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class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Role in society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_scholars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_scholars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Independent scholars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_scholars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1" title="دانشور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دانشور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chercheur_universitaire" title="Chercheur universitaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chercheur universitaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%99%EC%9E%90" title="학자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="학자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विद्वान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विद्वान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cendekiawan" title="Cendekiawan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Cendekiawan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B8" title="ವಿದ್ವಾಂಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿದ್ವಾಂಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E8%80%85" title="学者 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="学者" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1" title="دانشور – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="دانشور" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znalec" title="Znalec – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Znalec" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Person who pursues academic and intellectual activities</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Scholar_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Scholar (disambiguation)">Scholar (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout_003.jpg/240px-Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout_003.jpg/360px-Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout_003.jpg/480px-Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2081" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Scholar and His Books</i> by <a href="/wiki/Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout" title="Gerbrand van den Eeckhout">Gerbrand van den Eeckhout</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>scholar</b> is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a>. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">advanced degree</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Terminal_degree" title="Terminal degree">terminal degree</a>, such as a master's degree or a doctorate (PhD). Independent scholars and <a href="/wiki/Public_intellectual" class="mw-redirect" title="Public intellectual">public intellectuals</a> work outside the academy yet may publish in academic journals and participate in scholarly public discussion. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scholar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contemporary English usage, the term <i>scholar</i> sometimes is equivalent to the term <i>academic</i>, and describes a university-educated individual who has achieved intellectual mastery of an academic discipline, as instructor and as researcher. Moreover, before the establishment of universities, the term <i>scholar</i> identified and described an intellectual person whose primary occupation was professional research. In 1847, minister <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Vogel_Gerhart" title="Emanuel Vogel Gerhart">Emanuel Vogel Gerhart</a> spoke of the role of the scholar in society: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[A] scholar [is one] whose whole inward intellectual and moral being has been symmetrically unfolded, disciplined and strengthened under the influence of truth... No one faculty should be drawn out to the neglect of others. The whole inner man should be unfolded harmoniously.<sup id="cite_ref-Gerhart_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerhart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Gerhart argued that a scholar can not be focused on a single discipline, contending that knowledge of multiple disciplines is necessary to put each into context and to inform the development of each: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[T]o be a scholar involves more than mere learning... A genuine scholar possesses something more: he penetrates and understands the principle and laws of the particular department of human knowledge with which he professes acquaintance. He imbibes the life of Science... [and] his mind is transfused and moulded by its energy and spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-Gerhart_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerhart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A 2011 examination outlined the following attributes commonly accorded to scholars as "described by many writers, with some slight variations in the definition":<sup id="cite_ref-Meleis_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meleis-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The common themes are that a scholar is a person who has a high intellectual ability, is an independent thinker and an independent actor, has ideas that stand apart from others, is persistent in her quest for developing knowledge, is systematic, has unconditional integrity, has intellectual honesty, has some convictions, and stands alone to support these convictions.<sup id="cite_ref-Meleis_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meleis-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Scholars may rely on the <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_method" title="Scholarly method">scholarly method</a> or scholarship, a body of <a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">principles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Practice_(social_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Practice (social theory)">practices</a> used by scholars to make their claims about the world as valid and trustworthy as possible, and to make them known to the scholarly public. It is the methods that systemically advance the teaching, research, and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/practice" class="extiw" title="wikt:practice">practice</a> of a given scholarly or academic field of study through <a href="/wiki/Rigour" title="Rigour">rigorous</a> inquiry. Scholarship is creative, can be documented, can be replicated or elaborated, and can be and is <a href="/wiki/Peer-reviewed" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-reviewed">peer-reviewed</a> through various methods.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_society">Role in society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scholar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Role in society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars have generally been upheld as creditable figures of high social standing, who are engaged in work important to society. In <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a>, in the period from 206 BC until AD 1912, the intellectuals were the <i><a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">Scholar-officials</a></i> ("Scholar-gentlemen"), who were civil servants appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> to perform the tasks of daily governance. Such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">Imperial examination</a>, and also were skilled <a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">calligraphers</a>, and knew <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one. It was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Joseon_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon Korea">Joseon Korea</a> (1392–1910), the intellectuals were the <i>literati</i>, who knew how to read and write, and had been designated, as the <a href="/wiki/Chungin" class="mw-redirect" title="Chungin">chungin</a> (the "middle people"), in accordance with the Confucian system. Socially, they constituted the <a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">petite bourgeoisie</a>, composed of scholar-bureaucrats (scholars, professionals, and technicians) who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his 1847 address, Emmanuel Vogel Gerhart asserted that scholars have an obligation to rigorously continue their studies, so as to remain aware of new knowledge being generated,<sup id="cite_ref-Gerhart_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerhart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to contribute their own insights to the body of knowledge available to all: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The progress of science involves momentous interests. It merits the attention of all sincere lovers of truth. Every ...scholar is under obligations to contribute towards the ever-progressive unfolding of its riches and power. [They]...should combine their energies to bring to view what has eluded the keen vision of those men of noble intellectual stature who have lived and died before them.