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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficulties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Difficulties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difficulties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84_%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82" title="تكامل وسيع النطاق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تكامل وسيع النطاق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8E_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC" title="অতিবৃহৎ মাপনীর সমন্বয় – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অতিবৃহৎ মাপনীর সমন্বয়" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLSI" title="VLSI – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="VLSI" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_integrat_a_molt_gran_escala" title="Circuit integrat a molt gran escala – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Circuit integrat a molt gran escala" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Very-large-scale integration" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrationsgrad" title="Integrationsgrad – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Integrationsgrad" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLSI" title="VLSI – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="VLSI" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integraci%C3%B3n_a_muy_gran_escala" title="Integración a muy gran escala – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Integración a muy gran escala" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLSI" title="VLSI – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="VLSI" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="یکپارچه‌سازی کلان‌مقیاس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یکپارچه‌سازی کلان‌مقیاس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Int%C3%A9gration_%C3%A0_tr%C3%A8s_grande_%C3%A9chelle" title="Intégration à très grande échelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Intégration à très grande échelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comhth%C3%A1th%C3%BA_ollsc%C3%A1la" title="Comhtháthú ollscála – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Comhtháthú ollscála" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EA%B3%A0%EB%B0%80%EB%8F%84_%EC%A7%91%EC%A0%81_%ED%9A%8C%EB%A1%9C" title="초고밀도 집적 회로 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="초고밀도 집적 회로" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLSI" title="VLSI – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="VLSI" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_Large_Scale_Integration" title="Very Large Scale Integration – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Very Large Scale Integration" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_large_scale_integration" title="Very large scale integration – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Very large scale integration" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLSI" title="VLSI – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="VLSI" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyepaduan_skala_sangat_besar" title="Penyepaduan skala sangat besar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penyepaduan skala sangat besar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Very-large-scale integration" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Very-large-scale integration" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLSI" title="VLSI – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="VLSI" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="பேரளவு ஒருங்கிணைச் சுற்று – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பேரளவு ஒருங்கிணைச் சுற்று" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%8D%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81" title="การสร้างวงจรรวมขนาดใหญ่มาก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสร้างวงจรรวมขนาดใหญ่มาก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ok_geni%C5%9F_%C3%B6l%C3%A7ekli_t%C3%BCmle%C5%9Fim" title="Çok geniş ölçekli tümleşim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çok geniş ölçekli tümleşim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97" title="Схеми надвеликого рівня інтеграції – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Схеми надвеликого рівня інтеграції" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E8%A7%84%E6%A8%A1%E9%9B%86%E6%88%90%E7%94%B5%E8%B7%AF" title="超大规模集成电路 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="超大规模集成电路" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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transistors into a single chip</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"VLSI" redirects here. For the former company, see <a href="/wiki/VLSI_Technology" title="VLSI Technology">VLSI Technology</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Very_High_Speed_Integrated_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Very High Speed Integrated Circuit">Very High Speed Integrated Circuit</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Very-large-scale_integration" title="Special:EditPage/Very-large-scale integration">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Very-large-scale+integration%22">"Very-large-scale integration"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Very-large-scale+integration%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Very-large-scale+integration%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Very-large-scale+integration%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Very-large-scale+integration%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Very-large-scale+integration%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>Very-large-scale integration</b> (<b>VLSI</b>) is the process of creating an <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (IC) by combining millions or <a href="/wiki/List_of_Nvidia_graphics_processing_units#Volta_series" title="List of Nvidia graphics processing units">billions</a> of <a href="/wiki/MOS_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS transistor">MOS transistors</a> onto a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when <a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) chips were developed and then widely adopted, enabling complex <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> technologies. The <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Memory_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory chip">memory chips</a> are VLSI devices. </p><p>Before the introduction of VLSI technology, most ICs had a limited set of functions they could perform. An <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electronic circuit</a> might consist of a <a href="/wiki/CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPU</a>, <a href="/wiki/ROM" class="mw-redirect" title="ROM">ROM</a>, <a href="/wiki/RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="RAM">RAM</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Glue_logic" title="Glue