Bicentenary of Lord Kelvin

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about="/history/bicentenary-lord-kelvin" class="page full clearfix"> <div class="content"> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="iec-full-width iec-bg-grey"> <div class="container"> <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row iec-fixed-row-bg "> <div data-region="r5c627bcf91f79c5c627bcf91f7d" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-12 iec-col "> <section class="block block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-overview-header clearfix iec-overview-block iec-full-width with-margin banner-body-empty" style="background-image:url(/system/files/styles/original_image/private/2023-12/bg_bicentenary.jpg?itok=-00Iv9tR);"> <div class="iec-overview-block-content"> <div class="container"> <div class="iec-overview-block-text"> <h1 class="text-block-title field--name-field-title condensed">The bicentenary of Lord Kelvin’s birth</h1> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="iec-full-width iec-bg-grey"> <div class="container"> <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row iec-fixed-row-bg "> <div data-region="r5c6a7519a1a4ac5c6a7519a1a4e" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-3 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7655"> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><img alt="Lord Kelvin" data-entity-type="file" data-entity-uuid="53e2abc2-27e8-46a4-ab89-c0270bf38759" src="/system/files/inline-images/lordKelvin.jpg" width="90%" class="align-center" height="1209"></div> </div> </section> </div> <div data-region="r5c6a7519a1a4ac5c6a752eba8b9" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-9 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7816"> <div class="text-block-header" style="text-align:left;"> <h2 class="text-block-title condensed" style="font-size:34px;" id="article-header-id-7816-the-genius-of-lord-kelvin"> The genius of Lord Kelvin </h1> </div> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p>Born 200 years ago on June 26, William Thomson was the first scientist to be elevated to Britain's House of Lords. Baron Kelvin of Largs, as he became, was also an accomplished engineer. Indeed, his contemporaries held him in such high esteem that when he died, in 1907, they laid him to rest next to Sir Isaac Newton, in Westminster Abbey. </p> <p>Kelvin is best known today for inventing the international system of absolute temperature that bears his name. He made important contributions to electricity, magnetism, thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, geophysics and several other fields.</p> <p>As an engineer, he was responsible for laying the first Atlantic telegraph cable, solving many technical problems along the way. He made his fortune designing and manufacturing instruments for the new electrical industries and the Royal Navy.</p> <p>Kelvin was also a pioneer of international standardization, an interest that stemmed from his deep involvement in the scientific and practical aspects of electrical engineering. His work was fundamental in the development of today's electrical units and standards. In 1906, he became the first President of the IEC.</p> </div> </div> <div class="text-link-container" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="item-link iec-read-more"> <a href="/blog/largely-forgotten-genius-lord-kelvin" class="hvr-icon-forward"> Read the full article <i class="ion ion-ios-arrow-round-forward hvr-icon"></i></a> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row "> <div data-region="r5c1c5969093f7c5c1c5969093fa" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-12 iec-col "> <section class="block block-layout-builder block-inline-block-module-white-gray-space clearfix"> <div class="module-white-gray-space-content iec-bg-color iec-bg-white"> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row "> <div data-region="r5c1c55be5f91fc5c1c5eb78860b" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-6 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7842"> <div class="text-block-header" style="text-align:center;"> <h2 class="text-block-title condensed" style="font-size:24px;" id="article-header-id-7842-a-tribute-by-iec-president-jo-cops"> A tribute by IEC President, Jo Cops </h1> </div> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" allowfullscreen frameborder="0" height="400" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/DdmmoZzfXrY?si=BrmWwCJi9WoNC_Ye" title="YouTube video player" width="100%"></iframe></p> <p><a href="/system/files/2024-07/jocops_tribute_lord_kelvin.mp4" target="_blank">Download here</a></p> </div> </div> </section> </div> <div data-region="r5c1c55be5f91fc5c1c5eb943a12" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-6 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7841"> <div class="text-block-header" style="text-align:center;"> <h2 class="text-block-title condensed" style="font-size:24px;" id="article-header-id-7841-a-tribute-by-director-general-standards-bsi-scott-steedman-cbe"> A tribute by Director-General Standards BSI, Scott Steedman CBE </h1> </div> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" allowfullscreen frameborder="0" height="400" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/ugNbpkz94EE?si=QA0tD0pK4pAZXILw" title="YouTube video player" width="100%"></iframe></p> <p><a