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class="section__heading" id="auteur"> <span>Author Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-apercu" class="definition-section-title">Definition</h3> <div class="crayon article-chapo-113723 apercu surlignable"><p>Exclusivity clauses in commercial agreements impose a restraint on a contracting party, limiting that party’s freedom to choose the products and/or services it may offer; the customer categories it is permitted to serve; the sales channels to use; or the geographic regions in which it is permitted to operate. Exclusivity agreements are not automatically illegal in South Africa, and where such agreements are proven to have an anti-competitive effect, justifications may be entered proving that technological, efficiency or other pro-competitive gains arising from that agreement outweigh the anti-competitive effects.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-texte" class="definition-section-title">Commentary</h3> <div class="crayon article-texte-113723 texte surlignable"><p>Exclusivity clauses can be assessed either under a per se, effects-based or abuse of dominance framework.</p> <p>Competition regulators around the world take different approaches to the treatment of exclusivity clauses. In some jurisdictions, exclusivity clauses (also referred to as “exclusive dealing”) with the ultimate objective of excluding other sales channels, e.g. online sales, through input foreclosure; and/or, discriminatory practices are per se unlawful. However, other jurisdictions adopt an effects-based approach by assessing whether the impact of the restriction is detrimental on competition using three main theories of harm, viz reducing intra-brand competition; softening inter-brand competition; or foreclosing existing or potential competition. Finally, some jurisdictions also apply the abuse of dominance framework by assessing whether: the one contracting party has market power in the upstream market according to the leveraging theory (i.e. whether manufacturers are leveraging their position in the upstream market to give themselves advantages over their rivals in the downstream market); the intent behind the restriction in the downstream markets; and the effects of the conduct.</p> <p>In regional trade blocs like the Common Market for Eastern & Southern Africa or the European Union, a fourth theory of harm may be applicable: restrictions may partition national markets according to national borders and frustrate the objective of achieving an integrated single market for the benefit of consumers.</p> <p>It is typically the case that the jurisdictions with an effects-based framework also assess exclusivity clauses under an abuse of dominance framework, and the theories of harm may be interchangeable.</p> <p>For example, in South Africa exclusivity clauses are typically assessed in terms of the vertical restraints provisions (section 5(1)) and under the abuse of dominance provisions (sections 8 and 9) of the Competition Act, 89 of 1998 (as amended) (the Competition Act).</p> <p>Section 5(1) of the Competition Act states that an “agreement between parties in a vertical relationship is prohibited if it has the effect of substantially preventing or lessening competition in a market, unless a party to the agreement can prove that any technological, efficiency or other pro-competitive, gain resulting from that agreement outweighs that effect”. This contemplates what is referred to as a “rule-of-reason” or effect-based assessment related to competition effects, rather than a per se consideration. To make a successful claim that a restrictive vertical practice has arisen, the Competition Commission (the Commission) or a complainant (as the case may be) would need to demonstrate that the vertical agreement substantially prevents or lessens competition in a market by foreclosing competition in a significant share of a market and/or by enhancing the market power of the firm in the market. In other words, it would need to be demonstrated that the agreement has a material exclusionary effect. An exclusionary act is viewed as having an anticompetitive effect if it results in actual harm to consumer welfare or if the exclusionary act has potential to limit access significantly or substantially or create barriers to a particular market (Competition Commission v South African Airways). Such an anti-competitive effect, (to the extent that it could be demonstrated), could be countered by showing technological, efficiency or other co-competitive gains that outweigh that effect.</p> <p>Where either party to an exclusive agreement is dominant in terms of the Competition Act, the abuse of dominance provisions in terms of section 8 of the Competition Act are also relevant. A firm is generally assumed to be dominant when it holds a 35% share of a relevant market. A firm with less than a 35% share can also be dominant but then the Commission or a complainant (whichever applicable) would need to prove that the firm has ‘market power’. Market power is nebulously defined in the Competition Act as the power of a firm to control prices, to exclude competition or to behave to an appreciable extent independently of its competitors, customers or suppliers. In the context of exclusivity, there are specific statutory abuses of dominance which are potentially relevant, namely, that a dominant firm may not engage in an exclusionary act if the anti-competitive effect of that act outweighs its technological, efficiency or other pro-competitive gain. An exclusionary act is defined as “an act that impedes or prevents a firm from entering into, participating in or expanding within a market”. Further, a dominant firm may not require or induce a supplier or customer not to deal with a competitor unless the dominant firm can show technological, efficiency or other pro-competitive gains which outweigh the anti-competitive effects of its act. This also applies in the case of price discrimination (section 9 of the Competition Act).