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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle English</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">General development</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English" title="Phonological history of Old English">In Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Scots" title="Phonological history of Scots">In Scots</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Development of vowels</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩">A</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Close back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Pre-L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Pre-R</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Development of consonants</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Single consonants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Variable features</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cot%E2%80%93caught_merger" title="Cot–caught merger"><i>Cot</i>–<i>caught</i> merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawl" title="Drawl">Drawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping">H-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩">NG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_/r/" title="Pronunciation of English /r/">R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">T-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩">TH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩">WH</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">Spelling</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p> Most dialects of modern <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> have two <a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">close</a> <a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back</a> <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">near-close near-back rounded vowel</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> found in words like <i>foot</i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">close back rounded vowel</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> (realized as <a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">central</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʉː]</span> in many dialects) found in words like <i>goose</i>. The <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span>, which historically was back, is often <a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">central</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐ]</span> as well. This article discusses the history of these vowels in various dialects of English, focusing in particular on <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic differentiation">phonemic splits and mergers</a> involving these sounds. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_development">Historical development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology#Vowels" title="Old English phonology">Old English vowels</a> included a pair of short and long close back vowels, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span>, both <a href="/wiki/Old_English#Orthography" title="Old English">written</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span> (the longer vowel is often distinguished as <span class="nowrap">⟨ū⟩</span> in modern editions of Old English texts). There was also a pair of back vowels of mid-height, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span>, both of which were written <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span> (the longer vowel is often <span class="nowrap">⟨ō⟩</span> in modern editions). </p><p>The same four vowels existed in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology#Vowels" title="Middle English phonology">Middle English system</a>. The short vowels were still written <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span>, but long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> came to be spelt as <span class="nowrap">⟨ou⟩</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> as <span class="nowrap">⟨oo⟩</span>. Generally, the Middle English vowels descended from the corresponding Old English ones, but <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Changes_leading_up_to_Middle_and_Modern_English" title="Phonological history of Old English">there were certain alternative developments</a>. </p><p>The Middle English <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable_lengthening" title="Open syllable lengthening">open syllable lengthening</a> caused short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> to be mostly lengthened to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔː/</span> (an opener back vowel) in <a href="/wiki/Syllable#open_syllable" title="Syllable">open syllables</a>, a development that can be seen in words like <i>nose</i>. During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>, Middle English long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> was raised to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> in words like <i>moon</i>; Middle English long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> was diphthongised, becoming the present-day <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aʊ/</span>, as in <i>mouse</i>; and Middle English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔː/</span> of <i>nose</i> was raised and later diphthongized, leading to present-day <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oʊ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>əʊ/</span>. </p><p>At some point, short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> developed into a <a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">lax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">near-close near-back rounded vowel</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>, as found in words like <i>put</i>. (Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels#Lowering" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> has become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span></a>.) According to Roger Lass, the laxing occurred in the 17th century, but other linguists have suggested that it may have taken place much earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> remaining in words like <i>lot</i> has also been lowered and, in some accents, unrounded (see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">open back vowels</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shortening_of_/uː/_to_/ʊ/"><span id="Shortening_of_.2Fu.CB.90.2F_to_.2F.CA.8A.2F"></span>Shortening of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Shortening of /uː/ to /ʊ/"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a handful of words, some of which are very common, the vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> was shortened to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>. In a few of those words, notably <i>blood</i> and <i>flood</i>, the shortening happened early enough that the resulting <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> underwent the "<i>foot–strut</i> split" (see next section) and are now pronounced with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span>. Other words that underwent shortening later consistently have <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>, such as <i>good</i> and <i>foot</i>. Still other words, such as <i>roof</i>, <i>hoof</i>, and <i>root</i>, are variable, with some speakers preferring <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> and others preferring <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> in such words, such as in <a href="/wiki/Texan_English" title="Texan English">Texan English</a>. For some speakers in Northern England, words ending in <i>-ook</i> that have undergone shortening to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> elsewhere, such as <i>book</i> and <i>cook</i>, still have the long <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> vowel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="FOOT–STRUT_split"><span id="FOOT.E2.80.93STRUT_split"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> split</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: FOOT–STRUT split"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foot-strut_split.