href="/system/files/2024-07/bsi_tribute_lord_kelvin-birthdaycelebration.mp4" target="_blank">Download here</a></p> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row "> <div data-region="r5c1c5969093f7c5c1c5969093fa" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-12 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7843"> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><hr></div> </div> </section> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7654"> <div class="text-block-header" style="text-align:left;"> <h2 class="text-block-title condensed" style="font-size:34px;" id="article-header-id-7654-remembering-lord-kelvin"> Remembering Lord Kelvin </h1> </div> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p>"We have to regret today the death of one, Lord Kelvin, who from the first took the deepest interest in the work of this Commission and who, probably more than any man on record, combined the most profound and far-reaching originality in abstract scientific ideas with the greatest capacity for applying those ideas to the practical work of life". This is an excerpt from the Transactions of the Council of the IEC in 1908.</p> <p>The report continues: "He was therefore, pre-eminently fitted to deal with the problems before the Commission, problems in which science and practice are so closely interwoven, problems which, perhaps more than any other with which industry has to deal, have an immediate effect on the industry of the world".</p> <p>The IEC commissioned Silvanus P. Thompson of the British Electrotechnical Commission to write what is still the best known  biography of Lord Kelvin.</p> </div> </div> <div class="text-link-container" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="item-link iec-read-more"> <a href="/history/historical-figures-iec#lord" class="hvr-icon-forward"> Read Thompson's biography of Lord Kelvin <i class="ion ion-ios-arrow-round-forward hvr-icon"></i></a> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="iec-full-width iec-bg-grey"> <div class="container"> <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row iec-fixed-row-bg "> <div data-region="r5c627bcf91f79c5c627bcf91f7d" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-12 iec-col "> <section class="block block-layout-builder block-inline-block-module-white-gray-space clearfix"> <div class="module-white-gray-space-content iec-bg-color iec-bg-grey"> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="iec-full-width iec-bg-grey"> <div class="container"> <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row iec-fixed-row-bg "> <div data-region="r5c6295f0c77c1c5c6295f0c77c5" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-4 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-image clearfix" style="height:290px;"> <div class="iec-module-image-container b-lazy" data-src="/system/files/styles/crop_image_free/private/2024-05/old-town-edinburgh-city-skyline-scotland.jpg?h=809098bf&itok=vUwAvVwF"> <span role="img" aria-label="Edinburgh"> </span> </div> </section> </div> <div data-region="r5c6295f0c77c1c5c6296143e587" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-8 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7813"> <div class="text-block-header" style="text-align:left;"> <h2 class="text-block-title condensed" style="font-size:34px;" id="article-header-id-7813-edinburgh-lord-kelvin-and-the-iec-general-meeting"> Edinburgh, Lord Kelvin and the IEC General Meeting </h1> </div> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p>After Glasgow, Edinburgh is the city in Scotland most closely associated with Lord Kelvin. He was President of the <a href="https://rse.org.uk/" target="_blank">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> (RSE) from 1873 to 1878, Today, the RSE awards a Lord Kelvin Medal to recognize exceptional achievements in physical, engineering and informatic sciences (including mathematics) by a senior career researcher.</p> <p><strong>In October 2024, Edinburgh will host the 88th IEC General Meeting. </strong></p> </div> </div> <div class="text-link-container" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="item-link iec-read-more"> <a href="https://gm2024.iec.ch/" class="hvr-icon-forward" target="_blank" > Find out more about the event <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt hvr-icon"></i></a> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row "> <div data-region="r5c1c5969093f7c5c1c5969093fa" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-12 iec-col "> <section class="block block-layout-builder block-inline-block-module-white-gray-space clearfix"> <div class="module-white-gray-space-content iec-bg-color iec-bg-white"> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row "> <div data-region="r5c1c5a740a6d1c5c1c5a740a6d4" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-8 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7658"> <div class="text-block-header" style="text-align:left;"> <h2 class="text-block-title condensed" style="font-size:34px;" id="article-header-id-7658-lord-kelvin-award"> Lord Kelvin Award </h1> <h2 class="text-block-subtitle condensed" id="article-header-id-7658-the-highest-iec-tribute-recognizing-exceptional-long-term-achievements"> The highest IEC tribute, recognizing exceptional long-term achievements </h2> </div> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p>The Lord Kelvin Award, named after the first IEC President, The Rt. Hon. Lord Kelvin, is granted in recognition of exceptional and dedicated individual contributions in terms of leadership and technical expertise over a period of at least 5 years. Candidates must still be active in the IEC.