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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>18th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 18th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_creation_of_the_first_economically_successful_canal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_creation_of_the_first_economically_successful_canal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The creation of the first economically successful canal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_creation_of_the_first_economically_successful_canal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>John Frederick Bateman and water supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Frederick_Bateman_and_water_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manchester_Ship_Canal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manchester_Ship_Canal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Manchester Ship Canal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manchester_Ship_Canal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trafford_Park" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trafford_Park"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Trafford Park</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trafford_Park-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Science and technology in Manchester</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="This article exist only in this language. 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data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_engineering_in_Manchester&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and engineering in Manchester">Science and engineering in Manchester</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p> <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> is one of the principal cities of the United Kingdom, gaining city status in 1853, thus becoming the first new city in over 300 years since Bristol in 1542. Often regarded as the first industrialised city,<sup id="cite_ref-Industrial_city_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Industrial_city-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manchester was a city built by the Industrial Revolution and had little pre-medieval history to speak of. Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica7_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica7-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As its population and influence burgeoned, Manchester became a centre for new discoveries, scientific breakthroughs and technological developments in engineering. A famous but unattributed quote linked to Manchester is: "<i>What Manchester does today, the rest of the world does tomorrow</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pioneering breakthroughs such as the <a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">first 'true' canal</a> which spawned '<a href="/wiki/Canal_Mania" title="Canal Mania">Canal Mania</a>', the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liverpool_Road_railway_station" title="Manchester Liverpool Road railway station">first intercity railway station</a> which led to '<a href="/wiki/Railway_mania" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway mania">railway mania</a>' and the first <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a>. The city has achieved great success in the field of physics, with the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> (<a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>, 1897), <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a>, 1917), <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>, 1934) all being discovered by scientists educated (Chadwick and Rutherford) or born (Thomson) in Manchester. </p><p>Famous scientists to have studied in Manchester include <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>. A creative and often seen as a <a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">bohemian</a> city,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manchester also had the highest number of patent applications per head of population in the United Kingdom in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city is served by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>, previously <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology" title="University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology">UMIST</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" title="Victoria University of Manchester">Victoria University of Manchester</a> pre-2004. The university has a total of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester#Nobel_Prize_winners" title="University of Manchester">25 Nobel Laureates</a>; only the <a href="/wiki/Oxbridge" title="Oxbridge">Oxbridge</a> universities have more Nobel laureates. The city is also served by the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_(Manchester)" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)">Museum of Science and Industry</a> celebrating Mancunian, as well as national achievements in both fields. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="17th_century">17th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 17th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg/220px-BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg/330px-BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg/440px-BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>A romanticised version of <a href="/wiki/William_Crabtree" title="William Crabtree">William Crabtree</a> observing the <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">transit of Venus</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ford_Madox_Brown" title="Ford Madox Brown">Madox Brown</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1630, astronomer <a href="/wiki/William_Crabtree" title="William Crabtree">William Crabtree</a> observed the <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">transit of Venus</a>. Crabtree was born in the <a href="/wiki/Hamlet_(place)" title="Hamlet (place)">hamlet</a> of "Broughton Spout" which was on the east bank of the <a href="/wiki/River_Irwell" title="River Irwell">River Irwell</a>, near the area now known as "The Priory" in Broughton<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was educated at <a href="/wiki/The_Manchester_Grammar_School" class="mw-redirect" title="The Manchester Grammar School">The Manchester Grammar School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman2004_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman2004-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He married into a wealthy family and worked as a merchant in Manchester. However, in his spare time, his great interest was <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. He carefully measured the movements of the <a href="/wiki/Planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Planets">planets</a> and undertook precise astronomical calculations. With improved accuracy, he rewrote the existing <a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables" title="Rudolphine Tables">Rudolphine Tables</a> of Planetary Positions. </p><p>Crabtree corresponded with <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Horrocks" title="Jeremiah Horrocks">Jeremiah Horrocks</a> (who sometimes spelt his name in the Latinised form as Horrox), another enthusiastic amateur astronomer, from 1636. A group of astronomers from the north of England, which included <a href="/wiki/William_Gascoigne_(scientist)" title="William Gascoigne (scientist)">William Gascoigne</a>, formed around them and were Britain's first followers of the astronomy of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>. "Nos Keplari" as the group called themselves, were distinguished as being the first people to gain a realistic notion of the solar system's size.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crabtree and Horrocks were the only astronomers to observe, plot, and record the transit of the planet <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, as predicted by Horrocks, on 24 November 1639 (<a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a>, or 4 December in the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a>). They also predicted the next occurrence on 8 June 2004. The two correspondents both recorded the event in their own homes and it is not known whether they ever met in person, but Crabtree's calculations were crucial in allowing Horrocks to estimate the size of Venus and the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Unfortunately Horrocks died early in 1641 the day before he was due to meet Crabtree. Crabtree made his will on 19 July 1644, and was buried within the precincts of the Manchester Collegiate Church on 1 August 1644, close to where he had received his education.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman2004_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman2004-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="18th_century">18th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_creation_of_the_first_economically_successful_canal">The creation of the first economically successful canal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The creation of the first economically successful canal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Worsley_packet_house_closeup_large_image.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Worsley_packet_house_closeup_large_image.jpg/220px-Worsley_packet_house_closeup_large_image.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Worsley_packet_house_closeup_large_image.jpg/330px-Worsley_packet_house_closeup_large_image.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Worsley_packet_house_closeup_large_image.jpg/440px-Worsley_packet_house_closeup_large_image.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3468" data-file-height="2286" /></a><figcaption>The pioneering Bridgewater Canal, an economically successful canal which spawned '<a href="/wiki/Canal_Mania" title="Canal Mania">Canal Mania</a>'.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</a>, opening in 1761 is generally regarded as the earliest successful canals. The Bridgewater Canal connects <a href="/wiki/Runcorn" title="Runcorn">Runcorn</a>, Manchester and <a href="/wiki/Leigh,_Greater_Manchester" title="Leigh, Greater Manchester">Leigh</a>, in North West England. It was commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater" title="Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater">Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater</a>, to transport coal from his mines in <a href="/wiki/Worsley" title="Worsley">Worsley</a> to Manchester. It was opened in 1761 from Worsley to Manchester, and later extended from Manchester to Runcorn, and then from Worsley to Leigh. </p><p> The Duke invested a large sum of money in the scheme. From Worsley to Manchester its construction cost £168,000 (equivalent to £32,701,440 in 2023),<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-UK_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-UK-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half.