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This new volume brings together both new editors and new contributors, to take a fresh look at Russian and Soviet aviation in the twentieth century. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, new archives have become available as well as new perspectives, and all the contributors to this new volume have based their research on newly available material. 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There were few\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA45","page_number":"45","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the Republican force . In the spring of 1937 , Franco\u0026#39;s forces renewed their offensive against Madrid at a time when bad weather would normally prevent flying operations . Smushkevich decided to use the spring thaw and low\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA47","page_number":"47","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the officer corps . In June 1937 , the deputy chief of the VVS , I. I. Proskurov , was arrested and later executed . Smushkevich was recalled from Spain to replace Proskurov . Even top designer Tupolev was not immune ; he was\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA51","page_number":"51","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of purged army officers eventually returned to duty , less than 16 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of Air Force officers ( 892 out of 5,616 ) had been reinstated by the end of 1939 . At the same time that experienced leaders were falling victim to the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA53","page_number":"53","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e bombers , 34.7 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e fighters , and 9.9 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e reconnaissance by 1942. This plan was not immediately implemented , but was a forerunner to the 1940-41 reorganization . In September - October 1940 , Marshal Timoshenko\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA54","page_number":"54","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e equipped with the new model aircraft . For example , there were still 1,762 I - 16 and 1,549 I - 153 obsolescent fighter aircraft in the western MDs alone . Because of pilot shortages , many of the older fighters were in a sort of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA56","page_number":"56","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of MiG - 3 pilots and only 32 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of LaGG - 3 pilots had completed retraining . The training system at all levels was in flux . Some of the deficiencies in flight training can be directly attributed to the legacy of the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA57","page_number":"57","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of military officers as a whole had been in their posts for less than a year . The situation was even worse in the VVS , where 91 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of commanders of major units had held their positions for less than six months . Theoretical\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA63","page_number":"63","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all Soviet military , naval , and civilian aviation strength when the war began ( see Table 3.1 ) , and would vary from 59.7-66.1 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e during the war . In June 1941 , fighters repre- sented 59 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of Frontal Aviation\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA64","page_number":"64","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all avia- tion assets in June 1941. Although for use primarily against strategic targets in the enemy\u0026#39;s rear areas and not formally a part of Frontal Aviation , the DBA also had operational and tactical missions . The DBA\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA65","page_number":"65","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e to 8 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the VVS during the war . While the VVS maintained a capacity for independent strategic air operations throughout the war , tactical and operational requirements for co- operation with the ground forces always took\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA66","page_number":"66","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the bomb supply in the European Soviet Union was concentrated in the west , but scant consideration was given to what would happen in the case of a German surprise attack and how these huge stocks would be evacuated in such an\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA67","page_number":"67","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of their bombs supplies in combat operations - the rest had been lost to the enemy or destroyed . Thus , the loss of significant quantities of its air munitions severely limited the offensive striking of the VVS\u0026#39;s remaining front\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA68","page_number":"68","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of frontal aviation assets still allotted directly to VVS armii units , which the commander of the VVS fronta did not control , the centralized planning and unified employment of Frontal Aviation in large - scale operations was\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA70","page_number":"70","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the VVS\u0026#39;s total frontal air forces , although it generally fluctuated at 40-50 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e . Thirty air corps ( seven bomber , 11 attack , and 12 fighter ) and 27 independent air divisions of the Stavka Reserve were formed and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA71","page_number":"71","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e . Of these , fighters increased by 109 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e to 5,184 ( 45 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the frontal forces ) , attack aircraft increased by 107 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e to 3,845 ( 33 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e ) , and bombers grew by 75 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e to 1,857 ( 16 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e ) ( see\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA72","page_number":"72","snippet_text":"... and 3,052 operational – for an operational availability rate of 94 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e . By composition , the attack divisions of 2nd Air Army accounted for roughly one - half of the assigned ( 1,618 / 72 Russian Aviation and Air Power."