</p> <p>Therefore, an exclusivity clause that reduces a competitor’s ability to sell their goods and service thus causing a reduction of supply and/ or results in an increase in price for a particular product market is anticompetitive. If a firm is accused of engaging in an exclusionary act and the allegation is prima facie established, it bears the onus of proving that such act was efficient in that it benefited the market and/or benefited consumers more than it than harmed them. See Computicket (Pty) Ltd v Competition Commission of South Africa (170/CAC/Feb19) [2019] ZACAC 4.</p> <p>In Competition Commission of South Africa v Uniplate Group (Pty) Ltd (CR188Nov15), the Competition Tribunal of South Africa (Tribunal) had to determine whether, as alleged by the Commission, an exclusivity clause by a Uniplate (as a dominant firm in the manufacturing of embossing machines and number plate blanks) requiring its customers to purchase all their number plate blank requirements “solely and exclusively” from the firm, irrespective of the type of machine being bought when acquiring a Uniplate embossing machine, was anti-competitive. The Commission alleged that Uniplate’s exclusive supply agreements had resulted:</p> <ul class="spip" role="list"><li> in the foreclosure of the market to firms competing for the manufacture of number plate blanks. These rivals were unable to sell number plate blanks to embossers who signed Uniplate’s exclusive supply agreements; and</li><li> harm to embossers as these exclusive supply agreements deprived them of a choice to purchase their number plate blank requirements from competing manufacturers of blanks often at a cheaper price.</li></ul> <p>Given that Uniplate is the largest manufacturer of number plate blanks in the country, the Commission was of the view that Uniplate had abused its dominance in the market through the use of these exclusive supply agreements.</p> <p>In its defense, Uniplate argued that the technological, efficiency and other co-competitive gains of the clause outweighed its anti-competitive effects on the basis that the exclusionary conduct allowed for the products to be sold at a reduced price; prevented free riding; ensured that the products were of requisite quality and adhered to regulations; and enabled Uniplate to offer free servicing and maintenance to its customers. The Tribunal found that the exclusivity clauses foreclosed the market and raised barriers to entry, and that the efficiency arguments did not outweigh the anti-competitive effects of the exclusivity clauses. Uniplate appealed to the Competition Appeal Court, which disagreed with the Tribunal, holding that there was insufficient proof of foreclosure to the market as Uniplate’s main rival had grown during this time and competed effectively. Moreover, the available evidence did not prove that smaller firms had been foreclosed by Uniplate’s allegedly exclusionary conduct. See Uniplate Group (Pty) Ltd v Competition Commission of South Africa [2020] 1 CPLR 136 (CAC).</p> <p>It is yet to be determined whether exclusivity clauses in lease agreements wherein a landlord undertakes to not lease property to a competitor of the lessee constitute an “exclusionary act” in terms of either section 5(1) or section 8 the Competition Act, albeit these clauses are frowned upon by South African competition regulators. See Competition Commission v Shoprite Checkers (Pty) Ltd [2020] 2 CPLR 675 (CT).</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-jurisprudence" class="definition-section-title">Case references</h3> <div class="crayon article-reference-113723 reference"><p><a href="http://www.compcom.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/The-South-African-Airways-cases.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Competition Commission v South African Airways (Pty) Ltd (18/CR/Mar01) [2005] ZACT 50 (28 July 2005) at para 132</a></p> <p><a href="http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACAC/2019/4.html" class="spip_out" rel="external">Computicket (Pty) Ltd v Competition Commission of South Africa (170/CAC/Feb19) [2019] ZACAC 4</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACAC/2020/9.html" class="spip_out" rel="external">Competition Commission v Shoprite Checkers (Pty) Ltd [2020] 2 CPLR 675 (CT)</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACT/2019/61.html" class="spip_out" rel="external">Competition Commission of South Africa v Uniplate Group (Pty) Ltd (CR188Nov15)</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACAC/2020/10.html" class="spip_out" rel="external">Uniplate Group (Pty) Ltd v Competition Commission of South Africa [2020] 1 CPLR 136 (CAC)</a></p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-biblio" class="definition-section-title">Bibliography</h3> <div class="crayon article-ps-113723 jurisprudence"><p>International Competition Network Unilateral Conduct Working Group; Vertical Restraints Multi Year Project, 2016-2019 (April 2019)</p> <p>Sutherland P. and Kemp K., Competition Law of South Africa, Issue 13 (2010), LexisNexis</p> <p>The COMESA Guidelines on Restrictive Business Practices, 2019</p></div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_definition sticky-top" id="definition-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#part-apercu" data-target="#part-apercu">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#part-texte" data-target="#part-texte">Commentary</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#part-jurisprudence" data-target="#part-jurisprudence">Case references</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#part-biblio" data-target="#part-biblio">Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2>Author</h2> <div class="auteurs"> <ul class="liste-items liste-items-well"> <li class="item"><div class="entry auteur" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <strong