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href="/encyclopedie/bresil-la-conquete-de-l-independance-nationale/"> <span class="rg">BRÉSIL - </span><span class="rm">La conquête de l'indépendance nationale</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Frédéric MAURO</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">6 218 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">4 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : BR&Eacute;SIL - La conqu&ecirc;te de l'ind&eacute;pendance nationale" href="/encyclopedie/bresil-la-conquete-de-l-independance-nationale/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Pierre I<sup>er</sup>, empereur du Brésil - crédits : AKG-images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/c/a/csm_ph030053_641e9e5f18.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>L'indépendance politique acquise par le Brésil, au début du <span class="pc">xix</span><sup>e</sup> siècle, influe sur sa vie économique. Le roi du <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Situé à l'extrémité occidentale de l'Europe, le Portugal est bordé à l'ouest et au sud par l' océan Atlantique , et au nord et à l’est par l'Espagne, pays avec lequel il partage 1 215 kilomètres de frontière terrestre. Sa localisation privilégiée le place au carrefour des routes maritimes qui relient l’Europe à l’Afrique et à l’Amérique. Outre le territoire continent..." title="Article : PORTUGAL" href="/encyclopedie/portugal/">Portugal</a>, fuyant Napoléon, se réfugie à Rio en 1808 et ouvre aussitôt les ports brésiliens au commerce extérieur. Le pacte colonial est aboli : désormais, les navires et les produits...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/capitalisme-histoire/"> <span class="rg">CAPITALISME - </span><span class="rm">Histoire</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Patrick VERLEY</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">6 266 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 média </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CAPITALISME - Histoire" href="/encyclopedie/capitalisme-histoire/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="<it>Le Bourgeois</it>, caricature de R. Langa - crédits : AKG-images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/a/csm_pa080881_825993133a.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> La notion d'« économie de marché », bien que d'un usage fréquent à partir de la fin du <span class="pc">xx</span><sup>e</sup><span class="pc"> </span>siècle où elle a progressivement remplacé celle de « capitalisme », n'a une signification ni clairement définie ni universellement acceptée par les historiens : il n'existe pas d'« histoire...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/colonisation/"> <span class="rg">COLONISATION</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Jean BRUHAT</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">7 701 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">7 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : COLONISATION" href="/encyclopedie/colonisation/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Jamestown et la colonisation - crédits : MPI/ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/4/2/csm_ph991858_343182c5a9.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>L'objet de cet article n'est pas d'esquisser une histoire générale de la colonisation mais de poser les problèmes relatifs aux différentes étapes de cette histoire. L'expansion de l'Europe du <span class="pc">xvi</span><sup>e</sup> au <span class="pc">xx</span><sup>e</sup> siècle a été l'un des événements les plus importants de l'histoire...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/coolie-trade/"> <span class="rg">COOLIE TRADE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Jean-Louis MIÈGE</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 278 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> L'exploitation des colonies posa, surtout dans la zone intertropicale, d'immédiats problèmes de main-d'œuvre. De climat peu favorable aux Européens, soumis à de rigoureuses contraintes économiques, tous les territoires ont recours au travail servile. La suppression de la traite puis de l'esclavage...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/crises-economiques/"> <span class="rg">CRISES ÉCONOMIQUES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Jean-Charles ASSELAIN</span> , <span rel="author">Anne DEMARTINI</span> , <span rel="author">Pascal GAUCHON</span> et <span rel="author">Patrick VERLEY</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">21 860 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">14 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CRISES &Eacute;CONOMIQUES" href="/encyclopedie/crises-economiques/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Crise de 1929 - crédits : The Image Bank" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/2/8/csm_vi990091_48f02936f1.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Les économistes de la première moitié du <span class="pc">xix</span><sup>e</sup> siècle portèrent leur attention sur des dérèglements du fonctionnement de l'économie qui, par leur gravité et leur régularité, leur semblèrent des phénomènes nouveaux. Les identifiant comme des désordres pathologiques de la circulation des marchandises,...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/l-echelle-du-monde-essai-sur-l-industrialisation-de-l-occident/"> <span class="rg">L'ÉCHELLE DU MONDE. ESSAI SUR L'INDUSTRIALISATION DE L'OCCIDENT </span><span class="rm">(P. Verley)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">André THÉPOT</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 149 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>À l'heure où le phénomène de la mondialisation fait prendre conscience à la fois de l'extrême complexité et de la globalisation du <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Par « marché » on entend habituellement plusieurs choses, qui correspondent à des degrés d'abstraction différents. Au départ, il y a l'idée d'un lieu où se retrouvent des acheteurs et des vendeurs, qui effectuent des échanges sur la base de prix , fixés par l'une des parties ou après marchandage. À un niveau d'abstraction plus élevé, le mot marché désigne l'ensemble des trans..." title="Article : MARCHÉ, économie" href="/encyclopedie/marche-economie/">marché</a>, le livre de Patrick Verley, <em>L'Échelle du monde</em> (Gallimard, Paris, 1998), venait nous rappeler que l'industrialisation de la fin du ...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/second-empire/"> <span class="rg">EMPIRE </span><span class="pc">SECOND </span><span class="rm">(1852-1870)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Stella ROLLET</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">12 843 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">9 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : EMPIRE SECOND (1852-1870)" href="/encyclopedie/second-empire/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Paris, second Empire - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/0/csm_v170517_8662dfe98a.