logic">glue logic</a>. VLSI enables IC designers to add all of these <a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">into one chip</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diopsis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Diopsis.jpg/220px-Diopsis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Diopsis.jpg/330px-Diopsis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Diopsis.jpg/440px-Diopsis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>A VLSI integrated-circuit <a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">die</a> </figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">history of the transistor</a> dates to the 1920s when several inventors attempted devices that were intended to control current in solid-state diodes and convert them into triodes. Success came after World War II, when the use of silicon and germanium crystals as radar detectors led to improvements in fabrication and theory. Scientists who had worked on radar returned to solid-state device development. With the invention of the first <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in 1947, the field of electronics shifted from vacuum tubes to <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state device">solid-state devices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the small transistor at their hands, electrical engineers of the 1950s saw the possibilities of constructing far more advanced circuits. However, as the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose.<sup id="cite_ref-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer.<sup id="cite_ref-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_the_integrated_circuit" title="Invention of the integrated circuit">invention of the integrated circuit</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a> solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal silicon wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="VLSI">VLSI</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: VLSI"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/General_Microelectronics" class="mw-redirect" title="General Microelectronics">General Microelectronics</a> introduced the first commercial <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS</a> <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1970s, MOS integrated circuit technology allowed the integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single chip.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This paved the way for VLSI in the 1970s and 1980s, with tens of thousands of MOS transistors on a single chip (later hundreds of thousands, then millions, and now billions). </p><p>The first semiconductor chips held two transistors each. Subsequent advances added more transistors, and as a consequence, more individual functions or systems were integrated over time. The first integrated circuits held only a few devices, perhaps as many as ten <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, making it possible to fabricate one or more <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a> on a single device. Now known retrospectively as <i><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit#SSI,_MSI_and_LSI" title="Integrated circuit">small-scale integration</a></i> (SSI), improvements in technique led to devices with hundreds of logic gates, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit#SSI,_MSI_and_LSI" title="Integrated circuit">medium-scale integration</a></i> (MSI). Further improvements led to <i><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit#SSI,_MSI_and_LSI" title="Integrated circuit">large-scale integration</a></i> (LSI), i.e. systems with at least a thousand logic gates. Current technology has moved far past this mark and today's <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a> have many millions of gates and billions of individual transistors. </p><p>At one time, there was an effort to name and calibrate various levels of large-scale integration above VLSI. Terms like <i><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit#ULSI,_WSI,_SoC_and_3D-IC" title="Integrated circuit">ultra-large-scale integration</a></i> (ULSI) were used. But the huge number of gates and transistors available on common devices has rendered such fine distinctions moot. Terms suggesting greater than VLSI levels of integration are no longer in widespread use. </p><p>In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available. This became more commonplace as semiconductor fabrication advanced from the then-current generation of <a href="/wiki/65_nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="65 nanometer">65 nm</a> processors. Current designs, unlike the earliest devices, use extensive <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Design_Automation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic Design Automation">design automation</a> and automated <a href="/wiki/Logic_synthesis" title="Logic synthesis">logic synthesis</a> to <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit_layout" title="Integrated circuit layout">lay out</a> the transistors, enabling higher levels of complexity in the resulting logic functionality. Certain high-performance logic blocks, like the SRAM (<a href="/wiki/Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">static random-access memory</a>) cell, are still designed by hand to ensure the highest efficiency.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs a reliable source. All online sources which seem to hint to this seem to have copied straight from this Wikipedia article (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structured_design">Structured design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Structured design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Structured VLSI design is a modular methodology originated by <a href="/wiki/Carver_Mead" title="Carver Mead">Carver Mead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Conway" title="Lynn Conway">Lynn Conway</a> for saving microchip area by minimizing the interconnect fabric area. This is obtained by repetitive arrangement of rectangular macro blocks which can be interconnected using <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wiring_by_abutment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wiring by abutment (page does not exist)">wiring by abutment</a>. An example is partitioning the layout of an adder into a row of equal bit slices cells. In complex designs this structuring may be achieved by hierarchical nesting.