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<button aria-controls="toc-Career_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Career history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Career_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_becoming_a_psychologist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_becoming_a_psychologist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Before becoming a psychologist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_becoming_a_psychologist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociological_model_of_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociological_model_of_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Sociological model of development</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_of_figurative_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_of_figurative_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Study of figurative thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study_of_figurative_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Stages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology_of_functions_and_correspondences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology_of_functions_and_correspondences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Psychology of functions and correspondences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology_of_functions_and_correspondences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developmental_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Developmental process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Genetic epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schema" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schema"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Schema</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schema-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Research methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Issues_and_possible_solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_and_possible_solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Issues and possible solutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issues_and_possible_solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piaget_replaces_psychometric_tests_with_the_clinical_method_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piaget_replaces_psychometric_tests_with_the_clinical_method_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Piaget replaces psychometric tests with the clinical method approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piaget_replaces_psychometric_tests_with_the_clinical_method_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Developmental_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Developmental psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Morality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_studies_of_thought_and_cognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_studies_of_thought_and_cognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Historical studies of thought and cognition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_studies_of_thought_and_cognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-human_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-human_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Non-human development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-human_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primatology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primatology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Primatology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primatology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Artificial intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criticisms_of_Piaget's_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms_of_Piaget's_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Criticisms of Piaget's methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms_of_Piaget's_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms_of_Piaget's_theoretical_ideas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms_of_Piaget's_theoretical_ideas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Criticisms of Piaget's theoretical ideas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms_of_Piaget's_theoretical_ideas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_major_achievements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_major_achievements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>List of major achievements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_major_achievements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of major achievements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_major_achievements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Appointments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honorary_doctorates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honorary_doctorates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Honorary doctorates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honorary_doctorates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_major_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_major_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>List of major works</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_major_works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of major works subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_major_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_most-cited_publications_in_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_most-cited_publications_in_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>The most-cited publications in English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_most-cited_publications_in_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Less-cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Less-cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Less-cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Less-cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>New translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Collaborators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collaborators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Collaborators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collaborators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Translators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Exemplars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exemplars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Exemplars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exemplars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Classics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Major works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_of_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_of_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Works of significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_of_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Jean Piaget</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 85 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-85" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">85 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%87" title="جان بياجيه – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جان بياجيه" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Piaje" title="Jan Piaje – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Jan Piaje" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%98%D9%87" title="ژان پیاژه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ژان پیاژه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%81_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87" title="জঁ পিয়াজে – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জঁ পিয়াজে" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9F%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%B6%D1%8D" title="Жан Піяжэ – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Жан Піяжэ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87" title="जीन पियाजे – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जीन पियाजे" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5" title="Жан Пиаже – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Жан Пиаже" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Пиаже Жан – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пиаже Жан" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%96%CE%B1%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%AD" title="Ζαν Πιαζέ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ζαν Πιαζέ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%98%D9%87" title="ژان پیاژه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژان پیاژه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%A5_%ED%94%BC%EC%95%84%EC%A0%9C" title="장 피아제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="장 피아제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8A%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AA%D5%A5" title="Ժան Պիաժե – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ժան Պիաժե" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%87" title="ज़ाँ प्याज़े – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ज़ाँ प्याज़े" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%27%D7%90%D7%9F_%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%90%D7%96%27%D7%94" title="ז'אן פיאז'ה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ז'אן פיאז'ה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜೀನ್ ಪಿಯಾಗೆಟ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೀನ್ ಪಿಯಾಗೆಟ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9F%E1%83%94" title="ჟან პიაჟე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჟან პიაჟე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Пиаже Жан – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Пиаже Жан" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5" title="Жан Пиаже – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жан Пиаже" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannes_Piaget" title="Ioannes Piaget – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ioannes Piaget" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDans_Pia%C5%BE%C4%93" title="Žans Piažē – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Žans Piažē" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%86" title="ഷോൺ പിയാഷെ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഷോൺ പിയാഷെ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%87" title="جان بياجيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جان بياجيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%94%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7" title="ジャン・ピアジェ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャン・ピアジェ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%82_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%87" title="ਯੌਂ ਪਿਆਜੇ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਯੌਂ ਪਿਆਜੇ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%98%D9%87" title="ژان پیاژه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژان پیاژه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5,_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Пиаже, Жан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пиаже, Жан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%9A" title="ජීන් පියාජේ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජීන් පියාජේ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%98%DB%8E" title="ژان پیاژێ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژان پیاژێ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5" title="Жан Пијаже – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Жан Пијаже" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%87" title="சான் பியாசே – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சான் பியாசே" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D" title="జీన్ పియాజెట్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జీన్ పియాజెట్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8C%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87_%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%8C" title="ฌ็อง ปียาแฌ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฌ็อง ปียาแฌ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5" title="Жан Піаже – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Жан Піаже" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A9%C2%B7%E7%9A%AE%E4%BA%9A%E6%9D%B0" title="让·皮亚杰 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="让·皮亚杰" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%9A%C2%B7%E7%9A%AE%E4%BA%9E%E5%82%91" title="尚·皮亞傑 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="尚·皮亞傑" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Jean Piaget" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%9A%C2%B7%E7%9A%AE%E4%BA%9E%E5%82%91" title="尚·皮亞傑 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="尚·皮亞傑" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Swiss psychologist, biologist, logician, philosopher and academic</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Jean Piaget</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Piaget_in_Ann_Arbor_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Jean_Piaget_in_Ann_Arbor_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="193" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="241" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Piaget at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1968</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Jean William Fritz Piaget</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1896-08-09</span>)</span>9 August 1896<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Neuchâtel">Neuchâtel</a>, Switzerland</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">16 September 1980<span style="display:none">(1980-09-16)</span> (aged 84)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, Switzerland</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="University of Neuchâtel">University of Neuchâtel</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Zürich">University of Zürich</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">Constructivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genevan_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Genevan School">Genevan School</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">genetic epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">theory of cognitive development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_permanence" title="Object permanence">object permanence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egocentrism" title="Egocentrism">egocentrism</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jean William Fritz Piaget</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="/ʒ/: 's' in 'pleasure'">ʒ</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>/</a></span></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-EPD_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPD-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʒ/: 's' in 'pleasure'">ʒ</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʒ/: 's' in 'pleasure'">ʒ</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʒɑ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>pjaʒɛ]</a></span>; 9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on <a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">child development</a>. <a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">Piaget's theory of cognitive development</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological">epistemological</a> view are together called <a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">genetic epistemology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the <a href="/wiki/International_Bureau_of_Education" title="International Bureau of Education">International Bureau of Education</a>, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His theory of child development has been studied in pre-service education programs. Nowadays, educators and theorists working in the area of early childhood education persist in incorporating constructivist-based strategies. </p><p>Piaget created the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> in 1955 while on the faculty of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Geneva" title="University of Geneva">University of Geneva</a>, and directed the center until his death in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of collaborations that its founding made possible, and their impact, ultimately led to the Center being referred to in the scholarly literature as "Piaget's factory".<sup id="cite_ref-Burman-HoP2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burman-HoP2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a>, Piaget was "the great pioneer of the <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">constructivist theory of knowing</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-von_Glasersfeld_1990_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-von_Glasersfeld_1990-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ideas were widely popularized in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This then led to the emergence of the study of development as a major sub-discipline in psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the 20th century, he was second only to <a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a> as the most-cited psychologist.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget was born in 1896 in <a href="/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Neuchâtel">Neuchâtel</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Francophone_region_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Francophone region of Switzerland">Francophone region of Switzerland</a>. He was the oldest son of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Piaget" title="Arthur Piaget">Arthur Piaget</a> (Swiss), a professor of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">medieval literature</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="University of Neuchâtel">University of Neuchâtel</a>, and Rebecca Jackson (French). Rebecca Jackson came from a prominent family of French steel foundry owners<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of English descent through her <a href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</a>-born great-grandfather, steelmaker <a href="/wiki/James_Jackson_(steelmaker)" title="James Jackson (steelmaker)">James Jackson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Piaget was a precocious child who developed an interest in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and the natural world. His early interest in <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a> earned him a reputation among those in the field after he had published several articles on <a href="/wiki/Mollusk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusk">mollusks</a> by the age of 15.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When he was 15, his former nanny wrote to his parents to apologize for having once lied to them about fighting off a would-be kidnapper from baby Jean's pram. There never was a kidnapper. Piaget became fascinated that he had somehow formed a memory of this kidnapping incident, a memory that endured even after he understood it to be false.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He developed an interest in <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> due to his godfather's urgings to study the fields of philosophy and logic.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was educated at the University of Neuchâtel, and studied briefly at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Zürich">University of Zürich</a>. During this time, he published two philosophical papers that showed the direction of his thinking at the time, but which he later dismissed as adolescent thought.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His interest in <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>, at the time a burgeoning strain of psychology, can also be dated to this period. </p><p>Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris after his graduation and he taught at the Grange-Aux-Belles Street School for Boys. The school was run by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Binet" title="Alfred Binet">Alfred Binet</a>, the developer of the Binet-Simon test (later revised by Lewis Terman to become the <a href="/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet_Intelligence_Scales" title="Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales">Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales</a>). Piaget assisted in the marking of Binet's intelligence tests. It was while he was helping to mark some of these tests that Piaget noticed that young children consistently gave wrong answers to certain questions.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Piaget did not focus so much on the fact of the children's answers being wrong, but that young children consistently made types of mistakes that older children and adults managed to avoid. This led him to the theory that young children's cognitive processes are inherently different from those of adults. Ultimately, he was to propose a global theory of cognitive developmental stages in which individuals exhibit certain common patterns of cognition in each period of development. </p><p>In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland as director of the <a href="/wiki/Rousseau_Institute" title="Rousseau Institute">Rousseau Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>. At this time, the institute was directed by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Clapar%C3%A8de" title="Édouard Claparède">Édouard Claparède</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Piaget was familiar with many of Claparède's ideas, including that of the psychological concept of <i>groping</i> which was closely associated with "trials and errors" observed in human mental patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1923, he married Valentine Châtenay (7 January 1899 – 3 July 1983);<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the couple had three children, whom Piaget studied from infancy. From 1925 to 1929, Piaget worked as a professor of psychology, sociology, and the philosophy of science at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Neuchatel" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Neuchatel">University of Neuchatel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1929, Jean Piaget accepted the post of Director of the International Bureau of Education and remained the head of this international organization until 1968. Every year, he drafted his "Director's Speeches" for the IBE Council and for the International Conference on Public Education in which he explicitly addressed his educational credo. </p><p>Having taught at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Geneva" title="University of Geneva">University of Geneva</a>, and at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> in 1964, Piaget was invited to serve as chief consultant at two conferences at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> (11–13 March) and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> (16–18 March). The conferences addressed the relationship of cognitive studies and curriculum development, and strived to conceive implications of recent investigations of children's cognitive development for curricula.