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id="toc-Distinctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Distinctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_and_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Signs and symptoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neuropsychological_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuropsychological_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Neuropsychological theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuropsychological_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temporality_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temporality_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Temporality theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temporality_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monitoring_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitoring_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Monitoring theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monitoring_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategic_retrieval_account_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategic_retrieval_account_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Strategic retrieval account theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategic_retrieval_account_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive_control_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive_control_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Executive control theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Executive_control_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_context_of_delusion_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_context_of_delusion_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>In the context of delusion theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_context_of_delusion_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fuzzy-trace_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fuzzy-trace_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Fuzzy-trace theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fuzzy-trace_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Epistemic theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Presentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Presentation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Presentation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Presentation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Presentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Associated_neurological_and_psychological_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associated_neurological_and_psychological_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Associated neurological and psychological conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Associated_neurological_and_psychological_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location_of_brain_lesions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location_of_brain_lesions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Location of brain lesions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location_of_brain_lesions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developmental_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Developmental differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provoked_versus_spontaneous_confabulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provoked_versus_spontaneous_confabulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Provoked versus spontaneous confabulations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provoked_versus_spontaneous_confabulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confidence_in_false_memories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confidence_in_false_memories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Confidence in false memories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confidence_in_false_memories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Among_normal_subjects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Among_normal_subjects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Among normal subjects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Among_normal_subjects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis_and_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis_and_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Diagnosis and treatment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis_and_treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diagnosis and treatment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis_and_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deese–Roediger–McDermott_lists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deese–Roediger–McDermott_lists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Deese–Roediger–McDermott lists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deese–Roediger–McDermott_lists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recognition_tasks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition_tasks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Recognition tasks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_tasks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_recall_tasks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_recall_tasks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Free recall tasks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_recall_tasks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Confabulation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81" title="تخريف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تخريف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confabulaci%C3%B3" title="Confabulació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Confabulació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfabulation" title="Konfabulation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konfabulation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfabulatsioon" title="Konfabulatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Konfabulatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confabulaci%C3%B3n_(psicolog%C3%ADa)" title="Confabulación (psicología) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Confabulación (psicología)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="افسانه‌سازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="افسانه‌سازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%91%ED%99%94%EC%A6%9D" title="작화증 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="작화증" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D6%86%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Կոնֆաբուլացիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կոնֆաբուլացիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfabulacija" title="Konfabulacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Konfabulacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falso_ricordo" title="Falso