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>Le 2 décembre 1852, après une élection au <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le suffrage universel consiste en la reconnaissance du droit de vote à l'ensemble des citoyens d'une nation, sans distinction de condition sociale, d' origine , de race ou de sexe. Le suffrage universel est donc historiquement associé à la notion de démocratie pluraliste, fondée sur le principe de la libre désignation des gouvernants par le peuple souverain. Le suffrage est dans ces..." title="Article : SUFFRAGE UNIVERSEL" href="/encyclopedie/suffrage-universel/">suffrage universel</a> masculin en 1848 ‒ la première de l’histoire de France ‒ et quatre années de pouvoir à la tête de la II<sup>e</sup> République en tant que président de la République puis « prince-président », Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclame l’Empire,...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/fed/"> <span class="rg">FED </span><span class="rm">(Federal Reserve System ou Système fédéral de réserve américain)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Dominique LACOUE-LABARTHE</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">8 592 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 média </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : FED (Federal Reserve System ou Syst&egrave;me f&eacute;d&eacute;ral de r&eacute;serve am&eacute;ricain)" href="/encyclopedie/fed/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Alan Greenspan - crédits : Chris Maddaloni/ Roll Call/ CQ-Roll Call, Inc./ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/3/csm_pa081656_231f136e59.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Le système monétaire des États-Unis a connu bien des expériences, vécues comme une longue suite d'erreurs et d'apprentissages. Du point de vue de son organisation institutionnelle, il n'est doté d'une banque centrale que depuis 1913. Dans la recherche d'un régime monétaire optimal, le Congrès américain...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/grande-depression/"> <span class="rg">GRANDE DÉPRESSION</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Marie-France BAUD-BABIC</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">328 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Le 9 mai 1873, un vendredi, la Bourse de Vienne s'effondre. Ce sera ensuite au tour de New York d'enregistrer un krach financier. Pendant les trois premiers quarts du <span class="pc">xix</span><sup>e</sup> siècle, l'économie européenne avait bénéficié d'un dynamisme important, le capitalisme se développant à travers...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/industrie-la-civilisation-industrielle/"> <span class="rg">INDUSTRIE - </span><span class="rm">La civilisation industrielle</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">John NEF</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">8 073 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 médias </li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>L'expression « civilisation industrielle » est d'un emploi récent. Pour préciser le sens employé ici, et l'importance que ce concept pourrait prendre dans l'avenir, un aperçu historique s'impose concernant l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="L'âge classique et l'époque des Lumières ont mis au point une démarche consistant à aborder les objets de leur réflexion à partir de leur origine : origine de la société , origine des connaissances, origine des langues, origine de l'inégalité parmi les hommes. La question est de savoir s'il s'agit là d'une démarche historique ou bien d'un procédé visant à un dévoilement de l..." title="Article : ORIGINE" href="/encyclopedie/origine/">origine</a> et l'évolution des deux termes qu'elle contient....</p> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="row"> <div class="col mt-3"> <ul class="d-print-none pagination justify-content-center"> <li class="page-item active"> <span class="page-link">1</span> </li> <li class="page-item"> <a class="page-link" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-thematique/histoire-economique/histoire-economique-xixe-s/2/"> 2 </a> </li> <li class="page-item"> <a class="page-link" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-thematique/histoire-economique/histoire-economique-xixe-s/3/"> 3 </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5"> <i id="classification-medias" class="anchor"></i> <h2 class="minor"> Médias </h2> <div class="row"> <div class="col-sm-6 col-lg-4 mb-4"> <div class="card"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PA082404" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Esclaves dans une plantation de canne à sucre" href="/media/esclaves-dans-une-plantation-de-canne-a-sucre-pa082404/"> <img id="PA082404" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/5/1/csm_pa082404_e96ecd91f7.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Esclaves dans une plantation de canne à sucre - crédits : Bridgeman Images " data-description="Esclaves coupant la canne à sucre. Illustration tirée de «Notes on the Present Condition of the Negroes in Jamaica» (1825), de Henry Thomas de la Beche, géologue britannique et fils de propriétaire terrien en Jamaïque." data-copyright=" Bridgeman Images " width="1024" height="597" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Esclaves dans une plantation de canne à sucre </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Bridgeman Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> <div class="col-sm-6 col-lg-4 mb-4"> <div class="card"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH050028" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Hong Kong, XIX<sup>e</sup> siècle" href="/media/hong-kong-xixe-siecle-ph050028/"> <img id="PH050028" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/6/csm_ph050028_bd594c9ac8.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Hong Kong, XIX<sup>e</sup> siècle - crédits : John Thomson/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" data-description="Au XIXe siècle, la Chine est contrainte de s'ouvrir au commerce avec l'Europe. Le port de Hong Kong devient alors une des plaques tournantes des échanges sino-européens. Vers 1873." data-copyright="John Thomson/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" width="1024" height="764" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Hong Kong, XIX<sup>e</sup> siècle </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> John Thomson/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> <div class="col-sm-6 col-lg-4 mb-4"> <div class="card"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="CA030071" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Second Empire, économie" href="/media/second-empire-economie-ca030071/"> <img id="CA030071" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/f/1/csm_ca030071_8c92280636.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Second Empire, économie - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Développement de l'infrastructure économique de la France sous le second Empire (1852-1870)." data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="1549" height="2000" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Second Empire, économie </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> </div> </section> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_74169bae4d.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Crédits images Accueil" rel="nofollow" href="/credits-illustrations/">Crédits images</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire </a> de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2025 Encyclopædia Universalis France. 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