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curiosity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aggression,_fear_and_curiosity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Evolutionary explanations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolutionary_explanations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evolutionary explanations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Violence_and_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence_and_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Violence and conflict </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence_and_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Gender </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 General </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_intimate_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_intimate_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 In intimate relationships </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_intimate_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiological_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiological_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Physiological factors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiological_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Physiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brain_pathways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain_pathways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Brain pathways </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain_pathways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Testosterone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testosterone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Testosterone </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Testosterone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Challenge_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenge_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Challenge hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenge_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_the_nervous_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_the_nervous_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Effects on the nervous system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_the_nervous_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_associations_with_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_associations_with_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 General associations with behavior </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_associations_with_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dehydroepiandrosterone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dehydroepiandrosterone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Dehydroepiandrosterone </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dehydroepiandrosterone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glucocorticoids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glucocorticoids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Glucocorticoids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glucocorticoids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pheromones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pheromones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Pheromones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pheromones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Children </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Typical_expectations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typical_expectations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Typical expectations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typical_expectations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aggression_triggers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aggression_triggers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Aggression triggers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aggression_triggers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Gender </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Situational_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Situational_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Situational factors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Situational_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_positive_adaptation_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_positive_adaptation_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 As a positive adaptation theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_positive_adaptation_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Aggression</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" > 54 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عدوان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عدوان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresi%C3%B3n" title="Agresión – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Agresión" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqressiya" title="Aqressiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aqressiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Агресия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Агресия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A4%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8D" title="དྲག་ཤུལ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="དྲག་ཤུལ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresija" title="Agresija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Agresija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agressi%C3%B3" title="Agressió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Agressió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrese" title="Agrese – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Agrese" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymosodedd" title="Ymosodedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymosodedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aggression" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agressiivne_k%C3%A4itumine" title="Agressiivne käitumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Agressiivne käitumine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresi%C3%B3n" title="Agresión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Agresión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreso" title="Agreso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Agreso" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eraso_(portaera)" title="Eraso (portaera) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eraso (portaera)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="پرخاشگری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پرخاشگری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agression" title="Agression – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Agression" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresje" title="Agresje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Agresje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresi%C3%B3n" title="Agresión – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Agresión" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EA%B2%A9%EC%84%B1" title="공격성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공격성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ագրեսիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ագրեսիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="आक्रामकता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आक्रामकता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresija" title="Agresija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Agresija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresi" title="Agresi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Agresi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggressione" title="Aggressione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Aggressione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="אגרסיביות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אגרסיביות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="აგრესია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აგრესია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incursio" title="Incursio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Incursio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresija" title="Agresija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Agresija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresija" title="Agresija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Agresija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresszi%C3%B3_(pszichol%C3%B3gia)" title="Agresszió (pszichológia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Agresszió (pszichológia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Агресија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Агресија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agressie" title="Agressie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Agressie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BB%E6%92%83%E8%A1%8C%E5%8B%95" title="攻撃行動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="攻撃行動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggresjon" title="Aggresjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Aggresjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresja_(psychologia)" title="Agresja (psychologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Agresja (psychologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agress%C3%A3o" title="Agressão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Agressão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%27utiy" title="Ch'utiy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ch'utiy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Аґресія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Аґресія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Агрессивное поведение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Агрессивное поведение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresioni" title="Agresioni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Agresioni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggrissioni" title="Aggrissioni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Aggrissioni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Aggression" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresia_(psychol%C3%B3gia)" title="Agresia (psychológia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Agresia (psychológia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8E%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="شەڕانگێزی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەڕانگێزی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Агресивност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Агресивност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresija" title="Agresija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Agresija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agr%C3%A9si" title="Agrési – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Agrési" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggressio" title="Aggressio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aggressio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Aggression" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handulong" title="Handulong – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Handulong" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Агресія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Агресія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A2y_h%E1%BA%A5n" title="Gây hấn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Gây hấn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BB%E6%93%8A%E6%80%A7" title="攻擊性 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="攻擊性" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BE%B5%E7%8A%AF" title="侵犯 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="侵犯" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Social interaction aiming at inflicting harm or unpleasantness</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Aggressive" and "Aggressive behavior" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Aggressive (disambiguation)">Aggressive (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aggression_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Aggression (disambiguation)">Aggression (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_Behavior_(journal)" title="Aggressive Behavior (journal)">Aggressive Behavior (journal)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agression_contre_Falli%C3%A8res_-_d%C3%A9tail_(Petit_Parisien_illustr%C3%A9,_1909-01-10).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Agression_contre_Falli%C3%A8res_-_d%C3%A9tail_%28Petit_Parisien_illustr%C3%A9%2C_1909-01-10%29.jpeg/170px-Agression_contre_Falli%C3%A8res_-_d%C3%A9tail_%28Petit_Parisien_illustr%C3%A9%2C_1909-01-10%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Agression_contre_Falli%C3%A8res_-_d%C3%A9tail_%28Petit_Parisien_illustr%C3%A9%2C_1909-01-10%29.jpeg/255px-Agression_contre_Falli%C3%A8res_-_d%C3%A9tail_%28Petit_Parisien_illustr%C3%A9%2C_1909-01-10%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Agression_contre_Falli%C3%A8res_-_d%C3%A9tail_%28Petit_Parisien_illustr%C3%A9%2C_1909-01-10%29.jpeg/340px-Agression_contre_Falli%C3%A8res_-_d%C3%A9tail_%28Petit_Parisien_illustr%C3%A9%2C_1909-01-10%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1845" data-file-height="2242" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of French President <a href="/wiki/Armand_Fallieres" class="mw-redirect" title="Armand Fallieres">Armand Fallieres</a>'s assault by a waiter named Jean Mattis</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panthera_tigris_altaica_28_-_Buffalo_Zoo_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Panthera_tigris_altaica_28_-_Buffalo_Zoo_%281%29.jpg/170px-Panthera_tigris_altaica_28_-_Buffalo_Zoo_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Panthera_tigris_altaica_28_-_Buffalo_Zoo_%281%29.jpg/255px-Panthera_tigris_altaica_28_-_Buffalo_Zoo_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Panthera_tigris_altaica_28_-_Buffalo_Zoo_%281%29.jpg/340px-Panthera_tigris_altaica_28_-_Buffalo_Zoo_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1302" /></a><figcaption>Many mammals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tiger" title="Tiger">tiger</a>, bare their teeth as a sign of aggression—a form of <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">aposematism</a>. </figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">Conflict resolution</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">Arbitration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auction" title="Auction">Auction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliation" title="Conciliation">Conciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_law" title="Collaborative law">Collaborative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party-directed_mediation" title="Party-directed mediation">Party-directed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_Communication" title="Nonviolent Communication">Nonviolent Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negotiation" title="Negotiation">Negotiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaking_truth_to_power" title="Speaking truth to power">Speaking truth to power</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Workplace</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_management" title="Conflict management">Conflict management</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">Violence</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communal_violence" title="Communal violence">Communal violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_escalation" title="Conflict escalation">Conflict escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-escalation" title="De-escalation">De-escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">studies</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">Multilateralism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Nuclear</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_blackmail" title="Nuclear blackmail">Nuclear blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Nuclear disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Nuclear proliferation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution" title="Alternative dispute resolution">Alternative dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_avoidance" title="Conflict avoidance">Conflict avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_continuum" title="Conflict continuum">Conflict continuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_style_inventory" title="Conflict style inventory">Conflict style inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_therapy" title="Family therapy">Family therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(alternative_dispute_resolution)" title="Forum (alternative dispute resolution)">Forum (alternative dispute resolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">Prisoner's dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox of tolerance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaison_officer" title="Liaison officer">Liaison officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">Non-aggression principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_process" title="Peace process">Peace process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacemaking" title="Peacemaking">Peacemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_II_diplomacy" title="Track II diplomacy">Track II diplomacy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conflict_resolution_sidebar" title="Template:Conflict resolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conflict_resolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Conflict resolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conflict_resolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conflict resolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Aggression is a behavior aimed at opposing or attacking something or someone. Though often done with the intent to cause harm, it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For example, built-up <a href="/wiki/Frustration" title="Frustration">frustration</a> due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; while the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group.<a href="#cite_note-:3-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> In definitions commonly used in the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral science">behavioral sciences</a>, aggression is an action or response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to another person.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Some definitions include that the individual must intend to harm another person.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In an interdisciplinary perspective, aggression is regarded as "an ensemble of mechanism formed during the course of evolution in order to assert oneself, relatives, or friends against others, to gain or to defend resources (ultimate causes) by harmful damaging means. These mechanisms are often motivated by emotions like fear, frustration, anger, feelings of stress, dominance or pleasure (proximate causes). Sometimes aggressive behavior serves as a stress relief or a subjective feeling of power."<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predatory</a> or defensive behavior between members of different species may not be considered aggression in the same sense. Aggression can take a variety of forms, which may be expressed physically, or communicated <a href="/wiki/Verbal_aggressiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="Verbal aggressiveness">verbally</a> or non-verbally: including anti-predator aggression, defensive aggression (fear-induced), predatory aggression, dominance aggression, inter-male aggression, resident-intruder aggression, maternal aggression, species-specific aggression, sex-related aggression, territorial aggression, isolation-induced aggression, irritable aggression, and brain-stimulation-induced aggression (hypothalamus). There are two subtypes of human aggression: (1) controlled-instrumental subtype (purposeful or goal-oriented); and (2) reactive-impulsive subtype (often elicits uncontrollable actions that are inappropriate or undesirable). Aggression differs from what is commonly called <a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">assertiveness</a>, although the terms are often used interchangeably among laypeople (as in phrases such as "an aggressive salesperson").<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/John_Dollard" title="John Dollard">Dollard</a> et al. (1939) proposed that aggression was due to <a href="/wiki/Frustration" title="Frustration">frustration</a>, which was described as an unpleasant emotion resulting from any interference with achieving a rewarding goal.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Berkowitz" title="Leonard Berkowitz">Berkowitz</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> extended this <a href="/wiki/Frustration%E2%80%93aggression_hypothesis" title="Frustration–aggression hypothesis">frustration–aggression hypothesis</a> and proposed that it is not so much the frustration as the unpleasant emotion that evokes aggressive tendencies, and that all aversive events produce negative <a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">affect</a> and thereby aggressive tendencies, as well as <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a> tendencies. Besides <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">conditioned</a> stimuli, Archer categorized aggression-evoking (as well as fear-evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novelty" title="Novelty">novelty</a>, and frustration, although he also described "<a href="/wiki/Looming" title="Looming">looming</a>", which refers to an object rapidly moving towards the visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as "<a href="/wiki/Intensity_(physics)" title="Intensity (physics)">intensity</a>."<a href="#cite_note-:Archer-13">[13]</a> Aggression can have adaptive benefits or negative effects. Aggressive behavior is an individual or collective social interaction that is a hostile <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> with the intention of inflicting damage or harm.<a href="#cite_note-:3-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-4">[4]</a> Two broad categories of aggression are commonly distinguished. One includes <a href="/wiki/Affective" class="mw-redirect" title="Affective">affective</a> (emotional) and hostile, reactive, or <a href="/wiki/Revenge" title="Revenge">retaliatory</a> aggression that is a response to provocation, and the other includes instrumental, goal-oriented or <a href="/wiki/Predatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory">predatory</a>, in which aggression is used as a means to achieve a goal.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> An example of hostile aggression would be a person who punches someone who insulted him or her. An instrumental form of aggression would be <a href="/wiki/Armed_robbery" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed robbery">armed robbery</a>. Research on <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a> from a range of disciplines lend some support to a distinction between affective and predatory aggression.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> However, some researchers question the usefulness of a hostile versus instrumental distinction in humans, despite its ubiquity in research, because most real-life cases involve mixed motives and interacting causes.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> A number of classifications and dimensions of aggression have been suggested. These depend on such things as whether the aggression is verbal or physical; whether or not it involves <a href="/wiki/Relational_aggression" title="Relational aggression">relational aggression</a> such as covert bullying and social manipulation;<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> whether harm to others is intended or not; whether it is carried out actively or expressed passively; and whether the aggression is aimed directly or indirectly. Classification may also encompass aggression-related emotions (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">anger</a>) and mental states (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulsivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hostility" title="Hostility">hostility</a>).<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Aggression may occur in response to non-social as well as social factors, and can have a close relationship with stress coping style.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Aggression may be <a href="/wiki/Threat_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Threat display">displayed</a> in order to <a href="/wiki/Intimidate" class="mw-redirect" title="Intimidate">intimidate</a>. The operative definition of aggression may be affected by <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a> views. Examples are the axiomatic moral view called the <a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">non-aggression principle</a> and the political rules governing the behavior of one country toward another.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Likewise in competitive <a href="/wiki/Sports" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports">sports</a>, or in the <a href="/wiki/Workplace" title="Workplace">workplace</a>, some forms of aggression may be sanctioned and others not (see <a href="/wiki/Workplace_aggression" title="Workplace aggression">Workplace aggression</a>).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Aggressive behaviors are associated with adjustment problems and several psychopathological symptoms such as <a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">antisocial personality disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_explosive_disorder" title="Intermittent explosive disorder">intermittent explosive disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-22">[22]</a> Biological approaches conceptualize aggression as an internal energy released by external stimuli, a product of evolution through natural selection, part of genetics, a product of hormonal fluctuations. Psychological approaches conceptualize aggression as a destructive instinct, a response to frustration, an affect excited by a negative stimulus, a result of observed learning of society and diversified reinforcement, a resultant of variables that affect personal and situational environments.<a href="#cite_note-Krahé2013-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Englander2003-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The term aggression comes from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word aggressio, meaning attack. The Latin was itself a joining of ad- and gradi-, which meant step at. The first known use dates back to 1611, in the sense of an unprovoked attack.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> A psychological sense of "hostile or destructive behavior" dates back to a 1912 English translation of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s writing.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Alfred Adler</a> theorized about an "aggressive drive" in 1908. <a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Child raising</a> experts began to refer to aggression, rather than anger, from the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethology">Ethology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ethology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elephant_seal_fight_Part-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Elephant_seal_fight_Part-1.jpg/250px-Elephant_seal_fight_Part-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Elephant_seal_fight_Part-1.jpg/375px-Elephant_seal_fight_Part-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Elephant_seal_fight_Part-1.jpg/500px-Elephant_seal_fight_Part-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Male <a href="/wiki/Elephant_seal" title="Elephant seal">elephant seals</a> fighting</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethologists</a> study aggression as it relates to the interaction and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of animals in natural settings. In such settings aggression can involve bodily contact such as biting, hitting or pushing, but most conflicts are settled by threat displays and intimidating thrusts that cause no physical harm. This form of aggression may include the display of body size, antlers, claws or teeth; stereotyped signals including facial expressions; vocalizations such as bird song; the release of chemicals; and changes in coloration.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The term <a href="/wiki/Agonistic_behaviour" title="Agonistic behaviour">agonistic behaviour</a> is sometimes used to refer to these forms of behavior. Most ethologists believe that aggression confers biological advantages. Aggression may help an animal secure <a href="/wiki/Territory_(animal)" title="Territory (animal)">territory</a>, including resources such as food and water. Aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of the healthier/more vigorous animal. Aggression may also occur for self-protection or to protect offspring.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Between_species_and_groups">Between species and groups</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Between species and groups">edit</a>]</div> The most apparent type of <a href="/wiki/Interspecific" class="mw-redirect" title="Interspecific">interspecific</a> aggression is that observed in the interaction between a <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predator</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Prey" class="mw-redirect" title="Prey">prey</a>. However, according to many researchers, <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> is not aggression. A cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> However, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse-killing by rats.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">aggressive mimicry</a> a predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks. An animal defending against a predator may engage in either "<a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">fight or flight</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Tend_and_befriend" title="Tend and befriend">tend and befriend</a>" in response to predator attack or threat of attack, depending on its estimate of the predator's strength relative to its own. Alternative defenses include a range of <a href="/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">antipredator adaptations</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Alarm_signal" title="Alarm signal">alarm signals</a>. An example of an alarm signal is nerol, a chemical which is found in the mandibular glands of <a href="/wiki/Trigona_fulviventris" title="Trigona fulviventris">Trigona fulviventris</a> individuals.<a href="#cite_note-:0-33">[33]</a> Release of nerol by T. fulviventris individuals in the nest has been shown to decrease the number of individuals leaving the nest by fifty percent, as well as increasing aggressive behaviors like biting.<a href="#cite_note-:0-33">[33]</a> Alarm signals like nerol can also act as attraction signals; in T. fulviventris, individuals that have been captured by a predator may release nerol to attract nestmates, who will proceed to attack or bite the predator.