<sup id="cite_ref-Digital_Electronics_-_A_Modern_Approach_by_B_K_Jain_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Digital_Electronics_-_A_Modern_Approach_by_B_K_Jain-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Structured VLSI design had been popular in the early 1980s, but lost its popularity later<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> because of the advent of <a href="/wiki/Placement_and_routing" class="mw-redirect" title="Placement and routing">placement and routing</a> tools wasting a lot of area by <a href="/wiki/Routing_(electronic_design_automation)" title="Routing (electronic design automation)">routing</a>, which is tolerated because of the progress of <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Moore's Law">Moore's Law</a>. When introducing the <a href="/wiki/Hardware_description_language" title="Hardware description language">hardware description language</a> KARL in the mid-1970s, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reiner_Hartenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reiner Hartenstein (page does not exist)">Reiner Hartenstein</a> coined the term "structured VLSI design" (originally as "structured LSI design"), echoing <a href="/wiki/Edsger_Dijkstra" class="mw-redirect" title="Edsger Dijkstra">Edsger Dijkstra</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a> approach by procedure nesting to avoid chaotic <i>spaghetti-structured</i> programs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difficulties">Difficulties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Difficulties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As microprocessors become more complex due to <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">technology scaling</a>, microprocessor designers have encountered several challenges which force them to think beyond the design plane, and look ahead to post-silicon: </p> <ul><li><b>Process variation</b> – As <a href="/wiki/Photolithography" title="Photolithography">photolithography</a> techniques get closer to the fundamental laws of optics, achieving high accuracy in <a href="/wiki/Dopant" title="Dopant">doping</a> concentrations and etched wires is becoming more difficult and prone to errors due to variation. Designers now must simulate across multiple fabrication <a href="/wiki/Process_corners" title="Process corners">process corners</a> before a chip is certified ready for production, or use system-level techniques for dealing with effects of variation.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Stricter design rules</b> – Due to lithography and etch issues with scaling, <a href="/wiki/Design_rule_checking" title="Design rule checking">design rule checking</a> for <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit_layout" title="Integrated circuit layout">layout</a> has become increasingly stringent. Designers must keep in mind an ever increasing list of rules when laying out custom circuits. The overhead for custom design is now reaching a tipping point, with many design houses opting to switch to <a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">electronic design automation</a> (EDA) tools to automate their design process.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Design_closure" title="Design closure">Timing/design closure</a></b> – As <a href="/wiki/Clock_frequencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Clock frequencies">clock frequencies</a> tend to scale up, designers are finding it more difficult to distribute and maintain low <a href="/wiki/Clock_skew" title="Clock skew">clock skew</a> between these high frequency clocks across the entire chip. This has led to a rising interest in <a href="/wiki/Multicore" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicore">multicore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiprocessor" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiprocessor">multiprocessor</a> architectures, since an <a href="/wiki/Amdahl%27s_law" title="Amdahl's law">overall speedup</a> can be obtained even with lower clock frequency by using the computational power of all the cores.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>First-pass success</b> – As <a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">die</a> sizes shrink (due to scaling), and <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafer</a> sizes go up (due to lower manufacturing costs), the number of dies per wafer increases, and the complexity of making suitable <a href="/wiki/Photomask" title="Photomask">photomasks</a> goes up rapidly. A <a href="/wiki/Mask_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Mask set">mask set</a> for a modern technology can cost several million dollars. This non-recurring expense deters the old iterative philosophy involving several "spin-cycles" to find errors in silicon, and encourages first-pass silicon success. Several design philosophies have been developed to aid this new design flow, including design for manufacturing (<a href="/wiki/Design_for_manufacturability_(IC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Design for manufacturability (IC)">DFM</a>), design for test (<a href="/wiki/Design_for_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Design for Test">DFT</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Design_for_X" title="Design for X">Design for X</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Electromigration" title="Electromigration">Electromigration</a></b></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit" title="Application-specific integrated circuit">Application-specific integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltech_Cosmic_Cube" title="Caltech Cosmic Cube">Caltech Cosmic Cube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_logic_model" title="Interface logic model">Interface logic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_fabrication_plants" title="List of semiconductor fabrication plants">List of semiconductor fabrication plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead%E2%80%93Conway_VLSI_chip_design_revolution" title="Mead–Conway VLSI chip design revolution">Mead–Conway VLSI chip design revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">System on a chip</a> (SoC)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZorpette2022" class="citation journal cs1">Zorpette, Glenn (20 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-history">"How the First Transistor Worked"</a>. <i>IEEE Spectrum</i>.</cite><span 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IEEE. pp. 1–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCSTIC49141.2020.9282436">10.1109/CSTIC49141.2020.9282436</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7281-6558-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7281-6558-5"><bdi>978-1-7281-6558-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Law+that+Guides+the+Development+of+Photolithography+Technology+and+the+Methodology+in+the+Design+of+Photolithographic+Process&rft.btitle=2020+China+Semiconductor+Technology+International+Conference+%28CSTIC%29&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.date=2020-06-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FCSTIC49141.2020.9282436&rft.isbn=978-1-7281-6558-5&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Qiang&rft.au=Li%2C+Yanli&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yushu&rft.au=Chen%2C+Shoumian&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Yuhang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F9282436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://insemitech.com/blogs/exploring-the-challenges-of-vlsi-design-navigating-complexity-for-success/">"Exploring