ricordo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Falso ricordo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfabul%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Konfabuláció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Konfabuláció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confabulatie" title="Confabulatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Confabulatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%9C%E8%A9%B1" title="作話 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="作話" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfabulyatsiya" title="Konfabulyatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Konfabulyatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfabulacja" title="Konfabulacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konfabulacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confabula%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Confabulação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Confabulação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Конфабуляция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Конфабуляция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Конфабулација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Конфабулација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfabulation" title="Konfabulation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Konfabulation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1" title="การสร้างเรื่องจากความจำเสื่อม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสร้างเรื่องจากความจำเสื่อม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfabulasyon" title="Konfabulasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Konfabulasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Конфабуляція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Конфабуляція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%99%9B%E8%AB%87%E7%97%87" title="虛談症 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="虛談症" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the memory error in humans. In everyday speech, "confabulation" may refer to a <a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">conversation</a>. For confabulation in machines, see <a href="/wiki/Confabulation_(neural_networks)" title="Confabulation (neural networks)">Confabulation (neural networks)</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence)" title="Hallucination (artificial intelligence)">Hallucination (artificial intelligence)</a>.</div> <p>In psychology, <b>confabulation</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">memory error</a> consisting of the production of fabricated, distorted, or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world. It is generally associated with certain types of brain damage (especially <a href="/wiki/Aneurysm" title="Aneurysm">aneurysm</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_communicating_artery" title="Anterior communicating artery">anterior communicating artery</a>) or a specific subset of <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While still an area of ongoing research, the <a href="/wiki/Basal_forebrain" title="Basal forebrain">basal forebrain</a> is implicated in the phenomenon of confabulation. People who confabulate present with incorrect memories ranging from subtle inaccuracies to surreal fabrications, and may include confusion or distortion in the temporal framing (timing, sequence or duration) of memories.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, they are very confident about their recollections, even when challenged with contradictory evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-book_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confabulation occurs when individuals mistakenly recall false information, without intending to deceive. Brain damage, dementia, and anticholinergic toxidrome can cause this distortion. Two types of confabulation exist: provoked and spontaneous, with two distinctions: verbal and behavioral. Verbal statements, false information, and the patient's unawareness of the distortion are all associated with this phenomenon. Personality structure also plays a role in confabulation. </p><p>Numerous theories have been developed to explain confabulation. Neuropsychological theories suggest that cognitive dysfunction causes the distortion. Self-identity theories posit that people confabulate to preserve themselves. The temporality theory believes that confabulation occurs when an individual cannot place events properly in time. The monitoring and strategic retrieval account theories argue that confabulation arises when individuals cannot recall memories correctly or monitor them after retrieval. The executive control and fuzzy-trace theories also attempt to explain why confabulation happens. </p><p>Confabulation can occur with nervous system injuries or illnesses, including Korsakoff's syndrome, Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, and traumatic brain injury. It is believed that the right frontal lobe of the brain is damaged, causing false memories. Children are especially susceptible to forced confabulation as they are highly impressionable. Feedback can increase confidence in false memories. In rare cases, confabulation occurs in ordinary individuals. </p><p>Different memory tests, including recognition tasks and free recall tasks, can be used to study confabulation. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the distortion. Ongoing research aims to develop a standard test battery to discern between different types of confabulations, distinguish delusions from confabulations, understand the role of unconscious processes, and identify pathological and nonpathological confabulations. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Confabulation is distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">lying</a> as there is no intent to deceive and the person is unaware the information is false.<sup id="cite_ref-Moscovitch_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moscovitch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although individuals can present blatantly false information, confabulation can also seem to be coherent, internally consistent, and relatively normal.<sup id="cite_ref-Moscovitch_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moscovitch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most known cases of confabulation are symptomatic of brain damage or dementias, such as <a href="/wiki/Aneurysm" title="Aneurysm">aneurysm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome">Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome</a> (a common manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">thiamine</a> deficiency caused by <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol use disorder">alcohol use disorder</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally confabulation often occurs in people with anticholinergic <a href="/wiki/Toxidrome" title="Toxidrome">toxidrome</a> when interrogated about bizarre or irrational behaviour. </p><p>Confabulated memories of all types most often occur in <a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">autobiographical memory</a> and are indicative of a complicated and intricate process that can be led astray at any point during <a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">encoding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">storage</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">recall</a> of a memory.