<sup id="cite_ref-Bridgewatercollieries_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bridgewatercollieries-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as <a href="/wiki/Canal_Mania" title="Canal Mania">Canal Mania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with its stone aqueduct at Barton-upon-Irwell, the Bridgewater Canal was considered a major engineering achievement. One commentator wrote that when finished, "[the canal] will be the most extraordinary thing in the Kingdom, if not in Europe. The boats in some places are to go underground, and in other places over a navigable river, without communicating with its waters ...".<sup id="cite_ref-Ref-1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrownManchesterMuralDalton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/BrownManchesterMuralDalton.jpg/220px-BrownManchesterMuralDalton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/BrownManchesterMuralDalton.jpg/330px-BrownManchesterMuralDalton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/BrownManchesterMuralDalton.jpg/440px-BrownManchesterMuralDalton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>A painting by <a href="/wiki/Ford_Madox_Brown" title="Ford Madox Brown">Madox Brown</a> depicting John Dalton collecting <a href="/wiki/Marsh_gas" title="Marsh gas">marsh gas</a> to help ascertain <a href="/wiki/Dalton%27s_atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalton's atomic theory">Dalton's atomic theory</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg/150px-A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg/225px-A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg/300px-A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="2571" /></a><figcaption>Various atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a>, was born in <a href="/wiki/Cumberland" title="Cumberland">Cumberland</a> in 1766, a promising young scientist he moved to Manchester in 1793. He hypothesised the idea of "<a href="/wiki/Colour_blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour blindness">colour blindness</a>", a theory which was alien to all as it had not been formally talked about before. Dalton hypothesised the idea from his own experience, as he suffered from discoloured eyesight himself.<sup id="cite_ref-daltoncb_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daltoncb-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dalton would go on to propose the <a href="/wiki/Dalton_atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalton atomic theory">Dalton atomic theory</a> in which he hypothesised that elements were made of small particles called <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liverpool_Road_railway_station,_Manchester.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Liverpool_Road_railway_station%2C_Manchester.jpg/220px-Liverpool_Road_railway_station%2C_Manchester.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Liverpool_Road_railway_station%2C_Manchester.jpg/330px-Liverpool_Road_railway_station%2C_Manchester.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Liverpool_Road_railway_station%2C_Manchester.jpg/440px-Liverpool_Road_railway_station%2C_Manchester.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1562" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liverpool_Road_railway_station" title="Manchester Liverpool Road railway station">Manchester Liverpool Road railway station</a>, the world's first intercity railway station</figcaption></figure> <p>Manchester Liverpool Road is a former <a href="/wiki/Railway_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway station">railway station</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Liverpool and Manchester Railway">Liverpool and Manchester Railway</a> in Manchester, which opened on 15 September 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The L&MR station was the <a href="/wiki/Train_station#Terminus" title="Train station">terminus</a> of the world's first <a href="/wiki/Inter-city_rail" title="Inter-city rail">inter-city</a> passenger railway in which all services were hauled by timetabled <a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">steam locomotives</a>. It is now the world's oldest surviving terminal railway station.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HG_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HG-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The station closed to passenger services on 4 May 1844 <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when the line was extended to join the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_and_Leeds_Railway" title="Manchester and Leeds Railway">Manchester and Leeds Railway</a> at Hunt's Bank. Liverpool Road was superseded by <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Victoria_station" title="Manchester Victoria station">Manchester Victoria railway station</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since Liverpool Road ceased operation, the oldest railway station still in use is <a href="/wiki/Earlestown_railway_station" title="Earlestown railway station">Earlestown railway station</a> which also opened on 15 September 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However the station is still preserved by the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_(Manchester)" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)">Museum of Science and Industry</a>. </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Angus_Smith" title="Robert Angus Smith">Robert Angus Smith</a>, a Scottish chemist visited Manchester in the 1840s. In his research in Manchester, Smith discovered the existence of <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>, a by product of the industrial revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-smith_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith consequently pushed for greater environmental awareness and helped to found the Noxious Vapours Abatement Society in Manchester, which raised awareness of the consequences of poor air.<sup id="cite_ref-smith_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_whitworth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Joseph_whitworth.jpg/180px-Joseph_whitworth.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Joseph_whitworth.jpg/270px-Joseph_whitworth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Joseph_whitworth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>A drawing portrait of Sir <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joseph_Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Joseph Whitworth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/British_Standard_Whitworth" title="British Standard Whitworth">British Standard Whitworth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Whitworth_rifle" title="Whitworth rifle">Whitworth rifle</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</a> was an engineer and inventor who hailed from Stockport, Cheshire (now Greater Manchester). A talented mechanic amongst various other engineering roles, for long periods of his life, he worked in factories in Manchester. Whitworth would ultimately devise a standard <a href="/wiki/Screw_thread" title="Screw thread">screw thread</a> system, the first of its kind in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system he created in 1841 would become known as the <a href="/wiki/British_Standard_Whitworth" title="British Standard Whitworth">British Standard Whitworth</a>. </p><p> Whitworth also invented the <a href="/wiki/Whitworth_rifle" title="Whitworth rifle">Whitworth rifle</a>, which was a giant leap in the development of the rifle, delivering a shooting range which far exceeded any firearm available at the time. In the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> Confederate troops equipped with barrel-length three power scopes mounted on the exceptionally accurate Whitworth rifle had been known to kill Union officers at ranges of about 800 yards (731.5m), an unheard-of distance at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, the Whitworth rifle is considered one of the earliest examples of a <a href="/wiki/Sniper_rifle" title="Sniper rifle">sniper rifle</a>, if not the first.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recognition of his achievements, a number of buildings in Manchester are named after him as is <a href="/wiki/Whitworth_Street" title="Whitworth Street">Whitworth Street</a>. As part of his bequest, the <a href="/wiki/Whitworth_Art_Gallery" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitworth Art Gallery">Whitworth Art Gallery</a> was created in his honour.</p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Frederick_Bateman_and_water_supply">John Frederick Bateman and water supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: John Frederick Bateman and water supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/John_Frederick_Bateman" title="John Frederick Bateman">John Frederick Bateman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longdendale_Chain" title="Longdendale Chain">Longdendale Chain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thirlmere" title="Thirlmere">Thirlmere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thirlmere_Aqueduct" title="Thirlmere Aqueduct">Thirlmere Aqueduct</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haweswater_Reservoir" title="Haweswater Reservoir">Haweswater Reservoir</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tanker_ship_canal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Tanker_ship_canal.jpg/220px-Tanker_ship_canal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Tanker_ship_canal.jpg/330px-Tanker_ship_canal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Tanker_ship_canal.jpg/440px-Tanker_ship_canal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal" title="Manchester Ship Canal">Manchester Ship Canal</a>, the world's longest <a href="/wiki/Ship_canal" title="Ship canal">ship canal</a> upon opening in 1894</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 1850s, Manchester had grown into an industrial city, but the alacrity of such development had placed great strain on the city's infrastructure. Engineering developments such as water supplies, sewers and transport links (typically via canals) would provide Manchester with the necessary supplies to move forward. </p><p>In the 1840s, the Manchester Corporation Water Works recommended that to the city corporation that an infrastructure to increase water supplies to cope with demand must be built. The obvious choice for this supply would come from areas of high rainfall and there were three choices which were close enough to Manchester. The <a href="/wiki/Lake_District" title="Lake District">Lake District</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_District" title="Peak District">Peak District</a> and <a href="/wiki/Snowdonia" title="Snowdonia">Snowdonia</a> are traditionally rainy areas with its numerous valleys, ideal for a large reservoir. This was rejected in favour of <a href="/wiki/John_Frederick_Bateman" title="John Frederick Bateman">John Frederick Bateman</a>'s proposal to build a supply chain of six reservoirs in the <a href="/wiki/Longdendale" title="Longdendale">Longdendale Valley</a> to the east of Manchester. </p><p>Further feats of engineering were required to cope with Manchester's increasing demand for water. From 1890 to 1925, the <a href="/wiki/Thirlmere_Aqueduct" title="Thirlmere Aqueduct">Thirlmere Aqueduct</a> was constructed from <a href="/wiki/Thirlmere" title="Thirlmere">Thirlmere</a> to Heaton Park Reservoir. