">Huangpu River</a>, and the raiding parties even carried artillery with them to besiege cities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pirates belonged to an alliance of three Satsuma-based pirate leaders, Xu Hai, Chen Dong (陳東), and Ye Ma (葉麻), with the secondary capital Nanjing being the goal of their raids. They had hoped to capture the great metropolis Hangzhou before continuing onto Nanjing, but Xu Hai's band, who opted to reach Hangzhou by sea, was blown off course and had to return to the Gotō Islands. Ye Ma's band of pirates intercepted a shipment of rice and wine supposedly meant for the Ming army at Jiaxing and made merry. This turned out to a ploy by the Ming, who had poisoned the wine and deliberately left them on the wokou's path. Suffering 700 to 800 casualties to the poison, Ye Ma's band retreated to Songjiang. Chen Dong raided the <a href="/wiki/West_Lake" title="West Lake">West Lake</a> region and surrounded the city of Hangzhou, but as his accomplices were not coming, he lifted the siege in the beginning of May 1555 and continued to raid throughout the province of Zhejiang.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT119_119]_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT119_119]-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To dislodge the pirates, Zhang Jing called in reinforcements from Shandong, Guangxi, and <a href="/wiki/Huguang" title="Huguang">Huguang</a>. 6000 recruits from Shandong arrived first, but they suffered a devastating defeat and had to disband. Zhang Jing decided to gather his strength and wait for the 11,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988497_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988497-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> aboriginal "wolf troops" to arrive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the apparent lethargy with which Zhang Jing carried out his mission attracted criticism, leading to his undoing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197598–102_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197598–102-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 13 of 1555, the emperor sent <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Wenhua" title="Zhao Wenhua">Zhao Wenhua</a> to the wokou-affected regions to perform sacrifices to the sea god and assess the military situation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197648_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197648-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhao Wenhua was a protege of <a href="/wiki/Yan_Song" title="Yan Song">Yan Song</a>, the architect of Xia Yan's downfall who had controlled the imperial court since, so Zhao had considerable influence. Upon arriving, Zhao Wenhua urged Zhang Jing to attack the pirates, but Zhang Jing, who outranked Zhao, resisted and would not even discuss his strategy with him. Zhao Wenhua retaliated by writing a <a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_throne" title="Memorial to the throne">memorial to the throne</a> accusing Zhang Jing of deliberately delaying the operation for his own profit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988498_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988498-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, soon after Zhao Wenhua sent out the memorial, Zhang Jing led his newly arrived aboriginal troops along with generals Lu Tang and Yu Dayou to defeat the pirates at the Battle of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wangjiangjing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wangjiangjing (page does not exist)">Wangjiangjing</a> (王江涇), north of Jiaxing, on 10 May 1555.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197648_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197648-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This victory, where they took 1900 heads, was the greatest Ming victory so far in the anti-wokou campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988498Hucker1974280_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988498Hucker1974280-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the report of the victory reached the emperor, Yan Song convinced the emperor that the victory proved that Zhang Jing had the capability to defeat the pirates and Zhao Wenhua was correct in his accusation that Zhang had been stalling for time, only striking when he heard about Zhao Wenhua's accusation against him. Infuriated, the emperor ordered Zhang Jing's arrest on June 5. The Grand Coordinator of Zhejiang, Li Tianchong, was also arrested for his incompetence and the two of them were executed together on November 12.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197646,_488_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197646,_488-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zhang Jing's replacement, Zhou Chong (周珫), had his powers greatly limited compared to his predecessor. Instead of the 6 coastal provinces under Zhang Jing's command, Zhou Chong's was limited to only the Southern Metropolitan Region, Zhejiang, and Fujian. The <a href="/wiki/Investigating_censor" title="Investigating censor">investigating censor</a> of military affairs in Zhejiang, <a href="/wiki/Hu_Zongxian" title="Hu Zongxian">Hu Zongxian</a>, was promoted to Li Tianchong's position of grand coordinator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976634_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976634-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu was promoted even higher to supreme commander in April 1556, after Zhou Chong and his successor Yang Yi (楊宜) were cashiered after less than a year in service due to their underwhelming performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supreme_Commander_Hu_Zongxian_and_the_raid_of_1556">Supreme Commander Hu Zongxian and the raid of 1556</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Supreme Commander Hu Zongxian and the raid of 1556"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_policy_of_appeasement">A policy of appeasement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: A policy of appeasement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Hu_Zongxian_in_Hugongyan_02_2014-09.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Statue_of_Hu_Zongxian_in_Hugongyan_02_2014-09.JPG/220px-Statue_of_Hu_Zongxian_in_Hugongyan_02_2014-09.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Statue_of_Hu_Zongxian_in_Hugongyan_02_2014-09.JPG/330px-Statue_of_Hu_Zongxian_in_Hugongyan_02_2014-09.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Statue_of_Hu_Zongxian_in_Hugongyan_02_2014-09.JPG/440px-Statue_of_Hu_Zongxian_in_Hugongyan_02_2014-09.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Hu Zongxian in <a href="/wiki/Yuyao" title="Yuyao">Yuyao</a>, Zhejiang</figcaption></figure> <p>Compared to the short appointments of his predecessors, Hu Zongxian remained in power until 1563. His longevity as supreme commander, and indeed his meteoric rise, were due in part to his association with Zhao Wenhua's clique. Zhao Wenhua was opposed to a strict enforcement of the maritime prohibitions like the ones carried out by Zhu Wan, and instead favoured opening trade as the means to solve the wokou problem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197592–5_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197592–5-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu Zongxian, in turn, carried out a policy of appeasement despite his subordinates' disapproval and the emperor's orders to capture Wang Zhi dead or alive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even before he had become supreme commander, Hu Zongxian sent envoys to Japan in his capacity as grand coordinator ostensibly to request assistance from Japanese authorities, but in fact to establish contact with Wang Zhi to entice him to surrender. Drawn by the prospect of legal trade, Wang Zhi agreed to clean the shores of Zhejiang of pirates in return for a pardon. As a gesture of goodwill, he sent his adopted son Mao Haifeng (毛海峰) to Hu Zongxian while one of Hu's envoys stayed in Japan. Wang Zhi also warned Hu that one of the pirate leaders in his consortium, Xu Hai, was on his way to raid Zhejiang again and Wang was not able to stop him in time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was alarming news to Hu as it severely disrupted his plans of appeasement, and also he had only about 10,000 men under his command — Zhao Wenhua had disbanded the aboriginal troops that Zhang Jing had assembled after the victory at Wangjiangjing, believing the situation was under control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974287_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974287-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Far from it, the military situation deteriorated further with raiders on the horizon and the disbanded aboriginal troops turning upon the local villages and the imperial soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499_65-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_battle_of_Zaolin_and_the_siege_of_Tongxiang">The battle of Zaolin and the siege of Tongxiang</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The battle of Zaolin and the siege of Tongxiang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Xu Hai's raid started with three fleets, each several thousand strong, landing near <a href="/wiki/Yangzhou" title="Yangzhou">Yangzhou</a>, Shanghai, and Ningbo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974288_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974288-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were later found to be diversionary attacks, meant to draw the Ming defenders away as Xu Hai's main fleet of more than 10,000 men landed at <a href="/wiki/Zhapu" title="Zhapu">Zhapu</a>, aiming for the great cities of Hangzhou, Suzhou, and the auxiliary capital Nanjing. After defeating the Ming navy at Zhapu, Xu Hai ordered his own seagoing ships to be destroyed, signalling that there would be no turning back. He then rendezvoused with his fellow Satsuma raiders Chen Dong and Ye Ma at Zhelin, their base of operations in 1555. The group then headed inland and went on to plunder the market towns of <a href="/wiki/Wuzhen" title="Wuzhen">Wuzhen</a> and Zaolin (皂林) in May 1566. In the latter Xu Hai encountered stiff resistance led by the vastly outnumbered Zong Li (宗禮), who only had 900 soldiers from North China. After three days of battle, Xu Hai himself was wounded and his force was on the verge of defeat, but one final push ended in the slaughter of the government troops, who by this point had run out of supplies and energy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974290–1_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974290–1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reinforcements led by Ruan E (阮鶚) did not reach Zaolin in time to relieve Zong Li, and were chased by the victorious raiders to the walled city of <a href="/wiki/Tongxiang" title="Tongxiang">Tongxiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974292_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974292-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On May 31, Xu Hai's raiders laid siege to Tongxiang with an arsenal of <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a> at their disposal, including <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a> mounted on boats, wheeled <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering rams</a>, and Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Breech-loading_swivel_gun" title="Breech-loading swivel gun">breech-loading swivel guns</a>. However, Tongxiang was protected by a new wall that was completed in 1553 and competent defenders who withstood the siege. The attackers eventually lost interest in costly assaults and settled with trying to starve out the defenders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974292–3_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974292–3-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ruan E sent out strongly worded calls for help in which he denounced Hu Zongxian's policy of appeasement and urged quick action, but Hu Zongxian did not make an effort to relieve the siege other than making a show of force since his men suffered from low morale after the defeat at Zaolin. Instead, Hu withdrew to his headquarters at Hangzhou and tried to negotiate with Xu Hai through intermediaries while he waited for reinforcements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974293–4_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974293–4-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Xu Hai, wounded and bogged down in the siege, was shocked to hear that Wang Zhi was negotiating his own surrender with Hu Zongxian, and that Mao Haifeng was already helping Hu put down pirates in the <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_Bay" title="Hangzhou Bay">Hangzhou Bay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974294_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974294-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xu Hai told Hu's agents that while he could be induced to surrender, he could not speak for his ally Chen Dong, upon which the agents bluffed that Chen Dong had already reached an agreement with the government. This made Xu Hai tremendously suspicious of Chen Dong, who grew restless learning that Xu Hai was seeing government agents. Xu Hai eventually agreed to surrender on the condition that Hu Zongxian would secure his pardon and mollify his Japanese followers with gifts. Approximately a month into the siege, Xu Hai released 200 Ming prisoners as a sign of goodwill and withdrew from Tongxiang. Chen Dong found himself abandoned by his ally and angrily attacked Tongxiang for one more day before retreating in another direction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakdown_of_the_marauder_alliance">Breakdown of the marauder alliance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Breakdown of the marauder alliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The retreating raiders made their way to the coast at Zhapu while carrying their plunder with them. Their heavily laden river boats, thousands in number, stretched for miles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They however, did not have the seaworthy vessels to make their escape from China since Xu Hai had theirs destroyed when they first landed. Here Hu Zongxian offered them a deal: all who wished to surrender would be given positions in the military, while all who wished to return to Japan would be provided with seagoing vessels. The raiders had little choice but to accept.