<sup id="cite_ref-book_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of confabulation is commonly seen in <a href="/wiki/Korsakoff%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Korsakoff's syndrome">Korsakoff's syndrome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinctions">Distinctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Distinctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two types of confabulation are often distinguished: </p> <ul><li><b>Provoked</b> (momentary, or secondary) confabulations represent a normal response to a faulty memory, are common in both amnesia and dementia,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can become apparent during memory tests.<sup id="cite_ref-models_of_confabulation_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-models_of_confabulation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Spontaneous</b> (or primary) confabulations do not occur in response to a cue<sup id="cite_ref-models_of_confabulation_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-models_of_confabulation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and seem to be involuntary.<sup id="cite_ref-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are relatively rare, more common in cases of dementia, and may result from the interaction between frontal lobe pathology and organic amnesia.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Another distinction is that between:<sup id="cite_ref-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Verbal</b> confabulations- spoken false memories, most common type</li> <li><b>Behavioral</b> confabulations- occur when an individual acts on their false memories</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Confabulation is associated with several characteristics: </p> <ol><li>Typically verbal statements but can also be non-verbal gestures or actions.</li> <li>Can include autobiographical and non-personal information, such as historical facts, fairy-tales, or other aspects of semantic memory.</li> <li>The account can be fantastic or coherent.</li> <li>Both the premise and the details of the account can be false.</li> <li>The account is usually drawn from the patient's memory of actual experiences, including past and current thoughts.</li> <li>The patient is unaware of the accounts' distortions or inappropriateness, and is not concerned when errors are pointed out.</li> <li>There is no hidden motivation behind the account.</li> <li>The patient's personality structure may play a role in their readiness to confabulate.<sup id="cite_ref-Moscovitch_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moscovitch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theories of confabulation range in emphasis. Some theories propose that confabulations represent a way for memory disabled people to maintain their self-identity.<sup id="cite_ref-models_of_confabulation_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-models_of_confabulation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other theories use neurocognitive links to explain the process of confabulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Spontaneous_and_Fantastic_Review_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spontaneous_and_Fantastic_Review-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still other theories frame confabulation around the more familiar concept of delusion.<sup id="cite_ref-varieties_of_confabulation_and_delusion_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-varieties_of_confabulation_and_delusion-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other researchers frame confabulation within the <a href="/wiki/Fuzzy-trace_theory" title="Fuzzy-trace theory">fuzzy-trace theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fuzzy_trace_theory_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fuzzy_trace_theory-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, some researchers call for theories that rely less on neurocognitive explanations and more on <a href="/wiki/Epistemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic">epistemic</a> accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-faultless_ignorance_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faultless_ignorance-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuropsychological_theories">Neuropsychological theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neuropsychological theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most popular theories of confabulation come from the field of neuropsychology or cognitive neuroscience.<sup id="cite_ref-Spontaneous_and_Fantastic_Review_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spontaneous_and_Fantastic_Review-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research suggests that confabulation is associated with dysfunction of cognitive processes that control the retrieval from long-term memory. Frontal lobe damage often disrupts this process, preventing the retrieval of information and the evaluation of its output.<sup id="cite_ref-Baddeley1986_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baddeley1986-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, researchers argue that confabulation is a disorder resulting from failed "reality monitoring/source monitoring" (i.e. deciding whether a memory is based on an actual event or whether it is imagined).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some neuropsychologists suggest that errors in retrieval of information from long-term memory that are made by normal subjects involve different components of control processes than errors made by confabulators.<sup id="cite_ref-Burgess_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burgess-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Emil_Kraepelin" title="Emil Kraepelin">Kraepelin</a> distinguished two subtypes of confabulation, one of which he called simple confabulation, caused partly by errors in the temporal ordering of real events. The other variety he called fantastic confabulation, which was bizarre and patently impossible statements not rooted in true memory. Simple confabulation may result from damage to memory systems in the medial temporal lobe. Fantastic confabulations reveal a dysfunction of the Supervisory System,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is believed to be a function of the frontal cortex. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temporality_theory">Temporality theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Temporality theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Support for the temporality account suggests that confabulations occur when an individual is unable to place events properly in time.