<a href="#cite_note-:0-33">[33]</a> Aggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Also, an individual is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> One particular phenomenon – the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighbouring territories to kill <a href="/wiki/Conspecific" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspecific">conspecifics</a> – has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">'common' chimpanzees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Humans">humans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Within_a_group">Within a group</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Within a group">edit</a>]</div> Aggression between conspecifics in a group typically involves access to resources and breeding opportunities. One of its most common functions is to establish a <a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">dominance hierarchy</a>. This occurs in many species by aggressive encounters between contending males when they are first together in a common environment.<a href="#cite_note-adamsonetal2006-37">[37]</a> Usually the more aggressive animals become the more dominant.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In test situations, most of the conspecific aggression ceases about 24 hours after the group of animals is brought together.<a href="#cite_note-adamsonetal2006-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Aggression has been defined from this viewpoint as "behavior which is intended to increase the social dominance of the organism relative to the dominance position of other organisms".<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_&_Beaver,_2009-41">[41]</a> Losing confrontations may be called <a href="/wiki/Social_defeat" title="Social defeat">social defeat</a>, and winning or losing is associated with a range of practical and psychological consequences.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Conflicts between animals occur in many contexts, such as between potential mating partners, between parents and offspring, between siblings and between competitors for resources. Group-living animals may dispute over the direction of travel or the allocation of time to joint activities. Various factors limit the escalation of aggression, including communicative displays, conventions, and routines. In addition, following aggressive incidents, various forms of <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">conflict resolution</a> have been observed in mammalian species, particularly in gregarious primates. These can mitigate or repair possible adverse consequences, especially for the recipient of aggression who may become vulnerable to attacks by other members of a group. Conciliatory acts vary by species and may involve specific gestures or simply more proximity and interaction between the individuals involved. However, conflicts over food are rarely followed by post conflict reunions, even though they are the most frequent type in foraging primates.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Other questions that have been considered in the study of primate aggression, including in humans, is how aggression affects the organization of a group, what costs are incurred by aggression, and why some primates avoid aggressive behavior.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobo chimpanzee</a> groups are known for low levels of aggression within a partially <a href="/wiki/Matriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matriarchal">matriarchal</a> society. <a href="/wiki/Captivity_(animal)" title="Captivity (animal)">Captive</a> animals including primates may show abnormal levels of social aggression and self-harm that are related to aspects of the physical or social environment; this depends on the species and individual factors such as gender, age and background (e.g., raised wild or captive).<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aggression,_fear_and_curiosity">Aggression, fear and curiosity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aggression, fear and curiosity">edit</a>]</div> Within ethology, it has long been recognized that there is a relation between aggression, <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Curiosity" title="Curiosity">curiosity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive</a> approach to this relationship puts aggression in the broader context of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">inconsistency reduction</a>, and proposes that aggressive behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a desired, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation (e.g., "<a href="/wiki/Frustration%E2%80%93aggression_hypothesis" title="Frustration–aggression hypothesis">frustration</a>"), and functions to forcefully <a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">manipulate</a> the perception into matching the expected situation.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-:Archer-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:Kampen-48">[48]</a> In this approach, when the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Uninhibited fear results in fleeing, thereby removing the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field and resolving the inconsistency. In some cases thwarted escape may trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus.<a href="#cite_note-:Kampen-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_explanations">Evolutionary explanations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Evolutionary explanations">edit</a>]</div> Like many behaviors, aggression can be examined in terms of its ability to help an animal itself survive and reproduce, or alternatively to risk survival and reproduction. This <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost–benefit analysis</a> can be looked at in terms of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. However, there are profound differences in the extent of acceptance of a biological or evolutionary basis for human aggression.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Male_warrior_hypothesis" title="Male warrior hypothesis">male warrior hypothesis</a>, intergroup aggression represents an opportunity for men to gain access to mates, territory, resources and increased status. As such, conflicts may have created selection evolutionary pressures for psychological mechanisms in men to initiate intergroup aggression.<a href="#cite_note-:1-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violence_and_conflict">Violence and conflict</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Violence and conflict">edit</a>]</div> Aggression can involve <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a> that may be <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptive</a> under certain circumstances in terms of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. This is most obviously the case in terms of attacking prey to obtain food, or in anti-predatory defense. It may also be the case in competition between members of the same species or subgroup, if the average reward (e.g., status, access to resources, protection of self or kin) outweighs average costs (e.g., injury, exclusion from the group, death). There are some hypotheses of specific adaptions for violence in humans under certain circumstances, including for <a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">homicide</a>, but it is often unclear what behaviors may have been selected for and what may have been a byproduct, as in the case of collective violence.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Although aggressive encounters are ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, with often high stakes, most encounters that involve aggression may be resolved through posturing, or displaying and trial of strength. <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a> is used to understand how such behaviors might spread by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> within a population, and potentially become 'Evolutionary Stable Strategies'. An initial model of resolution of conflicts is the <a href="/wiki/Hawk-dove_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawk-dove game">hawk-dove game</a>. Others include the <a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Sequential assessment model</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Energetic war of attrition</a>. These try to understand not just one-off encounters but protracted stand-offs, and mainly differ in the criteria by which an individual decides to give up rather than risk loss and harm in physical conflict (such as through estimates of <a href="/wiki/Resource_holding_potential" title="Resource holding potential">resource holding potential</a>).<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender">Gender</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gender">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Human.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/100px-Human.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/150px-Human.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/200px-Human.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="1320" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> Biology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development" title="Disorders of sex development">disorders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">In research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_human_physiology" title="Sex differences in human physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism#Humans" title="Sexual dimorphism">Dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism_measures" title="Sexual dimorphism measures">Scientific measures</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_medicine" title="Sex differences in medicine">Medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender_disparities_in_health" title="Gender disparities in health">health</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_autoimmunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in autoimmunity">Autoimmunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_life_expectancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in depression">depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_substance_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in substance abuse">substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_stroke_care" title="Sex differences in stroke care">Stroke care</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_coping" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in coping">Coping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_emotional_expression" title="Gender and emotional expression">Emotional expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in aggression">Aggression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_empathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in empathy">Empathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_empathy_gap" title="Gender empathy gap">Gender empathy gap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosexism" title="Neurosexism">Neurosexism</a></li> <li>Sexuality <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">age disparity in relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_sexual_attraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in sexual attraction">attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_sexual_desire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in sexual desire">desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_sexual_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in sexual fantasy">fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">jealousy</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> Sociology and society</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_education" title="Sex differences in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_education_in_the_United_States" title="Sex differences in education in the United States">in the U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">Gender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_expendability" title="Male expendability">Greater male expendability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Greater male variability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_leadership" title="Sex differences in leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_religion" title="Gender and religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_social_capital" title="Sex differences in social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_social_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in social support">Social support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender paradox">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-equality_paradox" title="Gender-equality paradox">Gender-equality paradox</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_differences" title="Template:Sex differences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_differences" title="Template talk:Sex differences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_differences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex differences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General">General</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: General">edit</a>]</div> Gender plays an important role in human aggression. There are multiple theories that seek to explain findings that males and females of the same species can have differing aggressive behaviors. One review concluded that male aggression tended to produce pain or physical injury whereas female aggression tended towards psychological or social harm.<a href="#cite_note-pmid3797558-57">[57]</a> In general, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexual dimorphism</a> can be attributed to greater <a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">intraspecific competition</a> in one sex, either between rivals for access to mates and/or to be <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">chosen by mates</a>. This may stem from the other gender being constrained by providing greater <a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">parental investment</a>, in terms of factors such as <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a> production, <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>, or upbringing of young. Although there is much variation in species, generally the more physically aggressive sex is the male, particularly in mammals. In species where parental care by both sexes is required, there tends to be less of a difference. When the female can leave the male to care for the offspring, then females may be the larger and more physically aggressive. Competitiveness despite parental investment has also been observed in some species.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> A related factor is the rate at which males and females are able to mate again after producing offspring, and the basic principles of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> are also influenced by ecological factors affecting the ways or extent to which one sex can compete for the other. The role of such factors in human evolution is controversial. The pattern of male and female aggression is argued to be consistent with evolved sexually-selected behavioral differences, while alternative or complementary views emphasize conventional <a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">social roles</a> stemming from physical evolved differences.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Aggression in women may have evolved to be, on average, less physically dangerous and more covert or <a href="/wiki/Indirect_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect aggression">indirect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> However, there are critiques for using animal behavior to explain human behavior, especially in the application of evolutionary explanations to contemporary human behavior, including differences between the genders.