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Foot-strut_split.svg/220px-Foot-strut_split.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Foot-strut_split.svg/330px-Foot-strut_split.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Foot-strut_split.svg/440px-Foot-strut_split.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1129" data-file-height="1385" /></a><figcaption>The vowel of the word <i>sun</i> in England</figcaption></figure> <p>The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> split is the split of <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> into two distinct phonemes: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> (as in <i>foot</i>) and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span> (as in <i>strut</i>). The split occurs in most varieties of English, the most notable exceptions being most of <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Northern_England" title="English language in Northern England">Northern England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England#Midlands" title="English language in England">English Midlands</a> and some varieties of <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982132,_196–199,_351–353_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982132,_196–199,_351–353-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a>, the split is also absent in parts of <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a> under influence from <a href="/wiki/Scouse" title="Scouse">Merseyside</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cheshire_dialect" title="Cheshire dialect">Cheshire</a> accents<sup id="cite_ref-bare_url_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bare_url-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the south of <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire" title="Pembrokeshire">Pembrokeshire</a>, where English overtook Welsh long before that occurred in the rest of Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The origin of the split is the unrounding of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a>, resulting in the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span>. Usually, unrounding to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span> did not occur if <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> was preceded by a <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial consonant</a>, such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span>, or was followed by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span>, leaving the modern <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>. Because of the inconsistency of the split, <i>put</i> and <i>putt</i> became a <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal pair</a> that were distinguished as <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span> and <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span>. The first clear description of the split dates from 1644.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In non-splitting accents, <i>cut</i> and <i>put</i> rhyme, <i>putt</i> and <i>put</i> are homophonous as <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span>, and <i>pudding</i> and <i>budding</i> rhyme. However, <i>luck</i> and <i>look</i> may not necessarily be homophones since many accents in the area concerned have <i>look</i> as <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span>, with the vowel of <i>goose</i>. </p><p>The absence of the split is a less common feature of educated Northern English speech than the absence of the <a href="/wiki/Trap%E2%80%93bath_split" title="Trap–bath split">trap–bath split</a>. The absence of the foot–strut split is sometimes stigmatized,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982354_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982354-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and speakers of non-splitting accents may try to introduce it into their speech, which sometimes results in <a href="/wiki/Hypercorrection" title="Hypercorrection">hypercorrection</a> such as by pronouncing <i>butcher</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="/tʃ/: 'ch' in 'China'">tʃ</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Brummie_dialect" title="Brummie dialect">Birmingham</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Country_dialect" title="Black Country dialect">Black Country</a>, the realisation of the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> vowels is somewhat like a neutralisation between Northern and Southern dialects. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span> may be pronounced with a <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɤ/</span></a>, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> may be pronounced with a <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span></a>. However, both may also be pronounced with a phonetically intermediate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɤ/</span><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is also present further north in <a href="/wiki/Geordie" title="Geordie">Tyneside</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeal2004121–122_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeal2004121–122-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also variation in some non-splitting dialects, as while most words use <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>, some words such as <i>none</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>once</i>, <i>nothing</i>, <i>tongue</i> and <i>among(st)</i> may instead be pronounced with <a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɒ/</span></a> in dialects such as parts of <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_dialect" title="Yorkshire dialect">Yorkshire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetyt198594,_201_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetyt198594,_201-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name <i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> split</i> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Lexical_set" title="Lexical set">lexical sets</a> introduced by <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a> and identifies the vowel phonemes in the words. From a historical point of view, however, the name is inappropriate because the word <i>foot</i> did not have short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> when the split happened, but it underwent shortening only later. </p> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible"> <caption><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> split stages, as described by <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982</a>:199)</b> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><i>mood<br />goose<br />tooth</i> </th> <th><i>good<br />foot<br />book</i> </th> <th><i>blood<br />flood<br />brother</i> </th> <th><i>cut<br />dull<br />fun</i> </th> <th><i>put<br />full<br />sugar</i> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Middle English input </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Great Vowel Shift </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Early shortening </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Quality adjustment </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Foot-strut split </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɤ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɤ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Later shortening </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɤ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɤ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Quality adjustment </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʌ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʌ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>RP output </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʌ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʌ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In modern standard varieties of English, such as <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> (RP) and <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a> (GA), the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span> vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> is