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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Advantages and limitations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Advantages_and_limitations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Advantages and limitations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Advantages_and_limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Advantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phytoextraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phytoextraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Phytoextraction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phytoextraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phytostabilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phytostabilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Phytostabilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phytostabilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phytodegradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phytodegradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Phytodegradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phytodegradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phytostimulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phytostimulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Phytostimulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phytostimulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phytovolatilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phytovolatilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Phytovolatilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phytovolatilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhizofiltration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhizofiltration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Rhizofiltration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhizofiltration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_hydraulic_containment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_hydraulic_containment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Biological hydraulic containment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_hydraulic_containment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phytodesalination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phytodesalination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Phytodesalination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phytodesalination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Role of genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hyperaccumulators_and_biotic_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperaccumulators_and_biotic_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Hyperaccumulators and biotic interactions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hyperaccumulators_and_biotic_interactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hyperaccumulators and biotic interactions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hyperaccumulators_and_biotic_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tables_of_hyperaccumulators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tables_of_hyperaccumulators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Tables of hyperaccumulators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tables_of_hyperaccumulators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phytoscreening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phytoscreening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Phytoscreening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phytoscreening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Phytoremediation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="معالجة نباتية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معالجة نباتية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitoremediasiya" title="Fitoremediasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fitoremediasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitoremediaci%C3%B3" title="Fitoremediació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fitoremediació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fytoremediace" title="Fytoremediace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fytoremediace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fytoremediering" title="Fytoremediering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fytoremediering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytosanierung" title="Phytosanierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Phytosanierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCtoremediatsioon" title="Fütoremediatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Fütoremediatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%B5%CE%B4%CE%AC%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82" title="Φυτοθεραπεία εδάφους – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυτοθεραπεία εδάφους" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitorremediaci%C3%B3n" title="Fitorremediación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fitorremediación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="گیاه‌پالایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گیاه‌پالایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytorem%C3%A9diation" title="Phytoremédiation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Phytoremédiation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%B4%ED%86%A0%EB%A6%AC%EB%A9%94%EB%94%94%EC%9D%B4%EC%97%90%EC%9D%B4%EC%85%98" title="파이토리메디이에이션 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="파이토리메디이에이션" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitoremediasi" title="Fitoremediasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fitoremediasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitorisanamento" title="Fitorisanamento – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fitorisanamento" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitoremedi%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Fitoremediáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fitoremediáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%BB" title="ഫൈറ്റോറെമഡിയേഷൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫൈറ്റോറെമഡിയേഷൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitopemulihan" title="Fitopemulihan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fitopemulihan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fytoremediatie" title="Fytoremediatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fytoremediatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%88%E3%83%AC%E3%83%A1%E3%83%87%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A8%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3" title="ファイトレメディエーション – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ファイトレメディエーション" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fytoremediering" title="Fytoremediering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fytoremediering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitoremediacja" title="Fitoremediacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fitoremediacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitorremedia%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Fitorremediação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fitorremediação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фиторемедиация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фиторемедиация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Phytoremediation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fytoremedi%C3%A1cia" title="Fytoremediácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fytoremediácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Фиторемедијација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фиторемедијација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fytoremediering" title="Fytoremediering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fytoremediering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%8A" title="การบําบัดโดยพืช – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การบําบัดโดยพืช" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фіторемедіація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фіторемедіація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E4%BF%AE%E5%BE%A9%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93" title="植物修復技術 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="植物修復技術" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E4%BF%AE%E5%BE%A9" title="植物修復 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="植物修復" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/24px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Phytoremediation</b> technologies use living <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a> to clean up soil, air and water contaminated with hazardous contaminants.<sup id="cite_ref-Reichenauer2008_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reichenauer2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is defined as "the use of green plants and the associated microorganisms, along with proper soil amendments and agronomic techniques to either contain, remove or render toxic environmental contaminants harmless".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is an amalgam of the Greek <i>phyto</i> (plant) and Latin <i>remedium</i> (restoring balance). Although attractive for its cost, phytoremediation has not been demonstrated to redress any significant environmental challenge to the extent that contaminated space has been reclaimed. </p><p>Phytoremediation is proposed as a cost-effective plant-based approach of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">environmental remediation</a> that takes advantage of the ability of plants to concentrate elements and compounds from the environment and to detoxify various compounds without causing additional pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concentrating effect results from the ability of certain plants called <a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulator" title="Hyperaccumulator">hyperaccumulators</a> to bioaccumulate chemicals. The remediation effect is quite different. Toxic heavy metals cannot be degraded, but organic pollutants can be, and are generally the major targets for phytoremediation. Several field trials confirmed the feasibility of using plants for <a href="/wiki/Environmental_cleanup" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental cleanup">environmental cleanup</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salt1998_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salt1998-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soil remediation is an expensive and complicated process. Traditional methods involve removal of the contaminated soil followed by treatment and return of the treated soil.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Phytoremediation could in principle be a more cost effective solution.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytoremediation may be applied to polluted <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> or static water environment. This technology has been increasingly investigated and employed at sites with soils contaminated heavy metals like with <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">aluminum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These metals can cause <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> in plants, destroy <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> integrity, interfere with <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">nutrient</a> uptake, inhibit <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and decrease plant <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eeb87_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eeb87-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phytoremediation has been used successfully in the restoration of abandoned metal mine workings, and sites where <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">polychlorinated biphenyls</a> have been dumped during manufacture and mitigation of ongoing coal mine discharges reducing the impact of contaminants in soils, water, or air.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Contaminants such as metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives,<sup id="cite_ref-scriptieprijs.be_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scriptieprijs.be-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and crude oil and its derivatives, have been mitigated in phytoremediation projects worldwide. Many plants such as <a href="/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thlaspi_caerulescens" class="mw-redirect" title="Thlaspi caerulescens">alpine pennycress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pigweed" title="Pigweed">pigweed</a> have proven to be successful at hyperaccumulating contaminants at <a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">toxic waste</a> sites. </p><p>Not all plants are able to accumulate heavy metals or organics pollutants due to differences in the physiology of the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even cultivars within the same species have varying abilities to accumulate pollutants.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages_and_limitations">Advantages and limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Advantages and limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Phytoremediation" title="Special:EditPage/Phytoremediation">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages">Advantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>the cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of traditional processes<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (June 2020)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> both <i>in situ</i> and <i>ex situ</i></li> <li>the possibility of the recovery and re-use of valuable metals (by companies specializing in "<a href="/wiki/Phytomining" title="Phytomining">phytomining</a>")</li> <li>it preserves the <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a>, maintaining the fertility of the soil<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Increase <a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">soil health</a>, yield, and plant phytochemicals<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the use of plants also reduces erosion and metal leaching in the soil<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Noise, smell and visual disruption are usually less than with alternative methods. The <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galmeivegetation" class="extiw" title="de:Galmeivegetation">de:Galmeivegetation</a> of hyperaccumulator plants is even protected by environmental legislation in many areas where it occurs.