<sup id="cite_ref-models_of_confabulation_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-models_of_confabulation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, an individual might correctly state an action they performed, but say they did it yesterday, when they did it weeks ago. In the Memory, Consciousness, and Temporality Theory, confabulation occurs because of a deficit in temporal consciousness or awareness.<sup id="cite_ref-temporal_theory_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-temporal_theory-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monitoring_theory">Monitoring theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Monitoring theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Along a similar notion are the theories of reality and source monitoring theories.<sup id="cite_ref-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these theories, confabulation occurs when individuals incorrectly attribute memories as reality, or incorrectly attribute memories to a certain source. Thus, an individual might claim an imagined event happened in reality, or that a friend told him/her about an event he/she actually heard about on television. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategic_retrieval_account_theory">Strategic retrieval account theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Strategic retrieval account theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Supporters of the strategic retrieval account suggest that confabulations occur when an individual cannot actively monitor a memory for truthfulness after its retrieval.<sup id="cite_ref-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An individual recalls a memory, but there is some deficit after recall that interferes with the person establishing its falseness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Executive_control_theory">Executive control theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Executive control theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Still others propose that all types of false memories, including confabulation, fit into a general memory and executive function model.<sup id="cite_ref-varieties_of_false_memory_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-varieties_of_false_memory-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2007, a framework for confabulation was proposed that stated confabulation is the result of two things: Problems with executive control and problems with evaluation. In the executive control deficit, the incorrect memory is retrieved from the brain. In the evaluative deficit, the memory will be accepted as a truth due to an inability to distinguish a belief from an actual memory.<sup id="cite_ref-models_of_confabulation_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-models_of_confabulation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_context_of_delusion_theories">In the context of delusion theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: In the context of delusion theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent models of confabulation have attempted to build upon the link between <a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">delusion</a> and confabulation.<sup id="cite_ref-varieties_of_confabulation_and_delusion_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-varieties_of_confabulation_and_delusion-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, a monitoring account for delusion, applied to confabulation, proposed both the inclusion of conscious and unconscious processing. The claim was that by encompassing the notion of both processes, spontaneous versus provoked confabulations could be better explained. In other words, there are two ways to confabulate. One is the unconscious, spontaneous way in which a memory goes through no logical, explanatory processing. The other is the conscious, provoked way in which a memory is recalled intentionally by the individual to explain something confusing or unusual.<sup id="cite_ref-confabulation_and_delusion_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-confabulation_and_delusion-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fuzzy-trace_theory">Fuzzy-trace theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fuzzy-trace theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy-trace_theory" title="Fuzzy-trace theory">Fuzzy-trace theory</a>, or FTT, is a concept more commonly applied to the explanation of judgement decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-fuzzy_trace_theory_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fuzzy_trace_theory-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this theory, memories are encoded generally (gist), as well as specifically (verbatim). Thus, a confabulation could result from recalling the incorrect verbatim memory or from being able to recall the gist portion, but not the verbatim portion, of a memory. </p><p>FTT uses a set of five principles to explain false-memory phenomena. Principle 1 suggests that subjects store verbatim information and gist information parallel to one another. Both forms of storage involve the surface content of an experience. Principle 2 shares factors of retrieval of gist and verbatim traces. Principle 3 is based on dual-opponent processes in <a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">false memory</a>. Generally, gist retrieval supports false memory, while verbatim retrieval suppresses it. Developmental variability is the topic of Principle 4. As a child develops into an adult, there is obvious improvement in the acquisition, retention, and retrieval of both verbatim and gist memory. However, during late adulthood, there will be a decline in these abilities. Finally, Principle 5 explains that verbatim and gist processing cause vivid remembering. Fuzzy-trace Theory, governed by these 5 principles, has proved useful in explaining false memory and generating new predictions about it.