a fairly rare phoneme. It occurs most regularly in words in <i>-ook</i> (like <i>book, cook, hook</i> etc.). It is also spelt <i>-oo-</i> in <i>foot, good, hood, soot, stood, wood, wool</i>, and <i>-oul-</i> in <i>could, should, would</i>. Otherwise, it is spelt <i>-u-</i> (but <i>-o-</i> after <i>w-</i>); such words include <i>bull, bush, butcher, cushion, full, pudding, pull, push, puss, put, sugar, wolf, woman</i>. More frequent use is found in recent borrowings though sometimes in alternation with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> (as in <i>Muslim</i>) or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> (as in <i>Buddha</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="STRUT–COMMA_merger"><span id="STRUT.E2.80.93COMMA_merger"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">COMMA</span> merger <span class="anchor" id="Strut–comma_merger"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: STRUT–COMMA merger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">COMMA</span> merger or the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span>–<a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a> merger is a merger of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> that occurs in <a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a>, some higher-prestige <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Northern_England" title="English language in Northern England">Northern England English</a> and some General American. The merger causes <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal pairs</a> such as <i>unorthodoxy</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɔːr/: 'ar' in 'war'">ɔːr</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> and <i>an orthodoxy</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɔːr/: 'ar' in 'war'">ɔːr</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> to be merged. The phonetic quality of the merged vowel depends on the accent. For instance, merging General American accents have <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>]</span> as the stressed variant and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>]</span> as the word-final variant. Elsewhere, the vowel surfaces as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]</span> or even <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_central_unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-close central unrounded vowel">ɪ̈</a>]</span> (GA features the <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>). That can cause words such as <i>hubbub</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'h' in 'hi'">h</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span></span>/</a></span></span> in RP) to have two different vowels (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈhʌbəb]</span>) even though both syllables contain the same phoneme in both merging and non-merging accents. On the other hand, in <a href="/wiki/Brummie_dialect" title="Brummie dialect">Birmingham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swansea" title="Swansea">Swansea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>, at least the non-final variant of the merged vowel is consistently realized as mid-central <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]</span>, with no noticeable difference between the stressed and the unstressed allophones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982132,_380–381,_480_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982132,_380–381,_480-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008xxi_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008xxi-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-andanotherthing_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-andanotherthing-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The merged vowel is typically written with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ə</span>⟩ regardless of its phonetic realization. That largely matches an older canonical phonetic range of the IPA symbol ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ə</span>⟩, which used to be described as covering a vast central area from near-close <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_central_unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-close central unrounded vowel">ɪ̈</a>]</span> to near-open <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2010306–307_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2010306–307-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because in unmerged accents, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> appears only in unstressed syllables, the merger occurs only in unstressed syllables. Word-finally, there is no contrast between the vowels in any accent of English (in <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>, the vowel from which <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span> <a href="/wiki/Foot%E2%80%93strut_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot–strut split">was split</a>, could not occur in that position), and the vowel that occurs in that position approaches <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>]</span> (the main allophone of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> in many accents). However, there is some dialectal variation, with varieties such as broad <a href="/wiki/Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a> using variants that are strikingly more open than in other dialects. The vowel is usually identified as belonging to the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> phoneme even in accents without the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ–ə/</span> merger, but native speakers may perceive the phonemic makeup of words such as <i>comma</i> to be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkɒmʌ/</span>, rather than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkɒmə/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982305,_405,_606_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982305,_405,_606-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauerWarrenBardsleyKennedy2007101_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauerWarrenBardsleyKennedy2007101-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The open variety of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> occurs even in some Northern English dialects (such as <a href="/wiki/Geordie" title="Geordie">Geordie</a>), none of which has undergone the foot–strut split, but in Geordie, it can be generalised to other positions and so not only <i>comma</i> but also <i>commas</i> may be pronounced with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>]</span> in the second syllable, which is rare in other accents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattAllen2003269_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattAllen2003269-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contemporary Standard Southern British English, the final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> is often mid <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]</span>, rather than open <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-lindseystrut_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lindseystrut-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All speakers of General American neutralise <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɜː/</span> (the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">NURSE</span> vowel) before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, which results in an <a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">r-colored vowel</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɚ]</span>. GA lacks a truly contrastive <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɜː/</span> phoneme (<i>f<b>u</b>rry</i>, <i>h<b>u</b>rry</i>, <i>lett<b>er</b>s</i> and <i>transf<b>er</b></i> (n.), which are distinguished in RP as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɜː/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɜː/</span>, all have the same r-colored <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɚ]</span> in GA), and the symbol is used only to facilitate comparisons with other