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1972 Piaget was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Prize" title="Erasmus Prize">Erasmus Prize</a> and in 1979 the <a href="/wiki/Balzan_Prize" title="Balzan Prize">Balzan Prize</a> for Social and Political Sciences. Piaget died on 16 September 1980, and, as he had requested, was buried with his family in an unmarked grave in the <a href="/wiki/Cimeti%C3%A8re_des_Rois" title="Cimetière des Rois">Cimetière des Rois</a> (Cemetery of Kings) in Geneva.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career_history">Career history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Piaget.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Jean_Piaget.jpg/220px-Jean_Piaget.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Jean_Piaget.jpg/330px-Jean_Piaget.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Jean_Piaget.jpg/440px-Jean_Piaget.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Jean Piaget in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parc_des_Bastions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parc des Bastions (page does not exist)">Parc des Bastions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Professor_Piaget_en_koningin_Juliana_tijdens_de_bijeenkomst,_Bestanddeelnr_925-6521.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Professor_Piaget_en_koningin_Juliana_tijdens_de_bijeenkomst%2C_Bestanddeelnr_925-6521.jpg/220px-Professor_Piaget_en_koningin_Juliana_tijdens_de_bijeenkomst%2C_Bestanddeelnr_925-6521.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Professor_Piaget_en_koningin_Juliana_tijdens_de_bijeenkomst%2C_Bestanddeelnr_925-6521.jpg/330px-Professor_Piaget_en_koningin_Juliana_tijdens_de_bijeenkomst%2C_Bestanddeelnr_925-6521.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Professor_Piaget_en_koningin_Juliana_tijdens_de_bijeenkomst%2C_Bestanddeelnr_925-6521.jpg/440px-Professor_Piaget_en_koningin_Juliana_tijdens_de_bijeenkomst%2C_Bestanddeelnr_925-6521.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3671" data-file-height="2441" /></a><figcaption>Jean Piaget at Award ceremony of the Erasmus Prize, 1972, Amsterdam</figcaption></figure> <p>Harry Beilin described Jean Piaget's theoretical <a href="/wiki/Research_program" title="Research program">research program</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as consisting of four phases: </p> <ol><li>the sociological model of development,</li> <li>the biological model of intellectual development,</li> <li>the elaboration of the logical model of intellectual development,</li> <li>the study of figurative thought.</li></ol> <p>The resulting theoretical frameworks are sufficiently different from each other that they have been characterized as representing different "Piagets". More recently, Jeremy Burman responded to Beilin and called for the addition of a phase before his turn to psychology: "the zeroth Piaget".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_becoming_a_psychologist">Before becoming a psychologist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Before becoming a psychologist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before Piaget became a psychologist, he trained in <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. He received a doctorate in 1918 from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="University of Neuchâtel">University of Neuchâtel</a>. He then undertook post-doctoral training in Zürich (1918–1919), and Paris (1919–1921). He was hired by <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Simon" title="Théodore Simon">Théodore Simon</a> to standardize <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">psychometric measures</a> for use with French children in 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theorist we recognize today only emerged when he moved to Geneva, to work for <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Clapar%C3%A8de" title="Édouard Claparède">Édouard Claparède</a> as director of research at the <a href="/wiki/Rousseau_Institute" title="Rousseau Institute">Rousseau Institute</a>, in 1922. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociological_model_of_development">Sociological model of development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sociological model of development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget first developed as a psychologist in the 1920s. He investigated the hidden side of children's minds. Piaget proposed that children moved from a position of <a href="/wiki/Egocentrism" title="Egocentrism">egocentrism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sociocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociocentrism">sociocentrism</a>. For this explanation he combined the use of psychological and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical method">clinical methods</a> to create what he called a semiclinical <a href="/wiki/Interview" title="Interview">interview</a>. He began the interview by asking children standardized questions and depending on how they answered, he would ask them a series of standard questions. Piaget was looking for what he called "spontaneous conviction" so he often asked questions the children neither expected nor anticipated. In his studies, he noticed there was a gradual progression from intuitive to scientific and socially acceptable responses. Piaget theorized children did this because of the social interaction and the challenge to younger children's ideas by the ideas of those children who were more advanced. </p><p>This work was used by <a href="/wiki/Elton_Mayo" title="Elton Mayo">Elton Mayo</a> as the basis for the famous <a href="/wiki/Hawthorne_effect" title="Hawthorne effect">Hawthorne Experiments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Piaget, it also led to an honorary doctorate from Harvard in 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_model_of_intellectual_development">Biological model of intellectual development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biological model of intellectual development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In this stage, Piaget believed that the process of thinking and intellectual development could be regarded as an extension of the biological process of the (adaptation) of the species, which has also two ongoing processes: assimilation and accommodation. There is <i>assimilation</i> when a child responds to a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schema</a>. There is <i>accommodation</i> when a child either modifies an existing schema or forms an entirely new schema to deal with a new object or event.<sup id="cite_ref-Ormrod_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ormrod-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He argued infants were engaging in the act of assimilation when they sucked on everything in their reach. He claimed infants transform all objects into an object to be sucked. The children were assimilating the objects to conform to their own mental structures. Piaget then made the assumption that whenever one transforms the world to meet individual needs or conceptions, one is, in a way, assimilating it. Piaget also observed his children not only assimilating objects to fit their needs, but also modifying some of their mental structures to meet the demands of the environment. This is the second division of adaptation known as accommodation. To start, the infants only engaged in primarily reflex actions such as sucking, but not long after, they would pick up objects and put them in their mouths. When they do this, they modify their reflex response to accommodate the external objects into reflex actions. Because the two are often in conflict, they provide the impetus for intellectual development—the constant need to balance the two triggers intellectual growth. </p><p>To test his theory, Piaget observed the <a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">habits</a> in his own children. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elaboration_of_the_logical_model_of_intellectual_development">Elaboration of the logical model of intellectual development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Elaboration of the logical model of intellectual development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the model Piaget developed in stage three, he argued that intelligence develops in a series of stages that are related to age and are progressive because one stage must be accomplished before the next can occur. For each stage of development the child forms a view of reality for that age period. At the next stage, the child must keep up with earlier level of mental abilities to reconstruct concepts. Piaget conceived intellectual development as an upward expanding spiral in which children must constantly reconstruct the ideas formed at earlier levels with new, higher order concepts acquired at the next level. </p><p>It is primarily the "Third Piaget" (the logical model of intellectual development) that was debated by American psychologists when Piaget's ideas were "rediscovered" in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_of_figurative_thought">Study of figurative thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Study of figurative thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget studied areas of intelligence like <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> that are not entirely logical. Logical concepts are described as being completely reversible because they can always get back to the starting point, meaning that if one starts with a given premise and follows logical steps to reach a conclusion, the same steps may be done in the opposite order, starting from the conclusion to arrive at the premise. The perceptual concepts Piaget studied could not be manipulated. To describe the figurative process, Piaget uses pictures as examples. Pictures cannot be separated because contours cannot be separated from the forms they outline. Memory is the same way: it is never completely reversible; people cannot necessarily recall all the intervening events between two points. During this last period of work, Piaget and his colleague Inhelder also published books on perception, memory, and other figurative processes such as learning.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of readiness is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory, children should not be taught certain concepts until they reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, young children in the <a href="/wiki/Preoperational_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Preoperational stage">preoperational stage</a> engage in "irreversible" thought and cannot comprehend that an item that has been transformed in some way may be returned to its original state.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">Piaget's theory of cognitive development</a></div> <p>Piaget defined himself as a 'genetic' <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologist</a>, interested in the process of the qualitative development of knowledge. He considered cognitive structures' development as a differentiation of biological regulations. When his entire theory first became known – the theory in itself being based on a structuralist and a cognitivitist approach – it was an outstanding and exciting development in regards to the psychological community at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are a total of four phases in Piaget's research program that included books on certain topics of developmental psychology. In particular, during one period of research, he described himself studying his own three children, and carefully observing and interpreting their cognitive development.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one of his last books, <i>Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development</i>, he intends to explain knowledge development as a process of equilibration using two main concepts in his theory, assimilation and accommodation, as belonging not only to biological interactions but also to cognitive ones.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He stated that children are born with limited capabilities and his cognition ability develops over age.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Piaget believed answers for the epistemological questions at his time could be answered, or better proposed, if one looked to the genetic aspect of it, hence his experimentations with children and adolescents. As he says in the introduction of his book <i>Genetic Epistemology</i>: "What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stages">Stages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Stages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as: </p> <div><ol><li><p><i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development#Sensorimotor_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">Sensorimotor stage</a></i>: from birth to age two. The children experience the world through movement and their senses. During the sensorimotor stage children are extremely egocentric, meaning they cannot perceive the world from others' viewpoints. The sensorimotor stage is divided into six substages:<sup id="cite_ref-Santrock,_John_W._1998_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santrock,_John_W._1998-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:upper-roman"><li>Simple reflexes: From birth to one month old. At this time infants use reflexes such as rooting and sucking.</li><li>First habits and primary circular reactions: From one month to four months old. During this time infants learn to coordinate sensation and two types of schema (habit and circular reactions). A primary circular reaction is when the infant tries to reproduce an event that happened by accident (ex.: sucking thumb).</li><li>Secondary circular reactions: From four to eight months old. At this time they become aware of things beyond their own body; they are more object-oriented. At this time they might accidentally shake a rattle and continue to do it for sake of satisfaction.</li><li>Coordination of secondary circular reactions: From eight months to twelve months old. During this stage they can do things intentionally. They can now combine and recombine schemata and try to reach a goal (ex.: use a stick to reach something). They also begin to understand <a href="/wiki/Object_permanence" title="Object permanence">object permanence</a> in the later months and early into the next stage. That is, they understand that objects continue to exist even when they can't see them.</li><li>Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity: From twelve months old to eighteen months old. During this stage infants explore new possibilities of objects; they try different things to get different results.</li><li>Internalization of schemata.</li></ol></div> <p>Some followers of Piaget's studies of infancy, such as <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaye" title="Kenneth Kaye">Kenneth Kaye</a><sup id="cite_ref-K._Kaye,_1982_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-K._Kaye,_1982-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue that his contribution was as an observer of countless phenomena not previously described, but that he didn't offer explanation of the processes in real time that cause those developments, beyond analogizing them to broad concepts about biological adaptation generally. Kaye's "apprenticeship theory" of cognitive and social development refuted Piaget's assumption that mind developed endogenously in infants until the capacity for symbolic reasoning allowed them to learn language.</p></li><li><p><i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development#Preoperational_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">Preoperational stage</a></i>: Piaget's second stage, the preoperational stage, starts when the child begins to learn to speak at age two and lasts up until the age of seven. During the preoperational stage of cognitive development, Piaget noted that children do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot mentally manipulate information. Children's increase in playing and pretending takes place in this stage. The child still has trouble seeing things from different points of view. The children's play is mainly categorized by symbolic play and manipulating symbols. Such play is demonstrated by the idea of checkers being snacks, pieces of paper being plates, and a box being a table. Their observations of symbols exemplifies the idea of play with the absence of the actual objects involved. By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that, toward the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs, known as the preoperational stage.<sup id="cite_ref-Santrock,_John_W._2004_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santrock,_John_W._2004-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The preoperational stage is sparse and logically inadequate in regard to mental operations. The child is able to form stable concepts as well as magical beliefs, but not perform operations, which are mental tasks, rather than physical. Thinking in this stage is still egocentric, meaning the child has difficulty seeing the viewpoint of others. The preoperational stage is split into two substages: the symbolic function substage, and the intuitive thought substage. The symbolic function substage is when children are able to understand, represent, remember, and picture objects in their mind without having the object in front of them. The intuitive thought substage is when children tend to propose the questions of "why?" and "how come?" This stage is when children want the knowledge of knowing everything.<sup id="cite_ref-Santrock,_John_W._2004_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santrock,_John_W._2004-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The Preoperational Stage is divided into two substages:</p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:upper-roman"><li><a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development#Symbolic_function_substage" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">Symbolic Function Substage</a>. From two to four years of age children find themselves using symbols to represent physical models of the world around them. This is demonstrated through a child's drawing of their family in which people are not drawn to scale or accurate physical traits are given. The child knows they are not accurate but it does not seem to be an issue to them.</li><li><a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development#Intuitive_thought_substage" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">Intuitive Thought Substage</a>. At between about the ages of four and seven, children tend to become very curious and ask many questions, beginning the use of primitive reasoning. There is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they are. Piaget called it the "intuitive substage" because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge, but they are unaware of how they acquired it. Centration, conservation, irreversibility, class inclusion, and transitive inference are all characteristics of preoperative thought.<sup id="cite_ref-Santrock,_John_W._2004_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santrock,_John_W._2004-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol></div></li><li><p><i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development#Concrete_operational_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">Concrete operational stage</a></i>: from ages seven to eleven. Children can now converse and think logically (they understand reversibility) but are limited to what they can physically manipulate. They are no longer egocentric. During this stage, children become more aware of logic and conservation, topics previously foreign to them. Children also improve drastically with their classification skills.</p></li><li><p><i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development#Formal_operational_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">Formal operational stage</a></i>: from age eleven and onward (development of abstract reasoning). Children develop abstract thought and can easily conserve and think logically in their mind. Abstract thought is newly present during this stage of development. Children are now able to think abstractly and use <a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognition</a>. Along with this, the children in the formal operational stage display more skills oriented toward problem solving, often in multiple steps.</p></li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology_of_functions_and_correspondences">Psychology of functions and correspondences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Psychology of functions and correspondences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget had sometimes been criticized for characterizing preoperational children in terms of the cognitive capacities they lacked, rather than their cognitive accomplishments. A <i>late turn</i> in the development of Piaget's theory saw the emergence of work on the accomplishments of those children within the framework of his psychology of functions and correspondences.<sup id="cite_ref-correspondences_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-correspondences-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Piaget,_Grize_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piaget,_Grize-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Groupings,_1977,_recent_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Groupings,_1977,_recent-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This new phase in Piaget's work was less stage-dependent and reflected greater continuity in human development than would be expected in a stage-bound theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Schonfeld,_1986_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schonfeld,_1986-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This advance in his work took place toward the end of his very productive life and is sometimes absent from developmental psychology textbooks. </p><p>An example of a function can involve sets X and Y and ordered pairs of elements (x,y), in which x is an element of X and y, Y. In a function, an element of X is mapped onto exactly one element of Y (the reverse need not be true). A function therefore involves a unique mapping in one direction, or, as Piaget and his colleagues have written, functions are "univocal to the right" (Piaget et al., 1977, p. 14).<sup id="cite_ref-Piaget,_Grize_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piaget,_Grize-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When each element of X maps onto exactly one element of Y <i>and</i> each element of Y maps onto exactly one element of X, Piaget and colleagues indicated that the uniqueness condition holds in either direction and called the relationship between the elements of X and Y "biunivocal" or "one-to-one".