the Challenges of VLSI Design: Navigating Complexity for Success"</a>. <i>InSemi Tech</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=InSemi+Tech&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+Challenges+of+VLSI+Design%3A+Navigating+Complexity+for+Success&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finsemitech.com%2Fblogs%2Fexploring-the-challenges-of-vlsi-design-navigating-complexity-for-success%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangChangCheng2009" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Laung-Terng; Chang, Yao-Wen; Cheng, Kwang-Ting (Tim) (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/2843514"><i>Electronic Design Automation: Synthesis, Verification, and Test</i></a>. San Francisco, CA, USA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-092200-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-092200-3"><bdi>978-0-08-092200-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electronic+Design+Automation%3A+Synthesis%2C+Verification%2C+and+Test&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+CA%2C+USA&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann+Publishers+Inc.&rft.date=2009-02&rft.isbn=978-0-08-092200-3&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Laung-Terng&rft.au=Chang%2C+Yao-Wen&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Kwang-Ting+%28Tim%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fdoi%2F10.5555%2F2843514&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vlsiweb.com/clock-skew/">"Clock Skew in STA"</a>. 23 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Clock+Skew+in+STA&rft.date=2024-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvlsiweb.com%2Fclock-skew%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRieger2019" class="citation journal cs1">Rieger, Michael L. (26 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/journal-of-micro-nanolithography-mems-and-moems/volume-18/issue-04/040902/Retrospective-on-VLSI-value-scaling-and-lithography/10.1117/1.JMM.18.4.040902.full">"Retrospective on VLSI value scaling and lithography"</a>. <i>Journal of Micro/Nanolithography, MEMS, and MOEMS</i>. <b>18</b> (4): 040902. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019JMM&M..18d0902R">2019JMM&M..18d0902R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F1.JMM.18.4.040902">10.1117/1.JMM.18.4.040902</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-5150">1932-5150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Micro%2FNanolithography%2C+MEMS%2C+and+MOEMS&rft.atitle=Retrospective+on+VLSI+value+scaling+and+lithography&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=040902&rft.date=2019-11-26&rft.issn=1932-5150&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F1.JMM.18.4.040902&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019JMM%26M..18d0902R&rft.aulast=Rieger&rft.aufirst=Michael+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiedigitallibrary.org%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-micro-nanolithography-mems-and-moems%2Fvolume-18%2Fissue-04%2F040902%2FRetrospective-on-VLSI-value-scaling-and-lithography%2F10.1117%2F1.JMM.18.4.040902.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2010" class="citation book cs1">Baker, R. Jacob (2010). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cmoscircuitdesig00bake_827/page/n1210"><i>CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Third Edition</i></a></span>. Wiley-IEEE. p. 1174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-88132-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-88132-3"><bdi>978-0-470-88132-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CMOS%3A+Circuit+Design%2C+Layout%2C+and+Simulation%2C+Third+Edition&rft.pages=1174&rft.pub=Wiley-IEEE&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-470-88132-3&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=R.+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcmoscircuitdesig00bake_827%2Fpage%2Fn1210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesteHarris2010" class="citation book cs1">Weste, Neil H. E. & Harris, David M. (2010). <i>CMOS VLSI Design: A Circuits and Systems Perspective, Fourth Edition</i>. Boston: Pearson/Addison-Wesley. p. 840. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-54774-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-54774-3"><bdi>978-0-321-54774-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CMOS+VLSI+Design%3A+A+Circuits+and+Systems+Perspective%2C+Fourth+Edition&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=840&rft.pub=Pearson%2FAddison-Wesley&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-321-54774-3&rft.aulast=Weste&rft.aufirst=Neil+H.+E.&rft.au=Harris%2C+David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2007" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Wai-Kai (2007). <i>The VLSI handbook</i>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC/Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-0596-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-0596-7"><bdi>978-1-4200-0596-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/83977431">83977431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+VLSI+handbook&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=CRC%2FTaylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F83977431&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-0596-7&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Wai-Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeadConway1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carver_Mead" title="Carver Mead">Mead, Carver A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Conway" title="Lynn Conway">Conway, Lynn</a> (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontovl00mead"><i>Introduction to VLSI systems</i></a></span>. Boston: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-04358-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-04358-0"><bdi>0-201-04358-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+VLSI+systems&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-201-04358-0&rft.aulast=Mead&rft.aufirst=Carver+A.&rft.au=Conway%2C+Lynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontovl00mead&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVery-large-scale+integration" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Very-large-scale_integration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scale.engin.brown.edu/classes/EN1600S08/">Lectures on Design and Implementation of VLSI Systems at Brown University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031223071416/http://lsiwww.epfl.ch/LSI2001/teaching/webcourse/toc.html">Design of VLSI Systems</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Network protocol">Network protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control variable (programming)">Control variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">Process control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Computing" class="mw-redirect" 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