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manchester_Ship_Canal">Manchester Ship Canal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Manchester Ship Canal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> In the 1880s, plans for a new Manchester Ship Canal were proposed. The idea was championed by Manchester manufacturer <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Adamson" title="Daniel Adamson">Daniel Adamson</a>, who arranged a meeting at his home, <a href="/wiki/The_Towers_(Manchester)" title="The Towers (Manchester)">The Towers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Didsbury" title="Didsbury">Didsbury</a>, on 27 June 1882. He invited the representatives of several <a href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</a> towns, local businessmen and politicians, and two civil engineers: <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Fulton" title="Hamilton Fulton">Hamilton Fulton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Leader_Williams" title="Edward Leader Williams">Edward Leader Williams</a>. Fulton's design was for a tidal canal, with no <a href="/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lock (water transport)">locks</a> and a deepened channel into Manchester. With the city about 60 feet (18 m) above sea level, the docks and quays would have been well below the surrounding surface. Williams' plan was to dredge a channel between a set of retaining walls, and build a series of locks and <a href="/wiki/Sluice" title="Sluice">sluices</a> to lift incoming vessels up to Manchester.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both engineers were invited to submit their proposals, and Williams' plans were selected to form the basis of a bill to be submitted to Parliament later that year.<sup id="cite_ref-OwenP31_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OwenP31-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Manchester Ship Canal briefly became the longest ship canal in the world upon opening<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at its peak in the 1960s, it was the third busiest port in Britain.</p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trafford_Park">Trafford Park</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trafford Park"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trafford_Park" title="Trafford Park">Trafford Park</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ford_Modell-T_side_20020707.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Ford_Modell-T_side_20020707.jpg/220px-Ford_Modell-T_side_20020707.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Ford_Modell-T_side_20020707.jpg/330px-Ford_Modell-T_side_20020707.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Ford_Modell-T_side_20020707.jpg/440px-Ford_Modell-T_side_20020707.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1716" data-file-height="1377" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ford_Model_T" title="Ford Model T">Ford Model T</a>, the first production factory outside America for the Model T was at Trafford Park in Manchester, bolstered by it logistic benefits of the Manchester Ship Canal.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>As the ship canal was opened in 1894, plans were afoot for a new industrial estate, the first of its kind in the world. Two years after the opening of the ship canal, financier <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Terah_Hooley" title="Ernest Terah Hooley">Ernest Terah Hooley</a> bought the 1,183-acre (4,790,000 m<sup>2</sup>)<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> country estate belonging to <a href="/wiki/Sir_Humphrey_de_Trafford,_3rd_Baronet" title="Sir Humphrey de Trafford, 3rd Baronet">Sir Humphrey Francis de Trafford</a> for £360,000 (equivalent to £52.6 million in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-inflation-UK_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-UK-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hooley intended to develop the site, which was close to Manchester and at the end of the canal, as an exclusive housing estate, screened by woods from industrial units<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_1996_24_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls_1996_24-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> constructed along the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) frontage onto the canal.<sup id="cite_ref-FarnieP114_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FarnieP114-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the predicted traffic for the canal slow to materialise, Hooley and <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Stevens" title="Marshall Stevens">Marshall Stevens</a> (the general manager of the Ship Canal Company) came to see the benefits that the industrial development of Trafford Park could offer to both the ship canal and the estate. In January 1897 Stevens became the managing director of Trafford Park Estates,<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_1996_24_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls_1996_24-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where he remained until 1930, latterly as its joint chairman and managing director.<sup id="cite_ref-NichollsP112_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NichollsP112-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within five years Trafford Park, Europe's largest <a href="/wiki/Industrial_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial estate">industrial estate</a>, was home to forty firms. The earliest structures on the canal side were <a href="/wiki/Grain_silo" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain silo">grain silos</a>; the grain was used for flour and as <a href="/wiki/Sailing_ballast" class="mw-redirect" title="Sailing ballast">ballast</a> for ships carrying raw <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>. The wooden silo built opposite No.9 Dock in 1898 (destroyed in the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Blitz" title="Manchester Blitz">Manchester Blitz</a> in 1940) was Europe's largest grain elevator. The CWS bought land on Trafford Wharf in 1903, where it opened a bacon factory and a flour mill. In 1906 it bought the Sun Mill, which it extended in 1913 to create the UK's largest flour mill, with its own wharf, elevators and silos.<sup id="cite_ref-P-B128_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P-B128-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inland from the canal <a href="/wiki/British_Westinghouse" title="British Westinghouse">the British Westinghouse Electric Company</a> bought 11 per cent of the estate. Westinghouse's American architect <a href="/wiki/Charles_Heathcote" title="Charles Heathcote">Charles Heathcote</a> was responsible for much of the planning and design of their factory, which built <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turbo_generator" title="Turbo generator">turbo generators</a>. By 1899 Heathcote had also designed fifteen warehouses for the Manchester Ship Canal Company.<sup id="cite_ref-P-B128_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P-B128-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engineering companies such as <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers" title="Metropolitan-Vickers">Metropolitan-Vickers</a> had a large presence at Trafford Park alongside non-engineering companies such <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%27s" title="Kellogg's">Kellogg's</a> who remain to this day. Trafford Park was also home to the first Ford production plant for their revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Model_T" class="mw-redirect" title="Model T">Model T</a> car outside of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rolls-Royce_Merlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Rolls-Royce_Merlin.jpg/220px-Rolls-Royce_Merlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Rolls-Royce_Merlin.jpg/330px-Rolls-Royce_Merlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Rolls-Royce_Merlin.jpg/440px-Rolls-Royce_Merlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1602" data-file-height="1031" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Merlin" title="Rolls-Royce Merlin">Rolls-Royce Merlin</a> engine, produced en masse during World War II at Ford's Trafford Park plant.</figcaption></figure> <p>During World War II, Trafford Park became an important centre for the manufacture and development in engineering in the aim of giving Britain a technological advantage over its enemies. Having an abandoned factory in <a href="/wiki/Trafford_Park" title="Trafford Park">Trafford Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ford_of_Britain" title="Ford of Britain">Ford of Britain</a> was approached about the possibility of converting it into an aircraft engine production unit by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Austin">Herbert Austin</a>, who was in charge of the <a href="/wiki/Shadow_factory_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadow factory plan">shadow factory plan</a>. Building work on a new factory was started in May 1940 on a 118-acre (48 ha) site, while Ford engineers went on a fact finding mission to Derby. Their chief engineer commented to Sir Stanley Hooker that the tolerances used were far too wide for them, and so the 20,000 drawings would need to be redrawn to Ford tolerance levels, which took over a year.<sup id="cite_ref-HookerBio_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HookerBio-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ford's factory was built with two distinct sections to minimise potential bomb damage, it was completed in May 1941 and bombed in the same month. At first, the factory had difficulty in attracting suitable labour, and large numbers of women, youths and untrained men had to be taken on. Despite this, the first Merlin engine came off the production line one month later<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls103_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls103-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it was building the engine at a rate of 200 per week by 1943, at which point the joint factories were producing 18,000 Merlins per year. Ford’s investment in machinery and the redesign resulted in the 10,000 man-hours needed to produce a Merlin dropping to 2,727 in three years, while unit cost fell from £6,540 in June 1941 to £1,180 by the war’s end. In his autobiography <i>Not much of an Engineer</i>, Sir Stanley Hooker states: "... once the great Ford factory at Manchester started production, Merlins came out like shelling peas. The percentage of engines rejected by the Air Ministry was zero. Not one engine of the 30,400 produced was rejected ...".