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> According to the 2015 <a href="/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_%26_Behavioral_Sciences" title="International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences">International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences</a>, sex differences in aggression is one of the most robust and oldest findings in psychology.<a href="#cite_note-274956064_Gender_diff-63">[63]</a> Past meta-analyses in the encyclopedia found males regardless of age engaged in more physical and verbal aggression while small effect for females engaging in more indirect aggression such as rumor spreading or gossiping.<a href="#cite_note-274956064_Gender_diff-63">[63]</a> It also found males tend to engage in more unprovoked aggression at higher frequency than females.<a href="#cite_note-274956064_Gender_diff-63">[63]</a> This analysis also conforms with the Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology which reviewed past analysis which found men to use more verbal and physical aggression with the difference being greater in the physical type.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> There are more recent findings that show that differences in male and female aggression appear at about two years of age, though the differences in aggression are more consistent in middle-aged children and adolescence. Tremblay, Japel and Pérusse (1999) asserted that physically aggressive behaviors such as kicking, biting and hitting are age-typical expressions of innate and spontaneous reactions to biological drives such as anger, hunger, and affiliation.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Girls' <a href="/wiki/Relational_aggression" title="Relational aggression">relational aggression</a>, meaning non-physical or indirect, tends to increase after age two while physical aggression decreases. There was no significant difference in aggression between males and females before two years of age.<a href="#cite_note-Landsford_2012_298–308-66">[66]</a> A possible explanation for this could be that girls develop language skills more quickly than boys, and therefore have better ways of verbalizing their wants and needs. They are more likely to use communication when trying to retrieve a toy with the words "Ask nicely" or "Say please."<a href="#cite_note-Hay_2011_158–75-67">[67]</a> According to the journal of Aggressive Behaviour, an analysis across 9 countries found boys reported more in the use of physical aggression.<a href="#cite_note-Landsford_2012_298–308-66">[66]</a> At the same time no consistent sex differences emerged within relational aggression.<a href="#cite_note-Landsford_2012_298–308-66">[66]</a> It has been found that girls are more likely than boys to use reactive aggression and then retract, but boys are more likely to increase rather than to retract their aggression after their first reaction. Studies show girls' aggressive tactics included <a href="/wiki/Gossip" title="Gossip">gossip</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_rejection" title="Social rejection">ostracism</a>, breaking confidences, and criticism of a victim's clothing, appearance, or personality, whereas boys engage in aggression that involves a direct physical and/or verbal assault.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> This could be due to the fact that girls' frontal lobes develop earlier than boys, allowing them to self-restrain.<a href="#cite_note-Hay_2011_158–75-67">[67]</a> One factor that shows insignificant differences between male and female aggression is in sports. In sports, the rate of aggression in both contact and non-contact sports is relatively equal. Since the establishment of Title IX, female sports have increased in competitiveness and importance, which could contribute to the evening of aggression and the "need to win" attitude between both genders. Among sex differences found in adult sports were that females have a higher scale of indirect hostility while men have a higher scale of assault.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Another difference found is that men have up to 20 times higher levels of <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a> than women. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_intimate_relationships">In intimate relationships</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In intimate relationships">edit</a>]</div> Some studies suggest that romantic involvement in adolescence decreases aggression in males and females, but decreases at a higher rate in females. Females will seem more desirable to their mate if they fit in with society and females that are aggressive do not usually fit well in society. They can often be viewed as antisocial. Female aggression is not considered the norm in society and going against the norm can sometimes prevent one from getting a mate.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> However, studies have shown that an increasing number of women are getting arrested on <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> charges. In many states, women now account for a quarter to a third of all domestic violence arrests, up from less than 10 percent a decade ago. The new statistics reflect a reality documented in research: women are perpetrators as well as victims of family violence.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> However, another equally possible explanation is a case of improved diagnostics: it has become more acceptable for men to report female domestic violence to the authorities while at the same time actual female domestic violence has not increased at all.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> This could be the case in a situation where men had become less ashamed of reporting <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_against_men" title="Domestic violence against men">female violence against them</a>⁠‍—‍such a situation could conceivably lead to an increasing number of women being arrested despite the actual number of violent women remaining the same. In addition, males in competitive sports are often advised by their coaches not to be in intimate relationships based on the premises that they become more docile and less aggressive during an athletic event. The circumstances in which males and females experience aggression are also different. A study showed that social anxiety and stress was positively correlated with aggression in males, meaning as stress and social anxiety increases so does aggression. Furthermore, a male with higher social skills has a lower rate of aggressive behavior than a male with lower social skills. In females, higher rates of aggression were only correlated with higher rates of stress. Other than biological factors that contribute to aggression there are physical factors as well.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Physiological_factors">Physiological factors</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Physiological factors">edit</a>]</div> Regarding sexual dimorphism, humans fall into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large <a href="/wiki/Testes" class="mw-redirect" title="Testes">testes</a>. This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in a group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males compared to exclusive <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">monogamy</a> but frequent <a href="/wiki/Sperm_competition" title="Sperm competition">sperm competition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford2007-74">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiology</a> have also discussed and produced theories for some specific forms of male aggression such as <a href="/wiki/Sociobiological_theories_of_rape" title="Sociobiological theories of rape">sociobiological theories of rape</a> and theories regarding the <a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a>. Another evolutionary theory explaining gender differences in aggression is the <a href="/wiki/Male_Warrior_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Male Warrior hypothesis">Male Warrior hypothesis</a>, which explains that males have psychologically evolved for intergroup aggression in order to gain access to mates, resources, territory and status.<a href="#cite_note-:1-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Physiology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain_pathways">Brain pathways</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Brain pathways">edit</a>]</div> Many researchers focus on the brain to explain aggression. Numerous circuits within both neocortical and subcortical structures play a central role in controlling aggressive behavior, depending on the species, and the exact role of pathways may vary depending on the type of trigger or intention.<a href="#cite_note-:6-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-4">[4]</a> In mammals, the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Periaqueductal_gray" title="Periaqueductal gray">periaqueductal gray</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a> are critical areas, as shown in studies on cats, rats, and monkeys. These brain areas control the expression of both behavioral and <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic</a> components of aggression in these species, including vocalization. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> and the hypothalamus has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin and vasopressin.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In rodents, activation of <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_receptor" title="Estrogen receptor">estrogen receptor</a>-expressing neurons in the ventrolateral portion of the <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_hypothalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial hypothalamus">ventromedial hypothalamus</a> (VMHvl) was found to be sufficient to initiate aggression in both males and females.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Midbrain areas involved in aggression have direct connections with both the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a> nuclei controlling these functions, and with structures such as the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>. Stimulation of the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior in hamsters,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Potegal,_M_1996._pp._869-880-81">[81]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Lesions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesions">lesions</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">evolutionarily homologous</a> area in the lizard greatly reduce competitive drive and aggression (Bauman et al. 2006).<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhesus monkeys">rhesus monkeys</a>, neonatal lesions in the amygdala or hippocampus results in reduced expression of social dominance, related to the regulation of aggression and fear.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Several experiments in attack-primed Syrian golden hamsters, for example, support the claim of circuitry within the amygdala being involved in control of aggression.<a href="#cite_note-Potegal,_M_1996._pp._869-880-81">[81]</a> The role of the amygdala is less clear in primates and appears to depend more on situational context, with lesions leading to increases in either social affiliatory or aggressive responses. <a href="/wiki/Amygdalotomy" title="Amygdalotomy">Amygdalotomy</a>, which involves removing or destroying parts of the amygdala, has been performed on people to reduce their violent behaviour. The broad area of the cortex known as the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> (PFC) is crucial for <a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">self-control</a> and inhibition of impulses, including inhibition of aggression and emotions. Reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex, in particular its medial and <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal</a> portions, has been associated with violent/antisocial aggression.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In addition, reduced <a href="/wiki/Response_inhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Response inhibition">response inhibition</a> has been found in violent offenders, compared to non-violent offenders.<a href="#cite_note-:6-75">[75]</a> The role of the chemicals in the brain, particularly <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitters" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitters">neurotransmitters</a>, in aggression has also been examined. This varies depending on the pathway, the context and other factors such as gender. A deficit in <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> has been theorized to have a primary role in causing impulsivity and aggression. At least one epigenetic study supports this supposition.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27720744-85">[85]</a> Nevertheless, low levels of serotonin transmission may explain a vulnerability to impulsiveness, potential aggression, and may have an effect through interactions with other neurochemical systems. These include <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> systems which are generally associated with attention and motivation toward rewards, and operate at various levels. <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a>, also known as noradrenaline, may influence aggression responses both directly and indirectly through the hormonal system, the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (including the brain). It appears to have different effects depending on the type of triggering stimulus, for example social isolation/rank versus shock/chemical agitation which appears not to have a linear relationship with aggression. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a>, although associated with inhibitory functions at many CNS synapses, sometimes shows a positive correlation with aggression, including when potentiated by alcohol.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The hormonal <a href="/wiki/Neuropeptides" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropeptides">neuropeptides</a> <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> play a key role in complex social behaviours in many mammals such as regulating attachment, social recognition, and aggression. Vasopressin has been implicated in male-typical social behaviors which includes aggression. Oxytocin may have a particular role in regulating female bonds with offspring and mates, including the use of protective aggression. Initial studies in humans suggest some similar effects.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> In human, <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggressive behavior">aggressive behavior</a> has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamine systems</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis</a>. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testosterone">Testosterone</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Testosterone">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Testosterone#Aggression" title="Testosterone">Testosterone § Aggression</a></div> Early androgenization has an organizational effect on the developing brains of both males and females, making more neural circuits that control sexual behavior as well as intermale and interfemale aggression become more sensitive to testosterone.<a href="#cite_note-Carlson,_N._2013-91">[91]</a> There are noticeable sex differences in aggression. Testosterone is present to a lesser extent in females, who may be more sensitive to its effects. Animal studies have also indicated a link between incidents of aggression and the individual level of circulating testosterone. However, results in relation to primates, particularly humans, are less clear cut and are at best only suggestive of a positive association in some contexts.