<sup id="cite_ref-Piaget,_Grize_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piaget,_Grize-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They advanced the idea that the preoperational child manifests some understanding of one-way order functions. </p><p>According to Piaget's Genevan colleagues,<sup id="cite_ref-Inhelder_1974_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inhelder_1974-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the "semilogic" of these order functions sustains the preoperational child's ability to use of spatial extent to index and compare quantities. The child, for example, could use the length of an array to index the number of objects in the array. Thus, the child would judge the longer of two arrays as having the greater number of objects. Although imperfect, such comparisons are often fair ("semilogical") substitutes for exact quantification. Furthermore, these order functions underlie the child's rudimentary knowledge of environmental regularities.<sup id="cite_ref-Inhelder_1974_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inhelder_1974-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Young children are capable of constructing—this reflects the constructivist bent of Piaget's work—sequences of objects of alternating color. They also have an understanding of the pairwise exchanges of cards having pictures of different flowers. </p><p>Piaget and colleagues have examined morphisms, which to them differ from the operative transformations observed on concrete operational children.<sup id="cite_ref-correspondences_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-correspondences-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Piaget (1977) wrote that "correspondences and morphisms are essentially comparisons that do not transform objects to be compared but that extract common forms from them or analogies between them" (p. 351).<sup id="cite_ref-Groupings,_1977,_recent_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Groupings,_1977,_recent-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He advanced the idea that this type of knowledge emerges from "primitive applications" of action schemes to objects in the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Piaget,_Grize_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piaget,_Grize-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one study of morphisms, Piaget and colleagues asked children to identify items in a series of movable red cutouts that could cover a pre-specified section of each of four base cards—each card had a red area and a white area.<sup id="cite_ref-Piaget,_Grize_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piaget,_Grize-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The task, in effect, asked the child to superimpose the cut-outs on a base card to make the entire card appear to be red. Although there were 12 cutouts in all, only three, which differed slightly from each other, could make an entire base card look red. The youngest children studied—they were age 5—could match, using trial and error, one cut-out to one base card. Piaget et al. called this type of morphism bijection, a term-by-term correspondence. Older children were able to do more by figuring out how to make entire card appear to be red by using three cutouts. In other words, they could perform three to one matching. Piaget et al. (1977) called a many-to-one match surjection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental_process">Developmental process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Developmental process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget provided no concise description of the development process as a whole. Broadly speaking it consisted of a cycle: </p> <ul><li>The child performs an action which has an effect on or organizes objects, and the child is able to note the characteristics of the action and its effects.</li> <li>Through repeated actions, perhaps with variations or in different contexts or on different kinds of objects, the child is able to differentiate and integrate its elements and effects. This is the process of "reflecting abstraction" (described in detail in Piaget 2001).</li> <li>At the same time, the child is able to identify the properties of objects by the way different kinds of actions affect them. This is the process of "empirical abstraction".</li> <li>By repeating this process across a wide range of objects and actions, the child establishes a new level of knowledge and insight. This is the process of forming a new "<a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> stage". This dual process allows the child to construct new ways of dealing with objects and new knowledge about objects themselves.</li> <li>Once the child has constructed these new kinds of knowledge, he or she starts to use them to create still more complex objects and to carry out still more complex actions. As a result, the child starts to recognize still more complex patterns and to construct still more complex objects. Thus a new stage begins, which will only be completed when all the child's activity and experience have been re-organized on this still higher level.</li></ul> <p>This process may not be wholly gradual, but new evidence shows that the passage into new stages is more gradual than once thought. Once a new level of organization, knowledge and insight proves to be effective, it will quickly be generalized to other areas <i>if they exist</i>. As a result, transitions between stages can seem to be rapid and radical, but oftentimes the child has grasped one aspect of the new stage of cognitive functioning but not addressed others. The bulk of the time spent in a new stage consists of refining this new cognitive level; it does not always happen quickly. For example, a child may see that two different colors of Play-Doh have been fused together to make one ball, based on the color. If sugar is mixed into water or iced tea, then the sugar "disappeared" and therefore does not exist to the child at that stage. These levels of one concept of cognitive development are not realized all at once, giving us a gradual realization of the world around us.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is because this process takes this <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a> form, in which each new stage is created through the further differentiation, integration, and synthesis of new structures out of the old, that the sequence of cognitive stages are logically necessary rather than simply empirically correct. Each new stage emerges only because the child can take for granted the achievements of its predecessors, and yet there are still more sophisticated forms of knowledge and action that are capable of being developed. </p><p>Because it covers both how we gain knowledge about objects and our reflections on our own actions, Piaget's model of development explains a number of features of human knowledge that had never previously been accounted for. For example, by showing how children progressively enrich their understanding of things by acting on and reflecting on the effects of their own previous knowledge, they are able to organize their knowledge in increasingly complex structures. Thus, once a young child can consistently and accurately recognize different kinds of animals, he or she then acquires the ability to organize the different kinds into higher groupings such as "birds", "fish", and so on. This is significant because they are now able to know things about a new animal simply on the basis of the fact that it is a bird – for example, that it will lay eggs. </p><p>At the same time, by reflecting on their own actions, children develop an increasingly sophisticated awareness of the "rules" that govern them in various ways. For example, it is by this route that Piaget explains this child's growing awareness of notions such as "right", "valid", "necessary", "proper", and so on. In other words, it is through the process of <a href="/wiki/Objectification" title="Objectification">objectification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">reflection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a> that the child constructs the principles on which action is not only effective or correct but also <i>justified</i>. </p><p>One of Piaget's most famous studies focused purely on the discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half years old, and four and a half years old. He began the study by taking children of different ages and placing two lines of sweets, one with the sweets in a line spread further apart, and one with the same number of sweets in a line placed more closely together. He found that, "Children between 2 years, 6 months old and 3 years, 2 months old correctly discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows; between 3 years, 2 months and 4 years, 6 months they indicate a longer row with fewer objects to have "more"; after 4 years, 6 months they again discriminate correctly" (<i>Cognitive Capacity of Very Young Children</i>, p. 141). Initially younger children were not studied, because if at four years old a child could not <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_of_quantity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conservation of quantity (page does not exist)">conserve quantity</a>, then a younger child presumably could not either. The results show that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation, but as they get older they lose this quality, and do not recover it until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost due to a temporary inability to solve because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy, or due to the inability for a four-year-old to reverse situations. </p><p>By the end of this experiment several results were found. First, younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged. This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result, the child will count the sweets to decide which has more. Finally the study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of humans' native inheritance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_epistemology">Genetic epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Genetic epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Jean Piaget, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">genetic epistemology</a> attempts to "explain knowledge, and in particular <a href="/wiki/Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a> knowledge, on the basis of its history, its sociogenesis, and especially the psychological origins of the notions and operations upon which it is based". Piaget believed he could test <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> questions by studying the development of thought and action in children. As a result, Piaget created a field known as genetic epistemology with its own methods and problems. He defined this field as the study of <a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">child development</a> as a means of answering epistemological questions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schema">Schema</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Schema"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A schema (plural form: <i>schemata</i>) is a structured cluster of concepts, it can be used to represent objects, scenarios or sequences of events or relations. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> first proposed the concept of schemata as innate structures used to help us perceive the world.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A schema is a mental framework that is created as children interact with their physical and social environments.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, many 3-year-olds insist that the sun is alive because it comes up in the morning and goes down at night. According to Piaget, these children are operating based on a simple cognitive schema that things that move are alive. At any age, children rely on their current cognitive structures to understand the world around them. Moreover, younger and older children may often interpret and respond to the same objects and events in very different ways because cognitive structures take different forms at different ages.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Piaget (1953) described three kinds of intellectual structures: behavioural (or sensorimotor) schemata, symbolic schemata, and operational schemata. </p> <ul><li><i>Behavioural schemata</i>: organized patterns of behaviour that are used to represent and respond to objects and experiences.</li> <li><i>Symbolic schemata</i>: internal mental symbols (such as images or verbal codes) that one uses to represent aspects of experience.</li> <li><i>Operational schemata</i>: internal mental activity that one performs on objects of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>According to Piaget, children use the process of <a href="/wiki/Constructivist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist theory">assimilation and accommodation</a> to create a schema or mental framework for how they perceive and/or interpret what they are experiencing. As a result, the early concepts of young children tend to be more global or general in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Auger,_W._F._2007_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Auger,_W._F._2007-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, Gallagher and Reid (1981) maintained that adults view children's concepts as highly generalized and even inaccurate. With added experience, interactions, and maturity, these concepts become refined and more detailed. Overall, making sense of the world from a child's perspective is a very complex and time-consuming process.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A schema is: </p> <ul><li>A critically important building block of conceptual development</li> <li>Constantly in the process of being modified or changed</li> <li>Modified by on-going experiences</li> <li>A generalized idea, usually based on experience or prior knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Auger,_W._F._2007_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Auger,_W._F._2007-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>These schemata are constantly being revised and elaborated upon each time the child encounters new experiences. In doing this children create their own unique understanding of the world, interpret their own experiences and knowledge, and subsequently use this knowledge to solve more complex problems. In a neurological sense, the brain/mind is constantly working to build and rebuild itself as it takes in, adapts/modifies new information, and enhances understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-Auger,_W._F._2007_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Auger,_W._F._2007-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_methods">Research methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Research methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget wanted to revolutionize the way research was conducted. Although he started researching with his colleagues using a traditional method of data collection, he was not fully satisfied with the results and wanted to keep trying to find new ways of researching using a combination of data, which included <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_observation" title="Naturalistic observation">naturalistic observation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">psychometrics</a>, and the psychiatric clinical examination, in order to have a less guided form of research that would produce more empirically valid results. As Piaget developed new research methods, he wrote a book called <i>The Language and Thought of the Child</i>, which aimed to synthesize the methods he was using in order to study the conclusions children drew from situations and how they arrived at such conclusions. The main idea was to observe how children responded and articulated certain situations with their own reasoning, in order to examine their thought processes (Mayer, 2005). </p><p>Piaget administered a test in 15 boys with ages ranging from 10 to 14 years in which he asked participants to describe the relationship between a mixed bouquet of flowers and a bouquet with flowers of the same color. The purpose of this study was to analyze the thinking process the boys had and to draw conclusions about the logic processes they had used, which was a psychometric technique of research. Piaget also used the psychoanalytic method initially developed by Sigmund Freud. The purpose of using such method was to examine the unconscious mind, as well as to continue parallel studies using different research methods. Psychoanalysis was later rejected by Piaget, as he thought it was insufficiently empirical (Mayer, 2005). </p><p>Piaget argued that children and adults used speech for different purposes. In order to confirm his argument, he experimented analyzing a child's interpretation of a story. In the experiment, the child listened to a story and then told a friend that same story in his/her/their own words. The purpose of this study was to examine how children verbalize and understand each other without adult intervention. Piaget wanted to examine the limits of naturalistic observation, in order to understand a child's reasoning. He realized the difficulty of studying children's thoughts, as it is hard to know if a child is pretending to believe their thoughts or not. Piaget was the pioneer researcher to examine children's conversations in a social context – starting from examining their speech and actions – where children were comfortable and spontaneous (Kose, 1987). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Issues_and_possible_solutions">Issues and possible solutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Issues and possible solutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After conducting many studies, Piaget found significant differences in the way adults and children reason. He could not find the path of logic reasoning and the unspoken thoughts children had, which would allow him to study a child's intellectual development over time (Mayer, 2005). In his third book, <i>The Child's Conception of the World</i>, Piaget recognized the difficulties of his prior techniques and the importance of psychiatric clinical examination. The researcher believed that the way clinical examinations were conducted influenced how a child's inner realities surfaced. Children would likely respond according to the way the research is conducted, the questions asked, or the familiarity they have with the environment. The clinical examination conducted for his third book provides a thorough investigation into a child's thinking process. An example of a question used to research such process was: "Can you see a thought?" (Mayer, 2005, p. 372). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piaget_replaces_psychometric_tests_with_the_clinical_method_approach">Piaget replaces psychometric tests with the clinical method approach</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Piaget replaces psychometric tests with the clinical method approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget recognized that psychometric tests had its limitations, as children were not able to provide the researcher with their deepest thoughts and inner intellect. It was also difficult to know if the results of child examination reflected what children believed or if it is just a pretend situation. For example, it is very difficult to know with certainty if a child who has a conversation with a toy believes the toy is alive or if the child is just pretending. Soon after drawing conclusions about psychometric studies, Piaget started developing the clinical method of examination. The clinical method included questioning a child and carefully examining their responses – in order to observe how the child reasoned according to the questions asked – and then examining the child's perception of the world through their responses. Piaget recognized the difficulties of interviewing a child and the importance of recognizing the difference between "liberated" versus "spontaneous" responses (Mayer, 2005, p. 372). </p><p>Piaget wanted to research in environments that would allow children to connect with some existing aspects of the world. The idea was to change the approach described in his book <i>The Child's Conception of the World</i> and move away from the vague questioning interviews. This new approach was described in his book <i>The Child's Conception of Physical Causality</i>, where children were presented with dilemmas and had to think of possible solutions on their own. Later, after carefully analyzing previous methods, Piaget developed a combination of naturalistic observation with clinical interviewing in his book <i>Judgment and Reasoning in the Child</i>, where a child's intellect was tested with questions and close monitoring. Piaget was convinced he had found a way to analyze and access a child's thoughts about the world in a very effective way (Mayer, 2005). Piaget's research provided a combination of theoretical and practical research methods and it has offered a crucial contribution to the field of developmental psychology (Beilin, 1992). "Piaget is often criticized because his method of investigation, though somewhat modified in recent years, is still largely clinical". He observes a child's surroundings and behavior. He then comes up with a hypothesis testing it and focusing on both the surroundings and behavior after changing a little of the surrounding.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JPiaget-PBovet-1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/JPiaget-PBovet-1925.jpg/220px-JPiaget-PBovet-1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/JPiaget-PBovet-1925.jpg/330px-JPiaget-PBovet-1925.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/JPiaget-PBovet-1925.jpg/440px-JPiaget-PBovet-1925.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="406" /></a><figcaption>Photo of the Jean Piaget Foundation with <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bovet" title="Pierre Bovet">Pierre Bovet</a> (1878–1965) first row (with large beard) and Jean Piaget (1896–1980) first row (on the right, with glasses) in front of the <a href="/wiki/Rousseau_Institute" title="Rousseau Institute">Rousseau Institute</a> (Geneva), 1925</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite his ceasing to be a fashionable <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologist</a>, the magnitude of Piaget's continuing influence can be measured by the global scale and activity of the <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget_Society" title="Jean Piaget Society">Jean Piaget Society</a>, which holds annual conferences and attracts around 700 participants.