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some 17,316 people worked at the Trafford Park plant, including 7,260 women and two resident doctors and nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls103_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls103-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Merlin production started to run down in August 1945, and finally ceased on 23 March 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The Ship Canal is now past its heyday, but still sits at Europe's largest industrial estate, <a href="/wiki/Trafford_Park" title="Trafford Park">Trafford Park</a> and there are plans to increase shipping. Its importance highlighted by the engineering achievement that was the Manchester Ship Canal, the only <a href="/wiki/Ship_canal" title="Ship canal">ship canal</a> in Britain and growth of the first industrial estate in the world in <a href="/wiki/Trafford_Park" title="Trafford Park">Trafford Park</a>.</p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_'Nuclear_Family'"><span id="The_.27Nuclear_Family.27"></span>The 'Nuclear Family'</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The 'Nuclear Family'"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J.J_Thomson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/170px-J.J_Thomson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/255px-J.J_Thomson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/340px-J.J_Thomson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>, Manchester-born physicist who is credited with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 19th and early 20th century, Manchester gained a pioneering reputation for a city at the centre of physics, namely in the field of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>. The 'Nuclear Family'<sup id="cite_ref-nuclearfamily_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuclearfamily-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the alias given to a group of scientists who studied nuclear physics in Manchester. 'Family' highlights the consistent development through the generations in nuclear physics, beginning with Thomson in the late 18th century and ending with <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> in the 1930s who discovered the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a>. Ernest Rutherford is often described as the 'father of nuclear physics', equally the same could be said of J. J. Thomson who discovered the electron and isotopes, and ultimately taught Rutherford who later go on to split the atom. Scientists who were part of the 'nuclear family' in Manchester included <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Ernest Marsden</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>. </p><p>J. J. Thomson, a Manchester-born physicist hailing from <a href="/wiki/Cheetham_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheetham Hill">Cheetham Hill</a>, who enrolled to <a href="/wiki/Owens_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Owens College">Owens College</a> as a 14-year-old.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson would go on to discover the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> in 1897 and <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a>, as well as inventing the <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometer</a>. All of which, contributed to his award of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1906. Thomson also proposed the plum pudding model, which was later confirmed as scientifically incorrect by Rutherford. </p><p> In 1907, Ernest Rutherford, a scientist who had been taught by Thomson at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, moved to Manchester to become chair of physics at the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" title="Victoria University of Manchester">Victoria University of Manchester</a>. Rutherford hypothesised the <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_model" title="Rutherford model">Rutherford model</a>, which was later improved on by Niels Bohr who proposed the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rutherford would later have a great influence on students such as <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Ernest Marsden</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>. Rutherford's main work would come in 1917 when he would '<a href="/wiki/Split_the_atom" class="mw-redirect" title="Split the atom">split the atom</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-nuclearfamily_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuclearfamily-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aviation">Aviation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aviation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/John_Alcock_(RAF_officer)" title="John Alcock (RAF officer)">John Alcock (RAF officer)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avro" title="Avro">Avro</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_flight_of_Alcock_and_Brown" title="Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown">Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arthur_Whitten_Brown_and_John_Alcock_in_1919.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Arthur_Whitten_Brown_and_John_Alcock_in_1919.jpg/220px-Arthur_Whitten_Brown_and_John_Alcock_in_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Arthur_Whitten_Brown_and_John_Alcock_in_1919.jpg/330px-Arthur_Whitten_Brown_and_John_Alcock_in_1919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Arthur_Whitten_Brown_and_John_Alcock_in_1919.jpg/440px-Arthur_Whitten_Brown_and_John_Alcock_in_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Whitten_Brown" title="Arthur Whitten Brown">Arthur Whitten Brown</a> and Manchester-born <a href="/wiki/John_Alcock_(RAF_officer)" title="John Alcock (RAF officer)">John Alcock</a> in 1919.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avro_Lancaster_B_I_PA474.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Lancaster" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Avro_Lancaster_B_I_PA474.jpg/150px-Avro_Lancaster_B_I_PA474.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Avro_Lancaster_B_I_PA474.jpg/225px-Avro_Lancaster_B_I_PA474.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Avro_Lancaster_B_I_PA474.jpg/300px-Avro_Lancaster_B_I_PA474.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Avro_Lancaster" title="Avro Lancaster">Lancaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avro_Vulcan" title="Avro Vulcan">Vulcan</a> were both designed by <a href="/wiki/Avro" title="Avro">Avro</a> at various sites around Manchester.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Vulcan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG/150px-Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG" decoding="async" width="150" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG/225px-Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG/300px-Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1979" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Lancaster was also an improved version of the <a href="/wiki/Avro_Manchester" title="Avro Manchester">Avro Manchester</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>From the advent of aviation at the beginning of the 20th century, Manchester has been home to a number of famous aviation companies, most notably <a href="/wiki/Avro" title="Avro">Avro</a>. </p><p>In 1910, French aviator <a href="/wiki/Louis_Paulhan" title="Louis Paulhan">Louis Paulhan</a> flew from London to Manchester in approximately 12 hours. Paulhan won the first <a href="/wiki/Daily_Mail_aviation_prizes" title="Daily Mail aviation prizes">Daily Mail aviation prizes</a> who offered the prize in 1906. </p><p>Jack Alcock was born on 5 November 1892 at Seymour Grove, <a href="/wiki/Old_Trafford,_Manchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Trafford, Manchester">Old Trafford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stretford" title="Stretford">Stretford</a>, England. He attended St Thomas's primary school in <a href="/wiki/Heaton_Chapel" title="Heaton Chapel">Heaton Chapel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stockport" title="Stockport">Stockport</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He first became interested in flying at the age of seventeen. In 1910 he became an assistant to Works Manager Charles Fletcher, an early Manchester aviator<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Norman Crossland, a motor engineer and founder of Manchester Aero Club. It was during this period that Alcock met the Frenchman Maurice Ducrocq who was both a demonstration pilot and UK sales representative for aero engines made by Spirito Mario Viale in Italy. </p><p>Ducrocq took Alcock on as a mechanic at the <a href="/wiki/Brooklands" title="Brooklands">Brooklands</a> aerodrome, Surrey, where he learned to fly at Ducrocq's flying school, gaining his pilot's licence there in November 1912. By summer 1914 he was proficient enough to compete in a Hendon-Birmingham-Manchester and return air race, flying a <a href="/wiki/Farman" class="mw-redirect" title="Farman">Farman</a> biplane. He landed at <a href="/wiki/Trafford_Park_Aerodrome_(Manchester)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trafford Park Aerodrome (Manchester)">Trafford Park Aerodrome</a> and flew back to Hendon the same day. Alcock became an experienced military pilot and instructor during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service" title="Royal Naval Air Service">Royal Naval Air Service</a>, although he was shot down during a bombing raid and taken prisoner in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. </p><p>After the war, Alcock wanted to continue his flying career and took up the challenge of attempting to be the first to fly directly across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a>. Alcock and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Whitten_Brown" title="Arthur Whitten Brown">Arthur Whitten Brown</a> took off from St John's, Newfoundland, at 1:45 pm local time on 14 June 1919, and landed in Derrygimla bog near Clifden, Ireland, 16 hours and 12 minutes later on 15 June 1919 after flying 1,980 miles (3,186 km). The flight had been much affected by bad weather, making accurate navigation difficult; the intrepid duo also had to cope with turbulence, instrument failure and ice on the wings. The flight was made in a modified <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Vimy" title="Vickers Vimy">Vickers Vimy</a> bomber, and won a <a href="/wiki/Daily_Mail_aviation_prizes" title="Daily Mail aviation prizes">£10,000 prize</a> offered by London's <i><a href="/wiki/Daily_Mail" title="Daily Mail">Daily Mail</a></i> newspaper for the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic. His grave in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cemetery,_Manchester" title="Southern Cemetery, Manchester">Southern Cemetery, Manchester</a> is marked by a large stone memorial alongside other famous Mancunian figures.