<a href="#cite_note-van_goozen-92">[92]</a> In humans, there is a seasonal variation in aggression associated with changes in testosterone.<a href="#cite_note-Archer_319–345-93">[93]</a> For example, in some primate species, such as rhesus monkeys and baboons, females are more likely to engage in fights around the time of ovulation as well as right before menstruation.<a href="#cite_note-Carlson,_N._2013-91">[91]</a> If the results were the same in humans as they are in rhesus monkeys and baboons, then the increase in aggressive behaviors during ovulation is explained by the decline in estrogen levels. This makes normal testosterone levels more effective.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Castrated mice and rats exhibit lower levels of aggression. Males castrated as neonates exhibit low levels of aggression even when given testosterone throughout their development. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Challenge_hypothesis">Challenge hypothesis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Challenge hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Challenge_hypothesis" title="Challenge hypothesis">challenge hypothesis</a> outlines the dynamic relationship between plasma testosterone levels and aggression in mating contexts in many species. It proposes that testosterone is linked to aggression when it is beneficial for reproduction, such as in mate guarding and preventing the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels in a species are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_breeder" title="Seasonal breeder">seasonal breeders</a>. This pattern between testosterone and aggression was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, such as the <a href="/wiki/Song_sparrow" title="Song sparrow">song sparrow</a>, where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions.<a href="#cite_note-Wingfield,_John_C.,_Ball,_Gregory_F.,_Dufty_Jr,_Alfred_M.,_Hegner,_Robert_E.,_Ramenofsky,_Marilyn_1987_602–608-95">[95]</a> The hypothesis has been subsequently expanded and modified to predict relationships between testosterone and aggression in other species. For example, chimpanzees, which are continuous breeders, show significantly raised testosterone levels and aggressive male-male interactions when receptive and fertile females are present.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Currently, no research has specified a relationship between the modified challenge hypothesis and human behavior, or the human nature of <a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">concealed ovulation</a>, although some suggest it may apply.<a href="#cite_note-Archer_319–345-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effects_on_the_nervous_system">Effects on the nervous system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Effects on the nervous system">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Testosterone_estradiol_conversion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Testosterone_estradiol_conversion.png/220px-Testosterone_estradiol_conversion.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Testosterone_estradiol_conversion.png/330px-Testosterone_estradiol_conversion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Testosterone_estradiol_conversion.png/440px-Testosterone_estradiol_conversion.png 2x" data-file-width="4539" data-file-height="1531" /></a><figcaption>Testosterone to Estradiol conversion</figcaption></figure> Another line of research has focused on the proximate effects of circulating testosterone on the nervous system, as mediated by local metabolism within the brain. Testosterone can be metabolized to <a href="/wiki/Estradiol" title="Estradiol">estradiol</a> by the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Aromatase" title="Aromatase">aromatase</a>, or to <a href="/wiki/Dihydrotestosterone" title="Dihydrotestosterone">dihydrotestosterone</a> (DHT) by <a href="/wiki/5%CE%B1-reductase" class="mw-redirect" title="5α-reductase">5α-reductase</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Soma2008-97">[97]</a> Aromatase is highly expressed in regions involved in the regulation of aggressive behavior, such as the amygdala and hypothalamus. In studies using genetic knockout techniques in inbred mice, male mice that lacked a functional aromatase enzyme displayed a marked reduction in aggression. Long-term treatment with estradiol partially restored aggressive behavior, suggesting that the neural conversion of circulating testosterone to estradiol and its effect on <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_receptor" title="Estrogen receptor">estrogen receptors</a> influences inter-male aggression. In addition, two different estrogen receptors, <a href="/wiki/ER%CE%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="ERα">ERα</a> and <a href="/wiki/ER%CE%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="ERβ">ERβ</a>, have been identified as having the ability to exert different effects on aggression in mice. However, the effect of estradiol appears to vary depending on the strain of mouse, and in some strains it reduces aggression during long days (16 h of light), while during short days (8 h of light) estradiol rapidly increases aggression.<a href="#cite_note-Soma2008-97">[97]</a> Another hypothesis is that testosterone influences brain areas that control behavioral reactions. Studies in animal models indicate that aggression is affected by several interconnected cortical and subcortical structures within the so-called <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a> network. A study involving lesions and electrical-chemical stimulation in rodents and cats revealed that such a neural network consists of the medial <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>, medial <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Periaqueductal_grey" class="mw-redirect" title="Periaqueductal grey">periaqueductal grey</a> (PAG), and it positively modulates reactive aggression.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Moreover, a study done in human subjects showed that prefrontal-amygdala connectivity is modulated by endogenous testosterone during social emotional behavior.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In human studies, testosterone-aggression research has also focused on the role of the <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a> (OFC). This brain area is strongly associated with impulse control and self-regulation systems that integrate emotion, motivation, and cognition to guide context-appropriate behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Mehta,_P._H.,_Beer,_J._2009_2357–2368-100">[100]</a> Patients with localized lesions to the OFC engage in heightened reactive aggression.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Aggressive behavior may be regulated by testosterone via reduced medial OFC engagement following social provocation.<a href="#cite_note-Mehta,_P._H.,_Beer,_J._2009_2357–2368-100">[100]</a> When measuring participants' salivary testosterone, higher levels can predict subsequent aggressive behavioral reactions to unfairness faced during a task. Moreover, brain scanning with <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a> shows reduced activity in the medial OFC during such reactions. Such findings may suggest that a specific brain region, the OFC, is a key factor in understanding reactive aggression. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General_associations_with_behavior">General associations with behavior</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: General associations with behavior">edit</a>]</div> Scientists have for a long time been interested in the relationship between testosterone and aggressive behavior. In most species, males are more aggressive than females. <a href="/wiki/Castration" title="Castration">Castration</a> of males usually has a pacifying effect on aggressive behavior in males. In humans, males engage in crime and especially violent crime more than females. The involvement in crime usually rises in the early teens to mid teens which happen at the same time as testosterone levels rise. Research on the relationship between testosterone and aggression is difficult since the only reliable measurement of brain testosterone is by a <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_puncture" title="Lumbar puncture">lumbar puncture</a> which is not done for research purposes. Studies therefore have often instead used more unreliable measurements from blood or saliva.<a href="#cite_note-Ellis2009-102">[102]</a> The Handbook of Crime Correlates, a review of crime studies, states most studies support a link between adult criminality and testosterone although the relationship is modest if examined separately for each sex. However, nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. Most studies have also found testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with criminality such as <a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">antisocial behavior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>. Many studies have also been done on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior/feelings and testosterone. About half the studies have found a relationship and about half no relationship.<a href="#cite_note-Ellis2009-102">[102]</a> Studies of testosterone levels of male athletes before and after a competition revealed that testosterone levels rise shortly before their matches, as if in anticipation of the competition, and are dependent on the outcome of the event: testosterone levels of winners are high relative to those of losers. No specific response of testosterone levels to competition was observed in female athletes, although a mood difference was noted.<a href="#cite_note-PMID_10097017-103">[103]</a> In addition, some experiments have failed to find a relationship between testosterone levels and aggression in humans.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> The possible correlation between testosterone and aggression could explain the "roid rage" that can result from <a href="/wiki/Anabolic_steroid" title="Anabolic steroid">anabolic steroid</a> use,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> although an effect of abnormally high levels of steroids does not prove an effect at physiological levels. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dehydroepiandrosterone">Dehydroepiandrosterone</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Dehydroepiandrosterone">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">Dehydroepiandrosterone</a> (DHEA) is the most abundant circulating androgen hormone and can be rapidly metabolized within target tissues into potent androgens and estrogens. Gonadal steroids generally regulate aggression during the breeding season, but non-gonadal steroids may regulate aggression during the non-breeding season. Castration of various species in the non-breeding season has no effect on territorial aggression. In several avian studies, circulating DHEA has been found to be elevated in birds during the non-breeding season. These data support the idea that non-breeding birds combine adrenal and/or gonadal DHEA synthesis with neural DHEA metabolism to maintain territorial behavior when gonadal testosterone secretion is low. Similar results have been found in studies involving different strains of rats, mice, and hamsters. DHEA levels also have been studied in humans and may play a role in human aggression. Circulating DHEAS (its sulfated ester) levels rise during adrenarche (≈7 years of age) while plasma testosterone levels are relatively low. This implies that aggression in pre-pubertal children with aggressive conduct disorder might be correlated with plasma DHEAS rather than plasma testosterone, suggesting an important link between DHEAS and human aggressive behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Soma2008-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glucocorticoids">Glucocorticoids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Glucocorticoids">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">Glucocorticoid</a> hormones have an important role in regulating aggressive behavior. In adult rats, acute injections of <a href="/wiki/Corticosterone" title="Corticosterone">corticosterone</a> promote aggressive behavior and acute reduction of corticosterone decreases aggression; however, a chronic reduction of corticosterone levels can produce abnormally aggressive behavior. In addition, glucocorticoids affect development of aggression and establishment of social hierarchies. Adult mice with low baseline levels of corticosterone are more likely to become dominant than are mice with high baseline corticosterone levels.<a href="#cite_note-Soma2008-97">[97]</a> Glucocorticoids are released by the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">hypothalamic pituitary adrenal</a> (HPA) axis in response to <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (biological)">stress</a>, of which <a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">cortisol</a> is the most prominent in humans. Results in adults suggest that reduced levels of cortisol, linked to lower fear or a reduced stress response, can be associated with more aggression. However, it may be that proactive aggression is associated with low cortisol levels while reactive aggression may be accompanied by elevated levels. Differences in assessments of cortisol may also explain a diversity of results, particularly in children.<a href="#cite_note-van_goozen-92">[92]</a> The HPA axis is related to the general <a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">fight-or-flight response</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction" title="Acute stress reaction">acute stress reaction</a>, and the role of <a href="/wiki/Catecholamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Catecholamines">catecholamines</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a>, popularly known as adrenaline. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pheromones">Pheromones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Pheromones">edit</a>]</div> In many animals, aggression can be linked to <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromones</a> released between <a href="/wiki/Conspecifics" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspecifics">conspecifics</a>. In mice, <a href="/wiki/Major_urinary_proteins" title="Major urinary proteins">major urinary proteins</a> (Mups) have been demonstrated to promote innate aggressive behavior in males,<a href="#cite_note-BBCreport-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chamero1-109">[109]</a> and can be mediated by neuromodulatory systems.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Mups activate <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_sensory_neuron" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory sensory neuron">olfactory sensory neurons</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Vomeronasal_organ" title="Vomeronasal organ">vomeronasal organ</a> (VNO), a subsystem of the nose known to detect pheromones via specific <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a>, of mice<a href="#cite_note-Chamero1-109">[109]</a> and rats.<a href="#cite_note-Krieger1-111">[111]</a> Pheremones have also been identified in <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fruit flies</a>, detected by neurons in the antenna, that send a message to the brain eliciting aggression; it has been noted that aggression pheremones have not been identified in humans.