<sup id="cite_ref-Fuzzy-Trace_Theory_and_False_Memory_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fuzzy-Trace_Theory_and_False_Memory-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemic_theory">Epistemic theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Epistemic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>However, not all accounts are so embedded in the neurocognitive aspects of confabulation. Some attribute confabulation to epistemic accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-faultless_ignorance_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faultless_ignorance-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2009, theories underlying the causation and mechanisms for confabulation were criticized for their focus on neural processes, which are somewhat unclear, as well as their emphasis on the negativity of false remembering. Researchers proposed that an epistemic account of confabulation would be more encompassing of both the advantages and disadvantages of the process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Presentation">Presentation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Presentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associated_neurological_and_psychological_conditions">Associated neurological and psychological conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Associated neurological and psychological conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Confabulations are often symptoms of various syndromes and psychopathologies in the adult population, including <a href="/wiki/Korsakoff%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Korsakoff's syndrome">Korsakoff's syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome">Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome</a> is a neurological disorder typically characterized by years of <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol use disorder">alcohol use disorder</a> characterized by excessive alcohol consumption and a nutritional thiamine deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confabulation is one salient symptom of this syndrome.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study on confabulation in Korsakoff's patients found that they are subject to provoked confabulation when prompted with questions pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">episodic memory</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">semantic memory</a>, and when prompted with questions where the appropriate response would be "I don't know."<sup id="cite_ref-Korsakoff's_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korsakoff's-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that confabulation in these patients is "domain-specific." Korsakoff's patients who confabulate are more likely than healthy adults to falsely recognize <a href="/wiki/Negative_priming#Distractor_inhibition_model" title="Negative priming">distractor</a> words, suggesting that false recognition is a "confabulatory behavior." </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> is a condition with both neurological and psychological components. It is a form of dementia associated with severe frontal lobe dysfunction. Confabulation in individuals with Alzheimer's is often more spontaneous than it is in other conditions, especially in the advanced stages of the disease. Alzheimer's patients demonstrate comparable abilities to encode information as healthy elderly adults, suggesting that impairments in encoding are not associated with confabulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Alzheimer_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alzheimer-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as seen in Korsakoff's patients, confabulation in Alzheimer's patients is higher when prompted with questions investigating episodic memory. Researchers suggest this is due to damage in the posterior cortical regions of the brain, which is a symptom characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a> is a psychological disorder in which confabulation is sometimes observed. Although confabulation is usually coherent in its presentation, confabulations of schizophrenic patients are often delusional.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers have noted that these patients tend to make up delusions on the spot which are often fantastic and become increasingly elaborate with questioning.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike patients with Korsakoff's and Alzheimer's, patients with schizophrenia are more likely to confabulate when prompted with questions regarding their semantic memories, as opposed to episodic memory prompting.<sup id="cite_ref-schizophrenia_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schizophrenia-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, confabulation does not appear to be related to any memory deficit in schizophrenic patients. This is contrary to most forms of confabulation. Also, confabulations made by schizophrenic patients often do not involve the creation of new information, but instead involve an attempt by the patient to reconstruct actual details of a past event. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a> (TBI) can also result in confabulation. Research has shown that patients with damage to the inferior medial frontal lobe confabulate significantly more than patients with damage to the posterior area and healthy controls.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that this region is key in producing confabulatory responses, and that memory deficit is important but not necessary in confabulation. Additionally, research suggests that confabulation can be seen in patients with frontal lobe syndrome, which involves an insult to the frontal lobe as a result of disease or traumatic brain injury (TBI).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, rupture of the anterior or posterior communicating artery, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and encephalitis are also possible causes of confabulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Baddeley1986_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baddeley1986-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DallaBarba1993a_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DallaBarba1993a-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location_of_brain_lesions">Location of brain lesions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Location of brain lesions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Confabulation is believed to be a result of damage to the right frontal lobe of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Moscovitch_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moscovitch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, damage can be localized to the ventromedial frontal lobes and other structures fed by the anterior communicating artery (ACoA), including the basal forebrain, septum, fornix, cingulate gyrus, cingulum, anterior hypothalamus, and head of the caudate nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental_differences">Developmental differences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Developmental differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While some recent literature has suggested that older adults may be more susceptible than their younger counterparts to have false memories, the majority of research on forced confabulation centers around children.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children are particularly susceptible to forced confabulations based on their high suggestibility.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When forced to recall confabulated events, children are less likely to remember that they had previously confabulated these situations, and they are more likely than their adult counterparts to come to remember these confabulations as real events that transpired.