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974297_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974297-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now that Hu Zongxian had Xu Hai by the ear, he incited Xu Hai to attack his fellow marauders north in <a href="/wiki/Songjiang_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Songjiang District">Songjiang</a> to prove his sincerity. Xu Hai did so, hoping to keep the Songjiang marauders' booty and vessels for himself. As the raider groups fought each other in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhujing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhujing (page does not exist)">Zhujing</a> (朱涇), the general Yu Dayou burned the river boats that Xu Hai left behind, and made short work of the remnant Songjiang marauders fleeing from Xu Hai. The operation left Xu Hai stranded and terrified, and he sent gifts and a younger brother as hostage to Hu as reassurance of his surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974298_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974298-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To break up Xu Hai's power further, Hu Zongxian made use of pre-existing tension among Xu Hai, Chen Dong, and Ye Ma. Xu Hai and Ye Ming had previously quarrelled over a woman they took captive and over the division of their spoils, so Xu Hai had no qualms about luring Ye Ming into a government banquet. Ye Ma, thinking that the ships they were promised were finally ready for delivery, got so drunk at the banquet that he was apprehended by the officials with no trouble. Xu Hai demurred about doing the same to Chen Dong though, since, despite their differences, Chen Dong was a powerful figure in Satsuma, and Xu Hai could not afford to upset his patrons there. Hu Zongxian tried to sway Xu Hai by several means. First he bribed Xu's mistresses to urge him into action. Then he made Ye Ma write a letter to Chen Dong denouncing Xu Hai, then took that letter and gave it to Xu Hai, making Xu believe that there was a conspiracy against him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974299_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974299-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, Hu forced Xu Hai's hand by giving him an ultimatum: send Chen Dong over or suffer the death penalty. Hearing this, Xu Hai desperately sent his booty "worth more than a thousand gold" to his Japanese patron the <a href="/wiki/Shimazu_clan" title="Shimazu clan">Shimazu</a>, asking to borrow Chen Dong's services. When Chen Dong arrived, Xu Hai had him delivered to the authorities. Xu Hai then deceived Chen Dong's followers by saying the ships the government had promised were ready at Zhapu, leading them to the beach. There, seeing the ships arrayed in front of them, Chen's followers scurried onto the ships. Government troops then burst out of their walled positions and slaughtered the disarrayed mob. The few raiders who managed to steer the ships away were rounded up by a naval squadron nearby. By August 1556, Hu Zongxian had, through Xu Hai, eliminated two of the major wokou groups operating in China. All that remained was Xu Hai himself, trapped on the Chinese coast and unable to return to Japan due to his betrayal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974300–1Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT129_129]_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974300–1Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT129_129]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Showdown_at_the_Shen_Family_Estate">Showdown at the Shen Family Estate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Showdown at the Shen Family Estate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By this time Hu Zongxian had almost collected his strength: Lu Tang had won a decisive victory in Taizhou south of Ningbo and came back to help deal with Xu Hai;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974298_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974298-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while 6000 fresh aboriginal soldiers from <a href="/wiki/Baojing" class="mw-redirect" title="Baojing">Baojing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yongshun" class="mw-redirect" title="Yongshun">Yongshun</a> were on its way to come to Hu Zongxian's aid.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295,_302_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295,_302-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The imperial inspector Zhao Wenhua reiterated the emperor's wishes that surrender was not an option,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988501_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988501-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so Hu Zongxian made a show of receiving Xu Hai's surrender while waiting for the opportune moment to strike.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974301–2_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974301–2-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the meantime Xu Hai had settled in the Shen Family Estate (沈家莊, Shenjiazhuang) of <a href="/wiki/Pinghu" title="Pinghu">Pinghu</a>, where he recruited up to 300 new followers by hosting banquets for his neighbours, adding to the thousand or more raiders still under his command and remnants of Chen Dong's group next to the estate. He grew increasingly recalcitrant, refusing an invitation to an official <a href="/wiki/Mid-Autumn" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-Autumn">Mid-Autumn</a> party and even killing an envoy from Hu Zongxian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974302–3_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974302–3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late September, reinforcements from Baojing and Yongshun arrived and began small-scale skirmishes around the Shen Family Estate. Before commencing the final attack, Hu Zongxian persuaded his captive Chen Dong to write a letter to his followers encamped next to Xu Hai's forces, warning them that Xu Hai was conspiring with government troops to wipe them out in a pincer operation. This provoked Chen Dong's men into attacking Xu Hai's group on September 27, upon which government forces entered the fray from all directions, killing indiscriminately. On September 29, the battle ended with up to 1600 marauders killed in the estate, and Xu Hai's body was found in a nearby stream. On October 10, Chen Dong, Ye Ma, and Xu Hai's hostage brother were all executed in Jiaxing, marking the end of the wokou invasion of 1556.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974303Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT130_130]_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974303Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT130_130]-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Capture_of_Wang_Zhi">Capture of Wang Zhi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Capture of Wang Zhi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With Xu Hai's group put down, Hu Zongxian could focus his efforts in securing Wang Zhi's surrender. Mao Haifeng had been sent back to Wang Zhi to persuade him to come to China in person, as Wang Zhi had never led raids himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills1979212_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1979212-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in September 1557, when Wang Zhi was preparing to present himself to the authorities to discuss the opening of oversea trade, Zhao Wenhua, the major pusher of an appeasement policy, was accused of embezzlement, lost imperial favour, and died a commoner to illness. The political situation did not allow Hu Zongxian or Yan Song to ask the emperor that Wang Zhi be pardoned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988501–2_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988501–2-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 17 October 1557, Wang Zhi arrived at <a href="/wiki/Zhoushan_Island" title="Zhoushan Island">Zhoushan Island</a> with a large trading fleet. There he laid down his terms for surrender: he sought an imperial pardon, a naval commission, and that ports be open for trade; in return he offered to patrol the coast and persuade the raiders to return to the islands through force if necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT132_132]_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT132_132]-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hu Zongxian now faced a dilemma: he could not let Wang Zhi go, but if he accepted Wang Zhi's surrender he might be forced to execute him, turning appeasement efforts to naught.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988502_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988502-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December, confident in his prospects and his invulnerability, Wang Zhi made landing at Hangzhou. There he was accorded respectable treatment by the authorities, who feared antagonizing his followers, while they figure out what to do with him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT133_133]_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT133_133]-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time Hu Zongxian asked Wang Zhi to help manufacture arquebuses for the Ming army, which led to the weapon being widely used in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975149_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975149-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally in February next year, Wang Zhi was sent to prison, where he was given the luxuries of novelties, books, and healthy foods. Wang Zhi believed this was a temporary arrangement and remained hopeful for a pardon until 22 January 1560, when an imperial edict handed down the death sentence and he was summarily beheaded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT133_133]_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT133_133]-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By capturing and executing Wang Zhi, the Ming court had hoped to perform a <a href="/wiki/Decapitation_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Decapitation strike">decapitation strike</a> in which his followers would disband.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo201191_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo201191-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, as officials who supported negotiations had feared, Wang Zhi's followers gave up hope for peaceful trade and went back to their violent ways. Feeling betrayed after Wang Zhi was apprehended, Mao Haifeng made Zhoushan Island his base and launched raids on Zhejiang and Fujian. Hu Zongxian made a concerted effort to dislodge Mao from Zhoushan in March 1558, converging on the island from six directions with the generals Yu Dayou and <a href="/wiki/Qi_Jiguang" title="Qi Jiguang">Qi Jiguang</a>, but failed and was forced to retreat. He tempered the rising criticism against him by blaming Yu and Qi, while sending Beijing a white deer, an auspicious Taoist symbol, to the emperor's great delight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976635_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976635-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pirates eventually abandoned Zhoushan in December of the same year owing to the heavy military presence there, and scattered south to Fujian which became their new area of operation. In the summer of 1559, the remaining pirate bands in the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Delta">Yangtze River Delta</a> were wiped out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988503_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988503-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_end_of_the_wokou_crisis">The end of the wokou crisis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The end of the wokou crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_action_in_Fujian">Military action in Fujian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Military action in Fujian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qi_Jiguang_Portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Qi_Jiguang_Portrait.jpg/170px-Qi_Jiguang_Portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Qi_Jiguang_Portrait.jpg/255px-Qi_Jiguang_Portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Qi_Jiguang_Portrait.jpg/340px-Qi_Jiguang_Portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="979" /></a><figcaption>Qi Jiguang</figcaption></figure> <p>Hu Zongxian turned his attention to Fujian after the situation in Zhejiang settled down. However, as he did so, his ally Yan Song began to fall out of imperial favour and finally lost his position as Senior Grand Secretary in June 1562. In the following purge of Yan's associates, Hu Zongxian was impeached for being too friendly to Wang Zhi and mishandling military funds, among other perceived transgressions. The Jiajing Emperor interceded on his behalf and allowed Hu to retire with all his titles intact in 1563. In any case, Hu Zongxian's supreme commander position overseeing three provinces was considered too powerful especially since the wokou had moved away from the crucial Jiangnan region, so the position was abolished after Hu Zongxian left office — grand coordinators became the paramount figure in those provinces again.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976636_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976636-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, in November 1565, new evidence arose incriminating Hu Zongxian of trying to bribe Yan Song's son, and Hu died shortly after while in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976637_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976637-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Fujian, Wang Zhi's followers from Zhoushan took over <a href="/wiki/Kinmen" title="Kinmen">Kinmen</a> and made that island their base to raid up and down the coast in alliance with Cantonese pirates. In December 1562, the prefectural city Xinghua (present-day <a href="/wiki/Putian" title="Putian">Putian</a>) was taken after a month-long siege, along with many major towns surrounding it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general <a href="/wiki/Qi_Jiguang" title="Qi Jiguang">Qi Jiguang</a> was made vice commander while his fellow wokou-fighter <a href="/wiki/Tan_Lun" title="Tan Lun">Tan Lun</a> was made the Grand Coordinator of Fujian in 1563. Qi Jiguang had by this time assembled his own army from able-bodied farmers of <a href="/wiki/Yiwu" title="Yiwu">Yiwu</a> and devised the <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_duck_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin duck formation">mandarin duck formation</a> (鴛鴦陣) to counter the formidable Japanese contingents among the wokou. This army proved successful in successive battles, and Qi continued to train Fujianese recruits the same way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976221_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976221-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With his highly disciplined troops, Qi Jiguang retook the city of Xinghua and destroyed the last major pirate base in Fujian by May 1563.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those pirates who had managed to escape and to sail farther south were gradually killed or captured in a series of campaigns conducted in southern <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> and Guangdong between 1564 and 1566. Through these campaigns, the mountainous region between Guangdong, Fujian, and southern Jiangxi, which had been a haven for bandits since the early years of the sixteenth century, was brought under imperial control. By 1567, piracy was no longer seen as a serious threat on the Chinese coast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legalization_of_foreign_trade">Legalization of foreign trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Legalization of foreign trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While military action suppressed the pirates, a change in Ming maritime policy allowing overseas trade was instrumental in keeping them from rising again. As early as 1530, the maritime prohibitions had in fact been lifted in the southern coastal province of Guangdong, where non-tribute trade was taxed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201315_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201315-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Provincial authorities had hoped that by opening trade, the economically marginalized of Guangdong would have legitimate livelihoods and would not need to descend into piracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201315–6_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201315–6-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, Guangdong was spared from the brunt of the pirate raids during the peak years of wokou activity, and those who had invaded Guangdong were put down with relative ease.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201316_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201316-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1554, the provincial authorities entered into an historic <a href="/wiki/Luso-Chinese_agreement_(1554)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luso-Chinese agreement (1554)">agreement with the Portuguese</a> — who came back to Guangdong after their misfortunes at Zhejiang and Fujian — where the Portuguese would be allowed to settle in <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> and trade in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> for an annual fee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201316_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201316-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Portuguese would thence help the Ming destroy pirate fleets in the area,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills201035,_38–9_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills201035,_38–9-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for which they were eventually rewarded with the imperial acknowledgement of their occupation of Macau by the <a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a> (r. 1563–1620).