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is buried in grave space "Church of England, Section G, Grave Number 966", alongside 4 other individuals: John Alcock, Mary Alcock, Edward Samson Alcock and Elsie Moseley. </p><p>In 1910, Eccles-born <a href="/wiki/Alliott_Verdon_Roe" title="Alliott Verdon Roe">Alliott Verdon Roe</a> founded Avro on at Brownsfield Mill on <a href="/wiki/Great_Ancoats_Street" title="Great Ancoats Street">Great Ancoats Street</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manchester_city_centre" title="Manchester city centre">Manchester city centre</a>. Alongside, <a href="/wiki/Farnworth" title="Farnworth">Farnworth</a>-born aircraft designer <a href="/wiki/Roy_Chadwick" title="Roy Chadwick">Roy Chadwick</a>, Avro would go on to design some recognisable British aircraft of the 20th century. The Avro Lancaster bomber, devised for World War II was a redeveloped version of the <a href="/wiki/Avro_Manchester" title="Avro Manchester">Avro Manchester</a> and subsequently became the most important British aircraft of the war alongside the <a href="/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfire" title="Supermarine Spitfire">Supermarine Spitfire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lovell_Telescope_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lovell_Telescope_5.jpg/220px-Lovell_Telescope_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lovell_Telescope_5.jpg/330px-Lovell_Telescope_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lovell_Telescope_5.jpg/440px-Lovell_Telescope_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3895" data-file-height="2595" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Lovell_Telescope" title="Lovell Telescope">Lovell Telescope</a> at <a href="/wiki/Jodrell_Bank_Observatory" title="Jodrell Bank Observatory">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lovell" title="Bernard Lovell">Bernard Lovell</a>, an astronomer moved to Manchester to become a research fellow on the cosmic ray research team at the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" title="Victoria University of Manchester">Victoria University of Manchester</a>. He spent war time years working on developing radar systems and the like to assist in the war effort. After the war, he continued his studies in cosmic rays, but background radiation and light in the large Manchester impeded his work. He decided to push for funding for a large radio telescope which would be based away from the city on the <a href="/wiki/Cheshire_Plain" title="Cheshire Plain">Cheshire Plain</a> south of Manchester at the <a href="/wiki/Jodrell_Bank_Observatory" title="Jodrell Bank Observatory">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a>. </p><p>Funding was granted from the <a href="/wiki/Nuffield_Foundation" title="Nuffield Foundation">Nuffield Foundation</a> with some contribution from the government, and soon an 89-metre height structure, which was the largest telescope in the world at the time of construction, was operational in 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The telescope became operational in October 1957, which was just before the launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>, the world's first artificial satellite. Only the Soviet hierarchy were aware of Sputnik and it was the Lovell Telescope which tracked the satellite. While the transmissions from Sputnik itself could easily be picked up by a household <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, the Lovell Telescope was the only telescope capable of tracking Sputnik's booster rocket by radar; it first located it just before midnight on 12 October 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-story_196_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-story_196-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-astronomer_262_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astronomer_262-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also located <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a>'s carrier rocket at just after midnight on 16 November 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-story_197_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-story_197-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jodrell Bank continued tracking new artificial satellites in the following years, and also doubled up as a long range ballistic missile radar system, a beneficial trait which helped the telescope gain funding from the British government.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jodrell Bank Observatory is currently operated by the University of Manchester and was nominated for UNESCO World Heritage Status in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computing">Computing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Computing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_computers" title="Manchester computers">Manchester computers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/220px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/330px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/440px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3477" data-file-height="2296" /></a><figcaption>Replica of the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a>, the world's first electronic <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In December 1946, Stockport-born <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Calland_Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic Calland Williams">Frederic Calland Williams</a> returned to Manchester to head the Electrical Engineering department at the Victoria University of Manchester. Williams also recruited <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kilburn" title="Tom Kilburn">Tom Kilburn</a>, with whom he worked with at the <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_Research_Establishment" title="Telecommunications Research Establishment">Telecommunications Research Establishment</a> during World War II. Both worked on perfecting the <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a> which Kilburn worked on. They eventually came up with the <a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a>, which allowed the storage of binary data.<sup id="cite_ref-histcomsci_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histcomsci-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently both worked on the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a> and on the 21 June 1948, the machine was switched on.<sup id="cite_ref-histcomsci_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histcomsci-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its low performance by modern standards – the Baby only had a 32-bit word length and a memory of 32 words – it was the first computer capable of storing data in the world and was breakthrough in the computer science world. </p><p>The Baby had provided a feasible design and development began on a more, usable and practical computer in the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>. Joined by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, the university continued development and by October 1949, the Mark 1 was finished.<sup id="cite_ref-histcomsci_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histcomsci-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The computer ran successfully, error-free, on the 16 and 17 June 1949. Thirty-five patents resulted from the computer and the successful implementation of an <a href="/wiki/Index_register" title="Index register">index register</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-histcomsci_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histcomsci-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_test-tube_baby">First test-tube baby</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: First test-tube baby"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Edwards" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert G. Edwards">Robert G. Edwards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louise_Brown" title="Louise Brown">Louise Brown</a></div> <p>In 1978, after a decade of research by Manchester-born <a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Edwards" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert G. Edwards">Robert G. Edwards</a> and his colleague, Patrick Steptoe, <a href="/wiki/Louise_Brown" title="Louise Brown">Louise Brown</a>, the world's first baby conceived by <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louise_Brown" title="Louise Brown">Louise Brown</a>, was born at <span class="nowrap">11:47 pm</span> on <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 1978 at the <a href="/wiki/Oldham_General_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Oldham General Hospital">Oldham General Hospital</a> and made medical history: <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">in vitro fertilization</a> meant a new way to help infertile couples who formerly had no possibility of having a baby. </p><p>Refinements in technology have increased pregnancy rates and it is estimated that in 2010 about <span class="nowrap">4 million</span> children have been born by IVF<sup id="cite_ref-nobelpr_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelpr-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with approximately 170,000 coming from donated <a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocyte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Embryos" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryos">embryos</a><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010, Robert G. Edwards was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> "for the development of in vitro fertilization".<sup id="cite_ref-nobelpr_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelpr-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graphene">Graphene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Graphene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Andre Geim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Konstantin Novoselov</a>, physicists at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> for their work on <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Successfully isolated in 2004, research and development continues on the 'miracle material'<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> today to find practical, everyday uses for the material.