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetics_of_aggression" title="Genetics of aggression">Genetics of aggression</a></div> In general, differences in a continuous phenotype such as aggression are likely to result from the action of a large number of genes each of small effect, which interact with each other and the environment through development and life. In a non-mammalian example of genes related to aggression, the <a href="/wiki/Fruitless" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruitless">fruitless</a> gene in <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fruit flies</a> is a critical determinant of certain sexually dimorphic behaviors, and its artificial alteration can result in a reversal of stereotypically male and female patterns of aggression in fighting. However, in what was thought to be a relatively clear case, inherent complexities have been reported in deciphering the connections between interacting genes in an environmental context and a social <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> involving multiple behavioral and sensory interactions with another organism.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In mice, candidate genes for differentiating aggression between the sexes are the Sry (sex determining region Y) gene, located on the Y chromosome and the Sts (steroid sulfatase) gene. The Sts gene encodes the steroid sulfatase enzyme, which is pivotal in the regulation of neurosteroid biosynthesis. It is expressed in both sexes, is correlated with levels of aggression among male mice, and increases dramatically in females after <a href="/wiki/Parturition" class="mw-redirect" title="Parturition">parturition</a> and during <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>, corresponding to the onset of maternal aggression.<a href="#cite_note-Potegal,_M_1996._pp._869-880-81">[81]</a> At least one study has found a possible epigenetic signature (i.e., decreased methylation at a specific CpG site on the promoter region) of the serotonin receptor 5-HT3a that is associated with maternal aggression among human subjects.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27720744-85">[85]</a> Mice with experimentally elevated sensitivity to <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> (through inhibition of copper-zinc superoxide dismutase, <a href="/wiki/SOD1" title="SOD1">SOD1</a> activity) were tested for aggressive behavior.<a href="#cite_note-pmid25524980-114">[114]</a> Males completely deficient in <a href="/wiki/SOD1" title="SOD1">SOD1</a> were found to be more aggressive than both wild-type males and males that express 50% of this <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> enzyme. They were also faster to attack another male. The causal connection between SOD1 deficiency and increased aggression is not yet understood. In humans, there is good evidence that the basic human neural architecture underpinning the potential for flexible aggressive responses is influenced by genes as well as environment. In terms of variation between individual people, more than 100 <a href="/wiki/Twin_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Twin studies">twin and adoption studies</a> have been conducted in recent decades examining the genetic basis of aggressive behavior and related constructs such as conduct disorders. According to a <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> published in 2002, approximately 40% of variation between individuals is explained by differences in genes, and 60% by differences in environment (mainly non-shared environmental influences rather than those that would be shared by being raised together). However, such studies have depended on self-report or observation by others including parents, which complicates interpretation of the results. The few laboratory-based analyses have not found significant amounts of individual variation in aggression explicable by genetic variation in the human population. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">linkage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_association" title="Genetic association">association</a> studies that seek to identify specific genes, for example that influence neurotransmitter or hormone levels, have generally resulted in contradictory findings characterized by failed attempts at replication. One possible factor is an allele (variant) of the <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_oxidase_A" title="Monoamine oxidase A">MAO-A gene</a> which, in interaction with certain life events such as childhood maltreatment (which may show a <a href="/wiki/Main_effect" title="Main effect">main effect</a> on its own), can influence development of brain regions such as the amygdala and as a result some types of behavioral response may be more likely. The generally unclear picture has been compared to equally difficult findings obtained in regard to other complex behavioral phenotypes.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> For example, both 7R and 5R, <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">ADHD</a>-linked VNTR alleles of <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D4" title="Dopamine receptor D4">dopamine receptor D4 gene</a> are directly associated with the incidence of proactive aggression in the men with no history of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Humans">Humans</a> share aspects of aggression with non-human animals, and have specific aspects and complexity related to factors such as genetics, early development, social learning and flexibility, culture and morals. Konrad Lorenz stated in his 1963 classic, On Aggression, that human behavior is shaped by four main, survival-seeking animal drives. Taken together, these drives—hunger, fear, reproduction, and aggression—achieve natural selection.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a> elaborated in On Human Nature that aggression is, typically, a means of gaining control over resources. Aggression is, thus, aggravated during times when high population densities generate resource shortages.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> According to Richard Leakey and his colleagues, aggression in humans has also increased by becoming more interested in ownership and by defending his or her property.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> adopted the Seville <a href="/wiki/Seville_Statement_on_Violence" title="Seville Statement on Violence">Statement of Violence</a> in 1989 that refuted claims, by evolutionary scientists, that genetics by itself was the sole cause of aggression.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Social and cultural aspects may significantly interfere with the distinct expression of aggressiveness. For example, a high population density, when associated with a decrease of available resources, might be a significant intervening variable for the occurrence of violent acts.<a href="#cite_note-Bond04-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Copy_edit plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Copy_edit" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/36px-Acap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="36" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/54px-Acap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/72px-Acap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="50" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">copy editing</a> for proper paragraphing. Excessively long, run-on paragraphs need to be split into multiple paragraphs of moderate length. You can assist by <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Aggression" title="Special:EditPage/Aggression">editing it</a>. (September 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Culture is one factor that plays a role in aggression. <a href="/wiki/Tribal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal">Tribal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">band</a> societies existing before or outside of modern <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a> have sometimes been depicted as peaceful '<a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">noble savages</a>'. The <a href="/wiki/%C7%83Kung_people" title="ǃKung people">ǃKung people</a> were described as 'The Harmless People' in a popular work by <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Marshall_Thomas" title="Elizabeth Marshall Thomas">Elizabeth Marshall Thomas</a> in 1958,<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> while Lawrence Keeley's 1996 <a href="/wiki/War_Before_Civilization" title="War Before Civilization">War Before Civilization</a> suggested that regular <a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a> without modern technology was conducted by most groups throughout human history, including most <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native American</a> tribes.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Studies of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunter-gatherers">hunter-gatherers</a> show a range of different societies. In general, aggression, conflict and violence sometimes occur, but direct confrontation is generally avoided and conflict is socially managed by a variety of verbal and non-verbal methods. Different rates of aggression or violence, currently or in the past, within or between groups, have been linked to the structuring of societies and environmental conditions influencing factors such as <a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">resource</a> or <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> acquisition, <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_subsistence_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="List of subsistence techniques">subsistence</a> techniques, and <a href="/wiki/Population_change" title="Population change">population change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> American psychologist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gray_(psychologist)" title="Peter Gray (psychologist)">Peter Gray</a> hypothesizes that band hunter-gatherer societies are able to reduce aggression while maintaining relatively peaceful, <a href="/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a> relations between members through various methods, such as fostering a <a href="/wiki/Playful" class="mw-redirect" title="Playful">playful</a> spirit in all areas of life, the use of humor to counter the tendency of any one person to dominate the group, and non-coercive or "indulgent" child-rearing practices. Gray likens hunter-gatherer bands to social play groups, while stressing that such play is not frivolous or even easy at all times.<a href="#cite_note-PlayFoundation-127">[127]</a> According to Gray, "Social play—that is, play involving more than one player—is necessarily egalitarian. It always requires a suspension of aggression and dominance along with a heightened sensitivity to the needs and desires of the other players".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Joan Durrant at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manitoba" title="University of Manitoba">University of Manitoba</a> writes that a number of studies have found <a href="/wiki/Physical_punishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical punishment">physical punishment</a> to be associated with "higher levels of aggression against parents, siblings, peers and spouses", even when controlling for other factors.<a href="#cite_note-Lessons-129">[129]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gershoff" title="Elizabeth Gershoff">Elizabeth Gershoff</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a>, the more that children are physically punished, the more likely they are as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> In countries where physical punishment of children is perceived as being more culturally accepted, it is less strongly associated with increased aggression; however, physical punishment has been found to predict some increase in child aggression regardless of culture.<a href="#cite_note-SocialSciences-131">[131]</a> While these associations do not prove <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>, a number of <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">longitudinal studies</a> suggest that the experience of physical punishment has a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-Lessons-129">[129]</a> In examining several longitudinal studies that investigated the path from disciplinary <a href="/wiki/Spanking" title="Spanking">spanking</a> to aggression in children from preschool age through adolescence, Gershoff concluded: "Spanking consistently predicted increases in children's aggression over time, regardless of how aggressive children were when the spanking occurred".<a href="#cite_note-Development-132">[132]</a> similar results were found by Catherine Taylor at <a href="/wiki/Tulane_University" title="Tulane University">Tulane University</a> in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Family violence researcher <a href="/wiki/Murray_A._Straus" title="Murray A. Straus">Murray A. Straus</a> argues, "There are many reasons this evidence has been ignored. One of the most important is the belief that spanking is more effective than nonviolent discipline and is, therefore, sometimes necessary, despite the risk of harmful side effects".<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Analyzing aggression culturally or politically is complicated by the fact that the <a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">label</a> 'aggressive' can itself be used as a way of asserting a judgement from a particular point of view.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] Whether a <a href="/wiki/Coercive" class="mw-redirect" title="Coercive">coercive</a> or violent method of social control is perceived as aggression – or as legitimate versus illegitimate aggression – depends on the position of the relevant parties in relation to the social order of their culture. This in turn can relate to factors such as: norms for coordinating actions and dividing resources; what is considered self-defense or provocation; attitudes towards 'outsiders', attitudes towards specific groups such as women, disabled people or those with lower status; the availability of alternative conflict resolution strategies; <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> interdependence and <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a> pacts; fears and impulses; and ultimate goals regarding material and social outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-Bond04-123">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural" title="Cross-cultural">Cross-cultural</a> research has found differences in attitudes towards aggression in different cultures. In one questionnaire study of university students, in addition to men overall justifying some types of aggression more than women, United States respondents justified defensive physical aggression more readily than Japanese or Spanish respondents, whereas Japanese students preferred direct verbal aggression (but not indirect) more than their American and Spanish counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Within American culture, <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">southern</a> men were shown in a study on university students to be more affected and to respond more aggressively than northerners when randomly insulted after being bumped into, which was theoretically related to a traditional <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_honor_(Southern_United_States)" title="Culture of honor (Southern United States)">culture of honor in the Southern United States</a>, or "<a href="/wiki/Face_(sociological_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Face (sociological concept)">saving face</a>."<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Other cultural themes sometimes applied to the study of aggression include <a href="/wiki/Individualistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualistic">individualistic</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivist</a> styles, which may relate, for example, to whether disputes are responded to with open competition or by accommodating and <a href="/wiki/Conflict_avoidance" title="Conflict avoidance">avoiding conflicts</a>. In a study including 62 countries school principals reported aggressive student behavior more often the more individualist, and hence less collectivist, their country's culture.