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201316_98-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201316-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This occupation lasted all the way until 1999, when <a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_sovereignty_over_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer of sovereignty over Macau">Macau was handed over</a> to the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. </p><p>A few months after the death of the Jiajing Emperor in 1567, the maritime prohibition was officially lifted and Fujian became open to all foreign trade (except the Japanese). The old smuggling port of <a href="/wiki/Yuegang" title="Yuegang">Yuegang</a> ("Moon Harbour") was renamed to <a href="/wiki/Haicheng,_Fujian" title="Haicheng, Fujian">Haicheng</a> (海澄, "clear seas") and was designated the port where this trade was to be conducted in Fujian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201320_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201320-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trade with the Japanese, which was expressly forbidden due to their perceived role in the wokou raids, was eventually conducted in third party entities like the <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Kingdom" title="Ryukyu Kingdom">Ryukyu Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Portuguese Macau</a>, which greatly prospered from being the intermediary between Chinese and Japanese merchants. Thus China was finally officially inducted into the global trading network that was being formed in the Age of Discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988505_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988505-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of the wokou, especially about their identity, had been controversial over the ages both domestically and internationally. Even whilst the crisis was ongoing in the 16th century, a number of officials had pointed out the inappropriateness of the term "wokou", which means Japanese pirates, to refer to a mostly Chinese phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197530–2_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197530–2-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite some commentators who made a point not to use the term, many had no issue calling all pirates "Wo" (Japanese). For soldiers, cutting off a Japanese head gave a better monetary reward from the government;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197535–6_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197535–6-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for local officials, pretending the pirates were Japanese made them an external problem beyond their responsibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198123_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198123-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the actual pirates could likewise hide behind the "wokou" label and shift the blame to the Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197531_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197531-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records_of_the_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Veritable Records of the Ming">Veritable Records of the Ming</a></i>, from which the official <i>History of Ming</i> derived, treated the smugglers as pirates and identified the pro-trade ministers such as Yan Song and Zhao Wenhua as "Wo collaborators", leading to the <i>History of Ming</i> placing their biographies under the section "Treacherous Ministers" (奸臣傳).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197583_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197583-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The compiler of the <i>Veritable Records</i> for the Jiajing era, the Senior Grand Secretariat <a href="/wiki/Xu_Jie_(Ming_dynasty)" title="Xu Jie (Ming dynasty)">Xu Jie</a>, was keen to denounce his predecessor and political enemy Yan Song in this work, but in doing so he beclouded the whole wokou affair in the histories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975114_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975114-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the <i>History of Ming</i> is among the <i><a href="/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories" title="Twenty-Four Histories">Twenty-Four Histories</a></i>, the set of <a href="/wiki/Official_histories" class="mw-redirect" title="Official histories">official histories</a> of China, many writers up to the 20th century considered it the authority on the events of the Ming dynasty, including the Jiajing era wokou raids.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975209_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975209-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditional interpretation characterizing the wokou as a Japanese phenomenon carried into the 20th century. During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> in the 1930s, both Chinese and Japanese writers illustrated the Jiajing wokou using this narrative to instill nationalistic feelings in their respective countries. Japanese writers like <a href="/wiki/Takekoshi_Yosabur%C5%8D" title="Takekoshi Yosaburō">Takekoshi Yosaburō</a>, Tomaru Fukuju, and Mogi Shuichiro were more interested in the military aspect of the raids and considered the wokou part of a "noble tradition for the Japanese navy and for Japan's empire-building".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975206_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975206-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese writers of the time like Chen Mouheng and Wu Chonghan likewise blamed the Japanese (and sometimes the "imperialist" Portuguese) as the instigators of the Jiajing wokou raids while their Chinese counterparts were treated as mere traitorous collaborators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975207–8_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975207–8-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese studies of the period also focused on the devastation caused by the wokou and the Ming response without delving too much on the wokou themselves. This narrative prevailed well into the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, when wokou studies again became imbued with patriotic rhetoric. The cultivation of Qi Jiguang as a national hero was a byproduct of the propaganda efforts at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT28_28]_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT28_28]-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite being a minority during the 1930s, Japanese researchers of international diplomacy like Fujita Toyohachi, Akiyama Kenzo, and Kobata Atsushi were keen to point out the link between the piratical activities and foreign trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975207_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975207-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This line of interpretation was picked up by Katayama Seijiro and Sakuma Shigeo in the 1950s and 60s who noted that although all coastal pirates were labelled "wokou", the raids were actually carried out by "treacherous merchants" (奸商) and influential families of China. They conclude that the disturbances had its roots in the social and economic changes in Chinese coastal society and were hence not an offshoot of Sino-Japanese diplomacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT29_29]_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT29_29]-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taiwanese historians in the 1960s agreed with this view, adding that the connection between trade and piracy was a result of the Ming prohibition against private sea trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT30_30]_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT30_30]-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s and 80s, when mainland Chinese scholars were interested in the "<a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">sprouts of capitalism</a>" of the mid-to-late Ming dynasty, they followed previous Japanese and Taiwanese scholarship and classified the Jiajing wokou episode as manifestations of anti-feudal and pro-capitalist struggles of the littoral societies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT30_30]_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT30_30]-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, Chinese writers of this interpretation such as Dai Yixuan, Fan Shuzhi, Lin Renchuan, and Chen Kangsheng are categorized in the "New wokou thesis" school in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim20133_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim20133-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_references">Cultural references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cultural references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The conflict is the subject of several motion pictures, including: </p> <ul><li><i>The Valiant Ones</i> (忠烈圖), a 1975 Hong Kong film directed by <a href="/wiki/King_Hu" title="King Hu">King Hu</a>. Among the historical figures depicted in the film is general <a href="/wiki/Yu_Dayou" title="Yu Dayou">Yu Dayou</a> (performed by <a href="/wiki/Roy_Chiao" title="Roy Chiao">Roy Chiao</a>).</li> <li><i>Great General</i> (戚繼光, <i>Qi Jiguang</i>), a 1978 Taiwanese film directed by Ting Chung, centered around general <a href="/wiki/Qi_Jiguang" title="Qi Jiguang">Qi Jiguang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>The New Valiant Ones</i> (新忠烈图), a 2006 Hong Kong film directed by Xin Liu. <a href="/wiki/Nicky_Wu" title="Nicky Wu">Nicky Wu</a> stars as general <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B9%E9%A1%B6" class="extiw" title="zh:曹顶">Cao Ding</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/God_of_War_(film)" title="God of War (film)">God of War</a></i> (荡寇风云), a 2017 Mainland Chinese film directed by <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Chan" title="Gordon Chan">Gordon Chan</a>. Among the depicted historical figures are generals <a href="/wiki/Qi_Jiguang" title="Qi Jiguang">Qi Jiguang</a> (performed by <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Zhao" title="Vincent Zhao">Vincent Zhao</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Yu_Dayou" title="Yu Dayou">Yu Dayou</a> (performed by <a href="/wiki/Sammo_Hung" title="Sammo Hung">Sammo Hung</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy" title="Golden Age of Piracy">Golden Age of Piracy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198031-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198031_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiggins1980">Higgins 1980</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo19755-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo19755_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills201032–3-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills201032–3_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWills2010">Wills 2010</a>, pp. 32–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo201178-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo201178_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHo2011">Ho 2011</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo19751,_13_note_1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo19751,_13_note_1_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 1, 13 note 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991239-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991239_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElisonas1991">Elisonas 1991</a>, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo19751-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo19751_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo19751_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197517–36-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197517–36_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 17–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197532-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197532_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201049-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201049_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChin2010">Chin 2010</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201049–51-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201049–51_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChin2010">Chin 2010</a>, pp. 49–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991258–9-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991258–9_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElisonas1991">Elisonas 1991</a>, pp. 258–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975148–9-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975148–9_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 148–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELo1958158-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELo1958158_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELo1958158_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLo1958">Lo 1958</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197562-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197562_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELo1958160-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELo1958160_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLo1958">Lo 1958</a>, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197652-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197652_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrick1976">Fitzpatrick 1976</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197677._For_further_information_about_Shaolin_monks'_involvement_in_wokou_suppression,_see_[[Shaolin_Kung_Fu#Pirates|Shaolin_Kung_Fu_§&nbsp;Pirates]]-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197677._For_further_information_about_Shaolin_monks'_involvement_in_wokou_suppression,_see_[[Shaolin_Kung_Fu#Pirates|Shaolin_Kung_Fu_§&nbsp;Pirates]]_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrick1976">Fitzpatrick 1976</a>, p. 77. For further information about Shaolin monks' involvement in wokou suppression, see <a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Kung_Fu#Pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaolin Kung Fu">Shaolin Kung Fu § Pirates</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197677Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT137_137]-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197677Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT137_137]_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrick1976">Fitzpatrick 1976</a>, p. 77; <a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT137">137</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197610-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197610_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrick1976">Fitzpatrick 1976</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197611-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197611_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrick1976">Fitzpatrick 1976</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198030-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198030_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiggins1980">Higgins 1980</a>, p. 30. Original quote: 去外國盜易，去中國盜難。去中國瀕海之盜猶易，去中國衣寇之盜尤難。