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">theory of cognitive development</a> has proved influential in many different areas: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li>Historical studies of thought and cognition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_(AI)" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial intelligence (AI)">Artificial intelligence (AI)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental_psychology">Developmental psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Developmental psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget is considered the most influential figure in developmental psychology, though many of aspects of his theories are no longer accepted by mainstream psychologists. Developmental psychologists today do not view development as taking place in <a href="/wiki/Stage_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Stage theory">stages</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gopnik_1996_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gopnik_1996-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hopkins_2011_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hopkins_2011-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many of Piaget's empirical findings have been overturned by subsequent research.<sup id="cite_ref-Gopnik_Wellman_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gopnik_Wellman-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, psychologists no longer view young children as being incapable of understanding abstract concepts,<sup id="cite_ref-IzardSann2009_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IzardSann2009-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and no longer believe that babies do not understand object permanence.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehaene_2020_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehaene_2020-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, developmental psychologists do acknowledge the importance of Jean Piaget's legacy as the founder of their field. They recognize his innovative empirical work, his attempts to integrate his results into a unified theoretical model and the way he created a path for subsequent researchers to follow.<sup id="cite_ref-Klahr_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klahr-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, many developmental psychology researchers today work in a post-Piagetian or <a href="/wiki/Neo-Piagetian_theories_of_cognitive_development" title="Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development">neo-Piagetian</a> framework.<sup id="cite_ref-Martí_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martí-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Morra_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morra-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By using Piaget's theory, educators focus on their students as learners. As a result of this focus, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> is learner-centered and constructivist-based to an extent. It allows teachers to view students as individual learners who add new concepts to prior knowledge to construct, or build, understanding for themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Teachers who use a learner-centered approach as a basis for their professional practices incorporate the several dispositions.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They provide experience-based educational opportunities. These teachers also contemplate the learners' individual qualities and attitudes during curriculum planning. Educators allow learners' insights to alter the curriculum. They nourish and support learners' curiosity. They also involve learners' emotions and create a learning environment in which students feel safe.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two differences between the preoperational and concrete operational stages that apply to education. These differences are reversibility and decentration. At times, reversibility and decentration occur at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When students think about the steps to complete a task without using a particular logical, sequential order, they are using reversibility.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decentration allows them to concentrate on multiple components of a problematic task at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Students use both reversibility and decentration to function throughout the school day, follow directions, and complete assignments. </p><p>An example of a student using reversibility is when learning new vocabulary. The student creates a list of unfamiliar words from a literary text. Then, he researches the definition of those words before asking classmate to test him. His teacher has given a set of particular instructions that he must follow in a particular order: he must write the word before defining it, and complete these two steps repeatedly.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A child in the preoperational stage gets confused during this process and needs assistance from the teacher to stay on task. The teacher refers him back to his text in order to notate the next word before he can define it.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A child in the preoperational stage does not understand the organization required to complete this assignment. One in the concrete operational stage understands the organization, and can recall the steps in any order while being able to follow the order given.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using decentration, the child has the two activities on his mind: identify words and find them in the dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A sample of decentration is a preschooler may use a toy banana as a pretend telephone. The child knows the difference between the fruit and a phone. In this form of play, he is operating on two levels at once.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an older child at the concrete operational level, decentration allows him to complete subtraction of two-digit numbers and indicate which of the problems also involved borrowing from the other column. The student simultaneously does both.<sup id="cite_ref-Educational_Psychology_69-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Educational_Psychology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using reversibility, the student has to move mentally between two subtasks. </p><p>Regarding the giving of praise by teachers, praise is a reinforcer for students. Adolescents undergo social-emotional development such that they seek rapport with peers. Thus, teacher praise is not as powerful for students who see teachers as authority figures. They give no value to praise provided by adults, or they have no respect for the individual who is giving praise.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1970s and 1980s, Piaget's works also inspired the transformation of European and American education, including theory and practice, leading to a more 'child-centered' approach. In <i>Conversations with Jean Piaget</i>, Bringuier says: "Education, for most people, means trying to lead the child to resemble the typical adult of his society ... but for me and no one else, education means making creators... You have to make inventors, innovators—not conformists" (Bringuier, 1980, p. 132). </p><p>His <a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">theory of cognitive development</a> can be used as a tool in the <a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">early childhood</a> classroom. According to Piaget, children developed best in a classroom with <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">interaction</a>. </p><p>Piaget defined knowledge as the ability to modify, transform, and "operate on" an object or idea, such that it is understood by the operator through the process of transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-Piaget_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piaget-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Learning, then, occurs as a result of experience, both physical and logical, with the objects themselves and how they are acted upon. Thus, knowledge must be assimilated in an active process by a learner with matured mental capacity, so that knowledge can build in complexity by scaffolded understanding. Understanding is scaffolded by the learner through the process of equilibration, whereby the learner balances new knowledge with previous understanding, thereby compensating for "transformation" of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Piaget_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piaget-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Learning, then, can also be supported by instructors in an educational setting. Piaget specified that knowledge cannot truly be formed until the learner has matured the mental structures to which that learning is specific, and thereby development constrains learning. Nevertheless, knowledge can also be "built" by building on simpler operations and structures that have already been formed. Basing operations of an advanced structure on those of simpler structures thus scaffolds learning to build on operational abilities as they develop. Good teaching, then, is built around the operational abilities of the students such that they can excel in their operational stage and build on preexisting structures and abilities and thereby "build" learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Piaget_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piaget-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence of the effectiveness of a contemporary curricular design building on Piaget's theories of developmental progression and the support of maturing mental structures can be seen in Griffin and Case's "Number Worlds" curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-Number_Worlds_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Number_Worlds-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The curriculum works toward building a "central conceptual structure" of number sense in young children by building on five instructional processes, including aligning curriculum to the developmental sequencing of acquisition of specific skills. By outlining the developmental sequence of number sense, a conceptual structure is built and aligned to individual children as they develop. </p><p>The cognitive scientist Karen Fuson has argued that the impact of Piagetian theories in education has not been entirely positive because his work has frequently been misinterpreted. In particular, Piaget's focus on children's interactions with objects in the concrete operational stage has led to an approach to education in which young children are encouraged to learn mathematics by manipulating real objects, but without the necessary direct instruction from teachers that they need to understand what they are doing and to link their activities to symbolic mathematics. This has had a particularly negative impact on low-attaining children who need more support from a more knowledgeable other to make meaning and progress with their learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Fuson2009_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fuson2009-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a> has criticised the field of <a href="/wiki/Education_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Education Studies">Education Studies</a> for placing too much emphasis on the works of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and other historical psychologists while failing to keep up with the major advances in cognitive science in the decades since they were active.<sup id="cite_ref-Seidenberg2017_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg2017-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, a 2016 <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> of education research showed that constructivist approaches to early childhood education inspired by Piaget and Vygotsky are less effective than comprehensive approaches that incorporate direct skills teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-Chambers_Cheung_Slavin_2016_pp._88–111_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chambers_Cheung_Slavin_2016_pp._88–111-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morality">Morality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Morality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget believed in two basic principles relating to <a href="/wiki/Character_education" title="Character education">character education</a>: that children develop moral ideas in stages and that children create their conceptions of the world. According to Piaget, "the child is someone who constructs his own moral world view, who forms ideas about right and wrong, and fair and unfair, that are not the direct product of adult teaching and that are often maintained in the face of adult wishes to the contrary" (Gallagher, 1978, p. 26). Piaget believed that children made moral judgments based on their own observations of the world. </p><p>Piaget's theory of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> was radical when his book <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Moral_Judgment_of_the_Child&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Moral Judgment of the Child (page does not exist)">The Moral Judgment of the Child</a></i> was published in 1932 for two reasons: his use of philosophical criteria to define morality (as universalizable, generalizable, and obligatory) and his rejection of equating <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">cultural norms</a> with moral norms. Piaget, drawing on <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kantian</a> theory, proposed that morality developed out of peer interaction and that it was autonomous from authority mandates. Peers, not parents, were a key source of moral concepts such as equality, reciprocity, and justice. </p><p>Piaget attributed different types of psychosocial processes to different forms of social <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">relationships</a>, introducing a fundamental distinction between different types of said relationships. Where there is constraint because one participant holds more power than the other the relationship is <a href="/wiki/Asymmetrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymmetrical">asymmetrical</a>, and, importantly, the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> that can be acquired by the dominated participant takes on a fixed and inflexible form. Piaget refers to this process as one of social transmission, illustrating it through reference to the way in which the elders of a <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribe</a> initiate younger members into the patterns of beliefs and practices of the group. Similarly, where adults exercise a dominating influence over the growing child, it is through social transmission that children can acquire knowledge. By contrast, in <a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">cooperative</a> relations, power is more evenly distributed between participants so that a more symmetrical relationship emerges. Under these conditions, authentic forms of intellectual exchange become possible; each partner has the freedom to project his or her own thoughts, consider the positions of others, and defend his or her own point of view. In such circumstances, where children's thinking is not limited by a dominant influence, Piaget believed "the reconstruction of knowledge", or favorable conditions for the emergence of constructive solutions to problems, exists. Here the knowledge that emerges is open, flexible and regulated by the logic of argument rather than being determined by an external authority. </p><p>In short, cooperative relations provide the arena for the emergence of operations, which for Piaget requires the absence of any constraining influence, and is most often illustrated by the relations that form between peers (for more on the importance of this distinction see Duveen & Psaltis, 2008; Psaltis & Duveen, 2006, 2007). This is thus how, according to Piaget, children learn <i>moral judgement</i> as opposed to <i>cultural norms</i> (or maybe <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideological</a> norms). </p><p>Piaget's research on morality was highly influential in subsequent work on <a href="/wiki/Moral_development" title="Moral development">moral development</a>, particularly in the case of Lawrence Kohlberg's highly influential <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development" title="Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development">stage theory of moral development</a><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which dominated moral psychology research until the end of the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_studies_of_thought_and_cognition">Historical studies of thought and cognition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Historical studies of thought and cognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historical changes of thought have been modeled in Piagetian terms. Broadly speaking these models have mapped changes in morality, intellectual life and cognitive levels against historical changes (typically in the complexity of social systems). </p><p>Notable examples include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Horace_Barnes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Horace Barnes (page does not exist)">Michael Horace Barnes</a>' study of the co-evolution of religious and scientific thinking<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-19-513389-7_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-19-513389-7-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Peter Damerow's theory of prehistoric and archaic thought<sup id="cite_ref-Damerow1998_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Damerow1998-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieran_Egan_(educationist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kieran Egan (educationist)">Kieran Egan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Educated_Mind" title="The Educated Mind">stages of understanding</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Fowler" title="James W. Fowler">James W. Fowler</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Stages_of_faith_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Stages of faith development">stages of faith development</a></li> <li>Suzi Gablik's stages of art history<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0847800822._81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0847800822.-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Christopher Hallpike's studies of changes in cognition and moral judgment in pre-historical, archaic and classical periods ... (Hallpike 1979, 2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohlberg's stages of moral development">stages of moral development</a></li> <li>Don Lepan's theory of the origins of modern thought and drama<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-333-45796-X_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-333-45796-X-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Charles Radding's theory of the medieval intellectual development<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-8078-1664-7_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-8078-1664-7-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>'s reworking of <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-human_development">Non-human development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Non-human development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neo-Piagetian stages have been applied to the maximum stage attained by various animals. For example, <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a> attain the circular sensory motor stage, coordinating actions and perceptions. <a href="/wiki/Pigeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigeon">Pigeons</a> attain the sensory motor stage, forming concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The origins of human intelligence have also been studied in Piagetian terms. Wynn (1979, 1981) analysed <a href="/wiki/Acheulian" class="mw-redirect" title="Acheulian">Acheulian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a> tools in terms of the insight into spatial relationships required to create each kind. On a more general level, Robinson's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prometheus.org.uk"><i>Birth of Reason</i></a> (2005) suggests a large-scale model for the emergence of a Piagetian intelligence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primatology">Primatology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Primatology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget's models of cognition have also been applied outside the human sphere, and some primatologists assess the development and abilities of primates in terms of Piaget's model.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-8018-6012-1_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-8018-6012-1-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophers have used Piaget's work. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_theorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Social theorist">social theorist</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> has incorporated Piaget into his work, most notably in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Communicative_Action" title="The Theory of Communicative Action">The Theory of Communicative Action</a>.</i> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> credited Piaget's work with helping him to understand the transition between modes of thought which characterized his theory of <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burman,_J._T._2007_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burman,_J._T._2007-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, that said, it is also noted that the implications of his later work do indeed remain largely unexamined.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly before his death (September 1980), Piaget was involved in a debate about the relationships between innate and acquired features of language, at the Centre Royaumont pour une Science de l'Homme, where he discussed his point of view with the linguist <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Artificial intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget also had a considerable effect in the field of <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Papert" title="Seymour Papert">Seymour Papert</a> used Piaget's work while developing the <a href="/wiki/Logo_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Logo programming language">Logo programming language</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alan_Kay" title="Alan Kay">Alan Kay</a> used Piaget's theories as the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Dynabook" title="Dynabook">Dynabook</a> programming system concept, which was first discussed within the confines of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (<a href="/wiki/Xerox_PARC" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerox PARC">Xerox PARC</a>). These discussions led to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Alto_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alto (computer)">Alto</a> prototype, which explored for the first time all the elements of the <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a> (GUI), and influenced the creation of user interfaces in the 1980s and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn978-0262041201_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn978-0262041201-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticisms_of_Piaget's_methods"><span id="Criticisms_of_Piaget.27s_methods"></span>Criticisms of Piaget's methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Criticisms of Piaget's methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Judged by today's standards of psychological research, Piaget's research methods can be considered problematic. One modern reviewer said many of his "pioneering investigations would probably be rejected from most modern journals on methodological grounds of sample size, non-standard measurement, and lack of inter-rater reliability".