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations">Limitations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and depth occupied by the roots.</li> <li>with plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely prevent the leaching of contaminants into the <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> (without the complete removal of the contaminated ground, which in itself does not resolve the problem of contamination)</li> <li>the survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated land and the general condition of the soil</li> <li>bio-accumulation of contaminants, especially metals, into the plants can affect consumer products like food and cosmetics, and requires the safe disposal of the affected plant material</li> <li>when taking up heavy metals, sometimes the metal is bound to the <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a>, which makes it unavailable for the plant to extract<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>some plants are too hard to cultivate or too slow growing to make them viable for phytoremediation despite their status as hyperacumulators. <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> may improve desirable properties in target species but is controversial in some countries.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processes">Processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoremediation_Process.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Phytoremediation_Process.svg/400px-Phytoremediation_Process.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Phytoremediation_Process.svg/600px-Phytoremediation_Process.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Phytoremediation_Process.svg/800px-Phytoremediation_Process.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="783" data-file-height="692" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Phytoremediation process</div></figcaption></figure> <p>A range of processes mediated by plants or algae are tested in treating environmental problems.:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mechanisms_involved_in_phytoremediation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mechanisms_involved_in_phytoremediation.png/400px-Mechanisms_involved_in_phytoremediation.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mechanisms_involved_in_phytoremediation.png/600px-Mechanisms_involved_in_phytoremediation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mechanisms_involved_in_phytoremediation.png/800px-Mechanisms_involved_in_phytoremediation.png 2x" data-file-width="3670" data-file-height="2579" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Mechanisms involved in <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> phytoremediation<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phytoextraction">Phytoextraction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phytoextraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Phytoextraction_process" title="Phytoextraction process">Phytoextraction process</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoremediation_by_Phytoextraction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Phytoremediation_by_Phytoextraction.svg/220px-Phytoremediation_by_Phytoextraction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Phytoremediation_by_Phytoextraction.svg/330px-Phytoremediation_by_Phytoextraction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Phytoremediation_by_Phytoextraction.svg/440px-Phytoremediation_by_Phytoextraction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>Some heavy metals such as copper and zinc are removed from the soil by moving up into the plant roots.</figcaption></figure> <p>Phytoextraction (or <i>phytoaccumulation</i> or <i>phytosequestration</i>) exploits the ability of plants or algae to remove contaminants from soil or water into harvestable plant biomass. It is also used for the mining of metals such as copper(II) compounds. The roots take up substances from the soil or water and concentrate them above ground in the plant biomass<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisms that can uptake high amounts of contaminants are called <b><a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulators" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperaccumulators">hyperaccumulators</a></b>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytoextraction can also be performed by plants (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">Populus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salix" class="mw-redirect" title="Salix">Salix</a>) that take up lower levels of pollutants, but due to their high growth rate and biomass production, may remove a considerable amount of contaminants from the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytoextraction has been growing rapidly in popularity worldwide for the last twenty years or so. Typically, phytoextraction is used for heavy metals or other inorganics.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of disposal, contaminants are typically concentrated in the much smaller volume of the plant matter than in the initially contaminated soil or sediment. After harvest, a lower level of the contaminant will remain in the soil, so the growth/harvest cycle must usually be repeated through several crops to achieve a significant cleanup. After the process, the soil is remediated. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Of course many pollutants kill plants, so phytoremediation is not a panacea. For example, chromium is toxic to most higher plants at concentrations above 100 μM·kg−1 dry weight.<sup id="cite_ref-toxicCr_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toxicCr-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mining of these extracted metals through <a href="/wiki/Phytomining" title="Phytomining">phytomining</a> is a conceivable way of recovering the material.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hyperaccumulating plants are often <a href="/wiki/Metallophyte" title="Metallophyte">metallophyte</a>. Induced or assisted phytoextraction is a process where a conditioning fluid containing a <a href="/wiki/Chelator" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelator">chelator</a> or another agent is added to soil to increase metal solubility or mobilization so that the plants can absorb them more easily.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While such additives can increase metal uptake by plants, they can also lead to large amounts of available metals in the soil beyond what the plants are able to translocate, causing potential leaching into the <a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">subsoil</a> or groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of plants that are known to accumulate the following contaminants: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a>, using the sunflower (<i><a href="/wiki/Helianthus_annuus" class="mw-redirect" title="Helianthus annuus">Helianthus annuus</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the Chinese Brake fern (<i><a href="/wiki/Pteris_vittata" title="Pteris vittata">Pteris vittata</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cadmium</a>, using willow (<i><a href="/wiki/Salix_viminalis" title="Salix viminalis">Salix viminalis</a></i>), which as a phytoextractor of cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu).<sup id="cite_ref-Greger_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greger-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cadmium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, using alpine pennycress (<i><a href="/wiki/Thlaspi_caerulescens" class="mw-redirect" title="Thlaspi caerulescens">Thlaspi caerulescens</a></i>), a hyperaccumulator of these metals at levels that would be <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">toxic</a> to many plants. Specifically, pennycress leaves accumulate up to 380 mg/kg Cd.<sup id="cite_ref-penny_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penny-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the presence of copper seems to impair its growth (see table for reference).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> is toxic to most plants.<sup id="cite_ref-toxicCr_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toxicCr-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, tomatoes (<i><a href="/wiki/Solanum_lycopersicum" class="mw-redirect" title="Solanum lycopersicum">Solanum lycopersicum</a></i>) show some promise.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a>, using Indian mustard (<i><a href="/wiki/Brassica_juncea" title="Brassica juncea">Brassica juncea</a></i>), ragweed (<i><a href="/wiki/Ambrosia_artemisiifolia" title="Ambrosia artemisiifolia">Ambrosia artemisiifolia</a></i>), hemp dogbane (<i><a href="/wiki/Apocynum_cannabinum" title="Apocynum cannabinum">Apocynum cannabinum</a></i>), or <a href="/wiki/Poplar_trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Poplar trees">poplar trees</a>, which sequester lead in their biomass.</li> <li>Salt-tolerant (moderately <a href="/wiki/Halophyte" title="Halophyte">halophytic</a>) <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Sugar_beets" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar beets">sugar beets</a> are commonly used for the extraction of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> (common salt) to reclaim fields that were previously flooded by <a href="/wiki/Sea_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea water">sea water</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium-137</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium-90</a> were removed from a pond using <a href="/wiki/Sunflower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower">sunflowers</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl accident">Chernobyl accident</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> and organic pollutants such as <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">polychlorinated biphenyls</a> (PCBs) have been removed from soils by <a href="/wiki/Transgenic_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenic plant">transgenic plants</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> for bacterial enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators" title="List of hyperaccumulators">'Table of hyperaccumulators'</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Thallium</a> is sequestered by some plants.<sup id="cite_ref-LaCoste2006_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaCoste2006-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phytostabilization">Phytostabilization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phytostabilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phytostabilization reduces the mobility of substances in the environment, for example, by limiting the <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(pedology)" title="Leaching (pedology)">leaching</a> of substances from the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It focuses on the long term stabilization and containment of the pollutant. The plant immobilizes the pollutants by binding them to soil particles making them less available for plant or human uptake.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on sequestering pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues. Pollutants become less bioavailable, resulting in reduced exposure. The plants can also excrete a substance that produces a chemical reaction, converting the heavy metal pollutant into a less toxic form.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stabilization results in reduced erosion, runoff, leaching, in addition to reducing the bioavailability of the contaminant.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example application of phytostabilization is using a vegetative cap to stabilize and contain <a href="/wiki/Mine_tailings" class="mw-redirect" title="Mine tailings">mine tailings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Soil_amendment" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil amendment">soil amendments</a> decrease radiosource mobility – while at some concentrations the same amendments will <i>increase</i> mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-Fesenko-Howard-2012_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fesenko-Howard-2012-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fesenko-et-al-2016_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fesenko-et-al-2016-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vidal <i>et al.</i> 2000 find the <a href="/wiki/Root_mat" class="mw-redirect" title="Root mat">root mats</a> of <a href="/wiki/Meadow_grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Meadow grass">meadow grasses</a> are effective at demobilising radiosource materials especially with certain combinations of other agricultural practices.<sup id="cite_ref-Fesenko-Howard-2012_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fesenko-Howard-2012-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fesenko-et-al-2016_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fesenko-et-al-2016-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vidal also find that the particular grass mix makes a significant difference.<sup id="cite_ref-Fesenko-Howard-2012_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fesenko-Howard-2012-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fesenko-et-al-2016_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fesenko-et-al-2016-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phytodegradation">Phytodegradation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phytodegradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoremediation_by_Degradation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Phytoremediation_by_Degradation.svg/220px-Phytoremediation_by_Degradation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Phytoremediation_by_Degradation.svg/330px-Phytoremediation_by_Degradation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Phytoremediation_by_Degradation.svg/440px-Phytoremediation_by_Degradation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>The roots secrete enzymes that degrade (breakdown) organic pollutants in the soil.</figcaption></figure> <p>Phytodegradation (also called phytotransformation) uses plants or microorganisms to degrade organic pollutants in the soil or within the body of the plant. The organic compounds are broken down by enzymes that the plant roots secrete and these molecules are then taken up by the plant and released through transpiration.