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year in 2011, the British government announced £50 million of funding to allow further development of graphene in the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_(Manchester)" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)">Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Citations</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Industrial_city-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Industrial_city_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKidd2006" class="citation book cs1">Kidd, Alan (2006). <i>Manchester: A History</i>. Lancaster: Carnegie Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85936-128-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85936-128-5"><bdi>1-85936-128-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manchester%3A+A+History&rft.place=Lancaster&rft.pub=Carnegie+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-85936-128-5&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span><br />• <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrangopulo1977" class="citation book cs1">Frangopulo, Nicholas (1977). <i>Tradition in Action. The historical evolution of the Greater Manchester County</i>. Wakefield: EP Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7158-1203-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7158-1203-3"><bdi>0-7158-1203-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tradition+in+Action.+The+historical+evolution+of+the+Greater+Manchester+County&rft.place=Wakefield&rft.pub=EP+Publishing&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-7158-1203-3&rft.aulast=Frangopulo&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span><br />• <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061207114505/http://www.eurofundingnw.org.uk/current_affairs.asp?section=affairs&id=34">"Manchester United in Celebration of City"</a>. European Structural Funding. 2002. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurofundingnw.org.uk/current_affairs.asp?section=affairs&id=34">the original</a> on 7 December 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 December</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Manchester+United+in+Celebration+of+City&rft.pub=European+Structural+Funding&rft.date=2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurofundingnw.org.uk%2Fcurrent_affairs.asp%3Fsection%3Daffairs%26id%3D34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica7-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica7_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/361363/Manchester">Manchester (England, United Kingdom)</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.manchesterconfidential.co.uk/Culture/Architecture/Rebuilding-Manchester">"Rebuilding Manchester"</a>. <i>Manchester Confidential</i>. 4 July 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Manchester+Confidential&rft.atitle=Rebuilding+Manchester&rft.date=2010-07-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.manchesterconfidential.co.uk%2FCulture%2FArchitecture%2FRebuilding-Manchester&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2011/jul/10/that-day-sang-crash-elysium">"That Day We Sang; The Crash of the Elysium; The Village Bike – review"</a>. 10 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=That+Day+We+Sang%3B+The+Crash+of+the+Elysium%3B+The+Village+Bike+%E2%80%93+review&rft.date=2011-07-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fculture%2F2011%2Fjul%2F10%2Fthat-day-sang-crash-elysium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2011/aug/05/manchester-cool-insiders-guide">"My kind of town: Manchester"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 5 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=My+kind+of+town%3A+Manchester&rft.date=2011-08-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftravel%2F2011%2Faug%2F05%2Fmanchester-cool-insiders-guide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2003/may/26/communities.arts">"Gritty city wins the boho crown"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 26 May 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Gritty+city+wins+the+boho+crown&rft.date=2003-05-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fuk%2F2003%2Fmay%2F26%2Fcommunities.arts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Broughton and Cheetham Hill in Victorian times by Monty Dobkin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85216-131-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85216-131-0">1-85216-131-0</a> pages 48&52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapman2004-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chapman2004_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapman2004_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, A. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1743921305001225">"Jeremiah Horrocks, William Crabtree, and the Lancashire observations of the transit of Venus of 1639"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union</i>. <b>2004</b> (IAUC196): 3–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1743921305001225">10.1017/S1743921305001225</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162490754">162490754</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+International+Astronomical+Union&rft.atitle=Jeremiah+Horrocks%2C+William+Crabtree%2C+and+the+Lancashire+observations+of+the+transit+of+Venus+of+1639&rft.volume=2004&rft.issue=IAUC196&rft.pages=3-26&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1743921305001225&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162490754%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1743921305001225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020224065326/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/birth.htm">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/birth.htm">the original</a> on 24 February 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fsts%2Fnk%2Fbirth.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-UK-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-UK_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-UK_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">UK <a href="/wiki/Retail_Price_Index" title="Retail Price Index">Retail Price Index</a> inflation figures are based on data from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2017" class="citation web cs1">Clark, Gregory (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://measuringworth.com/datasets/ukearncpi/">"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MeasuringWorth" title="MeasuringWorth">MeasuringWorth</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MeasuringWorth&rft.atitle=The+Annual+RPI+and+Average+Earnings+for+Britain%2C+1209+to+Present+%28New+Series%29&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmeasuringworth.com%2Fdatasets%2Fukearncpi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTimbs1860">Timbs 1860</a>, p. 363</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bridgewatercollieries-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bridgewatercollieries_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?toDate=1985-12-31&fromDate=1785-01-01&currentPageNumber=1&resultsPerPage=10&sortBy=default&offset=0&viewName=&addFilters=&removeFilters=&addCat=&queryKeywords=bridgewater+canal&sectionId=1040&currPgSmartSet=1&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08&articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08-001&xmlpath=&pubId=17&totalResults=1638&addRefineFilters=&removeRefineFilters=&addRefineCat=&next_Page=false&prev_Page=false&date_dd_From=1&date_mm_From=01&date_yyyy_From=1785&date_dd_to_range=31&date_mm_to_range=12&date_yyyy_to_range=1985&date_dd_from_precise=1&date_mm_from_precise=01&date_yyyy_from_precise=1785&isDateSearch=false&dateSearchType=range&refineQuerykeywordText="><i>The Times newspaper: Bridgewater Collieries</i></a>, London, 1 December 1913<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2008</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Times+newspaper%3A+Bridgewater+Collieries&rft.place=London&rft.date=1913-12-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2FviewArticle.arc%3FtoDate%3D1985-12-31%26fromDate%3D1785-01-01%26currentPageNumber%3D1%26resultsPerPage%3D10%26sortBy%3Ddefault%26offset%3D0%26viewName%3D%26addFilters%3D%26removeFilters%3D%26addCat%3D%26queryKeywords%3Dbridgewater%2Bcanal%26sectionId%3D1040%26currPgSmartSet%3D1%26pageId%3DARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08%26articleId%3DARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08-001%26xmlpath%3D%26pubId%3D17%26totalResults%3D1638%26addRefineFilters%3D%26removeRefineFilters%3D%26addRefineCat%3D%26next_Page%3Dfalse%26prev_Page%3Dfalse%26date_dd_From%3D1%26date_mm_From%3D01%26date_yyyy_From%3D1785%26date_dd_to_range%3D31%26date_mm_to_range%3D12%26date_yyyy_to_range%3D1985%26date_dd_from_precise%3D1%26date_mm_from_precise%3D01%26date_yyyy_from_precise%3D1785%26isDateSearch%3Dfalse%26dateSearchType%3Drange%26refineQuerykeywordText%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKindleberger1993">Kindleberger 1993</a>, pp. 192–193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ref-1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boughey, Joseph. (1998) <i>Hadfield's British Canals</i>, Sutton Publishing Ltd, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-1840-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-1840-3">0-7509-1840-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMather1970">Mather 1970</a>, p. xvi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daltoncb-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-daltoncb_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/03/sci_nat_the_life_and_work_of_john_dalton_(1766_1844)/html/4.stm">"Life and work of John Dalton - Colour Blindness"</a>. <i>BBC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Life+and+work+of+John+Dalton+-+Colour+Blindness&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fshared%2Fspl%2Fhi%2Fpop_ups%2F03%2Fsci_nat_the_life_and_work_of_john_dalton_%281766_1844%29%2Fhtml%2F4.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButt1995">Butt 1995</a>, p. 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/about-us">"About us"</a>. Science and Industry Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+us&rft.pub=Science+and+Industry+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk%2Fabout-us&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HG-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HG_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=1291477&resourceID=5"><i>Former Liverpool Road Railway Station, and Station Master's House</i></a>, Heritage Gateway<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Former+Liverpool+Road+Railway+Station%2C+and+Station+Master%27s+House&rft.pub=Heritage+Gateway&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritagegateway.org.uk%2FGateway%2FResults_Single.aspx%3Fuid%3D1291477%26resourceID%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButt1995">Butt 1995</a>, p. 152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/making-the-liverpool-and-manchester-railway">"First in the world: The making of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway"</a>. <i>Science and Industry Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+and+Industry+Museum&rft.atitle=First+in+the+world%3A+The+making+of+the+Liverpool+and+Manchester+Railway&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk%2Fobjects-and-stories%2Fmaking-the-liverpool-and-manchester-railway&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButt1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Butt" title="Raymond Butt">Butt, R. V. J.