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197620-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick197620_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrick1976">Fitzpatrick 1976</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198033_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiggins1980">Higgins 1980</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo201181-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo201181_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHo2011">Ho 2011</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201046-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201046_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChin2010">Chin 2010</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201047-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201047_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201047_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201047_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChin2010">Chin 2010</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201048–9-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201048–9_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChin2010">Chin 2010</a>, pp. 48–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198032-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198032_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiggins1980">Higgins 1980</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick19794,_7-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrick19794,_7_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrick1979">Fitzpatrick 1979</a>, pp. 4, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins1980167–9-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins1980167–9_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiggins1980">Higgins 1980</a>, pp. 167–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976374_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxviiGoodrichFang1976374-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxviiGoodrichFang1976374_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoxer1953">Boxer 1953</a>, p. xxvii; <a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxvii,_note_3-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxvii,_note_3_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoxer1953">Boxer 1953</a>, p. xxvii, note 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197566-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197566_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197566GoodrichFang1976374–5-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197566GoodrichFang1976374–5_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 66; <a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, pp. 374–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953195-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953195_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoxer1953">Boxer 1953</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197567-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197567_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976375-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976375_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976375_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197584–5Higgins1981179–180-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197584–5Higgins1981179–180_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 84–5; <a href="#CITEREFHiggins1981">Higgins 1981</a>, pp. 179–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxx-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoxer1953xxx_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoxer1953">Boxer 1953</a>, p. xxx.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills201034-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills201034_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWills2010">Wills 2010</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins1981199-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins1981199_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiggins1981">Higgins 1981</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins1981216–7-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins1981216–7_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiggins1981">Higgins 1981</a>, pp. 216–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo201198-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo201198_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHo2011">Ho 2011</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991252-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991252_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElisonas1991">Elisonas 1991</a>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin201051-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin201051_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChin2010">Chin 2010</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1979212-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills1979212_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills1979212_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWills1979">Wills 1979</a>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991260-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElisonas1991260_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElisonas1991">Elisonas 1991</a>, p. 260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988495-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988495_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 495.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988496-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988496_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988496_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 496.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT112_112]-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT112_112]_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT112_112]_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT112">112</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang19761004-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang19761004_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang19761004_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 1004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974277-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974277_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197647_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974278-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974278_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT119_119]-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT119_119]_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT119">119</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988497-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988497_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 497.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197598–102-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197598–102_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 98–102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197648-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197648_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197648_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988498-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988498_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 498.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988498Hucker1974280-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988498Hucker1974280_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 498; <a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197646,_488-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang197646,_488_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, pp. 46, 488.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976634-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976634_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 634.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988499_65-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 499.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197592–5-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197592–5_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 92–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974287-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974287_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974288-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974288_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974290–1-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974290–1_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, pp. 290–1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974292-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974292_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 292.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974292–3-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974292–3_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, pp. 292–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974293–4-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974293–4_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, pp. 293–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974294-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974294_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 295.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974297-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974297_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974298-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974298_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974298_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974299-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974299_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974300–1Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT129_129]-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974300–1Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT129_129]_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, pp. 300–1; <a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT129">129</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295,_302-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974295,_302_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, pp. 295, 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988501-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988501_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 501.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974301–2-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974301–2_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, pp. 301–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974302–3-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974302–3_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, pp. 302–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1974303Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT130_130]-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1974303Lim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT130_130]_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1974">Hucker 1974</a>, p. 303; <a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT130">130</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988501–2-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988501–2_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, pp. 501–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT132_132]-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT132_132]_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT132">132</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988502-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988502_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 502.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT133_133]-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT133_133]_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT133_133]_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT133">133</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975149-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975149_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo201191-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo201191_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHo2011">Ho 2011</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976635-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976635_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 635.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988503-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988503_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 503.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976636-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976636_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 636.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976637-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976637_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 637.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988504_94-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 504.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976221-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrichFang1976221_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrichFang1976">Goodrich & Fang 1976</a>, p. 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201315-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201315_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2013">Lim 2013</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201315–6-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201315–6_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2013">Lim 2013</a>, pp. 15–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201316-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201316_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201316_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201316_98-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2013">Lim 2013</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills201035,_38–9-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills201035,_38–9_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWills2010">Wills 2010</a>, pp. 35, 38–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim201320-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim201320_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2013">Lim 2013</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988505-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988505_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeiss1988">Geiss 1988</a>, p. 505.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197530–2-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197530–2_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 30–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197535–6-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197535–6_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 35–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggins198123-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins198123_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiggins1981">Higgins 1981</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197531-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197531_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo197583-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo197583_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975114-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975114_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975209-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975209_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975206-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975206_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975207–8-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975207–8_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, pp. 207–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT28_28]-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT28_28]_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT28">28</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo1975207-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo1975207_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1975">So 1975</a>, p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT29_29]-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT29_29]_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT29">29</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT30_30]-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT30_30]_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNLj-3OmxFAcCpgPT30_30]_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2010">Lim 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLj-3OmxFAcC&pg=PT30">30</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim20133-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim20133_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLim2013">Lim 2013</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hkmdb.com/db/movies/view.mhtml?id=10030&display_set=big5">"戚繼光 (1978) Great General"</a>. hkmdb.