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Other comparisons made in relation to aggression or war include <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Political_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Political systems">political systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratified</a> societies.<a href="#cite_note-Bond04-123">[123]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">economic system</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> has been viewed by some as reliant on the <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">leveraging</a> of human competitiveness and aggression in pursuit of resources and trade, which has been considered in both positive and negative terms.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Attitudes about the social acceptability of particular acts or targets of aggression are also important factors. This can be highly controversial, as for example in disputes between religions or nation states, for example in regard to the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-amjad-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Media">Media</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Media_violence_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Media violence research">Media violence research</a></div> Some scholars believe that behaviors like aggression may be partially learned by watching and imitating people's behavior, while other researchers have concluded that the media may have some small effects on aggression.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> There is also research questioning this view.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> For instance, a long-term outcome study of youth found no long-term relationship between playing violent video games and youth violence or bullying.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> One study suggested there is a smaller effect of violent video games on aggression than has been found with <a href="/wiki/Research_on_the_effects_of_violence_in_mass_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Research on the effects of violence in mass media">television violence</a> on aggression. This effect is positively associated with type of game violence and <a href="/wiki/Inverse_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse relationship">negatively associated</a> to time spent playing the games.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The author concluded that insufficient evidence exists to link video game violence with aggression. However, another study suggested links to aggressive behavior.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Children">Children</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Children">edit</a>]</div> The frequency of physical aggression in humans peaks at around 2–3 years of age. It then declines gradually on average.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> These observations suggest that physical aggression is not only a learned behavior but that development provides opportunities for the learning and biological development of self-regulation. However, a small subset of children fail to acquire all the necessary self-regulatory abilities and tend to show atypical levels of physical aggression across development. They may be at risk for later violent behavior or, conversely, lack of aggression that may be considered necessary within society. However, some findings suggest that early aggression does not necessarily lead to aggression later on, although the course through early childhood is an important predictor of outcomes in middle childhood. In addition, physical aggression that continues is likely occurring in the context of family adversity, including socioeconomic factors. Moreover, 'opposition' and 'status violations' in childhood appear to be more strongly linked to social problems in adulthood than simply aggressive antisocial behavior.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Social learning through interactions in early childhood has been seen as a building block for levels of aggression which play a crucial role in the development of peer relationships in middle childhood.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Overall, an interplay of biological, social and environmental factors can be considered.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Some research indicates that changes in the weather can increase the likelihood of children exhibiting deviant behavior.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Typical_expectations">Typical expectations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Typical expectations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Young children preparing to enter kindergarten need to develop the socially important skill of being <a href="/wiki/Assertive" class="mw-redirect" title="Assertive">assertive</a>. Examples of assertiveness include asking others for information, initiating conversation, or being able to respond to <a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">peer pressure</a>.</li> <li>In contrast, some young children use aggressive behavior, such as hitting or biting, as a form of communication.</li> <li>Aggressive behavior can impede learning as a skill deficit, while assertive behavior can facilitate learning. However, with young children, aggressive behavior is developmentally appropriate and can lead to opportunities of building conflict resolution and communication skills.</li> <li>By school age, children should learn more socially appropriate forms of communicating such as expressing themselves through verbal or written language; if they have not, this behavior may signify a disability or developmental delay.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aggression_triggers">Aggression triggers</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Aggression triggers">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">Physical fear of others</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysfunctional_family" title="Dysfunctional family">Family difficulties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning disorder">Learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">conduct/behavior disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">Psychological trauma</a></li></ul> The <a href="/wiki/Bobo_doll_experiment" title="Bobo doll experiment">Bobo doll experiment</a> was conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961. In this work, Bandura found that children exposed to an aggressive adult model acted more aggressively than those who were exposed to a nonaggressive adult model. This experiment suggests that anyone who comes in contact with and interacts with children can affect the way they react and handle situations.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> <dl><dt>Summary points from recommendations by national associations</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> (2011): "The best way to prevent aggressive behavior is to give your child a stable, secure home life with firm, loving discipline and full-time supervision during the toddler and preschool years. Everyone who cares for your child should be a good role model and agree on the rules he's expected to observe as well as the response to use if he disobeys."<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_School_Psychologists" title="National Association of School Psychologists">National Association of School Psychologists</a> (2008): "Proactive aggression is typically reasoned, unemotional, and focused on acquiring some goal. For example, a bully wants peer approval and victim submission, and gang members want status and control. In contrast, reactive aggression is frequently highly emotional and is often the result of biased or deficient cognitive processing on the part of the student."<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_2">Gender</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Gender">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sex_and_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex and psychology">Sex and psychology</a></div> Gender is a factor that plays a role in both human and animal aggression. Males are historically believed to be generally more physically aggressive than females from an early age,<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> and men commit the vast majority of murders (Buss 2005). This is one of the most robust and reliable behavioral sex differences, and it has been found across many different age groups and cultures. However, some <a href="/wiki/Empirical_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical studies">empirical studies</a> have found the discrepancy in male and female aggression to be more pronounced in childhood and the gender difference in adults to be modest when studied in an experimental context.<a href="#cite_note-pmid3797558-57">[57]</a> Still, there is evidence that males are quicker to aggression (Frey et al. 2003) and more likely than females to express their aggression physically.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> When considering indirect forms of non-violent aggression, such as <a href="/wiki/Relational_aggression" title="Relational aggression">relational aggression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_rejection" title="Social rejection">social rejection</a>, some scientists argue that females can be quite aggressive, although female aggression is rarely expressed physically.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> An exception is <a href="/wiki/Intimate_partner_violence" title="Intimate partner violence">intimate partner violence</a> that occurs among couples who are engaged, married, or in some other form of intimate relationship. Although females are less likely than males to initiate physical violence, they can express aggression by using a variety of non-physical means. Exactly which method women use to express aggression is something that varies from culture to culture. On <a href="/wiki/Bellona_Island" title="Bellona Island">Bellona Island</a>, a culture based on male dominance and physical <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>, women tend to get into conflicts with other women more frequently than with men. When in conflict with males, instead of using physical means, they make up songs mocking the man, which spread across the island and humiliate him. If a woman wanted to kill a man, she would either convince her male relatives to kill him or hire an assassin. Although these two methods involve physical violence, both are forms of indirect aggression, since the aggressor herself avoids getting directly involved or putting herself in immediate physical danger.<a href="#cite_note-bjorkqvist-162">[162]</a> See also the sections on <a href="#Testosterone">testosterone</a> and <a href="#Evolutionary_explanations">evolutionary explanations</a> for gender differences above. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Situational_factors">Situational factors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Situational factors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">Stereotype threat</a></div> There has been some links between those prone to violence and their alcohol use. Those who are prone to violence and use alcohol are more likely to carry out violent acts.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Alcohol impairs judgment, making people much less cautious than they usually are (MacDonald et al. 1996). It also disrupts the way information is processed (Bushman 1993, 1997; Bushman & Cooper 1990). Pain and discomfort also increase aggression. Even the simple act of placing one's hands in hot water can cause an aggressive response. Hot temperatures have been implicated as a factor in a number of studies. One study completed in the midst of the civil rights movement found that riots were more likely on hotter days than cooler ones (Carlsmith & Anderson 1979). Students were found to be more aggressive and irritable after taking a test in a hot classroom (Anderson et al. 1996, Rule, et al. 1987). Drivers in cars without air conditioning were also found to be more likely to honk their horns (Kenrick & MacFarlane 1986), which is used as a measure of aggression and has shown links to other factors such as generic symbols of aggression or the visibility of other drivers.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Frustration is another major cause of aggression.<a href="#cite_note-pmid2667009-165">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Frustration_aggression_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Frustration aggression theory">Frustration aggression theory</a> states that aggression increases if a person feels that he or she is being blocked from achieving a goal (Aronson et al. 2005). One study found that the closeness to the goal makes a difference. The study examined people waiting in line and concluded that the 2nd person was more aggressive than the 12th one when someone cut in line (Harris 1974). Unexpected frustration may be another factor. In a separate study to demonstrate how unexpected frustration leads to increased aggression, Kulik & Brown (1979) selected a group of students as volunteers to make calls for charity donations. One group was told that the people they would call would be generous and the collection would be very successful. The other group was given no expectations. The group that expected success was more upset when no one was pledging than the group who did not expect success (everyone actually had horrible success). This research suggests that when an expectation does not materialize (successful collections), unexpected frustration arises which increases aggression. There is some evidence to suggest that the presence of violent objects such as a gun can trigger aggression. In a study done by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Berkowitz" title="Leonard Berkowitz">Leonard Berkowitz</a> and Anthony Le Page (1967), college students were made angry and then left in the presence of a gun or badminton racket. They were then led to believe they were delivering electric shocks to another student, as in the <a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a>. Those who had been in the presence of the gun administered more shocks. It is possible that a violence-related stimulus increases the likelihood of aggressive cognitions by activating the <a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">semantic network</a>. A new proposal links military experience to anger and aggression, developing aggressive reactions and investigating these effects on those possessing the traits of a serial killer. Castle and Hensley state, "The military provides the social context where servicemen learn aggression, violence, and murder."<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">Post-traumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD) is also a serious issue in the military, also believed to sometimes lead to aggression in soldiers who are suffering from what they witnessed in battle. They come back to the civilian world and may still be haunted by flashbacks and nightmares, causing severe stress. In addition, it has been claimed that in the rare minority who are claimed to be inclined toward serial killing, violent impulses may be reinforced and refined in war, possibly creating more effective murderers.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_positive_adaptation_theory">As a positive adaptation theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: As a positive adaptation theory">edit</a>]</div> Some recent scholarship has questioned traditional psychological conceptualizations of aggression as universally negative.