accents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982480–481_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982480–481-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See <a href="/wiki/Hurry%E2%80%93furry_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurry–furry merger">hurry–furry merger</a> for more information. </p><p>Some other minimal pairs apart from <i>unorthodoxy</i>–<i>an orthodoxy</i> include <i>unequal</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/əl/: 'le' in 'bottle'">əl</span></span>/</a></span></span> vs. <i>an equal</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/əl/: 'le' in 'bottle'">əl</span></span>/</a></span></span> and <i>a large untidy room</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span></span>/</a></span></span> vs. <i>a large and tidy room</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span></span>/</a></span></span>. However, there are few minimal pairs like that, and their use as such has been criticised by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Lindsey" title="Geoff Lindsey">Geoff Lindsey</a> because the members of such minimal pairs are structurally different. Even so, pairs of words belonging to the same lexical category exist as well such as <i>append</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>/</a></span></span> vs <i>up-end</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>/</a></span></span> and <i>aneath</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span></span>/</a></span></span> vs <i>uneath</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span></span>/</a></span></span>. There also are words for which RP always used <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span> in the unstressed syllable, such as <i>pick-up</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <i>goosebumps</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> or <i>sawbuck</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɔː/: 'au' in 'fraud'">ɔː</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span>, that have merging accents use the same <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> as the second vowel of <i>balance</i>. In RP, there is a consistent difference in vowel height; the unstressed vowel in the first three words is a near-open <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>]</span> (traditionally written with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʌ</span>⟩) but in <i>balance</i>, it is a mid <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-andanotherthing_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-andanotherthing-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lindseystrut_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lindseystrut-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_/juː/"><span id="Development_of_.2Fju.CB.90.2F"></span><span id="ju"></span>Development of /juː/</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development of /juː/"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters#_Y-cluster_reductions" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Phonological history of English consonant clusters §  Y-cluster reductions</a></div> <p>Earlier <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle English</a> distinguished the <a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">close front rounded vowel</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/yː/</span> (occurring in loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> like <i>duke</i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iw/</span> (occurring in words like <i>new</i>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ew/</span> (occurring in words like <i>few</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛw/</span> (occurring in words like <i>dew</i>). </p><p>By Late Middle English, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ew/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iw/</span> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs#Late_Middle_English" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">all merged</a> as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪw/</span>. In Early Modern English, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛw/</span> merged into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪw/</span> as well. </p><p><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪw/</span> has remained as such in some Welsh, some northern English and a few American accents. Thus, those varieties of Welsh English keep <i>threw</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θrɪw/</span> distinct from <i>through</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θruː/</span>. In most accents, however, the <a href="/wiki/Falling_diphthong" class="mw-redirect" title="Falling diphthong">falling diphthong</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪw/</span> turned into a rising diphthong, which became the sequence <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/juː/</span>. The change had taken place in London by the late 1800s. Depending on the preceding consonant and on the dialect, it either remained as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/juː/</span> or developed into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> by the processes of <a href="/wiki/Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a> or <a href="/wiki/Yod-coalescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-coalescence">yod-coalescence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982206_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982206-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That has caused the standard pronunciations of <i>duke</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d(j)uːk/</span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʒuːk/</span>), <i>new</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n(j)uː/</span>, <i>few</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fjuː/</span> and <i>rude</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ruːd/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="FOOT–GOOSE_merger"><span id="FOOT.E2.80.93GOOSE_merger"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> merger</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: FOOT–GOOSE merger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> merger is a phenomenon in <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Northern Irish English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_English" title="Malaysian English">Malaysian English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Singapore_English" title="Singapore English">Singapore English</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2021)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in which the modern English phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> have merged into a single phoneme. As a result, word pairs like <i>look</i> and <i>Luke</i>, <i>pull</i> and <i>pool</i>, <i>full</i> and <i>fool</i> are homophones, and pairs like <i>good</i> and <i>food</i> and <i>foot</i> and <i>boot</i> rhyme. </p><p>The history of the merger dates back to two <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> phonemes: the long vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> (which <i>shoot</i> traces back to) and the short vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> (which <i>put</i> traces back to). As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> raised to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span>, which continues to be the pronunciation of <i>shoot</i> today. Meanwhile, the Middle English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> later adjusted to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>, as <i>put</i> is pronounced today. However, the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> of <i>shoot</i> next underwent a <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic split">phonemic split</a> in which some words retained <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> (like <i>mood</i>) while the vowel of other words shortened to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> (like <i>good</i>). Therefore, the two processes (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span>→<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span>→<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>→<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>) resulted in a merger of the vowels in certain words, like <i>good</i> and <i>put</i>, to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>, which is now typical of how all English dialects pronounce those two words. (See the table in the section "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> split" above for more information about these early shifts.)