<sup id="cite_ref-Klahr_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klahr-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Piaget's research relied on very small <a href="/wiki/Sample_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample (statistics)">samples</a> that were not <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">randomly selected</a>. His book <i>The Origins of Intelligence in Children</i> was based on the study of just his own three children.<sup id="cite_ref-Hopkins_2011_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hopkins_2011-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that it is difficult to generalize his findings to the broader population. He interacted closely with his research subjects and did not follow a set script, meaning that experimental conditions may not have been exactly the same from participant to participant, introducing issues of consistency. </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/children/piaget-stages-of-development">Other shortcomings of Piaget’s theory include overestimating an adolescent's cognitive abilities, underestimating an infant’s, and overlooking how much cultural and social factors affect children’s thinking..</a> </p><p>As Piaget worked in the era before widespread use of voice recording equipment, his data collection method was simply to make handwritten notes in the field, which he would analyse himself.<sup id="cite_ref-Klahr_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klahr-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This differs from the modern practice of using multiple <a href="/wiki/Coding_(social_sciences)" title="Coding (social sciences)">coders</a> to ensure <a href="/wiki/Test_validity" title="Test validity">test validity</a>. Critics such as <a href="/wiki/Linda_Siegel" title="Linda Siegel">Linda Siegel</a> have argued that his experiments did not adequately control for social context and the child's understanding (or lack of understanding) of the language used in the test task, leading to mistaken conclusions about children's lack of reasoning skills.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These methodological issues mean scientists trying to replicate Piaget's experiments have found that small changes to his procedures lead to different results. For example, in his tests of object-permanence and conservation of number, the ages at which children pass the tests varies greatly based on small variations in the test procedure, challenging his theoretical interpretations of his test results.<sup id="cite_ref-Klahr_65-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klahr-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dehaene_2020_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehaene_2020-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticisms_of_Piaget's_theoretical_ideas"><span id="Criticisms_of_Piaget.27s_theoretical_ideas"></span>Criticisms of Piaget's theoretical ideas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Criticisms of Piaget's theoretical ideas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget's theories have not gone without scrutiny. A figure whose ideas contradicted Piaget's ideas was the Russian psychologist <a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Lev Vygotsky</a>. Vygotsky stressed the importance of a child's cultural background as an effect on the stages of development. Because different cultures stress different social interactions, this challenged Piaget's theory that the hierarchy of learning development had to develop in succession. Vygotsky introduced the term <a href="/wiki/Zone_of_proximal_development" title="Zone of proximal development">Zone of proximal development</a> as an overall task a child would have to develop that would be too difficult to develop alone. </p><p>Also, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Neo-Piagetian_theories_of_cognitive_development" title="Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development">neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development</a> maintained that Piaget's theory does not do justice either to the underlying mechanisms of <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_(psychology)" title="Information processing (psychology)">information processing</a> that explain transition from stage to stage or <a href="/wiki/Individual_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual differences">individual differences</a> in cognitive development. According to these theories, changes in information processing mechanisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_processing_speed" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive processing speed">speed of processing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a>, are responsible for ascension from stage to stage. Moreover, differences between individuals in these processes explain why some individuals develop faster than other individuals (<a href="/wiki/Demetriou" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetriou">Demetriou</a>, 1998). </p><p>Over time, alternative theories of child development have been put forward, and empirical findings have done a lot to undermine Piaget's theories. For example, Esther Thelen and colleagues<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that babies would not make the <a href="/wiki/A-not-B_error" title="A-not-B error">A-not-B error</a> if they had small weights added to their arms during the first phase of the experiment that were then removed before the second phase of the experiment. This minor change should not impact babies' understanding of object permanence, so the difference that this makes to babies' performance on the A-not-B task cannot be explained by Piagetian theory. Thelen and colleagues also found that various other factors also influenced performance on the A-not-B task (including strength of memory trace, salience of targets, waiting time and stance), and proposed that this could be better explained using a <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_systems_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic systems theory">dynamic systems theory</a> approach than using Piagetian theory. <a href="/wiki/Alison_Gopnik" title="Alison Gopnik">Alison Gopnik</a> and Betty Repacholi<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that babies as young as 18 months old can understand that other people have desires, and that these desires could be very different from their own desires. This contradicts Piaget's view that children are very egocentric at this age. </p><p>Modern cognitive science had undermined Piaget's view that young children are unable to comprehend numbers as they are not able to work with abstract concepts in the sensorimotor stage. This Piagetian view has led many educators to believe that it is not appropriate to teach simple arithmetic to young children as it will not lead to real understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehaene_2011_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehaene_2011-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experiments by Starkey et al. have shown that children have an understanding of abstract numbers from as young as 6 months old while more recent studies by Izard et al. have shown that even newborns can perceive abstract numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-StarkeySpelke1990_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StarkeySpelke1990-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IzardSann2009_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IzardSann2009-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a full discussion of this, see <a href="/wiki/Stanislas_Dehaene" title="Stanislas Dehaene">Stanislas Dehaene's</a> <i>The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehaene_2011_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehaene_2011-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some supporters of Piaget counter that his critics' arguments depend on misreadings of Piaget's theory.<sup id="cite_ref-lm_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lm-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also <a href="/wiki/Brian_Rotman" title="Brian Rotman">Brian Rotman</a>'s <i>Jean Piaget: Psychologist of the Real</i>, an exposition and critique of Piaget's ideas, and Jonathan Tudge and Barbara Rogoff's "Peer influences on cognitive development: Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives".<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_major_achievements">List of major achievements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: List of major achievements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appointments">Appointments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Appointments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1921–25 Research Director (<i>Chef des travaux</i>), <a href="/wiki/Rousseau_Institute" title="Rousseau Institute">Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, Geneva</li> <li>1925–29 Professor of Psychology, Sociology and the Philosophy of Science, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Neuchatel" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Neuchatel">University of Neuchatel</a></li> <li>1929–39 <i>Professeur extraordinaire</i> of the History of Scientific Thought, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Geneva" title="University of Geneva">University of Geneva</a></li> <li>1929–67 Director, <a href="/wiki/International_Bureau_of_Education" title="International Bureau of Education">International Bureau of Education</a>, Geneva</li> <li>1932–71 Director, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Institute_of_Educational_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Institute of Educational Sciences (page does not exist)">Institute of Educational Sciences</a>, University of Geneva</li> <li>1938–51 Professor of Experimental Psychology and Sociology, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Lausanne" title="University of Lausanne">University of Lausanne</a></li> <li>1939–51 Professor of Sociology, University of Geneva</li> <li>1940–71 <i>Professeur ordinaire</i> of Experimental Psychology, University of Geneva</li> <li>1952–64 Professor of Genetic Psychology, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a>, Paris</li> <li>1954–57 President, <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Psychological_Science" title="International Union of Psychological Science">International Union of Scientific Psychology</a></li> <li>1955–80 Director, <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Centre_for_Genetic_Epistemology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Centre for Genetic Epistemology (page does not exist)">International Centre for Genetic Epistemology</a>, Geneva</li> <li>1971–80 Emeritus Professor, University of Geneva</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honorary_doctorates">Honorary doctorates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Honorary doctorates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1936 Harvard</li> <li>1946 Sorbonne</li> <li>1949 University of Brazil</li> <li>1949 Bruxelles</li> <li>1953 Chicago</li> <li>1954 McGill</li> <li>1958 Warsaw</li> <li>1959 Manchester</li> <li>1960 Oslo</li> <li>1960 Cambridge</li> <li>1962 Brandeis</li> <li>1964 Montreal</li> <li>1964 Aix-Marseille</li> <li>1966 Pennsylvania<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1966? Barcelona<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1970 Yale<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1971 Temple<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_major_works">List of major works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: List of major works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following groupings are based on the number of citations in <a href="/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_most-cited_publications_in_English">The most-cited publications in English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: The most-cited publications in English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Language and Thought of the Child</i> (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1926) [<i>Le Langage et la pensée chez l'enfant</i> (1923)]</li> <li><i>The Child's Conception of the World</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1928) [<i>La Représentation du monde chez l'enfant</i> (1926, orig. pub. as an article, 1925)]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Piaget_first_edition_copyright_page.jpg#filehistory" title="File:Piaget first edition copyright page.jpg"><i>Judgment and Reasoning in the Child</i> (Harcourt, Brace and Company 1928).</a></li> <li><i><a href="//archive.org/details/moraljudgmentoft005613mbp" class="extiw" title="iarchive:moraljudgmentoft005613mbp">The Moral Judgment of the Child</a></i> (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1932) [<i>Le jugement moral chez l'enfant</i> (1932)]</li> <li><i>The Origins of Intelligence in Children</i> (New York: International University Press, 1952) [<i>La naissance de l'intelligence chez l'enfant</i> (1936), also translated as <i>The Origin of Intelligence in the Child</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953)].</li> <li><i>Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood</i> (New York: Norton, 1962) [<i>La formation du symbole chez l'enfant; imitation, jeu et reve, image et représentation</i> (1945)].</li> <li><i>The Psychology of Intelligence</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1950) [<i>La psychologie de l'intelligence</i> (1947)].</li> <li><i>The construction of reality in the child</i> (New York: Basic Books, 1954) [<i>La construction du réel chez l'enfant</i> (1950), also translated as <i>The Child's Construction of Reality</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955)].</li> <li>With Inhelder, B., <i>The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence</i> (New York: Basic Books, 1958) [<i>De la logique de l'enfant à la logique de l'adolescent</i> (1955)].</li> <li>With Inhelder, B., <i>The Psychology of the Child</i> (New York: Basic Books, 1962) [<i>La psychologie de l'enfant</i> (1966, orig. pub. as an article, 1950)].</li> <li><i>The early growth of logic in the child</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964) [<i>La genèse des structures logiques elementaires</i> (1959)].</li> <li>With Inhelder, B., <i>The Child's Conception of Space</i> (New York: W.W. Norton, 1967).</li> <li>"Piaget's theory" in P. Mussen (ed.), <i>Handbook of Child Psychology</i>, Vol. 1. (4th ed., New York: Wiley, 1983).</li> <li><i>The Child's Conception of Number</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952) [<i>La genèse du nombre chez l'enfant</i> (1941)].</li> <li><i>Structuralism</i> (New York: Harper & Row, 1970) [<i>Le Structuralisme</i> (1968)].</li> <li><i>Genetic epistemology</i> (New York: W.W. Norton, 1971, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00596-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00596-7">978-0-393-00596-7</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Less-cited">Less-cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Less-cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The child's conception of physical causality</i> (London: Kegan Paul, 1930) [<i>La causalite physique chez l'enfant</i> (1927)]</li> <li><i>Child's Conception of Geometry</i> (New York, Basic Books, 1960) [<i>La Géométrie spontanée de l'enfant</i> (1948)].</li> <li><i>The Principles of Genetic Epistemology</i> (New York: Basic Books, 1972, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00596-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00596-7">978-0-393-00596-7</a>) [<i>L'épistémologie génétique</i> (1950)].</li> <li><i>To understand is to invent: The future of education</i> (New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973) [tr. of <i>Ou va l'education</i> (1971) and <i>Le droit a l'education dans le monde actuel</i> (1948)].</li> <li><i>Six psychological studies</i> (New York: Random House, 1967) [<i>Six études de psychologie</i> (1964)].</li> <li><i>Biology and Knowledge</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) [<i>Biologie et connaissance; essai sur les relations entre les régulations organiques et les processus cognitifs</i> (1967)]</li> <li><i>Science of education and the psychology of the child</i> (New York: Orion Press, 1970) [<i>Psychologie et pédagogie</i> (1969)].</li> <li><i>Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977) [<i>L'evolution intellectuelle entre l'adolescence et l'age adulte</i> (1970)].</li> <li><i>The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985) [<i>L'equilibration des structures cognitives</i> (1975), previously translated as <i>The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures</i> (1977)].</li> <li>Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini (ed.), <i>Language and learning: the debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky</i> (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980) [<i>Theories du language, theories de l'apprentissage</i> (1979)].</li> <li><i>Development and learning</i>.</li> <li><i>The Grasp of Consciousness: Action and concept in the young child</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977) [<i>La prise de conscience</i> (1974)].</li> <li><i>The Mechanisms of Perception</i> (New York: Basic Books, 1969) [<i>Les mécanismes perceptifs: modèles probabilistes, analyse génétique, relations avec l'intelligence</i> (1961)].</li> <li><i>Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of Knowledge</i> (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972) [<i>Psychologie et epistémologie</i> (1970).</li> <li><i>The Child's Conception of Time</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969) [<i>Le développement de la notion de temps chez l'enfant</i> (1946)]</li> <li><i>Logic and Psychology</i> (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1953).</li> <li><i>Memory and intelligence</i> (New York: Basic Books, 1973) [Memoire et intelligence (1968)]</li> <li><i>The Origin of the Idea of Chance in Children</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975) [<i>La genèse de l'idée de hasard chez l'enfant</i> (1951)].</li> <li><i>Mental imagery in the child: a study of the development of imaginal representation</i> (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971) [L'image mentale chez l'enfant : études sur le développement des représentations imaginées (1966)].</li> <li><i>Intelligence and Affectivity. Their Relationship during Child Development</i> (Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, 1981) [<i>Les relations entre l'intelligence et l'affectivité dans le développement de l'enfant</i> (1954)].</li> <li>With <a href="/wiki/E.W._Beth" class="mw-redirect" title="E.W. Beth">Beth, E. W.</a>,<i>Mathematical Epistemology and Psychology</i> (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1966) [<i>Épistémologie mathématique et psychologie: Essai sur les relations entre la logique formelle et la pensée réelle</i>] (1961).</li> <li>With Brown, Terrance. Eames, Stewart (Translator). <i>Adaptation and Intelligence: Organic Selection and Phenocopy</i> (University of Chicago Press, 1980).</li> <li>With Garcia, R. <i>Psychogenesis and the History of Science</i> (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989) <i>Psychogenèse et histoire des sciences</i> (1983).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_translations">New translations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: New translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Piaget, J. (1995). <i>Sociological Studies</i>. London: Routledge.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiaget2000" class="citation journal cs1">Piaget, J. (2000). "Commentary on Vygotsky". <i>New Ideas in Psychology</i>. <b>18</b> (2–3): 241–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0732-118X%2800%2900012-X">10.1016/S0732-118X(00)00012-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Ideas+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Commentary+on+Vygotsky&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=241-59&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0732-118X%2800%2900012-X&rft.aulast=Piaget&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Piaget, J. (2001). <i>Studies in Reflecting Abstraction</i>. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_acceleration" title="Cognitive acceleration">Cognitive acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(learning_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitivism (learning theory)">Cognitivism (learning theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0mundur_Finnbogason" title="Guðmundur Finnbogason">Guðmundur Finnbogason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_and_vertical_d%C3%A9calage" title="Horizontal and vertical décalage">Horizontal and vertical décalage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry-based_learning" title="Inquiry-based learning">Inquiry-based learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohlberg's stages of moral development">Kohlberg's stages of moral development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosocial_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychosocial development">Psychosocial development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_development" title="Religious development">Religious development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-level_task" title="Water-level task">Water-level task</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collaborators">Collaborators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Collaborators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Ackermann" title="Edith Ackermann">Edith Ackermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Apostel" title="Leo Apostel">Leo Apostel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edgar_Ascher&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edgar Ascher (page does not exist)">Edgar Ascher</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evert_Beth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Evert Beth (page does not exist)">Evert Beth</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Magali_Bovet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magali Bovet (page does not exist)">Magali Bovet</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guy_Cell%C3%A9rier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guy Cellérier (page does not exist)">Guy Cellérier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Fraisse" title="Paul Fraisse">Paul Fraisse</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rolando_Garc%C3%ADa_(Argentine_scientist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rolando García (Argentine scientist) (page does not exist)">Rolando García</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Gr%C3%A9co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Gréco (page does not exist)">Pierre Gréco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Blaise_Grize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Blaise Grize (page does not exist)">Jean-Blaise Grize</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gil_Henriques&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gil Henriques (page does not exist)">Gil Henriques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A4rbel_Inhelder" title="Bärbel Inhelder">Bärbel Inhelder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benoit_Mandelbrot" title="Benoit Mandelbrot">Benoit Mandelbrot</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_Morf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert Morf (page does not exist)">Albert Morf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Ol%C3%A9ron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Oléron (page does not exist)">Pierre Oléron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Papert" title="Seymour Papert">Seymour Papert</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Reuchlin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Reuchlin (page does not exist)">Maurice Reuchlin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermina_Sinclair_de-Zwart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermina Sinclair de-Zwart (page does not exist)">Hermina Sinclair de-Zwart</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alina_Szeminska&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alina Szeminska (page does not exist)">Alina Szeminska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu%C3%AA_Vinh-Bang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Huê Vinh-Bang (page does not exist)">Huê Vinh-Bang</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translators">Translators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Translators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Duckworth" title="Eleanor Duckworth">Eleanor Duckworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfe_Mays" title="Wolfe Mays">Wolfe Mays</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EPD-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EPD_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2011" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (2011). <a href="/wiki/Peter_Roach_(phonetician)" title="Peter Roach (phonetician)">Roach, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jane_Setter" title="Jane Setter">Setter, Jane</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Esling" title="John Esling">Esling, John</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/English_Pronouncing_Dictionary" title="English Pronouncing Dictionary">Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary</a></i> (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-15255-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-15255-6"><bdi>978-0-521-15255-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+English+Pronouncing+Dictionary&rft.edition=18th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-15255-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210507235825/https://www.lexico.com/definition/piaget,_jean">"Piaget, Jean"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lexico" title="Lexico">Lexico</a> UK English Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 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Jean Piaget Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html">the original</a> on 24 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+Piaget&rft.pub=Jean+Piaget+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.piaget.org%2FaboutPiaget.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burman-HoP2012-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burman-HoP2012_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurman2012" class="citation journal cs1">Burman, J. T. (2012). 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Accessed 28 February 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestak2006" class="citation book cs1">Restak, Richard (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nakedbrainhoweme0000rest"><i>The Naked Brain: How the Emerging Neurosociety is Changing How We Live, Work, and Love</i></a></span>. New York: Harmony. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nakedbrainhoweme0000rest/page/156">156</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-9808-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-9808-8"><bdi>978-1-4000-9808-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naked+Brain%3A+How+the+Emerging+Neurosociety+is+Changing+How+We+Live%2C+Work%2C+and+Love&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Harmony&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-9808-8&rft.aulast=Restak&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnakedbrainhoweme0000rest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiehler1978" class="citation book cs1">Biehler, Robert F. (1978). <i>Psychology Applied to Teaching</i>. Houghton Mifflin. p. 113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-11921-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-11921-1"><bdi>978-0-395-11921-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+Applied+to+Teaching&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-395-11921-1&rft.aulast=Biehler&rft.aufirst=Robert+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html">A Brief Biography of Jean Piaget</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190824192513/http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html">Archived</a> 24 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Jean Piaget Society (Society for the study of knowledge and development)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiaget1952" class="citation cs2">Piaget, Jean (1952), Boring, Edwin G.; Werner, Heinz; Langfeld, Herbert S.; Yerkes, Robert M. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.apa.org/books/11154-011">"Jean Piaget."</a>, <i>A History of Psychology in Autobiography, Vol IV.</i>, Worcester: Clark University Press, pp. 237–256, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F11154-011">10.1037/11154-011</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A+History+of+Psychology+in+Autobiography%2C+Vol+IV.&rft.atitle=Jean+Piaget.&rft.pages=237-256&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F11154-011&rft.aulast=Piaget&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.apa.org%2Fbooks%2F11154-011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer,_Susan2005" class="citation web cs1">Mayer, Susan (21 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gseacademic.harvard.edu/~hgsebio/presentations/A%20Brief%20Biography%20of%20Jean%20Piaget.pdf">"A Brief Biography of Jean Piaget"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>gseacademic.harvard.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901201210/http://gseacademic.harvard.edu/~hgsebio/presentations/A%20Brief%20Biography%20of%20Jean%20Piaget.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 1 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gseacademic.harvard.edu&rft.atitle=A+Brief+Biography+of+Jean+Piaget&rft.date=2005-10-21&rft.au=Mayer%2C+Susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgseacademic.harvard.edu%2F~hgsebio%2Fpresentations%2FA%2520Brief%2520Biography%2520of%2520Jean%2520Piaget.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoyat,_G.1981" class="citation journal cs1">Voyat, G. (1981). "Jean Piaget: 1896–1980". <i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>. <b>94</b> (4): 645–648. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7044156">7044156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Jean+Piaget%3A+1896%E2%80%931980&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=645-648&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7044156&rft.au=Voyat%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fondationjeanpiaget.ch/fjp/site/biographie/index_biographie.php">Fondation Jean Piaget – Biographie</a>. Fondationjeanpiaget.ch. Retrieved on 26 February 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnon1970" class="citation journal cs1">Anon (1970). "Distinguished Scientific Contribution Awards: 1969: Citation for Jean Piaget". <i>American Psychologist</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 65–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0020564">10.1037/h0020564</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4910176">4910176</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Distinguished+Scientific+Contribution+Awards%3A+1969%3A+Citation+for+Jean+Piaget&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-79&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0020564&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4910176&rft.au=Anon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rockcastle, Verne N. (1964, p. xi), the conference director, wrote in the conference report of the Jean Piaget conferences about Piaget: <dl><dd>Although few of us had any personal contact with Piaget prior to the conference, those who attended came to have the deepest and warmest regard for him both as a scientist and as a person. His sense of humor throughout the conference was a sort of international glue that flavored his lectures and punctuated his informal conversation. To sit at the table with him during a meal was not only an intellectual pleasure but a pure social delight. Piaget was completely unsophisticated in spite of his international stature. We could hardly believe it when he came prepared for two weeks' stay with only his 'serviette' and a small Swissair bag. An American would have had at least two large suitcases. When Piaget left Berkeley, he had his serviette, the small Swissair bag, and a third, larger bag crammed with botanical specimens. 'Where did you get that bag?' we asked. 'I had it in one of the others,' he replied.</dd></dl> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurman2013" class="citation journal cs1">Burman, Jeremy Trevelyan (2013). "Profiles of international archives: Les archives Jean Piaget, University of Geneva, Switzerland". <i>History of Psychology</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 158–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0031405">10.1037/a0031405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23544355">23544355</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Profiles+of+international+archives%3A+Les+archives+Jean+Piaget%2C+University+of+Geneva%2C+Switzerland&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=158-61&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0031405&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23544355&rft.aulast=Burman&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+Trevelyan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span> A photograph of his grave is available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supp.apa.org/psycarticles/supplemental/a0031405/Burman-PiagetStones%28ColorInset%29-lrgweb.jpg">here</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeilin1992" class="citation journal cs1">Beilin, H. (1992). 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"Piaget No 'Remedy' for Kuhn, But the Two Should be Read Together: Comment on Tsou's 'Piaget vs. Kuhn on Scientific Progress'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Theory & Psychology</i>. <b>17</b> (5): 721–732. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0959354307079306">10.1177/0959354307079306</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145497321">145497321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theory+%26+Psychology&rft.atitle=Piaget+No+%27Remedy%27+for+Kuhn%2C+But+the+Two+Should+be+Read+Together%3A+Comment+on+Tsou%27s+%27Piaget+vs.+Kuhn+on+Scientific+Progress%27&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=721-732&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0959354307079306&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145497321%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burman&rft.aufirst=J.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Burman, J. T. (2008). "Experimenting in relation to Piaget: Education is a chaperoned process of adaptation". <i>Perspectives on Science</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 160–195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fposc.2008.16.2.160">10.1162/posc.2008.16.2.160</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57572564">57572564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Science&rft.atitle=Experimenting+in+relation+to+Piaget%3A+Education+is+a+chaperoned+process+of+adaptation&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=160-195&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fposc.2008.16.2.160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57572564%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burman&rft.aufirst=J.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn978-0262041201-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn978-0262041201_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrescher,_Gary1991" class="citation book cs1">Drescher, Gary (1991). <i>Made-Up Minds: A Constructivist Approach to Artificial Intelligence</i>. Boston: MIT Press. p. 236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-04120-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-04120-1"><bdi>978-0-262-04120-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Made-Up+Minds%3A+A+Constructivist+Approach+to+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-262-04120-1&rft.au=Drescher%2C+Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel1993" class="citation journal cs1">Siegel, Linda S (1993). "Amazing new discovery: Piaget was wrong!". <i>Canadian Psychology</i>. <b>34</b> (3): 239–245. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0078835">10.1037/h0078835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Psychology&rft.atitle=Amazing+new+discovery%3A+Piaget+was+wrong%21&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=239-245&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0078835&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Linda+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencerClearfieldCorbettaUlrich2006" class="citation journal cs1">Spencer, J. P.; Clearfield, M.; Corbetta, D.; Ulrich, B.; Buchanan, P.; Schöner, G. (2006). "Moving Toward a Grand Theory of Development: In Memory of Esther Thelen". <i>Child Development</i>. <b>77</b> (6): 1521–1538. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.531.5232">10.1.1.531.5232</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.2006.00955.x">10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00955.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17107442">17107442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Child+Development&rft.atitle=Moving+Toward+a+Grand+Theory+of+Development%3A+In+Memory+of+Esther+Thelen&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1521-1538&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.531.5232%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17107442&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.2006.00955.x&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft.au=Clearfield%2C+M.&rft.au=Corbetta%2C+D.&rft.au=Ulrich%2C+B.&rft.au=Buchanan%2C+P.&rft.au=Sch%C3%B6ner%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRepacholiAlison_Gopnik1997" class="citation journal cs1">Repacholi, Betty; Alison Gopnik (1997). "Early reasoning about desires: Evidence from 14- and 18-month-olds". <i>Developmental Psychology</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 12–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.33.1.12">10.1037/0012-1649.33.1.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9050386">9050386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Early+reasoning+about+desires%3A+Evidence+from+14-+and+18-month-olds&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-21&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0012-1649.33.1.12&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9050386&rft.aulast=Repacholi&rft.aufirst=Betty&rft.au=Alison+Gopnik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dehaene_2011-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dehaene_2011_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dehaene_2011_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDehaene2011" class="citation book cs1">Dehaene, Stanislas (2011). <i>The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics</i> (2 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975387-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975387-1"><bdi>978-0-19-975387-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Number+Sense%3A+How+the+Mind+Creates+Mathematics&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975387-1&rft.aulast=Dehaene&rft.aufirst=Stanislas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-StarkeySpelke1990-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-StarkeySpelke1990_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarkeySpelkeGelman1990" class="citation journal cs1">Starkey, Prentice; Spelke, Elizabeth S.; Gelman, Rochel (1990). "Numerical abstraction by human infants". <i>Cognition</i>. <b>36</b> (2): 97–127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0277%2890%2990001-Z">10.1016/0010-0277(90)90001-Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-0277">0010-0277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2225757">2225757</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:706365">706365</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognition&rft.atitle=Numerical+abstraction+by+human+infants&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=97-127&rft.date=1990&rft.issn=0010-0277&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A706365%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2225757&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0010-0277%2890%2990001-Z&rft.aulast=Starkey&rft.aufirst=Prentice&rft.au=Spelke%2C+Elizabeth+S.&rft.au=Gelman%2C+Rochel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lm-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lm_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLourençoMachado1996" class="citation journal cs1">Lourenço, O.; Machado, A. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200410214048/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2dec/e70e2b917d7e3f846db9285878811d1ddbe3.pdf">"In defense of Piaget's theory: A reply to ten common criticisms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>103</b> (1): 143–164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.103.1.143">10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.143</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32390745">32390745</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2dec/e70e2b917d7e3f846db9285878811d1ddbe3.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=In+defense+of+Piaget%27s+theory%3A+A+reply+to+ten+common+criticisms&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=143-164&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.103.1.143&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32390745%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Louren%C3%A7o&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Machado%2C+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F2dec%2Fe70e2b917d7e3f846db9285878811d1ddbe3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTudgeBarbara_Rogoff1998" class="citation book cs1">Tudge, Jonathan; Barbara Rogoff (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RnWym5-bm8kC&pg=PA32">"Peer influences on cognitive development: Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives"</a>. In Peter Lloyd; Charles Fernyhough (eds.). <i>Lev Vygotsky: Critical Assessments, Volume 3</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11154-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11154-6"><bdi>978-0-415-11154-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Peer+influences+on+cognitive+development%3A+Piagetian+and+Vygotskian+perspectives&rft.btitle=Lev+Vygotsky%3A+Critical+Assessments%2C+Volume+3&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-11154-6&rft.aulast=Tudge&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Barbara+Rogoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRnWym5-bm8kC%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The list is certain only to 1966. The source is p. xviii of F. Bresson & M. de Montmollin, 1966, <i>Psychologie et épistémologie génétique: thèmes Piagétiens (Hommage à Jean Piaget avec une bibliographie complète de ses oeuvres)</i>. Paris: Dunod. (Note: This list provides "Varsovie" instead of Warsaw, as this is the French name for the capital of Poland.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reported in 1971, in Anuario de psicología, as part of the proceedings of a celebration of Piaget's 70th birthday, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.raco.cat/index.php/AnuarioPsicologia/issue/view/4930/showToc">raco.cat</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessen1996" class="citation journal cs1">Kessen, W (1996). "American Psychology just before Piaget". <i>Psychological Science</i>. <b>7</b> (4): 196–199. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.1996.tb00358.x">10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00358.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40062944">40062944</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145615307">145615307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=American+Psychology+just+before+Piaget&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=196-199&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145615307%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40062944%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.1996.tb00358.x&rft.aulast=Kessen&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.temple.edu/about/history-traditions/honorary-degrees/past-honorary-degree-recipients">Past Honorary Degree Recipients</a>, Temple University</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 60em"> <ul><li>Aqueci, F. (2003). <i>Ordine e trasformazione: morale, mente, discorso in Piaget</i>. Acireale-Roma: Bonanno. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-7796-148-1" title="Special:BookSources/88-7796-148-1">88-7796-148-1</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmann-GainottiDucret1992" class="citation journal cs1">Amann-Gainotti, M.; Ducret, J.-J. (1992). <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Janet" title="Pierre Janet">"Jean Piaget, disciple of Pierre Janet: Influence of behavior psychology and relations with psychoanalysis"</a>. <i>Information Psychiatrique</i>. <b>68</b>: 598–606.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+Psychiatrique&rft.atitle=Jean+Piaget%2C+disciple+of+Pierre+Janet%3A+Influence+of+behavior+psychology+and+relations+with+psychoanalysis&rft.volume=68&rft.pages=598-606&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Amann-Gainotti&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Ducret%2C+J.