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_&_Beaver,_2009-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Most traditional psychological definitions of aggression focus on the harm to the recipient of the aggression, implying this is the intent of the aggressor; however this may not always be the case.<a href="#cite_note-Smith,_2007-169">[169]</a> From this alternate view, although the recipient may or may not be harmed, the perceived intent is to increase the status of the aggressor, not necessarily to harm the recipient.<a href="#cite_note-Hawley_&_Vaughn,_2003-170">[170]</a> Such scholars contend that traditional definitions of aggression have no validity because of how challenging it is to study directly.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> From this view, rather than concepts such as assertiveness, aggression, violence and criminal violence existing as distinct constructs, they exist instead along a continuum with moderate levels of aggression being most adaptive.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_&_Beaver,_2009-41">[41]</a> Such scholars do not consider this a trivial difference, noting that many traditional researchers' aggression measurements may measure outcomes lower down in the continuum, at levels which are adaptive, yet they generalize their findings to non-adaptive levels of aggression, thus losing precision.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson,_2010-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggressionism" title="Aggressionism">Aggressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggressive_narcissism" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggressive narcissism">Aggressive narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Conflict (disambiguation)">Conflict (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displaced_aggression" title="Displaced aggression">Displaced aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Duelling">Duelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frustration-Aggression_Hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis">Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero_syndrome" title="Hero syndrome">Hero syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_homini_lupus" title="Homo homini lupus">Homo homini lupus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microaggression" title="Microaggression">Microaggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact" title="Non-aggression pact">Non-aggression pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">Non-aggression principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_abuse_by_children" title="Parental abuse by children">Parental abuse by children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_aggressive_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive aggressive behavior">Passive aggressive behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rage_(emotion)" title="Rage (emotion)">Rage (emotion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_aggression" title="Relational aggression">Relational aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_holding_potential" title="Resource holding potential">Resource holding potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge" title="Revenge">Revenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_bullying" title="School bullying">School bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_violence" title="School violence">School violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_defeat" title="Social defeat">Social defeat</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output 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Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 49 (3): 239–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fmpq.2003.0012">10.1353/mpq.2003.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23096055">23096055</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54998386">54998386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Merrill-Palmer+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Aggression+and+Adaptive+Functioning%3A+The+Bright+Side+to+Bad+Behavior&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=239-42&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54998386%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23096055%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fmpq.2003.0012&rft.aulast=Hawley&rft.aufirst=Patricia+H.&rft.au=Vaughn%2C+Brian+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAggression" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBjørkly2006" class="citation cs2">Bjørkly, Stâl (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-33965-8_2">"Psychological Theories of Aggression: Principles and Application to Practice"</a>, Violence in Mental Health Settings, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 27–46, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-33965-8_2">10.1007/978-0-387-33965-8_2</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-33964-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-33964-1"><bdi>978-0-387-33964-1</bdi></a>, retrieved 5 May 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Violence+in+Mental+Health+Settings&rft.atitle=Psychological+Theories+of+Aggression%3A+Principles+and+Application+to+Practice&rft.pages=27-46&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-33965-8_2&rft.isbn=978-0-387-33964-1&rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B8rkly&rft.aufirst=St%C3%A2l&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-33965-8_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAggression" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferguson,_2010-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Ferguson,_2010_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ferguson, Christopher J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/gpr-14-2-68.pdf">"Blazing angels or resident evil? Can violent video games be a force for good?"</a> (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 14 (2): 68–81. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.360.3176">10.1.1.360.3176</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0018941">10.1037/a0018941</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3053432">3053432</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+General+Psychology&rft.atitle=Blazing+angels+or+resident+evil%3F+Can+violent+video+games+be+a+force+for+good%3F&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=68-81&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.360.3176%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3053432%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0018941&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fpubs%2Fjournals%2Freleases%2Fgpr-14-2-68.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAggression" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>R. Douglas Fields, "The Roots of Human Aggression: Experiments in humans and animals have started to identify how violent behaviors begin in the brain", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 320, no. 5 (May 2019), pp. 64–71. "Decisions to take aggressive action are risky and bring into play specific neural circuits." (p. 66.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggression&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Aggression" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Aggression">Aggression</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120303110227/http://familylives.org.uk/docs/the_aggression_report_2011_family_lives.pdf">When Family Life Hurts: Family experience of aggression in children – Parentline plus, 31 October 2010</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.elsevier.com/aggression-and-violent-behavior/">Aggression and Violent Behavior, a Review Journal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.israsociety.com/">International Society for Research on Aggression (ISRA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rint.rechten.rug.nl/rth/dennen/problem1.htm">Problems in the Concepts and Definitions of Aggression, Violence and some Related Terms</a> by Johan van der Dennen, originally published in 1980</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.ucm.es/8423/2/Aggression-assymetries.pdf">Aggression and brain asymmetry</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170812220031/http://eprints.ucm.es/8423/2/Aggression-assymetries.pdf">Archived</a> 12 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impacts_of_cars" title="Societal impacts of cars">Societal impacts of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Category:Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary 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style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modalities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modalities</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blushing" title="Blushing">Blushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">Body language</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kinesics" title="Kinesics">Kinesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body-to-body_communication" title="Body-to-body communication">Body-to-body communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facial_Action_Coding_System" title="Facial Action Coding System">Facial Action Coding System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_expression" title="Subtle expression">Subtle expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">Gesture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gestures" title="List of gestures">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech-independent_gestures" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-independent gestures">Speech-independent gestures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_communication" title="Haptic communication">Haptic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imitation" title="Imitation">Imitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronization#Human_movement" title="Synchronization">Interpersonal synchrony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laughter" title="Laughter">Laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculesics" title="Oculesics">Oculesics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_contact" title="Eye contact">Eye contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupillary_response" title="Pupillary response">Pupil dilation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactic_communication" title="Olfactic communication">Olfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posture_(psychology)" title="Posture (psychology)">Posture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxemics" title="Proxemics">Proxemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_prosody" title="Emotional prosody">Emotional prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralanguage" title="Paralanguage">Paralanguage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">Loudness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Voice quality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social context</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-context_and_low-context_cultures" title="High-context and low-context cultures">High-context and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emoticon" title="Emoticon">Emoticon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Smiley" title="Smiley">Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-bit_message" title="One-bit message">One-bit message</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_service_code" title="Silent service code">Silent service code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unconscious_communication" title="Unconscious communication">Unconscious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-verbal_leakage" title="Non-verbal leakage">Non-verbal leakage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multi-faceted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Affect display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition" title="Emotion recognition">Emotion recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impression_(psychology)" title="First impression (psychology)">First impression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Broader_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Broader concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_interpersonal_communicative_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic interpersonal communicative skills">Basic interpersonal communicative skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunchi" title="Nunchi">Nunchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_skills" title="People skills">People skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cue" title="Social cue">Social cue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_competence" title="Social competence">Social competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">Social skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsaid" title="Unsaid">Unsaid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_information" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further information</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aprosodia" title="Aprosodia">Aprosodia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder" title="Childhood disintegrative disorder">Childhood disintegrative disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyssemia" title="Dyssemia">Dyssemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">Nonverbal learning disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_(pragmatic)_communication_disorder" title="Social (pragmatic) communication disorder">Social (pragmatic) communication disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">Mirror neuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">Lie detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudian_slip" title="Freudian slip">Freudian slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(poker)" title="Tell (poker)">Poker tell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_(advertising)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention (advertising)">Targeted advertising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_processing_of_body_language" title="Computer processing of body language">Computer processing of body language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation" title="Emotion recognition in conversation">Emotion recognition in conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_facial_expression_databases" title="List of facial expression databases">List of facial expression databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistell" title="Ray Birdwhistell">Ray Birdwhistell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_communication" title="Behavioral communication">Behavioral communication</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aggressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">Assertive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impression_management" title="Impression management">Impression management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastic_sign_languages" title="Monastic sign languages">Monastic sign lexicons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Verbal communication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-verbal language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_signing" title="Tactile signing">Tactile signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadoma" title="Tadoma">Tadoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art and literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mime_artist" title="Mime artist">Mime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimoplastic_art" title="Mimoplastic art">Mimoplastic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtext" title="Subtext">Subtext</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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