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%88%9A%E7%B9%BC%E5%85%89+%281978%29+Great+General&rft.pub=hkmdb.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhkmdb.com%2Fdb%2Fmovies%2Fview.mhtml%3Fid%3D10030%26display_set%3Dbig5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoxer1953" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._R._Boxer" title="C. R. Boxer">Boxer, C. R.</a> (1953). <i>South China in the Sixteenth Century (1550-1575)</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hakluyt_Society" title="Hakluyt Society">Hakluyt Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-1472-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-1472-8"><bdi>978-1-4094-1472-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+China+in+the+Sixteenth+Century+%281550-1575%29&rft.pub=Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-1472-8&rft.aulast=Boxer&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChin2010" class="citation book cs1">Chin, James K. (2010). "Merchants, Smugglers, and Pirates: Multinational Clandestine Trade on the South China Coast, 1520–50". In Antony, Robert J. (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elusivepiratespe00anto"><i>Elusive pirates, pervasive smugglers violence and clandestine trade in the Greater China Seas</i></a></span>. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elusivepiratespe00anto/page/n30">43</a>–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789888028115" title="Special:BookSources/9789888028115"><bdi>9789888028115</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Merchants%2C+Smugglers%2C+and+Pirates%3A+Multinational+Clandestine+Trade+on+the+South+China+Coast%2C+1520%E2%80%9350&rft.btitle=Elusive+pirates%2C+pervasive+smugglers+violence+and+clandestine+trade+in+the+Greater+China+Seas&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pages=43-57&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789888028115&rft.aulast=Chin&rft.aufirst=James+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felusivepiratespe00anto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElisonas1991" class="citation book cs1">Elisonas, Jurgis (1991). "6 - The inseparable trinity: Japan's relations with China and Korea". In <a href="/wiki/John_Whitney_Hall" title="John Whitney Hall">Hall, John Whitney</a>; McClain, James L. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Japan" title="The Cambridge History of Japan"><i>The Cambridge History of Japan</i></a>. Vol. 4. Cambridge Eng. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 235–300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521223553" title="Special:BookSources/9780521223553"><bdi>9780521223553</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6+-+The+inseparable+trinity%3A+Japan%27s+relations+with+China+and+Korea&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Japan&rft.place=Cambridge+Eng.+New+York&rft.pages=235-300&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780521223553&rft.aulast=Elisonas&rft.aufirst=Jurgis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzpatrick1976" class="citation thesis cs1">Fitzpatrick, Merrilyn (1976). <i>Local administration in northern Chekiang and the response to the pirate invasions of 1553-1556</i> (Ph.D.). <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Local+administration+in+northern+Chekiang+and+the+response+to+the+pirate+invasions+of+1553-1556&rft.inst=Australian+National+University&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.aufirst=Merrilyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzpatrick1979" class="citation journal cs1">Fitzpatrick, Merrilyn (1979). "Local Interests and the Anti-Pirate Administration in China's South-east 1555-1565". <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%27ing-shih_wen-t%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i">Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i</a></i>. <b>4</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>: 1–50.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ch%27ing-shih+wen-t%27i&rft.atitle=Local+Interests+and+the+Anti-Pirate+Administration+in+China%27s+South-east+1555-1565&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-50&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.aufirst=Merrilyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeiss1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Geiss" title="James Geiss">Geiss, James</a> (1988). "8 - The Chia-ching reign, 1522–1566". In <a href="/wiki/Frederick_W._Mote" title="Frederick W. Mote">Mote, Frederick W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Denis_C._Twitchett" class="mw-redirect" title="Denis C. Twitchett">Twitchett, Denis</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_China" title="The Cambridge History of China"><i>The Cambridge History of China</i></a>. Vol. 7. Cambridge Eng. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 440–510. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521243322" title="Special:BookSources/9780521243322"><bdi>9780521243322</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8+-+The+Chia-ching+reign%2C+1522%E2%80%931566&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.place=Cambridge+Eng.+New+York&rft.pages=440-510&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780521243322&rft.aulast=Geiss&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodrichFang1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luther_Carrington_Goodrich" title="Luther Carrington Goodrich">Goodrich, L. Carrington</a>; Fang, Chaoying, eds. (1976). <i>Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644</i>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-03801-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-03801-1"><bdi>0-231-03801-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Ming+Biography%2C+1368%E2%80%931644.&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-231-03801-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiggins1980" class="citation journal cs1">Higgins, Roland L. (1980). "Pirates in Gowns and Caps: Gentry Law-breaking in the Mid-Ming". <i>Ming Studies</i>. <b>1980</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Maney_Publishing" title="Maney Publishing">Maney Publishing</a>: 30–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F014703780788764965">10.1179/014703780788764965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ming+Studies&rft.atitle=Pirates+in+Gowns+and+Caps%3A+Gentry+Law-breaking+in+the+Mid-Ming&rft.volume=1980&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-37&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F014703780788764965&rft.aulast=Higgins&rft.aufirst=Roland+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiggins1981" class="citation thesis cs1">Higgins, Roland L. (1981). <i>Piracy and coastal defense in the Ming period, government response to coastal disturbances, 1523-1549</i> (Ph.D.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Piracy+and+coastal+defense+in+the+Ming+period%2C+government+response+to+coastal+disturbances%2C+1523-1549&rft.inst=University+of+Minnesota&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Higgins&rft.aufirst=Roland+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHo2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Ho, Dahpon David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3pk3t096"><i>Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China</i></a> (Ph.D.). <a href="/wiki/UC_San_Diego" class="mw-redirect" title="UC San Diego">UC San Diego</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 28,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Sealords+live+in+vain+%3A+Fujian+and+the+making+of+a+maritime+frontier+in+seventeenth-century+China&rft.inst=UC+San+Diego&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Dahpon+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3pk3t096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHucker1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hucker" title="Charles Hucker">Hucker, Charles O.</a> (1974). "Hu Tsung-hsien's Campaign Against Hsu Hai". In Kierman, Frank A. Jr.; <a href="/wiki/John_King_Fairbank" title="John King Fairbank">Fairbank, John K</a> (eds.). <i>Chinese Ways in Warfare</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 273–311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674125754" title="Special:BookSources/0674125754"><bdi>0674125754</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hu+Tsung-hsien%27s+Campaign+Against+Hsu+Hai&rft.btitle=Chinese+Ways+in+Warfare&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=273-311&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0674125754&rft.aulast=Hucker&rft.aufirst=Charles+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLim2010" class="citation book cs1">Lim, Ivy Maria (2010). <i>Lineage Society on the Southeastern Coast of China</i>. Cambria Press. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B005VWYPUI">B005VWYPUI</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lineage+Society+on+the+Southeastern+Coast+of+China&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB005VWYPUI%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Lim&rft.aufirst=Ivy+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLim2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lim, Ivy Maria (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bacsuk.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Lim_sep_fv.pdf">"From Haijin to Kaihai: The Jiajing Court's Search for a Modus Operandi along the South-eastern Coast (1522-1567)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the British Association for Chinese Studies</i>. <b>2</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+British+Association+for+Chinese+Studies&rft.atitle=From+Haijin+to+Kaihai%3A+The+Jiajing+Court%27s+Search+for+a+Modus+Operandi+along+the+South-eastern+Coast+%281522-1567%29&rft.volume=2&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Lim&rft.aufirst=Ivy+Maria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbacsuk.org.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F10%2FLim_sep_fv.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLo1958" class="citation journal cs1">Lo, Jung-pang (1958). "The Decline of the Early Ming Navy". <i>Oriens Extremus</i>. <b>5</b> (2): 149–168. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43383349">43383349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oriens+Extremus&rft.atitle=The+Decline+of+the+Early+Ming+Navy&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-168&rft.date=1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43383349%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lo&rft.aufirst=Jung-pang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSo1975" class="citation book cs1">So, Kwan-wai (1975). <i>Japanese piracy in Ming China during the 16th century</i>. East Lansing: <a href="/wiki/Michigan_State_University_Press" title="Michigan State University Press">Michigan State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0870131796" title="Special:BookSources/0870131796"><bdi>0870131796</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japanese+piracy+in+Ming+China+during+the+16th+century&rft.place=East+Lansing&rft.pub=Michigan+State+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0870131796&rft.aulast=So&rft.aufirst=Kwan-wai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWills1979" class="citation book cs1">Wills, John E. Jr. (1979). "Maritime China from Wang Chih to Shih Lang: Themes in Peripheral History". In <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Spence, Jonathan</a>; Wills, John E. Jr. (eds.). <i>From Ming to Ch'ing : conquest, region, and continuity in seventeenth-century China</i>. New Haven, London: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. pp. 201–238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300026722" title="Special:BookSources/0300026722"><bdi>0300026722</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maritime+China+from+Wang+Chih+to+Shih+Lang%3A+Themes+in+Peripheral+History&rft.btitle=From+Ming+to+Ch%27ing+%3A+conquest%2C+region%2C+and+continuity+in+seventeenth-century+China&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+London&rft.pages=201-238&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0300026722&rft.aulast=Wills&rft.aufirst=John+E.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWills2010" class="citation book cs1">Wills, John E. Jr. (2010). <i>China and Maritime Europe, 1500–1800: Trade, Settlement, Diplomacy, and Missions</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139494267" title="Special:BookSources/9781139494267"><bdi>9781139494267</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+Maritime+Europe%2C+1500%E2%80%931800%3A+Trade%2C+Settlement%2C+Diplomacy%2C+and+Missions&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781139494267&rft.aulast=Wills&rft.aufirst=John+E.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJiajing+wokou+raids" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ming_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Ming dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ming_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Ming dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ming_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ming dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ming_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="History of the Ming dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1368–1435)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Turban Rebellion">Red Turban Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Mian_rebellion" title="Wu Mian rebellion">Wu Mian rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Ming conquest of Yunnan">Ming conquest of Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Mong_Mao_War_(1386%E2%80%931388)" title="Ming–Mong Mao War (1386–1388)">Ming–Mong Mao War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_campaign_against_the_Uriankhai" title="Ming campaign against the Uriankhai">Campaign against the Uriankhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buir_Lake" title="Battle of Buir Lake">Battle of Buir Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Kuan_rebellion" title="Lin Kuan rebellion">Lin Kuan rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dao_Ganmeng_rebellion" title="Dao Ganmeng rebellion">Dao Ganmeng rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingnan_campaign" title="Jingnan campaign">Jingnan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">Ming treasure voyages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Turpan_conflict" title="Ming–Turpan conflict">Ming–Turpan conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_conquest_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Ngu" title="Ming conquest of Đại Ngu">Ming–Đại Ngu War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Palembang_(1407)" title="Battle of Palembang (1407)">Battle of Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kherlen" title="Battle of Kherlen">Battle of Kherlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Kotte_War" title="Ming–Kotte War">Ming–Kotte War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lam_S%C6%A1n_uprising" title="Lam Sơn uprising">Lam Sơn uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor%27s_campaigns_against_the_Mongols" title="Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols">Campaigns against the Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Ren_and_Xuan" title="Reign of Ren and Xuan">Reign of Ren and Xuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Middle <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1435–1572)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luchuan%E2%80%93Pingmian_campaigns" title="Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns">Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis">Tumu Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Beijing" title="Defense of Beijing">Defense of Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_Cao_Qin" title="Rebellion of Cao Qin">Rebellion of