<sup id="cite_ref-Foot-goose_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foot-goose-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final step, however, was for certain English dialects under the influence of foreign languages (the <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots language</a> influencing Scottish English, for example)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to merge the newly united <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> vowel with the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> vowel (of <i>mood</i> and <i>shoot</i>): the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> merger. Again, this is not an internally motivated phonemic merger but the appliance of different languages' vowel systems to English lexical incidence.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2021)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The quality of this final merged vowel is usually <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʉ~y~ʏ]</span> in Scotland and Northern Ireland but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> in Singapore.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982?_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982?-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/#Full–fool_merger" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">full–fool merger</a> is a conditioned merger of the same two vowels specifically before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, which causes pairs like <i>pull</i>/<i>pool</i> and <i>full</i>/<i>fool</i> to be homophones; it appears in many other dialects of English and is particularly gaining attention in several <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a> varieties. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <caption class="nowrap">Homophonous pairs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> </th> <th><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>bull</td> <td>boule</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">buːl</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cookie</td> <td>kooky</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuːki</span></td> <td>Also homophones in some dialects that lack the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> merger but pronounce <i>cookie</i> as <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> rather than <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>could</td> <td>cooed</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuːd</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>full</td> <td>fool</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fuːl</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>hood</td> <td>who'd</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">huːd</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>look</td> <td>Luke</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">luːk</span></td> <td>Also homophones in some dialects that lack the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> merger but pronounce <i>look</i> as <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span> rather than <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>looker</td> <td>lucre</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈluːkər</span></td> <td>Also homophones in some dialects that lack the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> merger but pronounce <i>looker</i> as <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span> rather than <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>pull</td> <td>pool</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">puːl</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>should</td> <td>shooed</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃuːd</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>soot</td> <td>suit</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">suːt</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters#Yod-dropping" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">yod-dropping</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>wood</td> <td>wooed</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">wuːd</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>would</td> <td>wooed</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">wuːd</span></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_changes">Other changes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Geordie" title="Geordie">Geordie</a>, the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> vowel undergoes an allophonic split, with the monophthong <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a><span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉː</a>]</span> being used in morphologically-closed syllables (as in <i>bruise</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɹuːz<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>bɹʉːz]</span>) and the diphthong <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɵʊ]</span> being used in morphologically-open syllables word-finally (as in <i>brew</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɹɵʊ]</span>) but also word-internally at the end of a <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> (as in <i>brews</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɹɵʊz]</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattAllen2003269_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattAllen2003269-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982375_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982375-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most dialects of English turn <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> into a diphthong, and the monophthongal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a><span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉː</a><span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨː</a>]</span> is in <a href="/wiki/Free_variation" title="Free variation">free variation</a> with the diphthongal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊu<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ̈ʉ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>əʉ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ɪ̈ɨ]</span>, particularly word-internally. Word-finally, diphthongs are more usual. Compare the <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels#Other_changes" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">identical development of the close front <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FLEECE</span> vowel</a>. </p><p>The change of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː.ɪ/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊɪ]</span> is a process that occurs in many varieties of <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a> in which bisyllabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː.ɪ/</span> has become the diphthong <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊɪ]</span> in certain words. As a result, "ruin" is pronounced as monosyllabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɹʊɪn]</span> and "fluid" is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈflʊɪd]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982240_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982240-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Phonological history of English vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Phonological history of English consonants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters#Yod-dropping" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Phonological history of English consonant clusters § Yod-dropping</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Foot-goose-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Foot-goose_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOOSE</span> merger, in fact, occurs only in dialects that have already undergone the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FOOT</span>–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">STRUT</span> split.