</a> (October 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IwANAAAACAAJ"><i>The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present</i></a> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Sparkford" title="Sparkford">Sparkford</a>: Patrick Stephens Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85260-508-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85260-508-7"><bdi>978-1-85260-508-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60251199">60251199</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL11956311M">11956311M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Directory+of+Railway+Stations%3A+details+every+public+and+private+passenger+station%2C+halt%2C+platform+and+stopping+place%2C+past+and+present&rft.place=Sparkford&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Patrick+Stephens+Ltd&rft.date=1995-10&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60251199&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL11956311M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-1-85260-508-7&rft.aulast=Butt&rft.aufirst=R.+V.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIwANAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-smith-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-smith_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-smith_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyke2009" class="citation news cs1">Wyke, Terry (29 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/29/manchester-report-climate-change">"Manchester: industrial revolution's birthplace poised for green renaissance"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Smith Elder, London</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sc.aspiringtech.net/SnipHistory.asp">Snipers in History</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lrml.org/collecting/whitworth/c529.htm">Whitworth Rifle No. C529</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101211173722/http://www.lrml.org/collecting/whitworth/c529.htm">Archived</a> 2010-12-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americancivilwar.org.uk/news_whitworth-sharpshooter-rifle_21.htm">Whitworth Sharpshooter Rifle</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100402085955/http://www.americancivilwar.org.uk/news_whitworth-sharpshooter-rifle_21.htm">Archived</a> 2010-04-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lodi.k12.wi.us/.../Photo%20Essay%20Assignment/Block%202/More/Artillery%20Of%20The%20Civil%20War.ppt">Artillery of the Civil War</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWinter2002">Winter 2002</a>, pp. 121–122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OwenP31-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OwenP31_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwen1983">Owen 1983</a>, p. 31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/from-the-archive-blog/2011/may/17/guardian190-manchester-ship-canal-opens">"1 January 1894: Opening of the Manchester ship canal"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 1 January 1894<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1899), "Manchester Ship Canal: The Economic Results of the Ship Canal on Manchester and the Surrounding District", <i>LSE Selected Pamphlets</i>, LSE Selected Pamphlets, hosted at jstor.org: 37, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/60241154">60241154</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=LSE+Selected+Pamphlets&rft.atitle=Manchester+Ship+Canal%3A+The+Economic+Results+of+the+Ship+Canal+on+Manchester+and+the+Surrounding+District&rft.pages=37&rft.date=1899&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F60241154%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Woodroofe&rft.aufirst=Fletcher+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholls1996">Nicholls 1996</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholls_1996_24-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholls_1996_24_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholls_1996_24_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholls1996">Nicholls 1996</a>, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FarnieP114-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FarnieP114_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarnie1980">Farnie 1980</a>, p. 114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NichollsP112-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NichollsP112_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholls1996">Nicholls 1996</a>, p. 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-P-B128-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-P-B128_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-P-B128_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParkinson-Bailey2000">Parkinson-Bailey 2000</a>, p. 128</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrame2008" class="citation news cs1">Frame, Don (9 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1066049_vintage_t_in_the_park">"Vintage T in the Park"</a>. <i>Manchester Evening News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Phillimore & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86077-013-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86077-013-5"><bdi>978-1-86077-013-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trafford+Park%3A+The+First+Hundred+Years&rft.pub=Phillimore+%26+Co&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-86077-013-5&rft.aulast=Nicholls&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen1983" class="citation book cs1">Owen, David (1983). <i>The Manchester Ship Canal</i>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-0864-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-0864-6"><bdi>0-7190-0864-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchester+Ship+Canal&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-7190-0864-6&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkinson-Bailey2000" class="citation book cs1">Parkinson-Bailey, John J. (2000). <i>Manchester: an Architectural History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-5606-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-5606-3"><bdi>0-7190-5606-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manchester%3A+an+Architectural+History&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-7190-5606-3&rft.aulast=Parkinson-Bailey&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimbs1860" class="citation book cs1">Timbs, John (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Om0BAAAAQAAJ"><i>Stories of Inventors and Discoverers in Science and the Useful Arts: A Book for Old and Young</i></a>. London: Kent and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stories+of+Inventors+and+Discoverers+in+Science+and+the+Useful+Arts%3A+A+Book+for+Old+and+Young&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Kent+and+Co.&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=Timbs&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOm0BAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinter2002" class="citation book cs1">Winter, James (2002). <i>Secure from Rash Assault</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22930-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22930-4"><bdi>0-520-22930-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secure+from+Rash+Assault&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-520-22930-4&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Manchester" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Manchester&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manchester" title="Template:Manchester"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manchester" title="Template talk:Manchester"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manchester" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manchester"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_City_of_Manchester" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">The <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">City of Manchester</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">About Manchester</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Manchester" title="Architecture of Manchester">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_Manchester" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in Manchester">Tallest buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grade_I_listed_buildings_in_Greater_Manchester#Manchester" title="Grade I listed buildings in Greater Manchester">Grade I buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_cotton_warehouses" title="Manchester cotton warehouses">Warehouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Manchester" title="Banking in Manchester">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Manchester" title="Culture of Manchester">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_dialect" title="Manchester dialect">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Manchester" title="Economy of Manchester">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Manchester" title="History of Manchester">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_in_Manchester" title="Media in Manchester">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_television_programmes_set,_produced_or_filmed_in_Manchester" title="List of television programmes set, produced or filmed in Manchester">Television programmes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Manchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Manchester">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madchester" title="Madchester">Madchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_music_of_Manchester" title="Popular music of Manchester">Pop music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Manchester" title="List of people from Manchester">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_in_Manchester" title="Politics in Manchester">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_Manchester" title="List of schools in Manchester">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_engineering_in_Manchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and engineering in Manchester">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Manchester" title="Sociology of Manchester">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Manchester" title="Sport in Manchester">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_and_roads_in_Manchester" title="List of streets and roads in Manchester">Streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Manchester" title="Symbols of Manchester">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Manchester" title="Transport in Manchester">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycling_in_Greater_Manchester" title="Cycling in Greater Manchester">Cycling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Kingdom_Parliament_constituencies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United Kingdom Parliament constituencies">Parliament<br />constituencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blackley_and_Broughton_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Blackley and Broughton (UK Parliament constituency)">Blackley and<br />Broughton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charlestown,_Manchester" title="Charlestown, Manchester">Charlestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheetham,_Manchester" title="Cheetham, Manchester">Cheetham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crumpsall" title="Crumpsall">Crumpsall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpurhey" title="Harpurhey">Harpurhey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_Blackley" title="Higher Blackley">Higher Blackley</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaton_Park" title="Heaton Park">Heaton Park</a></li> <li><i>This constituency also contains <a href="/wiki/Broughton,_Salford" title="Broughton, Salford">Broughton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kersal" title="Kersal">Kersal</a> in neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Salford_City_Council" title="Salford City Council">Salford City Council</a>.