Cao Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_rebellions_in_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty">Miao rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Anhua_rebellion" title="Prince of Anhua rebellion">Prince of Anhua rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Ning_rebellion" title="Prince of Ning rebellion">Prince of Ning rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malacca_(1511)" title="Capture of Malacca (1511)">Capture of Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_missions_to_Ming_China" title="Japanese missions to Ming China">Japanese missions to Ming China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_incident" title="Ningbo incident">Ningbo incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rites_Controversy" title="Great Rites Controversy">Great Rites Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_plot_of_Renyin_year" title="Palace plot of Renyin year">Renyin plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luso-Chinese_agreement" title="Luso-Chinese agreement">Luso-Chinese agreement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jiajing wokou raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_whip_law" title="Single whip law">Single whip law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Late <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1572–1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification#Jianzhou_war" title="Jurchen unification">Jianzhou war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bozhou_rebellion" title="Bozhou rebellion">Bozhou rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordos_campaign_(1592)" title="Ordos campaign (1592)">Ordos campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donglin_movement" title="Donglin movement">Donglin movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Dutch_conflicts" title="Sino-Dutch conflicts">Sino-Dutch conflicts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liaoluo_Bay" title="Battle of Liaoluo Bay">Liaoluo Bay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarh%C5%AB" title="Battle of Sarhū">Sarhū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">Great Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She-An_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="She-An Rebellion">She-An Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ming_peasant_rebellions" title="Late Ming peasant rebellions">Peasant rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiashen_Incident" title="Jiashen Incident">Jiashen Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Ming dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Ming_dynasty_and_Southern_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">House of Zhu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat">Grand Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_territory_in_dynastic_China#Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)" title="Administration of territory in dynastic China">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Depot" title="Eastern Depot">Eastern Depot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princes_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Princes of the Ming dynasty">Princes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vassal_prince_peerages_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of vassal prince peerages of the Ming dynasty">Vassal prince</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Grand coordinator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embroidered_Uniform_Guard" title="Embroidered Uniform Guard">Embroidered Uniform Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futou#Ming_dynasty" title="Futou">Fotou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Military of the Ming dynasty">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_Great_Wall" title="Ming Great Wall">Great Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_weapons_in_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Gunpowder weapons in the Ming dynasty">Gunpowder weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shenjiying" title="Shenjiying">Shenjiying</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_conquests_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Military conquests of the Ming dynasty">Military conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Garrisons_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Nine Garrisons of the Ming dynasty">Nine Garrisons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Frontiers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Wokou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_under_Ming_rule" title="Yunnan under Ming rule">Yunnan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Compilations and Documents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hundred-word_Eulogy" title="The Hundred-word Eulogy">The Hundred-word Eulogy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huang-Ming_Zuxun" title="Huang-Ming Zuxun">Huang-Ming Zuxun</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Encyclopedia" title="Yongle Encyclopedia">Yongle Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Collected_Statutes_of_the_Ming_Dynasty" title="Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty">Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ming_Veritable_Records" title="Ming Veritable Records">Ming Veritable Records</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces and Mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaotian_Palace" title="Chaotian Palace">Chaotian Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_Xiaoling" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Xiaoling">Ming Xiaoling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_Ancestors_Mausoleum" title="Ming Ancestors Mausoleum">Ming Ancestors Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_tombs" title="Ming tombs">Ming tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society and Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_poetry" title="Ming poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicians_in_Ming_China" title="Musicians in Ming China">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_painting" title="Ming dynasty painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_School" title="Wu School">Wu School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhe_school_(painting)" title="Zhe school (painting)">Zhe School</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_lacquerware_table" title="Chinese lacquerware table">Chinese lacquerware table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_presentation_porcelain" title="Ming presentation porcelain">Ming presentation porcelain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covered_jar_with_carp_design" title="Covered jar with carp design">Covered jar with carp design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongning_Temple_Stele" title="Yongning Temple Stele">Yongning Temple Stele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Economy of the Ming dynasty">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples#Ming_dynasty_Tai_history" title="Tai peoples">Tai history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">Islam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_coinage" title="Ming dynasty coinage">Coinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Tongbao" title="Hongwu Tongbao">Hongwu Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Tongbao" title="Yongle Tongbao">Yongle Tongbao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ming_Treasure_Note" title="Great Ming Treasure Note">Great Ming Treasure Note</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Piracy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pirates" title="Template:Pirates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pirates" title="Template talk:Pirates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pirates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pirates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_by_period" title="Category:Piracy by period">Periods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Ancient Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy" title="Golden Age of Piracy">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_21st_century" title="Piracy in the 21st century">21st century</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_piracy" title="2022 in piracy">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_piracy" title="2023 in piracy">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_piracy" title="2024 in piracy">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Types of pirate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_piracy" title="Albanian piracy">Albanian piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Turkish_piracy" title="Anglo-Turkish piracy">Anglo-Turkish piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Slavic_piracy" title="Baltic Slavic piracy">Baltic Slavic pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates (corsairs)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corsairs_of_Algiers" title="Corsairs of Algiers">Algiers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Coast" title="Brethren of the Coast">Brethren of the Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buccaneer" title="Buccaneer">Buccaneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_pirate" title="Child pirate">Child pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossack pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filibuster_(military)" title="Filibuster (military)">Filibusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_corsairs" title="French corsairs">French corsairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas" title="Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas">Moro pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narentines" title="Narentines">Narentines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_privateer" title="Confederate privateer">Confederate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_pirate" title="River pirate">River pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geuzen" title="Geuzen">Sea Beggars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Sea_Dogs" title="Elizabethan Sea Dogs">Sea Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawarij" title="Bawarij">Sindhi corsairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_pirate" title="Timber pirate">Timber pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushkuyniks" title="Ushkuyniks">Ushkuyniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uskoks" title="Uskoks">Uskoks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victual_Brothers" title="Victual Brothers">Victual Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Wokou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Women in piracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Atlantic_World" title="Piracy in the Atlantic World">Atlantic World</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Piracy in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_on_Lake_Nicaragua" title="Piracy on Lake Nicaragua">Lake Nicaragua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Piracy off the coast of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_around_the_Horn_of_Africa" title="Piracy around the Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia" title="Piracy off the coast of Somalia">Somali Coast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_Indonesia" title="Piracy in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Piracy in the Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Strait_of_Malacca" title="Piracy in the Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nosy_Boraha" title="Nosy Boraha">Nosy Boraha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other waters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Slavic_piracy" title="Baltic Slavic piracy">Baltic Slavic piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_on_Falcon_Lake" title="Piracy on Falcon Lake">Falcon Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirates_of_the_South_China_Coast" title="Pirates of the South China Coast">South China Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas" title="Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas">Sulu Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pirate_haven" title="Pirate haven">Pirate havens</a><br />and bases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barataria_Bay" title="Barataria Bay">Barataria Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Sainte-Marie" class="mw-redirect" title="Île Sainte-Marie">Île Sainte-Marie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertatia" title="Libertatia">Libertatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lundy" title="Lundy">Lundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehdya,_Morocco" title="Mehdya, Morocco">Mamora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal" title="Port Royal">Port Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pirates" title="Republic of Pirates">Republic of Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sal%C3%A9" title="Republic of Salé">Republic of Salé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Augustin,_Madagascar" title="Saint Augustin, Madagascar">Saint Augustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tortuga_(Haiti)" title="Tortuga (Haiti)">Tortuga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Major figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pirates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abduwali_Muse" title="Abduwali Muse">Abduwali Muse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abshir_Boyah" title="Abshir Boyah">Abshir Boyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Baldridge" title="Adam Baldridge">Adam Baldridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Samuel" title="Abraham Samuel">Abraham Samuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_and_Alfhild" title="Alf and Alfhild">Alfhild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_W._Hicks" title="Albert W. Hicks">Albert W. Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bonny" title="Anne Bonny">Anne Bonny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Dieu-le-Veut" title="Anne Dieu-le-Veut">Anne Dieu-le-Veut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Faria" title="António de Faria">António de Faria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Exquemelin" title="Alexandre Exquemelin">Alexandre Exquemelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemisia_I_of_Caria" title="Artemisia I of Caria">Artemisia I of Caria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awilda" title="Awilda">Awilda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Portugu%C3%AAs" title="Bartolomeu Português">Bartolomeu Português</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Roberts" title="Bartholomew Roberts">Bartholomew Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_de_Soto" title="Benito de Soto">Benito de Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hornigold" title="Benjamin Hornigold">Benjamin Hornigold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Caesar_(pirate)" title="Black Caesar (pirate)">Black Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbeard" title="Blackbeard">Blackbeard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bully_Hayes" title="Bully Hayes">Bully Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Qian" title="Cai Qian">Cai Qian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calico_Jack" title="Calico Jack">Calico Jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibbs" title="Charles Gibbs">Charles Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_de_Berry" title="Charlotte de Berry">Charlotte de Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheung_Po_Tsai" title="Cheung Po Tsai">Cheung Po Tsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christina_Anna_Skytte" title="Christina Anna Skytte">Christina Anna Skytte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chui_A-poo" title="Chui A-poo">Chui A-poo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Seavey" title="Dan Seavey">Dan Seavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabolito" title="Diabolito">Diabolito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dido" title="Dido">Dido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirk_Chivers" title="Dirk Chivers">Dirk Chivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_You" title="Dominique You">Dominique You</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_England" title="Edward England">Edward England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Low" title="Edward Low">Edward Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Boggs" title="Eli Boggs">Eli Boggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elise_Eskilsdotter" title="Elise Eskilsdotter">Elise Eskilsdotter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustace_the_Monk" title="Eustace the Monk">Eustace the Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_Burn" title="Flora Burn">Flora Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Gang" title="Flying Gang">Flying Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C5%ABma_Kotar%C5%8D" title="Fūma Kotarō">Fūma Kotarō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Clerc" title="François Le Clerc">François Le Clerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_l%27Olonnais" title="François l'Olonnais">François l'Olonnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Ning" title="Gan Ning">Gan Ning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_O%27Malley" title="Grace O'Malley">Grace O'Malley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Hayreddin Barbarossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrick_Lucifer" title="Hendrick Lucifer">Hendrick Lucifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Caesar" title="Henri Caesar">Henri Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Every" title="Henry Every">Henry Every</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan" title="Henry Morgan">Henry Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Strangways_(pirate)" title="Henry Strangways (pirate)">Henry Strangways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Bouchard" title="Hippolyte Bouchard">Hippolyte Bouchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Bamei" title="Huang Bamei">Huang Bamei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Hands" title="Israel Hands">Israel Hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacquotte_Delahaye" title="Jacquotte Delahaye">Jacquotte Delahaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Janszoon" title="Jan Janszoon">Jan Janszoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lafitte" title="Jean Lafitte">Jean Lafitte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_de_Clisson" title="Jeanne de Clisson">Jeanne de Clisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johanna_H%C3%A5rd" title="Johanna Hård">Johanna Hård</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)" title="John Hawkins (naval commander)">John Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hoar" title="John Hoar">John Hoar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Newland_Maffitt_(privateer)" title="John Newland Maffitt (privateer)">John Newland Maffitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pro" title="John Pro">John Pro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rgen_J%C3%B8rgensen" title="Jørgen Jørgensen">Jørgen Jørgensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Joaquim_Almeida" title="José Joaquim Almeida">José Joaquim Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Baker_(pirate)" title="Joseph Baker (pirate)">Joseph Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Barss" title="Joseph Barss">Joseph Barss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_St%C3%B6rtebeker" title="Klaus Störtebeker">Klaus Störtebeker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Choi_San" title="Lai Choi San">Lai Choi San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurens_de_Graaf" title="Laurens de Graaf">Laurens de Graaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Prince" title="Lawrence Prince">Lawrence Prince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Daoming" title="Liang Daoming">Liang Daoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limahong" title="Limahong">Limahong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo_Hon-cho" title="Lo Hon-cho">Lo Hon-cho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_Aury" title="Louis-Michel Aury">Louis-Michel Aury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansel_Alcantra" title="Mansel Alcantra">Mansel Alcantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ribeiro_Pardal" title="Manuel Ribeiro Pardal">Manuel Ribeiro Pardal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Frobisher" title="Martin Frobisher">Martin Frobisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Cobham_and_Maria_Lindsey" title="Eric Cobham and Maria Lindsey">Mary Lindsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Read" title="Mary Read">Mary Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wolverston" title="Mary Wolverston">Mary Wolverston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Grammont" title="Michel de Grammont">Michel de Grammont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Cohen_Henriques" title="Moses Cohen Henriques">Moses Cohen Henriques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gordon" title="Nathaniel Gordon">Nathaniel Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_van_Hoorn" title="Nicholas van Hoorn">Nicholas van Hoorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ng_Akew" title="Ng Akew">Ng Akew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Levasseur" title="Olivier Levasseur">Olivier Levasseur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Gilbert" title="Pedro Gilbert">Pedro Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Easton" title="Peter Easton">Peter Easton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Lafitte" title="Pierre Lafitte">Pierre Lafitte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piet_Pieterszoon_Hein" title="Piet Pieterszoon Hein">Piet Pieterszoon Hein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Sela" title="Princess Sela">Princess Sela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahmah_ibn_Jabir_al-Jalhami" title="Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalhami">Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalhami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Wall" title="Rachel Wall">Rachel Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oru%C3%A7_Reis" class="mw-redirect" title="Oruç Reis">Redbeard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Glover_(pirate)" title="Richard Glover (pirate)">Richard Glover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Culliford" title="Robert Culliford">Robert Culliford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Surcouf" title="Robert Surcouf">Robert Surcouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Cofres%C3%AD" title="Roberto Cofresí">Roberto Cofresí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roche_Braziliano" title="Roche Braziliano">Roche Braziliano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusla" title="Rusla">Rusla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadie_Farrell" title="Sadie Farrell">Sadie Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Bellamy" title="Samuel Bellamy">Samuel Bellamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hall_Lord" title="Samuel Hall Lord">Samuel Hall Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Mason" title="Samuel Mason">Samuel Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pallache" title="Samuel Pallache">Samuel Pallache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyida_al_Hurra" title="Sayyida al Hurra">Sayyida al Hurra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_Ping" title="Sister Ping">Sister Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shap-ng-tsai" title="Shap-ng-tsai">Shap-ng-tsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirahama_Kenki" title="Shirahama Kenki">Shirahama Kenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Mascarino" title="Simon Mascarino">Simon Mascarino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stede_Bonnet" title="Stede Bonnet">Stede Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuta" title="Teuta">Teuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish" title="Thomas Cavendish">Thomas Cavendish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tew" title="Thomas Tew">Thomas Tew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veborg" title="Veborg">Veborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victual_Brothers" title="Victual Brothers">Victual Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gambi" title="Vincenzo Gambi">Vincenzo Gambi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhi_(pirate)" title="Wang Zhi (pirate)">Wang Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Dampier" title="William Dampier">William Dampier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kidd" title="William Kidd">William Kidd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Jing" title="Zheng Jing">Zheng Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Qi_(pirate)" title="Zheng Qi (pirate)">Zheng Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Yi_(pirate)" title="Zheng Yi (pirate)">Zheng Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Zhilong" title="Zheng Zhilong">Zheng Zhilong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Yi_Sao" title="Zheng Yi Sao">Zheng Yi Sao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pirate<br />hunters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angelo_Emo" title="Angelo Emo">Angelo Emo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaloner_Ogle" title="Chaloner Ogle">Chaloner Ogle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Porter_(naval_officer)" title="David Porter (naval officer)">David Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duarte_Pacheco_Pereira" title="Duarte Pacheco Pereira">Duarte Pacheco Pereira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Brooke" title="James Brooke">James Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campuzano_Polanco_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Campuzano Polanco family">Jose Campuzano-Polanco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_(Spanish_Navy_officer)" title="Luis Fajardo (Spanish Navy officer)">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Enr%C3%ADquez_(privateer)" title="Miguel Enríquez (privateer)">Miguel Enríquez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avery_Hornsby" title="Richard Avery Hornsby">Richard Avery Hornsby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Maynard" title="Robert Maynard">Robert Maynard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Warren_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="Thomas Warren (Royal Navy officer)">Thomas Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodes_Rogers" title="Woodes Rogers">Woodes Rogers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Pirate ships</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Adventure_Galley" title="Adventure Galley">Adventure Galley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Light_(ship)" title="Ambrose Light (ship)">Ambrose Light</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fancy_(ship)" title="Fancy (ship)">Fancy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flying_Dutchman" title="Flying Dutchman">Flying Dutchman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganj-i-Sawai" title="Ganj-i-Sawai">Ganj-i-Sawai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quedagh_Merchant" title="Quedagh Merchant">Quedagh Merchant</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/CSS_McRae" title="CSS McRae">Marquis of Havana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_de_Clisson" title="Jeanne de Clisson">My Revenge</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Roberts" title="Bartholomew Roberts">Royal Fortune</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saladin_(barque)" title="Saladin (barque)">Saladin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whydah_Gally" title="Whydah Gally">Whydah Gally</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MV_York" title="MV York">York</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Pirate battles and incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pirate_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/100px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/150px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/200px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1582_Cagayan_battles" title="1582 Cagayan battles">1582 Cagayan battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_Lahad_Datu_ambush" title="1985 Lahad Datu ambush">1985 Lahad Datu ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_9_November_1822" title="Action of 9 November 1822">Action of 9 November 1822</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_28_October_2007" title="Action of 28 October 2007">Action of 28 October 2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_11_November_2008" title="Action of 11 November 2008">Action of 11 November 2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2009_raid_off_Somalia" title="April 2009 raid off Somalia">Action of 9 April 2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_23_March_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 23 March 2010">Action of 23 March 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_1_April_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 1 April 2010">Action of 1 April 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_5_April_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 5 April 2010">Action of 5 April 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_anti-piracy_operations_of_the_United_States" title="Aegean Sea anti-piracy operations of the United States">Anti-piracy in the Aegean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antelope_of_Boston" title="Antelope of Boston">Antelope incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_anti-piracy_operations_of_the_United_States" title="West Indies anti-piracy operations of the United States">Anti-piracy in the West Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Veracruz" title="Attack on Veracruz">Attack on Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Balanguingui Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boca_Teacapan" title="Battle of Boca Teacapan">Battle of Boca Teacapan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Fear_River_(1718)" title="Battle of Cape Fear River (1718)">Battle of Cape Fear River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Lopez" title="Battle of Cape Lopez">Battle of Cape Lopez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Doro_Passage" title="Battle of Doro Passage">Battle of Doro Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganj-i-Sawai" title="Ganj-i-Sawai">Battle of Mandab Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1574)" title="Battle of Manila (1574)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Minicoy_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle off Minicoy Island">Battle off Minicoy Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Mukah" title="Battle off Mukah">Battle off Mukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nam_Quan" title="Battle of Nam Quan">Battle of Nam Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbeard" title="Blackbeard">Battle of Ocracoke Inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pianosa" title="Battle of Pianosa">Battle of Pianosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Leotung" title="Battle of the Leotung">Battle of the Leotung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tiger%27s_Mouth" title="Battle of the Tiger's Mouth">Battle of the Tiger's Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tonkin_River" title="Battle of Tonkin River">Battle of Tonkin River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ty-ho_Bay" title="Battle of Ty-ho Bay">Battle of Ty-ho Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tysami" title="Battle of Tysami">Battle of Tysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_Beluga_Nomination_incident" title="MV Beluga Nomination incident"><i>Beluga Nomination</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Vane" title="Charles Vane">Blockade of Charleston (Vane)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepo_expedition" title="Chepo expedition">Chepo Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Light_(ship)" title="Ambrose Light (ship)">Capture of the <i>Ambrose