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStockwellMinkova2002" class="citation journal cs1">Stockwell, Robert; Minkova, Donka (May 2002). "Interpreting the Old and Middle English close vowels". <i>Language Sciences</i>. <b>24</b> (3–4): 447–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0388-0001%2801%2900043-2">10.1016/S0388-0001(01)00043-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Sciences&rft.atitle=Interpreting+the+Old+and+Middle+English+close+vowels&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=447-57&rft.date=2002-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0388-0001%2801%2900043-2&rft.aulast=Stockwell&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Minkova%2C+Donka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982132,_196–199,_351–353-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982132,_196–199,_351–353_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 132, 196–199, 351–353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bare_url-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bare_url_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCouplandThomas1990" class="citation book cs1">Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C&q=welsh+vowels&pg=PA138"><i>English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781853590313" title="Special:BookSources/9781853590313"><bdi>9781853590313</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+in+Wales%3A+Diversity%2C+Conflict%2C+and+Change&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9781853590313&rft.aulast=Coupland&rft.aufirst=Nikolas&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Alan+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtPwYt3gVbu4C%26q%3Dwelsh%2Bvowels%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudgill2019" class="citation news cs1">Trudgill, Peter (27 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theneweuropean.co.uk/top-stories/pembrokeshire-wales-little-england-history-1-6016252">"Wales's very own little England"</a>. <i>The New European</i>. London<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+European&rft.atitle=Wales%27s+very+own+little+England&rft.date=2019-04-27&rft.aulast=Trudgill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theneweuropean.co.uk%2Ftop-stories%2Fpembrokeshire-wales-little-england-history-1-6016252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLass2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Lass" title="Roger Lass">Lass, Roger</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CCvMbntWth8C"><i>The Cambridge History of the English Language</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 88–90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26476-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26476-1"><bdi>978-0-521-26476-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=88-90&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-26476-1&rft.aulast=Lass&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCCvMbntWth8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982354-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982354_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 354.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKettemann1980" class="citation journal cs1">Kettemann, Bernhard (1980). "P. Trudgill, ed., Sociolinguistic Patterns in British English". <i>English World-Wide</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Feww.1.1.13ket">10.1075/eww.1.1.13ket</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=English+World-Wide&rft.atitle=P.+Trudgill%2C+ed.%2C+Sociolinguistic+Patterns+in+British+English&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=86&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Feww.1.1.13ket&rft.aulast=Kettemann&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2013" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Urszula (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt5hh397"><i>Cover of West Midlands English: Birmingham and the Black Country West Midlands English: Birmingham and the Black Country</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cover+of+West+Midlands+English%3A+Birmingham+and+the+Black+Country+West+Midlands+English%3A+Birmingham+and+the+Black+Country&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Urszula&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3366%2Fj.ctt5hh397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeal2004121–122-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeal2004121–122_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeal2004">Beal (2004)</a>, pp. 121–122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetyt198594,_201-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetyt198594,_201_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPetyt1985">Petyt (1985)</a>, pp. 94, 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982132,_380–381,_480-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982132,_380–381,_480_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 132, 380–381, 480.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008xxi-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008xxi_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells2008">Wells (2008)</a>, p. xxi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-andanotherthing-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-andanotherthing_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-andanotherthing_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2009" class="citation web cs1">Wells, John C. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Wells%27s+phonetic+blog&rft.atitle=John+Wells%27s+phonetic+blog%3A+%3Cspan+class%3D%22IPA+nowrap%22+lang%3D%22und-Latn-fonipa%22+title%3D%22Representation+in+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28IPA%29%22%3E%C9%99n%3Cspan+class%3D%22wrap%22%3E+%3C%2Fspan%3E%C9%99%CB%88n%CA%8C%C3%B0%C9%99%3Cspan+class%3D%22wrap%22%3E+%3C%2Fspan%3E%CE%B8%C9%AA%C5%8B%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2009-09-21&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphonetic-blog.blogspot.com%2F2009%2F09%2Fn-n.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2010306–307-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2010306–307_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2010">International Phonetic Association (2010)</a>, pp. 306–307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982305,_405,_606-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982305,_405,_606_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 305, 405, 606.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauerWarrenBardsleyKennedy2007101-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauerWarrenBardsleyKennedy2007101_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBauerWarrenBardsleyKennedy2007">Bauer et al. (2007)</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattAllen2003269-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattAllen2003269_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattAllen2003269_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWattAllen2003">Watt & Allen (2003)</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lindseystrut-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lindseystrut_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindseystrut_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsey2012" class="citation web cs1">Lindsey, Geoff (24 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.englishspeechservices.com/blog/strut-for-dummies/">"english speech services | STRUT for Dummies"</a>. <i>english speech services</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=english+speech+services&rft.atitle=english+speech+services+%7C+STRUT+for+Dummies&rft.date=2012-02-24&rft.aulast=Lindsey&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.englishspeechservices.com%2Fblog%2Fstrut-for-dummies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982480–481-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982480–481_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 480–481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Chambers Dictionary</i> (9th ed.). Chambers. 