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process works best with organic contaminants like herbicides, <a href="/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">trichloroethylene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Methyl_tert-butyl_ether" title="Methyl tert-butyl ether">methyl <i>tert</i>-butyl ether</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phytotransformation results in the chemical modification of environmental substances as a direct result of plant <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, often resulting in their inactivation, degradation (phytodegradation), or immobilization (phytostabilization). In the case of <a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds">organic</a> pollutants, such as <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Explosives" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosives">explosives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solvents" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvents">solvents</a>, industrial chemicals, and other <a href="/wiki/Xenobiotic" title="Xenobiotic">xenobiotic</a> substances, certain plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Canna_(plant)" title="Canna (plant)">Cannas</a>, render these substances non-toxic by their <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kvesitadze_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kvesitadze-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other cases, <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> living in association with plant roots may metabolize these substances in soil or water. These complex and recalcitrant compounds cannot be broken down to basic molecules (water, carbon-dioxide, etc.) by plant molecules, and, hence, the term <i>phytotransformation</i> represents a change in chemical structure without complete breakdown of the compound. The term "Green Liver" is used to describe phytotransformation,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as plants behave analogously to the human <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> when dealing with these <a href="/wiki/Xenobiotic" title="Xenobiotic">xenobiotic</a> compounds (foreign compound/pollutant).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After uptake of the xenobiotics, plant enzymes increase the polarity of the xenobiotics by adding functional groups such as hydroxyl groups (-OH).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>This is known as Phase I metabolism, similar to the way that the human liver increases the polarity of drugs and foreign compounds (<a href="/wiki/Drug_metabolism" title="Drug metabolism">drug metabolism</a>). Whereas in the human liver enzymes such as <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_P450" title="Cytochrome P450">cytochrome P450s</a> are responsible for the initial reactions, in plants enzymes such as peroxidases, phenoloxidases, esterases and nitroreductases carry out the same role.<sup id="cite_ref-Kvesitadze_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kvesitadze-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the second stage of phytotransformation, known as Phase II metabolism, plant biomolecules such as glucose and amino acids are added to the polarized xenobiotic to further increase the polarity (known as conjugation). This is again similar to the processes occurring in the human liver where <a href="/wiki/Glucuronidation" title="Glucuronidation">glucuronidation</a> (addition of glucose molecules by the UGT class of enzymes, e.g. <a href="/wiki/UGT1A1" class="mw-redirect" title="UGT1A1">UGT1A1</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Glutathione" title="Glutathione">glutathione</a> addition reactions occur on reactive centres of the xenobiotic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Phase I and II reactions serve to increase the polarity and reduce the toxicity of the compounds, although many exceptions to the rule are seen. The increased polarity also allows for easy transport of the xenobiotic along aqueous channels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the final stage of phytotransformation (Phase III metabolism), a sequestration of the xenobiotic occurs within the plant. The xenobiotics polymerize in a <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>-like manner and develop a complex structure that is sequestered in the plant. This ensures that the xenobiotic is safely stored, and does not affect the functioning of the plant. However, preliminary studies have shown that these plants can be toxic to small animals (such as snails), and, hence, plants involved in phytotransformation may need to be maintained in a closed enclosure.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Hence, the plants reduce toxicity (with exceptions) and sequester the xenobiotics in phytotransformation. <a href="/wiki/Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">Trinitrotoluene</a> phytotransformation has been extensively researched and a transformation pathway has been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-Subra_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subra-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phytostimulation">Phytostimulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phytostimulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phytostimulation (or rhizodegradation) is the enhancement of <a href="/wiki/Soil_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil life">soil microbial</a> activity for the degradation of organic contaminants, typically by organisms that associate with <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process occurs within the <a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">rhizosphere</a>, which is the layer of soil that surrounds the roots.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants release carbohydrates and acids that stimulate microorganism activity which results in the biodegradation of the organic contaminants.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that the microorganisms are able to digest and break down the toxic substances into harmless form.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytostimulation has been shown to be effective in degrading petroleum hydrocarbons, PCBs, and PAHs.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytostimulation can also involve aquatic plants supporting active populations of microbial degraders, as in the stimulation of <a href="/wiki/Atrazine" title="Atrazine">atrazine</a> degradation by <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornwort</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phytovolatilization">Phytovolatilization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Phytovolatilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoremediation_by_Phytovolatilization.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Phytoremediation_by_Phytovolatilization.svg/220px-Phytoremediation_by_Phytovolatilization.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Phytoremediation_by_Phytovolatilization.svg/330px-Phytoremediation_by_Phytovolatilization.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Phytoremediation_by_Phytovolatilization.svg/440px-Phytoremediation_by_Phytovolatilization.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>Contaminates are then broken down and the fragments are then subsequently transformed and volatilized into the atmosphere.</figcaption></figure> <p>Phytovolatilization is the removal of substances from soil or water with release into the air, sometimes as a result of phytotransformation to more volatile and/or less polluting substances. In this process, contaminants are taken up by the plant and through transpiration, evaporate into the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the most studied form of phytovolatilization, where volatilization occurs at the stem and leaves of the plant, however indirect phytovolatilization occurs when contaminants are volatilized from the root zone.