Light</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_John_%22Calico_Jack%22_Rackham" title="Capture of John "Calico Jack" Rackham">Capture of John "Calico Jack" Rackham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_schooner_Bravo" title="Capture of the schooner Bravo">Capture of the schooner <i>Bravo</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_schooner_Fancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of the schooner Fancy">Capture of the schooner <i>Fancy</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_sloop_Anne" title="Capture of the sloop Anne">Capture of the sloop <i>Anne</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carr%C3%A9_d%27As_IV_incident" title="Carré d'As IV incident"><i>Carré d'As IV</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Hong_Dan_incident" title="Dai Hong Dan incident"><i>Dai Hong Dan</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_Expedition" title="Falklands Expedition">Falklands Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Patrol" title="Great Lakes Patrol">Great Lakes Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_incident" title="Irene incident"><i>Irene</i> incident</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jiajing wokou raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maersk_Alabama_hijacking" title="Maersk Alabama hijacking"><i>Maersk Alabama</i> hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MT_Zafirah_hijacking" title="MT Zafirah hijacking">MT <i>Zafirah</i> hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MT_Orkim_Harmony_hijacking" title="MT Orkim Harmony hijacking">MT <i>Orkim Harmony</i> hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_Moscow_University_hijacking" title="MV Moscow University hijacking">MV <i>Moscow University</i> hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Star_affair" title="North Star affair"><i>North Star</i> affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom_%E2%80%93_Horn_of_Africa" title="Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa">Operation Enduring Freedom – HOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Atalanta" title="Operation Atalanta">Operation Atalanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dawn_of_Gulf_of_Aden" title="Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden">Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dawn_8:_Gulf_of_Aden" title="Operation Dawn 8: Gulf of Aden">Operation Dawn 8: Gulf of Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ocean_Shield" title="Operation Ocean Shield">Operation Ocean Shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_campaign_of_1809" title="Persian Gulf campaign of 1809">Persian Gulf Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_border_attacks_in_Sabah" title="Cross border attacks in Sabah">Pirate attacks in Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SY_Quest_incident" title="SY Quest incident"><i>Quest</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Cartagena_(1683)" title="Raid on Cartagena (1683)">Raid on Cartagena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Campeche_(1663)" title="Sack of Campeche (1663)">Sack of Campeche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Pirates" title="Salvador Pirates">Salvador Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Piracy law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_grace_(piracy)" title="Acts of grace (piracy)">Acts of grace</a> (<a href="/wiki/1717%E2%80%931718_Acts_of_Grace" title="1717–1718 Acts of Grace">1717–1718 Acts of Grace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_piracy_law" title="International piracy law">International piracy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Declaration_Respecting_Maritime_Law" title="Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law">Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act" title="Piracy Act">Piracy Act</a> (<a href="/wiki/Offences_at_Sea_Act_1536" title="Offences at Sea Act 1536">1536</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1698" title="Piracy Act 1698">1698</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Act_1717" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Act 1717">1717</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1721" title="Piracy Act 1721">1721</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1837" title="Piracy Act 1837">1837</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1850" title="Piracy Act 1850">1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_Law_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Piracy Law of 1820">Piracy Law of 1820</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Slave trade</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">African slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">African Slave Trade Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad"><i>Amistad</i> Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Veloz_Passagera" title="Capture of the Veloz Passagera">Capture of the <i>Veloz Passagera</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_brig_Brillante" title="Capture of the brig Brillante">Capture of the brig <i>Brillante</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pirates_in_the_arts_and_popular_culture" title="Pirates in the arts and popular culture">Pirates in<br />popular<br />culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_pirates" title="List of fictional pirates">Fictional pirates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Askeladd" title="Askeladd">Askeladd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Ayrton" title="Tom Ayrton">Tom Ayrton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbeard_(comics)" title="Redbeard (comics)">Barbe Rouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Birdseye" title="Captain Birdseye">Captain Birdseye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Blood_(novel)" title="Captain Blood (novel)">Captain Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldland" title="McDonaldland">Captain Crook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Flint" title="Captain Flint">Captain Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Hook" title="Captain Hook">Captain Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Nemo" title="Captain Nemo">Captain Nemo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Pugwash" title="Captain Pugwash">Captain Pugwash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Sabertooth" title="Captain Sabertooth">Captain Sabertooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Stingaree" title="Captain Stingaree">Captain Stingaree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_de_Berry" title="Charlotte de Berry">Charlotte de Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davy_Jones_(Pirates_of_the_Caribbean)" title="Davy Jones (Pirates of the Caribbean)">Davy Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Kenway" title="Edward Kenway">Edward Kenway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Marley" title="Elaine Marley">Elaine Marley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Swann" title="Elizabeth Swann">Elizabeth Swann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franky_(One_Piece)" title="Franky (One Piece)">Franky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guybrush_Threepwood" title="Guybrush Threepwood">Guybrush Threepwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Barbossa" title="Hector Barbossa">Hector Barbossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Sparrow" title="Jack Sparrow">Jack Sparrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacquotte_Delahaye" title="Jacquotte Delahaye">Jacquotte Delahaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gaspar" title="José Gaspar">José Gaspar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshamee_Gibbs" title="Joshamee Gibbs">Joshamee Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_John_Silver" title="Long John Silver">Long John Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_D._Luffy" title="Monkey D. Luffy">Monkey D. Luffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaas_Montenegro" title="Vaas Montenegro">Vaas Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mr._Smee" title="Mr. Smee">Mr. Smee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nami_(One_Piece)" title="Nami (One Piece)">Nami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nico_Robin" title="Nico Robin">Nico Robin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roronoa_Zoro" title="Roronoa Zoro">Roronoa Zoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandokan" title="Sandokan">Sandokan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanji_(One_Piece)" title="Sanji (One Piece)">Sanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Tony_Chopper" title="Tony Tony Chopper">Tony Tony Chopper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usopp" title="Usopp">Usopp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Turner" title="Will Turner">Will Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_(G.I._Joe)" title="Zanzibar (G.I. Joe)">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Novels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_(novel)" title="The Pirate (novel)">The Pirate</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Pilot:_A_Tale_of_the_Sea" title="The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea">The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treasure_Island" title="Treasure Island">Treasure Island</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Facing_the_Flag" title="Facing the Flag">Facing the Flag</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Stranger_Tides" title="On Stranger Tides">On Stranger Tides</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jim_Hawkins_and_the_Curse_of_Treasure_Island" title="Jim Hawkins and the Curse of Treasure Island">Jim Hawkins and the Curse of Treasure Island</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Castaways_of_the_Flying_Dutchman" title="Castaways of the Flying Dutchman">Castaways of the Flying Dutchman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Angel%27s_Command" title="The Angel's Command">The Angel's Command</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Voyage_of_Slaves" title="Voyage of Slaves">Voyage of Slaves</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Long_John_Silver_(comics)" title="Long John Silver (comics)">Long John Silver</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Latitudes" title="Pirate Latitudes">Pirate Latitudes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mistress_of_the_Seas" title="Mistress of the Seas">Mistress of the Seas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silver_(Motion_novel)" title="Silver (Motion novel)">Silver: Return to Treasure Island</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tropes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buried_treasure" title="Buried treasure">Buried treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davy_Jones%27s_locker" title="Davy Jones's locker">Davy Jones's locker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyepatch" title="Eyepatch">Eyepatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jolly_Roger" title="Jolly Roger">Jolly Roger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skull_and_crossbones_(symbol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skull and crossbones (symbol)">skull and crossbones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keelhauling" title="Keelhauling">Keelhauling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marooning" title="Marooning">Marooning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_purchase,_no_pay" title="No purchase, no pay">No purchase, no pay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegleg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pegleg">Pegleg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_parrot" title="Companion parrot">Pet parrot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_code" title="Pirate code">Pirate code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_utopia" title="Pirate utopia">Pirate utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_map" title="Treasure map">Treasure map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking_the_plank" title="Walking the plank">Walking the plank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pirate" title="Air pirate">Air pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_pirates" title="List of space pirates">Space pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Talk_Like_a_Pirate_Day" title="International Talk Like a Pirate Day">International Talk Like a Pirate Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirates_versus_Ninjas" title="Pirates versus Ninjas">Pirates versus Ninjas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_History_of_the_Pyrates" title="A General History of the Pyrates">A General History of the Pyrates</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Charles_Johnson" title="Captain Charles Johnson">Captain Charles Johnson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Ratisbon" title="Truce of Ratisbon">Truce of Ratisbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Round" title="Pirate Round">Pirate Round</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matelotage" title="Matelotage">Matelotage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_kidnappings" title="Piracy kidnappings">Piracy kidnappings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Meta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pirates" title="List of pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pirate_films_and_television_series" title="List of pirate films and television series">Pirate films and TV series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_privateers" title="List of privateers">Privateers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_attacked_by_Somali_pirates" title="List of ships attacked by Somali pirates">List of ships attacked by Somali pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_piracy" title="Timeline of piracy">Timeline of piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Women in piracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Barbary_pirates" class="mw-disambig" title="Category:Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pirates_by_nationality" title="Category:Pirates by nationality">By nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Female_pirates" title="Category:Female pirates">Female pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fictional_pirates" title="Category:Fictional pirates">Fictional pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy" title="Category:Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_by_year" title="Category:Piracy by year">Piracy by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pirates" title="Category:Pirates">Pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/29px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/44px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/58px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Piracy" title="Portal:Piracy">Piracy portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy" title="Category:Piracy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&oldid=1260241537">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jiajing_wokou_raids&oldid=1260241537</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:16th_century_in_China" title="Category:16th century in China">16th century in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_in_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="Category:Piracy in the Pacific Ocean">Piracy in the Pacific Ocean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_in_the_South_China_Sea" title="Category:Piracy in the South China Sea">Piracy in the South China Sea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_in_China" title="Category:Piracy in China">Piracy in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Category:Wars involving the Ming dynasty">Wars involving the Ming dynasty</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_history_of_China" title="Category:Naval history of China">Naval history of China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:16th-century_conflicts" title="Category:16th-century conflicts">16th-century conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Category:China–Japan relations">China–Japan relations</a></li><li><a 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