</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Central_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Manchester Central (UK Parliament constituency)">Manchester<br />Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancoats_and_Beswick_(ward)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancoats and Beswick (ward)">Ancoats & Beswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardwick" title="Ardwick">Ardwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_and_Openshaw_(ward)" title="Clayton and Openshaw (ward)">Clayton & Openshaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deansgate_(ward)" title="Deansgate (ward)">Deansgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulme" title="Hulme">Hulme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miles_Platting_and_Newton_Heath" title="Miles Platting and Newton Heath">Miles Platting & Newton Heath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss_Side" title="Moss Side">Moss Side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moston,_Manchester" title="Moston, Manchester">Moston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piccadilly_(ward)" title="Piccadilly (ward)">Piccadilly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Gorton_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Manchester Gorton (UK Parliament constituency)">Manchester<br />Gorton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallowfield" title="Fallowfield">Fallowfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorton_and_Abbey_Hey_(ward)" title="Gorton and Abbey Hey (ward)">Gorton & Abbey Hey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levenshulme" title="Levenshulme">Levenshulme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longsight" title="Longsight">Longsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusholme" title="Rusholme">Rusholme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whalley_Range,_Manchester" title="Whalley Range, Manchester">Whalley Range</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Withington_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Manchester Withington (UK Parliament constituency)">Manchester<br />Withington</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burnage_(ward)" title="Burnage (ward)">Burnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorlton_(ward)" title="Chorlton (ward)">Chorlton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorlton_Park_(ward)" title="Chorlton Park (ward)">Chorlton Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didsbury_East_(ward)" title="Didsbury East (ward)">Didsbury East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didsbury_West_(ward)" title="Didsbury West (ward)">Didsbury West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Moat_(ward)" title="Old Moat (ward)">Old Moat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withington_(ward)" title="Withington (ward)">Withington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wythenshawe_and_Sale_East_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Wythenshawe and Sale East (UK Parliament constituency)">Wythenshawe<br />and Sale East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baguley" title="Baguley">Baguley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooklands_(Manchester_ward)" title="Brooklands (Manchester ward)">Brooklands (Manchester)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northenden" title="Northenden">Northenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharston" title="Sharston">Sharston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodhouse_Park" title="Woodhouse Park">Woodhouse Park</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Airport" title="Manchester Airport">Manchester Airport</a></li> <li><i>This constituency also contains <a href="/wiki/Brooklands_(Trafford_ward)" title="Brooklands (Trafford ward)">Brooklands (Trafford)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priory_(Trafford_ward)" title="Priory (Trafford ward)">Priory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sale_Moor_(ward)" title="Sale Moor (ward)">Sale Moor</a> in neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Trafford_Council" title="Trafford Council">Trafford Council</a>.</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ardwick" title="Ardwick">Ardwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardwick_Green" title="Ardwick Green">Ardwick Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baguley" title="Baguley">Baguley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belle_Vue,_Manchester" title="Belle Vue, Manchester">Belle Vue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benchill" title="Benchill">Benchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beswick,_Manchester" title="Beswick, Manchester">Beswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackley" title="Blackley">Blackley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradford,_Manchester" title="Bradford, Manchester">Bradford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnage" title="Burnage">Burnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheetham_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheetham Hill">Cheetham Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorlton-cum-Hardy" title="Chorlton-cum-Hardy">Chorlton-cum-Hardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorlton-on-Medlock" title="Chorlton-on-Medlock">Chorlton-on-Medlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorltonville" title="Chorltonville">Chorltonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton,_Manchester" title="Clayton, Manchester">Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collyhurst" title="Collyhurst">Collyhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crumpsall" title="Crumpsall">Crumpsall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didsbury" title="Didsbury">Didsbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallowfield" title="Fallowfield">Fallowfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorton" title="Gorton">Gorton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpurhey" title="Harpurhey">Harpurhey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaton_Park" title="Heaton Park">Heaton Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulme" title="Hulme">Hulme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levenshulme" title="Levenshulme">Levenshulme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longsight" title="Longsight">Longsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Crumpsall" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Crumpsall">Lower Crumpsall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Airport" title="Manchester Airport">Manchester Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miles_Platting" title="Miles Platting">Miles Platting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss_Side" title="Moss Side">Moss Side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moston,_Manchester" title="Moston, Manchester">Moston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newall_Green" title="Newall Green">Newall Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Moston" title="New Moston">New Moston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_Heath" title="Newton Heath">Newton Heath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northenden" title="Northenden">Northenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Moor" title="Northern Moor">Northern Moor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Openshaw" title="Openshaw">Openshaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parrs_Wood" title="Parrs Wood">Parrs Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_Hall,_Wythenshawe" title="Peel Hall, Wythenshawe">Peel Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringway,_Greater_Manchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringway, Greater Manchester">Ringway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusholme" title="Rusholme">Rusholme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharston" title="Sharston">Sharston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Park,_Manchester" title="Victoria Park, Manchester">Victoria Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whalley_Range,_Manchester" title="Whalley Range, Manchester">Whalley Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withington" title="Withington">Withington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodhouse_Park" title="Woodhouse Park">Woodhouse Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wythenshawe" title="Wythenshawe">Wythenshawe</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="City_Centre" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">City Centre</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancoats" title="Ancoats">Ancoats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castlefield" title="Castlefield">Castlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinatown,_Manchester" title="Chinatown, Manchester">Chinatown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_city_centre" title="Manchester city centre">City Centre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal_Street_(Manchester)" title="Canal Street (Manchester)">Gay Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Islington" title="New Islington">New Islington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOMA_(Manchester)" title="NOMA (Manchester)">N.O.M.A.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Quarter_(Manchester)" title="Northern Quarter (Manchester)">Northern Quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piccadilly_Gardens" title="Piccadilly Gardens">Piccadilly Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinningfields" title="Spinningfields">Spinningfields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_John%27s,_Manchester" title="St John's, Manchester">St John's Quarter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: 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