</p> <p>Nominations are submitted by IEC National Committees, Chairs of technical committees or subcommittees and the IEC Conformity Assessment Systems. Candidates are selected by the IEC Board, a maximum of one Award per year can be granted, the Award is presented by the IEC President during an official ceremony during the annual General Meeting.</p> </div> </div> <div class="text-link-container" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="item-link iec-read-more"> <a href="/awards" class="hvr-icon-forward"> All nominations <i class="ion ion-ios-arrow-round-forward hvr-icon"></i></a> </div> </div> </section> </div> <div data-region="r5c1c5a740a6d1c5c1c5a7c20239" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-4 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7659"> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><img alt="Lord Kelvin Award medal" data-entity-type="file" data-entity-uuid="bb770f3a-0cc9-4f6a-95a4-a23ee85eb40f" src="/system/files/inline-images/LK_award_2.jpg" width="100%" class="align-center" height="1220"> <p> </p> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="iec-full-width iec-bg-grey"> <div class="container"> <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row iec-fixed-row-bg "> <div data-region="r5c627bcf91f79c5c627bcf91f7d" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-12 iec-col "> <section class="block block-layout-builder block-inline-block-module-white-gray-space clearfix"> <div class="module-white-gray-space-content iec-bg-color iec-bg-grey"> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="iec-full-width iec-bg-grey"> <div class="container"> <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row iec-fixed-row-bg "> <div data-region="r5c6296c0100ccc5c6296c0100cf" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-8 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7664"> <div class="text-block-header" style="text-align:left;"> <h2 class="text-block-title condensed" style="font-size:34px;" id="article-header-id-7664-lord-kelvin-blog"> Lord Kelvin blog </h1> </div> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p><iframe class="fw-iframe" frameborder="0" height="511px" scrolling="no" src="https://feed.mikle.com/widget/v2/164931/?preloader-text=Loading&" width="100%"></iframe></p> </div> </div> </section> </div> <div data-region="r5c6296c0100ccc5c6296d9dd0b1" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-4 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7666"> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><img alt="Science - Kelvin. Date: 1824 - 1907" data-entity-type="file" data-entity-uuid="5124bd09-6389-4c46-9407-60d6705a97ec" src="/system/files/inline-images/Lord_Kelvin_lab.jpg" width="80%" class="align-center" height="1129"> <p> </p> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row "> <div data-region="r5c1c5969093f7c5c1c5969093fa" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-12 iec-col "> <section class="block block-layout-builder block-inline-block-module-white-gray-space clearfix"> <div class="module-white-gray-space-content iec-bg-color iec-bg-white"> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dynamic-layouts-container custom-12" > <div class="dynamic-layout-row iec-row "> <div data-region="r5c1c5a44a18d4c5c1c5a44a18d6" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-4 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7653"> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><style type="text/css">.second { background-image:url(); background-attachment: fixed; height: 300px; width:100%; } </style> <div> <div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field--label sr-only">Image</div> <div class="field--item"> <img loading="lazy" src="/system/files/2023-12/tide-predicting_machine.jpg" width="1500" height="1000" alt="London, UK - January 17, 2022 - The first tide-predicting machine designed by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) at the Science Museum" typeof="foaf:Image" class="img-responsive"> </div> </div> </div> <p style="line-height:16px;"><span style="font-size:12px;">London, UK - made in 1872 - The first tide-predicting machine designed by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) at the Science Museum<br> IWei - stock.adobe.com</span></p> </div> </div> </section> </div> <div data-region="r5c1c5a44a18d4c5c1c5a48dc5cd" class="dynamic-layouts-container-column layout-builder--layout__region col-8 iec-col "> <section class="block block-iec-section-custom block-layout-builder block-inline-blockmodule-single-element-text clearfix single-element-text" id="single-element-text-7661"> <div class="text-block-header" style="text-align:left;"> <h2 class="text-block-title condensed" style="font-size:34px;" id="article-header-id-7661-founding-of-the-iec"> Founding of the IEC </h1> </div> <div class="text-block-content" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p id="article-header-id-3283-founding-of-the-iec">The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) saw its beginnings at the International Electrical Congress in St. Louis in 15 September 1904. It had been recommended, <em>"that steps should be taken to secure the cooperation of the technical societies of the world by the appointment of a representative Commission to consider the question of standardization of the Nomenclature and Ratings of Electrical Apparatus and Machinery"</em> [1].