},{"page_id":"PA73","page_number":"73","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e . Air superiority fighters accounted for 26 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the operational aircraft , while total fighter strength ( including fighters in the attack corps ) totaled 1,313 or 43 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of operational strength . Day bombers\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA74","page_number":"74","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of their 1,400,000 wartime sorties for this purpose , although during the early years when the Luftwaffe generally controlled the air as many as 60-70 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the missions were to provide air cover . The principal tactics used\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA77","page_number":"77","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e in some air units , and was over 90 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e for pilots and navigators . By late 1944 , the individual Russian deficiencies mattered little due to the overwhelming Soviet numerical superiority and the general deterioration of the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA78","page_number":"78","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the 74,300 fighters put into service by the VVS during the war years . Including non - combat losses , Soviet fighter losses totaled 46,800 aircraft or 62.9 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the total fighter aircraft strength . STRIKE AVIATION\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA82","page_number":"82","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e in their attacks on small groups of German tanks . While attack aviation\u0026#39;s emphasis was on the immediate battlefield area , from mid - 1943 on the Il - 2s were increasingly used in \u0026#39; hunting \u0026#39; operations into the German rear areas\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA83","page_number":"83","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of their sorties in 1944 . With this change , accuracy against point targets improved by 100 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e . Tactical bombers flew both battlefield support and attack missions against targets in the German rear areas . Battlefield\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA84","page_number":"84","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the 27,600 tactical bombers employed during the war , and total losses accounted for 64.8 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all tacti- cal bombers . The pilots and crews of strike aviation contributed significantly to the final Soviet victory . Among\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA85","page_number":"85","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e for ground support ; 4-12 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e against enemy regrouping , reinforcements , and counterattacks ; and 2-13 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e for air recon- naissance . As the size of VVS grew , so did the proportion of forces allocated to the various\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA86","page_number":"86","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the ADD\u0026#39;s total wartime combat sorties were completed in direct support of the ground forces in operations such as these . Direct air preparation came immediately prior to the ground attack and could last for anywhere from 20\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA87","page_number":"87","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of total duration of an offensive operation , 20-25 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all combat sorties were flown during these few days . After the penetration was achieved , the most important phase of air support was the commitment to battle of the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA89","page_number":"89","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the 21,000 flight personnel then assigned to the operational air armies . From 1 January 1943 through 1945 , VVS personnel losses totaled 48,993 killed , missing , wounded , captured ( 0.29 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of total casualties ) , of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA96","page_number":"96","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e com- plete . The plight of the Fourth Ground Attack Aviation Regiment is indicative of the problems faced by VVS commanders . As most of the air regiment\u0026#39;s pilots had only made a few orientation flights in the new Il - 2 aircraft\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA105","page_number":"105","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the Il - 2s returned from a mission with some battle damage , but only 2.8 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of them were actually lost . Six per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the crippled Il - 2s made Aviation and Combined - Arms Warfare 105."},{"page_id":"PA106","page_number":"106","snippet_text":"Robin Higham, John T. Greenwood, Von Hardesty. Six per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the crippled Il - 2s made crash landings , but almost 90 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of them could be repaired at the front . CONCLUSION The Second World War , or \u0026#39; The Great Patriotic War\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA119","page_number":"119","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the Pacific fleet pilots were veterans , having received their baptism of fire against the Germans , often flying in less than ideal conditions . The Pacific fleet had so many fighter pilots that many had to be retrained to fly\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA123","page_number":"123","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e . US Naval Intelligence concurred by noting that the Soviets reduced funding for the Navy\u0026#39;s operational tempo . Later , the Soviets began to close their foreign bases , particu- larly in Vietnam , where Soviet Pacific fleet air\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA124","page_number":"124","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of operational ships less than 20 years old . \u0026#39; The unfinished Varyag , an aircraft - carrier ( CTOL ) , rusted at the Nikolaev shipyard while Moscow and Kiev negotiated her fate . The construction of the Ulyanovsk , the first true\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA129","page_number":"129","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all aircraft were still purchased abroad and the nascent aircraft industry devoted most of its resources to repair and reconstruction of the older foreign and Russian aircraft . Thus , very early on the Bolsheviks adopted the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA133","page_number":"133","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e , heavy industry by 330 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e , and to triple pig - iron pro- duction , double coal output , and quadruple electric power . The next year the original quotas were revised upward , and a decision was made to complete the First\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA141","page_number":"141","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the total production and almost one - half of the output of the older western factories at Moscow , Leningrad , Kazan , Kiev , Kharkov , and Taganrog . Shakhurin\u0026#39;s appointment to head NKAP reflected a trend that really began\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA143","page_number":"143","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e , were already obsolescent or quickly becoming so - 1,304 I - 15bis models , 3,373 I - 153s , 4,545 I - 16s , and 3,973 SBs ( see Table 6.3 below ) - while Ilyushin\u0026#39;s DB - 3 / DB - 