<sup id="cite_ref-Gerhart_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerhart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Many scholars are also professors engaged in the teaching of others. In a number of countries, the title "Research Professor" refers to a person who is primarily engaged in research, and who has few or no teaching obligations. The title is used in this sense in the United Kingdom, where it is known as Research Professor at some universities, and Professorial Research Fellow at other institutions and in northern Europe. </p><p>Research Professor is quite often the most senior rank of a research-focused career in the U.K and northern Europe, and regarded as equal in rank, to a teaching full professorship. Frequently, the job of research professor has permanent employment, like a tenured professor in the U.S., and the position is held by a particularly distinguished scholar. Thus, the title is seen as more prestigious than a teaching full professorship. </p><p>A research professorship, has a somewhat similar sense of prestige in the <a href="/wiki/Professors_in_the_United_States#Research_professor" title="Professors in the United States">United States</a>, with an exception that research professors in the U.S. are often non-permanent positions, that must fund their salaries from external sources.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is not the case in most other countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Independent_scholars">Independent scholars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scholar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Independent scholars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <b>independent scholar</b> is anyone who conducts scholarly research outside universities and traditional <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>. In 2010, twelve percent of US history scholars were independent.<sup id="cite_ref-ubc_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ubc-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Independent scholars typically have a Master's degree or PhD.<sup id="cite_ref-ubc_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ubc-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In history, independent scholars can be differentiated from popular history hosts for television shows and amateur historians "by the level to which their publications utilize the analytical rigour and academic writing style".<sup id="cite_ref-ubc_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ubc-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In previous centuries, some independent scholars achieved renown, such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> during the 18th century and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> in the 19th century, and <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Steven_Runciman" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Steven Runciman">Sir Steven Runciman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Davidsohn" title="Robert Davidsohn">Robert Davidsohn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Sandars" title="Nancy Sandars">Nancy Sandars</a> in the 20th century. There was also a tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Man_of_letters" class="mw-redirect" title="Man of letters">man of letters</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Waugh" title="Evelyn Waugh">Evelyn Waugh</a>. The term "man of letters" derives from the French term <i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">belletrist</a></i> or <i>homme de lettres</i> but is not synonymous with "an academic".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term <i>Belletrist(s)</i> came to be applied to the <i>literati</i>: the French participants in—sometimes referred to as "citizens" of—the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Letters" title="Republic of Letters">Republic of Letters</a>, which evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salon</a> aimed at edification, education, and cultural refinement. </p><p>In the United States, a <a href="/wiki/Professional_association" title="Professional association">professional association</a> exists for independent scholars: this association is the <a href="/wiki/National_Coalition_of_Independent_Scholars" title="National Coalition of Independent Scholars">National Coalition of Independent Scholars</a>. In Canada, the equivalent professional association is the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Academy_of_Independent_Scholars" title="Canadian Academy of Independent Scholars">Canadian Academy of Independent Scholars</a> (in association with <a href="/wiki/Simon_Fraser_University" title="Simon Fraser University">Simon Fraser University</a>). Similar organizations exist around the world. Membership in a professional association generally entails a degree of post-secondary education and established research.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When independent scholars participate in academic conferences, they may be referred to as an unaffiliated scholar, since they do not hold a position in a university or other institution. </p><p>While independent scholars may earn an income from part-time teaching, speaking engagements, or consultant work, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia" title="University of British Columbia">University of British Columbia</a> calls earning an income the biggest challenge of being an independent scholar.<sup id="cite_ref-ubc_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ubc-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to challenges of making a living as a scholar without an academic position, "[m]any independent scholars depend on having a gainfully employed partner".<sup id="cite_ref-ubc_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ubc-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To get access to libraries and other research facilities, independent scholars have to seek permission from universities.<sup id="cite_ref-ubc_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ubc-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writer Megan Kate Nelson's article "Stop Calling Me Independent" says the term "marginalizes unaffiliated scholars" and is unfairly seen as an indicator of "professional failure".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rebecca Bodenheimer says that independent scholars, like herself, attending conferences and who also do not have a university name on their official name badge, feel like the "independent scholar" term is perceived as a "signal that a scholar is either unwanted by the academy or unwilling to commit to the sacrifices necessary to succeed as an academic".