</p> <p>A preliminary meeting, chaired by A. Siemens, was held on 26 and 27 June 1906 in London under the auspices of the <a href="http://www.theiet.org/" rel="noopener nofollow noreferrer" target="_blank">British Institution of Electrical Engineers</a>.</p> <p>Of the 16 participating countries, three came from outside Europe: America (as it was listed at that time), Canada and Japan. The delegates were appointed by their national institutions or their governments.</p> <p><span style="font-size:12px;">[1] Winckler, R., 1994. Electrotechnical Standardization in Europe. CENELEC, Brussels.</span></p> </div> </div> <div class="text-link-container" style="text-align:left;"> <div class="item-link iec-read-more"> <a href="/history/how-why-iec-was-started" class="hvr-icon-forward"> Know more about how and why the IEC was started <i class="ion ion-ios-arrow-round-forward hvr-icon"></i></a> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </section> </div> </div> <footer class="footer iec-bg-grey" role="contentinfo"> <div class="container"> <div class="row"> <div class="region region-footer"> <div class="iec-full-width iec-footer-container"> <section id="block-footerrow1" class="block block-block-content block-block-content1b332d09-60ef-4f12-869c-ff12d3d1590e clearfix iec-block-footer-row1 container "> <div class="row"> <div class="field field--name-field-paragraphs field--type-entity-reference-revisions field--label-hidden field--items"> <div class="field--item"> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--terminology-block paragraph--view-mode--default col-sm-12 col-md-6 iec-terminology-block"> <h2 class="iec-block-title">Terminology</h2> <ul class="field field--name-field-terminology-link field--type-link field--label-hidden field--items iec-terminology-list"> <li class="field--item"> <a href="http://www.electropedia.org/">Electropedia</a> <span class="iec-menu-separator">|</span> </li> <li class="field--item"> <a href="/news-resources/reference-material#codes"> Abbreviations & acronyms</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="field--item"> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--follow-us-block paragraph--view-mode--default col-sm-12 col-md-6 iec-follow-us"> <h2 class="iec-block-title">Follow us</h2> <ul class="social-media-links--platforms platforms inline horizontal"> <li> <a target="_blank" class="iec-facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission" target="_blank" > <span class="fab fa-facebook fa-2x"></span> </a> </li> <li> <a target="_blank" class="iec-twitter" href="https://www.twitter.com/IECStandards" target="_blank" > <svg style="width: 36px;" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" version="1.1"> <path d="M18.244 2.25h3.308l-7.227 8.26 8.502 11.24H16.17l-5.214-6.817L4.99 21.75H1.68l7.73-8.835L1.254 2.25H8.08l4.713 6.231zm-1.161 17.52h1.833L7.084 4.126H5.117z"/> </svg> </a> </li> <li> <a target="_blank" class="iec-linkedin" href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/international-electrotechnical-commission-iec-/" target="_blank" > <span class="fab fa-linkedin fa-2x"></span> </a> </li> <li> <a target="_blank" class="iec-pinterest" href="https://www.pinterest.com/iecstandards" target="_blank" > <span class="fab fa-pinterest fa-2x"></span> </a> </li> <li> <a target="_blank" class="iec-youtube_channel" href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCxGk_S_rnYyFBcTidgny7EA" target="_blank" > <span class="fab fa-youtube fa-2x"></span> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> <nav role="navigation" aria-labelledby="block-iec-footer-menu" id="block-iec-footer" class="col-sm-12 col-md-6"> <h2 class="sr-only" id="block-iec-footer-menu">Footer menu</h2> <ul class="menu menu--footer nav"> <li> <a href="/privacy" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/40319">Privacy</a> <span class="iec-menu-separator">|</span> </li> <li> <a href="/contact" data-drupal-link-system-path="contact">Contact</a> <span class="iec-menu-separator">|</span> </li> <li> <a href="/faq" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/947">FAQ</a> <span class="iec-menu-separator">|</span> </li> <li> <a href="/careers" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/948">Careers</a> <span class="iec-menu-separator">|</span> </li> <li> <a href="/offices" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/784">IEC offices</a> <span class="iec-menu-separator">|</span> </li> <li> <a href="/media-resources" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/202204">Media resources</a> </li> </ul> </nav> <section id="block-copyright" class="block block-block-content block-block-content530ba067-58b0-433f-9667-abe431476fa9 clearfix col-sm-12 col-md-6 block-copyright"> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item"><p><a data-entity-substitution="canonical" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="656a83e8-6507-4ffe-afce-a7209e83c44a" href="/copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright © IEC 2024</a>. 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Bicentenary of Lord Kelvin