<sup id="cite_ref-Children_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Children-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research suggests that this inability to distinguish between past confabulatory and real events is centered on developmental differences in source monitoring. Due to underdeveloped encoding and critical reasoning skills, children's ability to distinguish real memories from false memories may be impaired. It may also be that younger children lack the meta-memory processes required to remember confabulated versus non-confabulated events.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children's meta-memory processes may also be influenced by expectancies or biases, in that they believe that highly plausible false scenarios are not confabulated.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, when knowingly being tested for accuracy, children are more likely to respond, "I don't know" at a rate comparable to adults for unanswerable questions than they are to confabulate.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, misinformation effects can be minimized by tailoring individual interviews to the specific developmental stage, often based on age, of the participant.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provoked_versus_spontaneous_confabulations">Provoked versus spontaneous confabulations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Provoked versus spontaneous confabulations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is evidence to support different cognitive mechanisms for provoked and spontaneous confabulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Provoked_Versus_Spontaneous_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Provoked_Versus_Spontaneous-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study suggested that spontaneous confabulation may be a result of an amnesic patient's inability to distinguish the chronological order of events in their memory. In contrast, provoked confabulation may be a compensatory mechanism, in which the patient tries to make up for their memory deficiency by attempting to demonstrate competency in recollection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confidence_in_false_memories">Confidence in false memories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Confidence in false memories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Confabulation of events or situations may lead to an eventual acceptance of the confabulated information as true.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, people who knowingly lie about a situation may eventually come to believe that their lies are truthful with time.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an interview setting, people are more likely to confabulate in situations in which they are presented false information by another person, as opposed to when they self-generate these falsehoods.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, people are more likely to accept false information as true when they are interviewed at a later time (after the event in question) than those who are interviewed immediately or soon after the event.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Affirmative feedback for confabulated responses is also shown to increase the confabulator's confidence in their response.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, in culprit identification, if a witness falsely identifies a member of a line-up, he will be more confident in his identification if the interviewer provides affirmative feedback. This effect of confirmatory feedback appears to last over time, as witnesses will even remember the confabulated information months later.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Among_normal_subjects">Among normal subjects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Among normal subjects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On rare occasions, confabulation can also be seen in normal subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-Burgess_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burgess-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is currently unclear how completely healthy individuals produce confabulations. It is possible that these individuals are in the process of developing some type of organic condition that is causing their confabulation symptoms. It is not uncommon, however, for the general population to display some very mild symptoms of provoked confabulations. Subtle distortions and intrusions in memory are commonly produced by normal subjects when they remember something poorly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis_and_treatment">Diagnosis and treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Diagnosis and treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spontaneous confabulations, due to their involuntary nature, cannot be manipulated in a laboratory setting.<sup id="cite_ref-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, provoked confabulations can be researched in various theoretical contexts. The mechanisms found to underlie provoked confabulations can be applied to spontaneous confabulation mechanisms. The basic premise of researching confabulation comprises finding errors and distortions in memory tests of an individual. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deese–Roediger–McDermott_lists"><span id="Deese.E2.80.93Roediger.E2.80.93McDermott_lists"></span>Deese–Roediger–McDermott lists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Deese–Roediger–McDermott lists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Confabulations can be detected in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a> by using the Deese–Roediger–McDermott lists.<sup id="cite_ref-True_and_False_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-True_and_False-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participants listen to audio recordings of several lists of words centered around a theme, known as the critical word. The participants are later asked to recall the words on their list. If the participant recalls the critical word, which was never explicitly stated in the list, it is considered a confabulation. Participants often have a false memory for the critical word. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition_tasks">Recognition tasks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Recognition tasks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Confabulations can also be researched by using continuous recognition tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tasks are often used in conjunction with confidence ratings. Generally, in a recognition task, participants are rapidly presented with pictures. Some of these pictures are shown once; others are shown multiple times. Participants press a key if they have seen the picture previously. Following a period of time, participants repeat the task. More errors on the second task, versus the first, are indicative of confusion, representing false memories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_recall_tasks">Free recall tasks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Free recall tasks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Confabulations can also be detected using a free recall task, such as a self-narrative task.