2003. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-550-10105-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-550-10105-5"><bdi>0-550-10105-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chambers+Dictionary&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Chambers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-550-10105-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/pronunciation/">http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/pronunciation/</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://facweb.furman.edu/~wrogers/phonemes/phone/me/mvowel.htm">http://facweb.furman.edu/~wrogers/phonemes/phone/me/mvowel.htm</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982206-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982206_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waseda.jp/ocw/AsianStudies/9A-77WorldEnglishSpring2005/LectureNotes/03_HKE_TonyH/HKE_unit3.pdf">HKE_unit3.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Macafee 2004: 74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982?-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982?_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. ?.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982375-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982375_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982240-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982240_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 240.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauerWarrenBardsleyKennedy2007" class="citation cs2">Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282778721">"New Zealand English"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association" title="Journal of the International Phonetic Association">Journal of the International Phonetic Association</a></i>, <b>37</b> (1): 97–102, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002830">10.1017/S0025100306002830</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=New+Zealand+English&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-102&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100306002830&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rft.au=Warren%2C+Paul&rft.au=Bardsley%2C+Dianne&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Marianna&rft.au=Major%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F282778721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeal2004" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Beal, Joan (2004), "English dialects in the North of England: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), <i>A handbook of varieties of English</i>, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 113–133, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-017532-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-017532-0"><bdi>3-11-017532-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=English+dialects+in+the+North+of+England%3A+phonology&rft.btitle=A+handbook+of+varieties+of+English&rft.pages=113-133&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=3-11-017532-0&rft.aulast=Beal&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2010" class="citation cs2">International Phonetic Association (2010) [1949], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/principlesofinte00inteuoft">"The Principles of the International Phonetic Association"</a>, <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, <b>40</b> (3): 299–358, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100311000089">10.1017/S0025100311000089</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fwu.89001200120">2027/wu.89001200120</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232345365">232345365</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+Principles+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=299-358&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fwu.89001200120&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232345365%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100311000089&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesofinte00inteuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetyt1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/K._M._Petyt" title="K. M. Petyt">Petyt, Keith M.</a> (1985), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0skjSvKRQb4C"><i><span></span>'Dialect' and 'Accent' in Industrial West Yorkshire</i></a>, John Benjamins Publishing Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9027279497" title="Special:BookSources/9027279497"><bdi>9027279497</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Dialect%27+and+%27Accent%27+in+Industrial+West+Yorkshire&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9027279497&rft.aulast=Petyt&rft.aufirst=Keith+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0skjSvKRQb4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWattAllen2003" class="citation cs2">Watt, Dominic; Allen, William (2003), "Tyneside English", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, <b>33</b> (2): 267–271, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001397">10.1017/S0025100303001397</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Tyneside+English&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=267-271&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100303001397&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=Dominic&rft.au=Allen%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFWells1982" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (1982). <i>Accents of English</i>. Vol. 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759">10.1017/CBO9780511611759</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611766">10.1017/CBO9780511611766</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52129719-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52129719-2">0-52129719-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=1%3A+An+Introduction&rft.isbn=0-52129719-2"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2">0-52128540-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=2%3A+The+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128540-2&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128541-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128541-0">0-52128541-0</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=3%3A+Beyond+the+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128541-0&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (2008), <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</i> (3rd ed.), Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0"><bdi>978-1-4058-8118-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonological+history+of+English+close+back+vowels" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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aria-labelledby="History_of_English" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_English" title="Template:History of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_English" title="Template talk:History of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_English" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">Proto-West-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Phonological_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Vowels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩"><i>A</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span></a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Close back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisyllabic_laxing" title="Trisyllabic laxing">Trisyllabic laxing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping"><i>H</i>-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization"><i>L</i>-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩"><i>Ng</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization"><i>T</i>-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩"><i>Th</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">stopping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩"><i>Wh</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&oldid=1244523024">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels&oldid=1244523024</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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