-J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeilin1992" class="citation journal cs1">Beilin, H. (1992). "Piaget's enduring contribution to developmental psychology". <i>Developmental Psychology</i>. <b>28</b> (2): 191–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.28.2.191">10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.191</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14459165">14459165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Piaget%27s+enduring+contribution+to+developmental+psychology&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=191-204&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0012-1649.28.2.191&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14459165%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Beilin&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Beilin, H. (1994). Jean Piaget's enduring contribution to developmental psychology. A century of developmental psychology (pp. 257–290). Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association.</li> <li>Bringuier, J.-C. (1980). <i>Conversations with Jean Piaget</i> (B.M. Gulati, Trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1977) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-07503-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-07503-6">0-226-07503-6</a>.</li> <li>Chapman, M. (1988). <i>Constructive evolution: Origins and development of Piaget's thought</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36712-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36712-3">0-521-36712-3</a>.</li> <li>Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), <i>Life-span developmental psychology</i> (pp. 179–269). London: Wiley.</li> <li>Demetriou, A., Mouyi, A., & Spanoudis, G. (2010). The development of mental processing. Nesselroade, J. R. (2010). Methods in the study of life-span human development: Issues and answers. In W. F. Overton (Ed.), <i>Biology, cognition and methods across the life-span. Volume 1 of the Handbook of life-span development</i> (pp. 36–55), Editor-in-chief: R. M. Lerner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.</li> <li>Duveen, G. & Psaltis, C. (2008). The constructive role of asymmetries in social interaction. In U. Mueller, J. I. M. Carpendale, N. Budwig & B. Sokol (Eds.), <i>Social life and social knowledge: Toward a process account of development</i>. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.</li> <li>Eckblad, G. (1981). <i>Scheme theory: A conceptual framework for cognitive-motivational processes</i>. London and New York: Academic Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-229550-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-229550-8">978-0-12-229550-8</a>.</li> <li>Flavell, J. (1967). <i>The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget</i>. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-442-02413-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-442-02413-4">0-442-02413-4</a>.</li> <li>Fowler, J. W. (1981). <i>Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning</i>. San Francisco: Harper & Row. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-062866-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-062866-9">0-06-062866-9</a>.</li> <li>Gattico, E. (2001). <i>Jean Piaget</i>. Milano: Bruno Mondadori. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-424-9741-X" title="Special:BookSources/88-424-9741-X">88-424-9741-X</a>.</li> <li>Hallpike, C.R. (1979). <i>The foundations of primitive thought</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-823196-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-823196-2">0-19-823196-2</a>.</li> <li>Ivey, A. (1986). <i>Developmental therapy</i>. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55542-022-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-55542-022-2">1-55542-022-2</a>.</li> <li>Kamii, C. (1985). <i>Young children reinvent arithmetic: Implications of Piaget's theory.</i> New York: Teachers College Press.</li> <li>Kesselring, T. (1999). <i>Jean Piaget</i>. München: Beck. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-44512-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-44512-8">3-406-44512-8</a>.</li> <li>Kassotakis, M. & Flouris, G. (2006) <i>Μάθηση & Διδασκαλία</i>, Athens.</li> <li>Kitchener, R. (1986). <i>Piaget's theory of knowledge: Genetic epistemology & scientific reason</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-03579-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-03579-9">0-300-03579-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKose1987" class="citation journal cs1">Kose, G. (1987). "A philosopher's conception of Piaget: Piagetian theory reconsidered". <i>Theoretical & Philosophical Psychology</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 52–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0091442">10.1037/h0091442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theoretical+%26+Philosophical+Psychology&rft.atitle=A+philosopher%27s+conception+of+Piaget%3A+Piagetian+theory+reconsidered&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52-57&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0091442&rft.aulast=Kose&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cohort09devpsyc.commons.gc.cuny.edu/files/2010/01/Lourenco_1999.pdf">CUNY pdf</a> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer2005" class="citation journal cs1">Mayer, S. (2005). "The early evolution of Jean Piaget's clinical method". <i>History of Psychology</i>. <b>8</b> (4): 362–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1093-4510.8.4.362">10.1037/1093-4510.8.4.362</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17152748">17152748</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+early+evolution+of+Jean+Piaget%27s+clinical+method&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=362-382&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1093-4510.8.4.362&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17152748&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Messerly, J.G. (1992). <i>Piaget's conception of evolution: Beyond Darwin and Lamarck</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-8243-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8476-8243-9">0-8476-8243-9</a>.</li> <li>Perret-Clermont, A.-N. & Barrelet, J.-M. (Eds) (2008/2014). <i>Jean Piaget and Neuchâtel. The Learner and the Scholar</i>. Hove and New York: Psychology Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPsaltisDuveen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Psaltis, C.; Duveen, G. (2006). "Social relations and cognitive development: The influence of conversation type and representations of gender". <i>European Journal of Social Psychology</i>. <b>36</b> (3): 407–430. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fejsp.308">10.1002/ejsp.308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Social+relations+and+cognitive+development%3A+The+influence+of+conversation+type+and+representations+of+gender&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=407-430&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fejsp.308&rft.aulast=Psaltis&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Duveen%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPsaltisDuveen2007" class="citation journal cs1">Psaltis, C.; Duveen, G. (2007). "Conversation types and conservation: Forms of recognition and cognitive development". <i>British Journal of Developmental Psychology</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 79–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1348%2F026151005X91415">10.1348/026151005X91415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Conversation+types+and+conservation%3A+Forms+of+recognition+and+cognitive+development&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-102&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1348%2F026151005X91415&rft.aulast=Psaltis&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Duveen%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Robinson, R.J. (2005). <i>The birth of reason</i>. Prometheus Research Group. (Available online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prometheus.org.uk">prometheus.org.uk</a>)</li> <li>Smith, L. (Ed.) (1992). <i>Jean Piaget: Critical assessments</i> (4 Vols.). London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-04408-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-04408-1">0-415-04408-1</a>.</li> <li>Smith, L. (1993). <i>Necessary knowledge: Piagetian perspectives on constructivism</i>. Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86377-270-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-86377-270-6">0-86377-270-6</a>.</li> <li>Smith, L. (Ed.) (1996). <i>Critical readings on Piaget</i>. London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-13317-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-13317-3">0-415-13317-3</a>.</li> <li>Smith, L. (2001). Jean Piaget. In J. A. Palmer (Ed.), <i>50 modern thinkers on education: From Piaget to the present</i>. London: Routledge.</li> <li>Vidal, F. (1994). <i>Piaget before Piaget</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-66716-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-66716-6">0-674-66716-6</a>.</li> <li>Vonèche, J.J. (1985). Genetic epistemology: Piaget's theory. In T. Husén & T.N. Postlethwaite (Eds.-in-chief), <i>International encyclopedia of education</i> (Vol. 4). Oxford: Pergamon.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynn1979" class="citation journal cs1">Wynn, T. (1979). "The intelligence of later Acheulean hominids". <i>Man</i>. New Series. <b>14</b> (3): 371–391. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2801865">10.2307/2801865</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2801865">2801865</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=The+intelligence+of+later+Acheulean+hominids&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=371-391&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2801865&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2801865%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wynn&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynn1981" class="citation journal cs1">Wynn, T. (1981). "The intelligence of Oldowan hominids". <i>Journal of Human Evolution</i>. <b>10</b> (7): 529–541. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981JHumE..10..529W">1981JHumE..10..529W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0047-2484%2881%2980046-2">10.1016/S0047-2484(81)80046-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+intelligence+of+Oldowan+hominids&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=529-541&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0047-2484%2881%2980046-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981JHumE..10..529W&rft.aulast=Wynn&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span>—</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Piaget inspired innumerable studies and even new areas of inquiry. The following is a list of critiques and commentaries, organized using the same citation-based method as the list of his own major works (above). These represent the significant and influential post-Piagetian writings in their respective sub-disciplines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exemplars">Exemplars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Exemplars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky, L.</a> (1963). <i>Thought and language</i>. [12630 citations]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classics">Classics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Classics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Papert" title="Seymour Papert">Papert, S.</a> (1980). <i><a href="/wiki/Mindstorms:_Children,_Computers,_and_Powerful_Ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas">Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas</a></i>. [4089]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Minsky, M.</a> (1988). <i><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Mind" title="Society of Mind">The society of mind</a></i>. [3950]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Kohlberg, L.</a> (1969). <i>Stage And Sequence: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach To Socialization</i>. [3118]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Flavell" title="John H. Flavell">Flavell, J.</a> (1963). <i>The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget</i>. [2333] [The development of the project that became this book, and its impact, is discussed in detail by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüllerBurmanHutchison2013" class="citation journal cs1">Müller, U.; Burman, J. T.; Hutchison, S. M. (2013). "The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget: A quinquagenary retrospective". <i>Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 52–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appdev.2012.10.001">10.1016/j.appdev.2012.10.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0193-3973">0193-3973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+developmental+psychology+of+Jean+Piaget%3A+A+quinquagenary+retrospective&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52-55&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.appdev.2012.10.001&rft.issn=0193-3973&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=U.&rft.au=Burman%2C+J.+T.&rft.au=Hutchison%2C+S.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson">Gibson, E. J.</a> (1973). <i>Principles of perceptual learning and development</i>. [1903]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._McVicker_Hunt" title="J. McVicker Hunt">Hunt, J. McV.</a> (1961). <i>Intelligence and Experience</i>. [617+395+384+111+167+32=1706]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_N._Meltzoff" title="Andrew N. Meltzoff">Meltzoff, A. N.</a> & Moore, M. K. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. [1497]</li> <li>Case, R. (1985). <i>Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood</i>. [1456]</li> <li>Fischer, K. W. (1980). <i>A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchies of skills</i>. [1001]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_works">Major works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Major works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bates" title="Elizabeth Bates">Bates, E.</a> (1976). <i>Language and context: The acquisition of pragmatics</i>. [959]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Ginsburg" title="Herbert Ginsburg">Ginsburg, H. P.</a> & Opper, S. (1969). <i>Piaget's theory of intellectual development</i>. [931]</li> <li>Singley, M. K. & <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">Anderson, J. R.</a> (1989). <i>The transfer of cognitive skill</i>. [836]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Duckworth" title="Eleanor Duckworth">Duckworth, E.</a> (1973). The having of wonderful ideas. [775]</li> <li>Youniss, J. (1982). Parents and peers in social development: A Sullivan-Piaget perspective. [763]</li> <li>Pascual-Leone, J. (1970). A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages. [563]</li> <li>Schaffer, H. R. & Emerson, P. E. (1964). The development of social attachments in infancy. [535]</li> <li>Hopper, A. (2016). <i>Introduction to the Qualitative Development of Intelligence</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_of_significance">Works of significance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Works of significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShatzGelman1973" class="citation journal cs1">Shatz, M.; <a href="/wiki/Rochel_Gelman" title="Rochel Gelman">Gelman, R.</a> (1973). "The Development of Communication Skills: Modifications in the Speech of Young Children as a Function of Listener". <i>Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development</i>. <b>38</b> (5): 1–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1165783">10.2307/1165783</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1165783">1165783</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4764473">4764473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monographs+of+the+Society+for+Research+in+Child+Development&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+Communication+Skills%3A+Modifications+in+the+Speech+of+Young+Children+as+a+Function+of+Listener&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1-37&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4764473&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1165783%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1165783&rft.aulast=Shatz&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Gelman%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span> [470]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroke1971" class="citation journal cs1">Broke, H (1971). "Interpersonal perception of young children: Egocentrism or Empathy?". <i>Developmental Psychology</i>. <b>5</b> (2): 263–269. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0031267">10.1037/h0031267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Interpersonal+perception+of+young+children%3A+Egocentrism+or+Empathy%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=263-269&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0031267&rft.aulast=Broke&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span> [469]</li> <li>Wadsworth, B. J. (1989). Piaget's theory of cognitive and affective development [421]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annette_Karmiloff-Smith" title="Annette Karmiloff-Smith">Karmiloff-Smith, A.</a> (1992). <i>Beyond Modularity</i>. [419]</li> <li>Bodner, G. M. (1986). <i>Constructivism: A theory of knowledge</i>. [403]</li> <li>Shantz, C. U. (1975). <i>The Development of Social Cognition</i>. [387]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamondGoldman-Rakic1989" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adele_Diamond" title="Adele Diamond">Diamond, A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Goldman-Rakic, P. S.</a> (1989). "Comparison of human infants and rhesus monkeys on Piaget's AB task: evidence for dependence on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex". <i>Experimental Brain Research</i>. <b>74</b> (1): 24–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00248277">10.1007/bf00248277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2924839">2924839</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2310409">2310409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Brain+Research&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+human+infants+and+rhesus+monkeys+on+Piaget%27s+AB+task%3A+evidence+for+dependence+on+dorsolateral+prefrontal+cortex&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-40&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2310409%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2924839&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00248277&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Goldman-Rakic%2C+P.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span> [370]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Gruber" title="Howard Gruber">Gruber, H.</a> & Voneche, H. (1982). <i>The Essential Piaget</i>. [348]</li> <li>Walkerdine, V. (1984). Developmental psychology and the child-centred pedagogy: The insertion of Piaget into early education. [338]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constance_Kamii" title="Constance Kamii">Kamii, C.</a> & DeClark, G. (1985). Young children reinvent arithmetic: Implications of Piaget's theory [335]</li> <li>Riegel, K. F. (1973). Dialectic operations: The final period of cognitive development [316]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanduraMcDonald1963" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Bandura, A.</a>; McDonald, F. J. (1963). "Influence of social reinforcement and the behavior of models in shaping children's moral judgment". <i>Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology</i>. <b>67</b> (3): 274–281. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0044714">10.1037/h0044714</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14054361">14054361</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24159020">24159020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Abnormal+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Influence+of+social+reinforcement+and+the+behavior+of+models+in+shaping+children%27s+moral+judgment&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=274-281&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24159020%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14054361&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0044714&rft.aulast=Bandura&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=McDonald%2C+F.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean+Piaget" class="Z3988"></span> [314]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Karplus" title="Robert Karplus">Karplus, R.</a> (1980). Teaching for the development of reasoning. [312]</li> <li>Brainerd, C. (1978). The stage question in cognitive-developmental theory. [311]</li> <li>Brainerd, C. (1978). Piaget's theory of intelligence. [292]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Gilligan" title="Carol Gilligan">Gilligan, C.</a> (1997). Moral orientation and moral development [285]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adele_Diamond" title="Adele Diamond">Diamond, A.</a> (1991). Neuropsychological insights into the meaning of object concept development [284]</li> <li>Braine, M. D. S., & Rumain, B. (1983). Logical reasoning. [276]</li> <li>John-Steiner, V. (2000). Creative collaboration. [266]</li> <li>Pascual-Leone, J. (1987). Organismic processes for neo-Piagetian theories: A dialectical causal account of cognitive development. [261]</li> <li>Hallpike, C. R. (1979). <i>The foundations of primitive thought</i> [261]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_G._Furth" title="Hans G. Furth">Furth, H.</a> (1969). <i>Piaget and Knowledge</i> [261]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rochel_Gelman" title="Rochel Gelman">Gelman, R.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Renee_Baillargeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Renee Baillargeon">Baillargeon, R.</a> (1983). A review of some Piagetian concepts. [260]</li> <li>O'Loughlin, M. (1992). Rethinking science education: Beyond piagetian constructivism. Toward a sociocultural model of teaching and learning. [252]</li> <li>Messerly, John G. (1996). "Psychogenesis and the History of Science: Piaget and the Problem of Scientific Change", <i>The Modern Schoolman</i> LXXIII, 295–307.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nb-helveticat.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/search?query=any,contains,%22Jean+Piaget%22&tab=LibraryCatalog&search_scope=MyInstitution&vid=41SNL_51_INST:helveticat&lang=de&offset=0">Publications by and about Jean Piaget</a> in the catalogue Helveticat of the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Library" title="Swiss National Library">Swiss National Library</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output 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title="n:Special:Search/Jean Piaget">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" class="extiw" title="q:Jean Piaget">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.piaget.org/">Jean Piaget Society</a>, society for the study of knowledge and development.