3F / Il - 4 bombers accounted for another 2,065\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA144","page_number":"144","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the existing aircraft assembly and engine plants located in western Russia were evacuated and existing industrial space was converted to the building of new models . In a monumental effort , assembly plants and highly skilled\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA146","page_number":"146","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e ) were fighters , 11,110 ( 27.6 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e ) were attack planes , 4,200 ( 10.4 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e ) were frontal and long - range bombers , and the remaining 7,036 ( 17.4 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e ) were transports and trainers . Thus , 33,205 aircraft , or 82.5\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA146-IA15","page_number":"146","snippet_text":"... Baghdad Damascus Nicosia 41 Aeroflot services in the mid - 1970s . Courtesy of Aeroflot . fighters were built , accounting for 57.8 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of. The Il-62 went into Aeroflot long-range service in 1967 Aeroflot services in the mid-1970s."},{"page_id":"PA147","page_number":"147","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all fighters and 24.5 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all aircraft produced , while 22,436 Lavochkin fighters were completed ( 36.9 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all fighters and 15.7 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of all aircraft ) . Some credit for this should probably go to Yakovlev\u0026#39;s\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA148","page_number":"148","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e were single- seaters and all of them were piston - engined . Owing to the early loss of major aluminum production plants and the wartime scarcities , the airframes were mostly made of wood , laminated plywood , and com- posites\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA150","page_number":"150","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of Germany\u0026#39;s aircraft production centers fell into Soviet hands , including the Junkers plant at Dessau , the Siebel plant at Halle , and the Heinkel plants at Oranienburg and Rostock - Warnemünde . They were quickly stripped , and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA155","page_number":"155","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the 8,000 Russian - built aircraft now in service will have to be retired by 2000. In 1996 the civil fleet had completed 72 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of their active lives and some had even reached 80 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e . Thus , many of these airlines\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA166","page_number":"166","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e increase in take - off weight and wing loading hampered the plane\u0026#39;s maneuverability . Despite these problems , Polikarpov\u0026#39;s fighters of the mid - 1930s were well ahead of those of rest of the world . Only 384 I - 15s were produced\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA169","page_number":"169","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the VVS\u0026#39;s operational tactical bomber strength . Tupolev\u0026#39;s ANT - 25 , also known as the Rekord dal\u0026#39;nosti ( Record Distance ) or RD , was produced in 1933. This all - metal , single - engine monoplane with a very large wing span\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA171","page_number":"171","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the 11,426 Pe - 2s of all varieties produced before and during the war , but it remained in production until 1950 and over 3,000 were eventually built . The Tu - 2 was the standard tactical bomber in the postwar VVS inventory\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA174","page_number":"174","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the airline\u0026#39;s 137.5 million passengers . Since then Aeroflot has broken up into numerous airlines , and only 435 Tu- 154s remained in service with Russian airlines at the close of 1996 . Many Tupolev airliners which are rapidly\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA188","page_number":"188","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of its front - line strength . The success of the Pe - 2 secured Petlyakov\u0026#39;s release in 1940 and the re - establishment of his OKB with himself as the chief designer at the relocated factory at Kazan in 1941. In January 1942\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA206","page_number":"206","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the Soviet Union\u0026#39;s AD weapons and equipment , most are of poor quality because the first - rate equipment was located in the peripheral border areas . The issue of airfields graphically illustrates Russia\u0026#39;s dubious inheri- tance\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA225","page_number":"225","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of Hanoi\u0026#39;s military needs . The USSR walked a fine line between giving the Vietnamese enough weapons to defend themselves properly and trying to interest the United States in a negotiated settlement to the conflict . With the help\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA244","page_number":"244","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the total volume carried . Furthermore , even the so - called \u0026#39; passengers \u0026#39; often were anything but paying customers . Rather , they were usually government , economic or mili- tary officials . In this regard Aeroflot provided\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA259","page_number":"259","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of the USSR\u0026#39;s intercity passengers ( as compared to 1.6 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e in 1950 ) . At the same time , this expansion in scale also had demanded the construction of new facilities to handle the larger and faster aircraft in use , as well\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA260","page_number":"260","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e of their seats filled as compared to 50 per \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e on American airlines . This clearly testified to the popularity of air travel among the Soviet citizenry , whatever the risks involved , but it also spoke volumes about the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA264","page_number":"264","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003ecent\u003c/b\u003e increase in air traffic projected for the years 1970–75 , Aeroflot also introduced the Soviet - built Minsk - 23 and Siren - 1 computers for use in ticketing . If Aeroflot continued to stand aloof from IAТА and instead still\u0026nbsp;..."}],"search_query_escaped":"cent"},{});</script></div></div></div><script>(function() {var href = window.location.href;if (href.indexOf('?') !== -1) {var parameters = href.split('?')[1].split('&');for (var i = 0; i < parameters.length; i++) {var param = parameters[i].split('=');if (param[0] == 'focus') {var elem = document.getElementById(param[1]);if (elem) {elem.focus();}}}}})();</script>