<sup id="cite_ref-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mechanisms_of_spontaneous_confabulation-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participants are asked to recall stories (<a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">semantic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">autobiographical</a>) that are highly familiar to them. The stories recalled are encoded for errors that could be classified as distortions in memory. Distortions could include falsifying true story elements or including details from a completely different story. Errors such as these would be indicative of confabulations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment">Treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Treatment for confabulation is somewhat dependent on the cause or source, if identifiable. For example, treatment of Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome involves large doses of vitamin B in order to reverse the thiamine deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If there is no known physiological cause, more general cognitive techniques may be used to treat confabulation. A case study published in 2000 showed that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-Monitoring_Training&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Self-Monitoring Training (page does not exist)">Self-Monitoring Training</a> (SMT)<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reduced delusional confabulations. Furthermore, improvements were maintained at a three-month follow-up and were found to generalize to everyday settings. Although this treatment seems promising, more rigorous research is necessary to determine the efficacy of SMT in the general confabulation population. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although significant gains have been made in the understanding of confabulation in recent years, there is still much to be learned. One group of researchers in particular has laid out several important questions for future study. They suggest more information is needed regarding the neural systems that support the different cognitive processes necessary for normal source monitoring. They also proposed the idea of developing a standard neuropsychological test battery able to discriminate between the different types of confabulations. And there is a considerable amount of debate regarding the best approach to organizing and combining neuro-imaging, pharmacological, and cognitive/behavioral approaches to understand confabulation.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a recent review article, another group of researchers contemplate issues concerning the distinctions between delusions and confabulation. They question whether delusions and confabulation should be considered distinct or overlapping disorders and, if overlapping, to what degree? They also discuss the role of unconscious processes in confabulation. Some researchers suggest that unconscious emotional and motivational processes are potentially just as important as cognitive and memory problems. Finally, they raise the question of where to draw the line between the pathological and the nonpathological. Delusion-like beliefs and confabulation-like fabrications are commonly seen in healthy individuals. What are the important differences between patients with similar etiology who do and do not confabulate? Since the line between pathological and nonpathological is likely blurry, should we take a more dimensional approach to confabulation? Research suggests that confabulation occurs along a continuum of implausibility, bizarreness, content, conviction, preoccupation, and distress, and impact on daily life.<sup id="cite_ref-LangdonTurne2010_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LangdonTurne2010-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Compare with: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anosognosia" title="Anosognosia">Anosognosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confabulation_(neural_networks)" title="Confabulation (neural networks)">Confabulation (neural networks)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence)" title="Hallucination (artificial intelligence)">Hallucination (artificial intelligence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosy_retrospection" title="Rosy retrospection">Rosy retrospection</a></li></ul></li> <li>Not to be confused with: <ul><li>Scams (swindles): <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confidence_trick" class="mw-redirect" title="Confidence trick">Confidence tricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoaxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phishing" title="Phishing">Phishing</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berrios G E (1998) Confabulations: A Conceptual History. <i>Journal of the History of the Neurosciences</i>. 7: 225-241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output 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"True and False Memories in Maltreated Children". <i>Child Development</i>. <b>75</b> (5): 1402–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.2004.00748.x">10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00748.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15369522">15369522</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Child+Development&rft.atitle=True+and+False+Memories+in+Maltreated+Children&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1402-17&rft.date=2004-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.2004.00748.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15369522&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Mark+L.&rft.au=Cicchetti%2C+Dante&rft.au=Toth%2C+Sheree+L.&rft.au=Cerrito%2C+Beth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfabulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpiegelLim2011" class="citation journal cs1">Spiegel, D. R.; Lim, K. J. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3140893">"A Case of Probable Korsakoff's Syndrome: A Syndrome of Frontal Lobe and Diencephalic Structural Pathogenesis and a Comparison with Medial Temporal Lobe Dementias"</a>. <i>Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience</i>. <b>8</b> (6): 15–19. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3140893">3140893</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21779537">21779537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Innovations+in+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=A+Case+of+Probable+Korsakoff%27s+Syndrome%3A+A+Syndrome+of+Frontal+Lobe+and+Diencephalic+Structural+Pathogenesis+and+a+Comparison+with+Medial+Temporal+Lobe+Dementias&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=15-19&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3140893%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21779537&rft.aulast=Spiegel&rft.aufirst=D.+R.&rft.au=Lim%2C+K.