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unige.ch/piaget/Presentations/presentg.html">The Jean Piaget Archives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031211121717/http://www.unige.ch/piaget/Presentations/presentg.html">Archived</a> 11 December 2003 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, with full bibliography.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150215220621/http://boletimef.org/biblioteca/2996">Interview with Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder</a> by Elizabeth Hall (1970) (archived 15 February 2015)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.DevPsy.org/topics/piaget.html">Jean Piaget @ Teaching & Learning Developmental Psychology</a>, Piaget as a scientist with resources for classes.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://campber.people.clemson.edu/piaget.html">Jean Piaget's Genetic Epistemology: Appreciation and Critique</a> by Robert Campbell (2002), extensive summary of work and biography.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.butler-bowdon.com/piaget-language-and-thought-of-the-child">Piaget's The Language and Thought of the Child (1926)</a> – a brief introduction</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moraljudgmentoft005613mbp">The Moral Judgment of the Child</a> by Jean Piaget (1932), at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/piaget2.htm">The Construction of Reality in the Child</a> by Jean Piaget (1955)</li> <li>Piaget's role in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibe.unesco.org/organization/director/Piaget/Dir_Piaget.htm">International Bureau of Education</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080603220458/http://www.ibe.unesco.org/organization/director/Piaget/Dir_Piaget.htm">Archived</a> 3 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibe.unesco.org/policy/ice.htm">International Conference on Education</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611071547/http://www.ibe.unesco.org/policy/ice.htm">Archived</a> 11 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/piaget.htm">Genetic Epistemology</a> by Jean Piaget (1968)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/comment/piaget.htm">Comments on Vygotsky</a> by Jean Piaget (1962)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_EkfWS2Wks"><span class="plainlinks">Piaget's Developmental Theory: An Overview – Part 1</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, a 27-minute documentary film used primarily in higher education (on <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SzZWY5f8RQQ"><span class="plainlinks">Piaget's Developmental Theory: An Overview – Part 2</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, a 27-minute documentary film used primarily in higher education (on <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fondationjeanpiaget.ch/">Foundation Jean Piaget for research in psychology and epistemology</a> – French version only – diffuse to the world community writings and talks of the Swiss scientist.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121210175634/http://www.regispetit.com/snha.htm">Human Nervous System model in accordance with Piaget's Learning Theory</a> – French version only (archived 10 December 2012)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeanpiaget.ch/index-en.html">Jean Piaget and Neuchâtel</a> The site is maintained by the Institute of Psychology and Education, Neuchâtel University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/659425">Jean Piaget's 1931 essay "The Spirit of Solidarity in Children and International Cooperation"</a> (re-published in the Spring 2011 issue of <i>Schools: Studies in Education</i>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j3bTqBYYtBYC">Jean Piaget: A Most Outrageous Deception</a> by Webster R. Callaway</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.purepsychology.uk/">Pure Psychology: the Qualitative Development of Intelligence.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_and_perinatal_psychology" title="Prenatal and perinatal psychology">Antenatal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_cognitive_development" title="Infant cognitive development">Cognitive development of infants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">Child development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_youth_development" title="Positive youth development">Positive youth development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_adult" title="Young adult">Young adult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adult_development" title="Adult development">Adult development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_adult_development" title="Positive adult development">Positive adult development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturity_(psychological)" title="Maturity (psychological)">Maturity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Theorists and<br /><a href="/wiki/Developmental_stage_theories" title="Developmental stage theories">theories</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a> (1856–1939) (<a href="/wiki/Psychosexual_development" title="Psychosexual development">Psychosexual development</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Piaget</a> (1896–1980) (<a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">Theory of cognitive development</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a> (1896–1934) (<a href="/wiki/Cultural-historical_psychology" title="Cultural-historical psychology">Cultural-historical psychology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erikson</a> (1902–1994) (<a href="/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development" title="Erikson's stages of psychosocial development">Psychosocial development</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">Bowlby</a> (1907–1990) (<a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urie_Bronfenbrenner" title="Urie Bronfenbrenner">Bronfenbrenner</a> (1917–2005) (<a href="/wiki/Ecological_systems_theory" title="Ecological systems theory">Ecological systems theory</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Kohlberg</a> (1927–1987) (<a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development" title="Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development">Stages of moral development</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Commons" title="Michael Commons">Commons</a> (b. 1939), <a href="/wiki/Kurt_W._Fischer" title="Kurt W. Fischer">Fischer</a> (1943–2020), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kegan" title="Robert Kegan">Kegan</a> (b. 1946), <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Demetriou" title="Andreas Demetriou">Demetriou</a> (b. 1950), and others (<a href="/wiki/Neo-Piagetian_theories_of_cognitive_development" title="Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development">Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Evolutionary developmental psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#BFD7FF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Psychology" title="Template:Psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology" title="Template talk:Psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic <br />psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Psi-stylized.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="stylized letter psi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/50px-Psi-stylized.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/75px-Psi-stylized.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/100px-Psi-stylized.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="123" data-file-height="124" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied <br />psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_education" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_education" title="Template:Philosophy of education"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_education" title="Template talk:Philosophy of education"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_education" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of education"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_education" title="Category:Philosophers of education">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Fr%C3%B6bel" title="Friedrich Fröbel">Fröbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Herbart" title="Johann Friedrich Herbart">Herbart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Montessori" title="Maria Montessori">Montessori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi" title="Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi">Pestalozzi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_education" title="Category:Philosophers of education">more...</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student-centred_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Student-centred learning">Student-centred learning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">What to teach</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">Critical pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Educational existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_perennialism" title="Educational perennialism">Educational perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_education" title="Popular education">Popular education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_progressivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational progressivism">Progressive education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social reconstructionism">Social reconstructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">How and whom to teach</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism (philosophy of education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism (philosophy of education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_education" title="Compulsory education">Compulsory education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_education)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of education)">Constructivism (philosophy of education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_schooling" title="Criticism of schooling">Criticism of schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_education" title="Humanistic education">Humanism (philosophy of education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montessori_education" title="Montessori education">Montessori education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unschooling" title="Unschooling">Unschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldorf_education" title="Waldorf education">Waldorf education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_education" title="Category:Philosophy of education">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="E._L._Thorndike_Award_recipients" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:E._L._Thorndike_Award" title="Template:E. L. Thorndike Award"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:E._L._Thorndike_Award" title="Template talk:E. L. Thorndike Award"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:E._L._Thorndike_Award" title="Special:EditPage/Template:E. L. Thorndike Award"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="E._L._Thorndike_Award_recipients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/E._L._Thorndike_Award" title="E. L. Thorndike Award">E. L. Thorndike Award</a> recipients</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Sidney_L._Pressey" title="Sidney L. Pressey">Sidney L. Pressey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/William_Brownell_(psychologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Brownell (psychologist)">William Brownell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Lee_Cronbach" title="Lee Cronbach">Lee Cronbach</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Burt" title="Cyril Burt">Cyril Burt</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Havighurst" title="Robert J. Havighurst">Robert J. Havighurst</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/John_Bissell_Carroll" title="John Bissell Carroll">John Bissell Carroll</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Thorndike" title="Robert L. Thorndike">Robert L. Thorndike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Flanagan" title="John C. Flanagan">John C. Flanagan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Bloom" title="Benjamin Bloom">Benjamin Bloom</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Gagn%C3%A9" title="Robert M. Gagné">Robert M. Gagné</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jean Piaget</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/David_Ausubel" title="David Ausubel">David Ausubel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Julian_Stanley" title="Julian Stanley">Julian Stanley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Glaser" title="Robert Glaser">Robert Glaser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Chall" title="Jeanne Chall">Jeanne Chall</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Anne_Anastasi" title="Anne Anastasi">Anne Anastasi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Rothkopf" title="Ernst Rothkopf">Ernst Rothkopf</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gage" title="Nathaniel Gage">Nathaniel Gage</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Merlin_Wittrock" title="Merlin Wittrock">Merlin Wittrock</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Wilbert_J._McKeachie" title="Wilbert J. McKeachie">Wilbert J. McKeachie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Frank_H._Farley" title="Frank H. Farley">Frank H. Farley</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Snow" title="Richard E. Snow">Richard E. Snow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Klausmeier" title="Herbert Klausmeier">Herbert Klausmeier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Linn" title="Robert L. Linn">Robert L. Linn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Messick" title="Samuel Messick">Samuel Messick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/James_Greeno" title="James Greeno">James Greeno</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Lee_Shulman" title="Lee Shulman">Lee Shulman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Berliner" title="David Berliner">David Berliner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Anderson" title="Richard C. Anderson">Richard C. Anderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Lauren_Resnick" title="Lauren Resnick">Lauren Resnick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Mayer" title="Richard E. Mayer">Richard E. Mayer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/John_D._Bransford" title="John D. Bransford">John D. Bransford</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Joel_Levin" title="Joel Levin">Joel Levin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sternberg" title="Robert Sternberg">Robert Sternberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/G._Michael_Pressley" title="G. Michael Pressley">G. Michael Pressley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Jacquelynne_Eccles" title="Jacquelynne Eccles">Jacquelynne Eccles</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Alexander" title="Patricia Alexander">Patricia Alexander</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Jere_Brophy" title="Jere Brophy">Jere Brophy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Weiner" title="Bernard Weiner">Bernard Weiner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Carol_Dweck" title="Carol Dweck">Carol Dweck</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Shavelson" title="Richard Shavelson">Richard Shavelson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Zimmerman" title="Barry Zimmerman">Barry Zimmerman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/Keith_Stanovich" title="Keith Stanovich">Keith Stanovich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Graham" title="Sandra Graham">Sandra Graham</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Michelene_Chi" title="Michelene Chi">Michelene Chi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Haertel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Haertel (page does not exist)">Edward Haertel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Slavin" title="Robert Slavin">Robert Slavin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joanna_P._Williams&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joanna P. Williams (page does not exist)">Joanna P. Williams</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Steve_Graham_(Educational_Psychologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steve Graham (Educational Psychologist) (page does not exist)">Steve Graham</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2020s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_L._Good&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas L. Good (page does not exist)">Thomas L. Good</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_L._Schwartz" title="Daniel L. Schwartz">Daniel L. Schwartz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template talk:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><i>Time</i> 100: The Most Important People of the 20th Century</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders & revolutionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Unknown Tiananmen Square rebel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & entertainers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lucille_Ball" title="Lucille Ball">Lucille Ball</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marlon_Brando" title="Marlon Brando">Marlon Brando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coco_Chanel" title="Coco Chanel">Coco Chanel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aretha_Franklin" title="Aretha Franklin">Aretha Franklin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martha_Graham" title="Martha Graham">Martha Graham</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jim_Henson" title="Jim Henson">Jim Henson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rodgers_and_Oscar_Hammerstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein">Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bart_Simpson" title="Bart Simpson">Bart Simpson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Sinatra" title="Frank Sinatra">Frank Sinatra</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Builders & titans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bechtel_Sr." title="Stephen Bechtel Sr.">Stephen Bechtel Sr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Burnett" title="Leo Burnett">Leo Burnett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Willis_Carrier" title="Willis Carrier">Willis Carrier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Giannini" title="Amadeo Giannini">Amadeo Giannini</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ray_Kroc" title="Ray Kroc">Ray Kroc</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Est%C3%A9e_Lauder_(businesswoman)" title="Estée Lauder (businesswoman)">Estée Lauder</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Levitt" title="William Levitt">William Levitt</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lucky_Luciano" title="Lucky Luciano">Lucky Luciano</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_B._Mayer" title="Louis B. Mayer">Louis B. Mayer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Merrill" title="Charles E. Merrill">Charles E. Merrill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Akio_Morita" title="Akio Morita">Akio Morita</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pete_Rozelle" title="Pete Rozelle">Pete Rozelle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Juan_Trippe" title="Juan Trippe">Juan Trippe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sam_Walton" title="Sam Walton">Sam Walton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr.">Thomas J. Watson Jr.</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists & thinkers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Leakey_family" title="Leakey family">Leakey family</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jean Piaget</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> & <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heroes & icons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/G.I." title="G.I.">The American G.I.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Diana,_Princess_of_Wales" title="Diana, Princess of Wales">Lady Diana Spencer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a> & <a href="/wiki/Tenzing_Norgay" title="Tenzing Norgay">Tenzing Norgay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_family" title="Kennedy family">Kennedy family</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lee" title="Bruce Lee">Bruce Lee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Milk" title="Harvey Milk">Harvey Milk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Monroe" title="Marilyn Monroe">Marilyn Monroe</a></span></li> <li><span 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/39382513">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/28859/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJkdkQ4C4qRYqdfkbqbTpP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118594133">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n78093533">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119196137">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119196137">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00452755">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Piaget, Jean"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV018480">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35422041">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000701408&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX4578567">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=73606">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000032405">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201506222">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/wt79dsnf42xzwgr">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810616547005606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/110233">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007266562305171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058521450306706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14817694">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00403222?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=108845">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=16518570700">Scopus</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:piaget.jean">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/251142">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500324013">ULAN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/946979">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118594133.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118594133">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027071170">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009056">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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