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Selenium (Se) and Mercury (Hg) are often removed from soil through phytovolatilization.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poplar trees are one of the most successful plants for removing VOCs through this process due to its high transpiration rate.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhizofiltration">Rhizofiltration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Rhizofiltration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rhizofiltration" title="Rhizofiltration">Rhizofiltration</a> is a process that filters water through a mass of roots to remove toxic substances or excess <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a>. The pollutants remain absorbed in or adsorbed to the roots.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process is often used to clean up contaminated groundwater through planting directly in the contaminated site or through removing the contaminated water and providing it to these plants in an off-site location.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In either case though, typically plants are first grown in a greenhouse under precise conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_hydraulic_containment">Biological hydraulic containment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Biological hydraulic containment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biological <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_containment" title="Hydraulic containment">hydraulic containment</a> occurs when some plants, like poplars, draw water upwards through the soil into the roots and out through the plant, which decreases the movement of soluble contaminants downwards, deeper into the site and into the groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phytodesalination">Phytodesalination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Phytodesalination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phytodesalination uses halophytes (plants adapted to saline soil) to extract salt from the soil to improve its fertility.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_genetics">Role of genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Role of genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Breeding programs and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> are powerful methods for enhancing natural phytoremediation capabilities, or for introducing new capabilities into plants. Genes for phytoremediation may originate from a <a href="/wiki/Micro-organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-organism">micro-organism</a> or may be transferred from one plant to another variety better adapted to the environmental conditions at the cleanup site. For example, genes encoding a nitroreductase from a bacterium were inserted into tobacco and showed faster removal of TNT and enhanced resistance to the toxic effects of TNT.<sup id="cite_ref-Hannink_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hannink-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers have also discovered a mechanism in plants that allows them to grow even when the pollution concentration in the soil is lethal for non-treated plants. Some natural, biodegradable compounds, such as exogenous <a href="/wiki/Polyamine" title="Polyamine">polyamines</a>, allow the plants to tolerate concentrations of pollutants 500 times higher than untreated plants, and to absorb more pollutants.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hyperaccumulators_and_biotic_interactions">Hyperaccumulators and biotic interactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hyperaccumulators and biotic interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulator" title="Hyperaccumulator">Hyperaccumulator</a></div> <p>A plant is said to be a <a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulator" title="Hyperaccumulator">hyperaccumulator</a> if it can concentrate the pollutants in a minimum percentage which varies according to the pollutant involved (for example: more than 1000 mg/kg of dry weight for <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>; or more than 10,000 mg/kg for <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> or <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-BB89_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BB89-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This capacity for accumulation is due to <b>hypertolerance</b>, or <i>phytotolerance</i>: the result of adaptative evolution from the plants to hostile environments through many generations. A number of interactions may be affected by metal hyperaccumulation, including protection, interferences with neighbour plants of different species, mutualism (including <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> and seed dispersal), commensalism, and <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Biotechnology_Advances_2011_pp._645–653_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biotechnology_Advances_2011_pp._645–653-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pavlova_De_La_Fuente_SÁNchez-Mata_Rufo_pp._671–681_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pavlova_De_La_Fuente_SÁNchez-Mata_Rufo_pp._671–681-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Visioli_DEgidio_Sanangelantoni_2021_p._45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Visioli_DEgidio_Sanangelantoni_2021_p.-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tables_of_hyperaccumulators">Tables of hyperaccumulators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tables of hyperaccumulators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation,_Hyperaccumulators" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytoremediation, Hyperaccumulators">Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Al, Ag, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Mn, Hg, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Pt, Se, Zn</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_%E2%80%93_2_:_Nickel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel">Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_%E2%80%93_3" title="Hyperaccumulators table – 3">Hyperaccumulators table – 3 : Radionuclides (Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U), Hydrocarbons, Organic Solvents.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phytoscreening">Phytoscreening</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Phytoscreening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As plants are able to translocate and accumulate particular types of contaminants, plants can be used as <a href="/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor">biosensors</a> of subsurface contamination, thereby allowing investigators to quickly delineate contaminant plumes.