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scholar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scholars" title="Category:Scholars">Category:Scholars</a> – The category of scholars, people who study a field</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholarism" title="Scholarism">Scholarism</a> (學民思潮) Hong Kong political movement</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholarship" title="Scholarship">Scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">Autodidacticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">Citizen science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scholar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gerhart-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gerhart_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gerhart_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gerhart_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gerhart_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Emanuel Vogel Gerhart, <i>The Proper Vocation of a Scholar: An Address, Delivered at the Opening of the New Diagnothian Hall</i> (July 2, 1847).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meleis-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meleis_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meleis_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Afaf Ibrahim Meleis, <i>Theoretical Nursing: Development and Progress</i> (2011), p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aacn.nche.edu/publications/position/defining-scholarship">Aacn.nche.edu, Retrieved 15OCT2012</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170715161405/http://www.aacn.nche.edu/publications/position/defining-scholarship">Archived</a> 2017-07-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Alexander_Moore1967" class="citation book cs1">Charles Alexander Moore, ed. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_DoyN2h56ucC&pg=PA22"><i>The Chinese Mind: Essentials of Chinese Philosophy and Culture</i></a>. U of Hawaii Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824800758" title="Special:BookSources/9780824800758"><bdi>9780824800758</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Mind%3A+Essentials+of+Chinese+Philosophy+and+Culture&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=U+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780824800758&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_DoyN2h56ucC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScholar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Korea_Foundation2016" class="citation book cs1">The Korea Foundation (February 12, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WkmOCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT73"><i>Koreana – Winter 2015</i></a>. 한국국제교류재단. pp. <span class="nowrap">73–</span>74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9791156041573" title="Special:BookSources/9791156041573"><bdi>9791156041573</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Koreana+%E2%80%93+Winter+2015&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E74&rft.pub=%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EA%B5%AD%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%90%EB%A5%98%EC%9E%AC%EB%8B%A8&rft.date=2016-02-12&rft.isbn=9791156041573&rft.au=The+Korea+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWkmOCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScholar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bu.edu/handbook/appointments-and-promotions/classification-of-ranks-and-titles/">"Classification of Ranks and Titles | Faculty Handbook"</a>. <i>www.bu.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180709172613/https://www.bu.edu/handbook/appointments-and-promotions/classification-of-ranks-and-titles/">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-04-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bu.edu&rft.atitle=Classification+of+Ranks+and+Titles+%7C+Faculty+Handbook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bu.edu%2Fhandbook%2Fappointments-and-promotions%2Fclassification-of-ranks-and-titles%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScholar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ubc-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ubc_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ubc_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ubc_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ubc_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ubc_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ubc_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.ubc.ca/career-resources/independent-scholars/">"Independent Scholars"</a>. <i>history.ubc.ca</i>. UBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200323201732/https://history.ubc.ca/career-resources/independent-scholars/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.ubc.ca&rft.atitle=Independent+Scholars&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.ubc.ca%2Fcareer-resources%2Findependent-scholars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScholar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Oxford English Reference Dictionary</i> Second Edition, (1996) p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The New Cassel's French–English, English–French Dictionary</i> (1962) p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross1993" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Ronald (1993). <i>The Independent Scholar's Handbook</i>. Berkeley, CA: <a href="/wiki/Ten_Speed_Press" title="Ten Speed Press">Ten Speed Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89815-521-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-89815-521-5"><bdi>0-89815-521-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Independent+Scholar%27s+Handbook&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=Ten+Speed+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-89815-521-5&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScholar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross1991" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Ronald (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peaklearninghowt00gros_0"><i>Peak Learning: How to Create Your Own Lifelong Education Program for Personal Enlightenment and Professional Success</i></a></span>. New York City: J.P. Tarcher. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87477-957-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87477-957-X"><bdi>0-87477-957-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peak+Learning%3A+How+to+Create+Your+Own+Lifelong+Education+Program+for+Personal+Enlightenment+and+Professional+Success&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=J.P.+Tarcher&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-87477-957-X&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeaklearninghowt00gros_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScholar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2017" class="citation web cs1">Nelson, Megan (8 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/Stop-Calling-Me-Independent/241376">"Stop Calling Me Independent"</a>. <i>The Chronicle</i>. Chronicle of Higher Education. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200323204915/https://www.chronicle.com/article/Stop-Calling-Me-Independent/241376">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Stop+Calling+Me+Independent&rft.date=2017-10-08&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Megan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronicle.com%2Farticle%2FStop-Calling-Me-Independent%2F241376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScholar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodenheimer2017" class="citation web cs1">Bodenheimer, Rebecca (29 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2017/08/29/difficulties-and-frustrations-attending-academic-conference-independent-scholar">"The Plight of the Independent Scholar"</a>. <i>insidehighered.com</i>. Inside Higher Ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200323204923/https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2017/08/29/difficulties-and-frustrations-attending-academic-conference-independent-scholar">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=insidehighered.com&rft.atitle=The+Plight+of+the+Independent+Scholar&rft.date=2017-08-29&rft.aulast=Bodenheimer&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidehighered.com%2Fadvice%2F2017%2F08%2F29%2Fdifficulties-and-frustrations-attending-academic-conference-independent-scholar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScholar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scholar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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