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3140893&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfabulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayusVan_Den_Broek2000" class="citation journal cs1">Dayus, B.; Van Den Broek, M.D. (2000). "Treatment of stable delusional confabulations using self-monitoring training". <i>Neuropsychological Rehabilitation</i>. <b>10</b> (4): 415–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F096020100411998">10.1080/096020100411998</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145657555">145657555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychological+Rehabilitation&rft.atitle=Treatment+of+stable+delusional+confabulations+using+self-monitoring+training&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=415-27&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F096020100411998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145657555%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dayus&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Van+Den+Broek%2C+M.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfabulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonRaye1998" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, M; Raye, C. L. (1998). "False memories and confabulation". <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>2</b> (4): 137–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2898%2901152-8">10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01152-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21227110">21227110</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10033853">10033853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=False+memories+and+confabulation&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=137-45&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10033853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21227110&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2898%2901152-8&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Raye%2C+C.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfabulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LangdonTurne2010-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LangdonTurne2010_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangdon,_R.Turner,_M2010" class="citation cs2">Langdon, R.; Turner, M (2010), "Delusion and confabulation: Overlapping or distinct distortions in reality?", <i>Cognitive Neuropsychiatry</i>, <b>15</b> (1): 1–13, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13546800903519095">10.1080/13546800903519095</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20043251">20043251</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35177831">35177831</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Neuropsychiatry&rft.atitle=Delusion+and+confabulation%3A+Overlapping+or+distinct+distortions+in+reality%3F&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-13&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35177831%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20043251&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13546800903519095&rft.au=Langdon%2C+R.&rft.au=Turner%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfabulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchnider,_Armin2018" class="citation cs2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Armin_Schnider&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Armin Schnider (page does not exist)">Schnider, Armin</a> (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-confabulating-mind-9780198789680?cc=ch&lang=en&"><i>The Confabulating Mind. How the brain creates reality. 2nd edition</i></a>, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198789680" title="Special:BookSources/9780198789680"><bdi>9780198789680</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confabulating+Mind.+How+the+brain+creates+reality.+2nd+edition&rft.place=Oxford%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780198789680&rft.au=Schnider%2C+Armin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Fthe-confabulating-mind-9780198789680%3Fcc%3Dch%26lang%3Den%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfabulation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirstein,_William2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_Hirstein" title="William Hirstein">Hirstein, William</a> (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_rkKxbevFZEC&q=brain+fiction+self-deception+and+the+riddle+of+confabulation"><i>Brain Fiction: Self-deception and the riddle of confabulation</i></a>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-08338-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-08338-6"><bdi>978-0-262-08338-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain+Fiction%3A+Self-deception+and+the+riddle+of+confabulation&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-262-08338-6&rft.au=Hirstein%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_rkKxbevFZEC%26q%3Dbrain%2Bfiction%2Bself-deception%2Band%2Bthe%2Briddle%2Bof%2Bconfabulation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfabulation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSacks,_Oliver1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Sacks" title="Oliver Sacks">Sacks, Oliver</a> (1985), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manwhomistookhis00sack">"The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat"</a></span>, <i>The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science</i>, <b>166</b> (1), New York: Perennial Library: 130–1, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fbjp.166.1.130">10.1192/bjp.166.1.130</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-097079-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-097079-6"><bdi>978-0-06-097079-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7894870">7894870</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+of+Psychiatry%3A+The+Journal+of+Mental+Science&rft.atitle=The+Man+Who+Mistook+His+Wife+for+a+Hat&rft.volume=166&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=130-1&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7894870&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1192%2Fbjp.166.1.130&rft.isbn=978-0-06-097079-6&rft.au=Sacks%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanwhomistookhis00sack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfabulation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confabulation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory" title="Template:Memory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory" title="Template talk:Memory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_memory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confabulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levels_of_Processing_model" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">HM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Cochrane" title="Kent Cochrane">KC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_N.A." title="Patient N.A.">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. 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