<sup id="cite_ref-Burken_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burken-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sorek_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sorek-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chlorinated solvents, such as <a href="/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">trichloroethylene</a>, have been observed in tree trunks at concentrations related to groundwater concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Vroblesky_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vroblesky-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To ease field implementation of phytoscreening, standard methods have been developed to extract a section of the tree trunk for later laboratory analysis, often by using an <a href="/wiki/Increment_borer" title="Increment borer">increment borer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytoscreening may lead to more optimized site investigations and reduce contaminated site cleanup costs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Reichenauer2008-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reichenauer2008_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReichenauerGermida2008" class="citation journal cs1">Reichenauer TG, Germida JJ (2008). 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"Phytoremediation". <i>Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology</i>. <b>49</b>: 643–668. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.arplant.49.1.643">10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.643</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15012249">15012249</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241195507">241195507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Plant+Physiology+and+Plant+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Phytoremediation&rft.volume=49&rft.pages=643-668&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241195507%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15012249&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.arplant.49.1.643&rft.aulast=Salt&rft.aufirst=D.+E.&rft.au=Smith%2C+R.+D.&rft.au=Raskin%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhytoremediation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangLiOkazakiSugisaki2003" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, X. J.; Li, F. Y.; Okazaki, M.; Sugisaki, M. (2003). "Phytoremediation of contaminated soil". <i>Annual Report CESS</i>. <b>3</b>: 114–123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Report+CESS&rft.atitle=Phytoremediation+of+contaminated+soil&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=114-123&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=X.+J.&rft.au=Li%2C+F.+Y.&rft.au=Okazaki%2C+M.&rft.au=Sugisaki%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhytoremediation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnconaBarra_CaraccioloGrenniDi_Lenola2017" class="citation journal cs1">Ancona, V; Barra Caracciolo, A; Grenni, P; Di Lenola, M; Campanale, C; Calabrese, A; Uricchio, VF; Mascolo, G; Massacci, A (2017). "Plant-assisted bioremediation of a historically PCB and heavy metal-contaminated area in Southern Italy". <i>New Biotechnology</i>. <b>38</b> (Pt B): 65–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nbt.2016.09.006">10.1016/j.nbt.2016.09.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27686395">27686395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Plant-assisted+bioremediation+of+a+historically+PCB+and+heavy+metal-contaminated+area+in+Southern+Italy&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=Pt+B&rft.pages=65-73&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.nbt.2016.09.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27686395&rft.aulast=Ancona&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Barra+Caracciolo%2C+A&rft.au=Grenni%2C+P&rft.au=Di+Lenola%2C+M&rft.au=Campanale%2C+C&rft.au=Calabrese%2C+A&rft.au=Uricchio%2C+VF&rft.au=Mascolo%2C+G&rft.au=Massacci%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhytoremediation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.03.038">"Ancona V, Barra Caracciolo A, Campanale C, De Caprariis B, Grenni P, Uricchio VF, Borello D, 2019. Gasification Treatment of Poplar Biomass Produced in a Contaminated Area Restored using Plant Assisted Bioremediation. Journal of Environmental Management"</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytoremediation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/phytoremediation/">Missouri Botanical Garden (host): <b>Phytoremediation website</b></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101017145853/http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/phytoremediation/">Archived</a> 2010-10-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> — <i>Review Articles, Conferences, Phytoremediation Links, Research Sponsors, Books and Journals, and Recent Research</i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/15226514.asp">International Journal of Phytoremediation</a> — <i>devoted to the publication of current laboratory and field research describing the use of plant systems to remediate contaminated environments.</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jun00/soil0600.htm">Using Plants To Clean Up Soils</a> — <i>from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080401102233/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/ar/">Agricultural Research magazine</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060818015757/http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/newalchemy.html">New Alchemy Institute</a> — <i>co-founded by <a href="/wiki/John_Todd_(Canadian_biologist)" title="John Todd (Canadian biologist)">John Todd (Canadian biologist)</a></i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Phytoremediation" title="Template:Phytoremediation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Phytoremediation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Phytoremediation (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Phytoremediation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Phytoremediation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Phytoremediation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phytoremediation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phytoextraction_process" title="Phytoextraction process">Phytoextraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phytomining" title="Phytomining">Phytomining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Phytostabilization">Phytostabilization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Phytodegradation">Phytodegradation/Phytotransformation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Phytostimulation">Phytostimulation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Phytovolatilization">Phytovolatilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizofiltration" title="Rhizofiltration">Rhizofiltration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Biological_hydraulic_containment">Biological hydraulic containment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Phytodesalination">Phytodesalination</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Phytoscreening">Phytoscreening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulators" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperaccumulators">Hyperaccumulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators" title="List of hyperaccumulators">Al, Ag, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Mn, Hg, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Pt, Se, Zn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_%E2%80%93_2_:_Nickel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel">Nickel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_%E2%80%93_3" title="Hyperaccumulators table – 3">Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, organic solvents, etc.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoremediation" title="Mycoremediation">Mycoremediation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" 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