class="entry-title"> <a href="en/auteurs/xolani-nyali" itemprop="url"> <span class='logo-img-wrapper spip_logo' style="width:50px;"><span class="img" style="display:block;position:relative;height:0;width:100%;padding-bottom:100%;overflow:hidden;background:url(local/cache-vignettes/L100xH100/xolani_nyali-f1cb6.jpg?1711364293) no-repeat center;background-size:100%;"> </span></span> <span itemprop="name" class="nom">Xolani Nyali</span></a> </strong> <div class="entry-content"> <span class='organisation' itemprop="worksFor" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization">Bowmans</span> </div> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="pays">South Africa</span> <span class="articles"><em>2</em> contributions</span> <span class="visites"><em>15494</em> visits</span> </div> </div></li> </ul> </div> <div class="well citation"> <h2>Quotation</h2> <article class="entry article article-dictionary hentry"> <span class="authors">Xolani Nyali, </span> <span class="entry-title">Exclusivity Clause </span><span class="rubrique"><span class="sep">, </span> Global Dictionary of Competition Law, Concurrences, Art. N° 89104</span> </article> </div> <div class="well stats"> <p><i class="picto picto-eye"></i> <b>Visits</b> <em class="number">15531</em></p> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_author scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="institution"> <span>Institution Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="crayon article-texte-89104 texte surlignable"><p>Exclusive contracts can benefit competition in the market by ensuring supply sources or sales outlets, reducing contracting costs, or creating dealer loyalty (...) exclusive contracts between manufacturers and suppliers, or between manufacturers and dealers, are generally lawful because they improve competition among the brands of different manufacturers (interbrand competition). However, when the firm using exclusive contracts is a monopolist, the focus shifts to whether those contracts impede efforts of new firms to break into the market or of smaller existing firms to expand their presence. The monopolist might try to impede the entry or expansion of new competitors because that competition would erode its market position. The antitrust laws condemn certain actions of a monopolist that keep rivals out of the market or prevent new products from reaching consumers. The potential for harm to competition from exclusive contracts increases with: (1) the length of the contract term; (2) the more outlets or sources covered; and (3) the fewer alternative outlets or sources not covered. Exclusive supply contracts prevent a supplier from selling inputs to another buyer. If one buyer has a monopoly position and obtains exclusive supply contracts so that a newcomer may not be able to gain the inputs it needs to compete with the monopolist, the contracts can be seen as an exclusionary tactic in violation of Section 2 of the Sherman Act. For example, the FTC stopped a large drug maker from enforcing 10-year exclusive supply agreements for an essential ingredient to make its medicines in return for which the suppliers would have received a percentage of profits from the drug. The FTC found that the drug maker used the exclusive supply agreements to keep other drug makers from the market by controlling access to the essential ingredient. The drug maker was then able to raise prices for its medicine by more than 3000 percent. (...) <strong>© <a href="IMG/pdf/exclusive_supply_or_purchase_agreements_federal_trade_commission.pdf?47389/b33968511376b4ba6090fda99f4e28584f1bdc87b91fb9fc7aefaf691ec0ba0c" class="spip_in" type='application/pdf'>FTC</a></strong></p></div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"></aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_references scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <section class="subsection subsection_jurisprudence related-section related-jurisprudence scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-jurisprudence"> <span id="references">Case Comments</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXvQhWtuyjR679lUGDynml+X8WzzaEh2wxfp4NwrSv403dXZfBQ79uFkSQloF+exAqMzQy3PtRMlmJE+hdP50h3ryCqEw7Mw/xk5Ej6z2d0iN6VDpQvqGb9y/4VXD+DhQ4/rPo35O6idncCN3eaNA6LGjn3bxJwAEiMKVr70Yun/ZJQOzNsOf0DS79fDuYjGJ6JryUpJgLLxT56Ha9miR/2+q+g/4kMJ0skl1n2HT0wlihx6dH+HbSuow5YsLp6uyL+tkg7fGqhOqq7djtOx4NNgNZNBzDVgN0DIUEkSkctPTYJD5ksEQsVI7yL3mk2/X0MHf0m+IZu/D9iybGoGE5c2BHLQxiAGQyX' data-origin="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/european-commission-363">European Commission</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/october-2024/the-eu-commission-finds-that-exclusive-rights-granted-by-france-to-a-gambling" rel="bookmark">The EU Commission finds that exclusive rights granted by France to a gambling operator contain no State aid after amendments <em>(Française des Jeux)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-10-30T23:00:00Z">31 October 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-121464 introduction entry-content"> <p>Commission finds Française des Jeux (‘FDJ’)’s exclusive rights contain no state aid after amendments* <br class='autobr' /> The European Commission has concluded that the increased remuneration by Française des Jeux (‘FDJ’) to France for the modification of exclusive rights to operate offline and online lottery (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/spanish-competition-authority">Spanish Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/la-siyc-y-la-cndc-establecen-medidas-conductuales-para-la-autorizacion-de-la" rel="bookmark">The Spanish Competition conditionally approves the merger of 2 major beauty and personal care products companies <em>(Avon / Natura)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-10-29T23:00:00Z">30 October 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-121623 introduction entry-content"> <p>The SIyC and the CNDC establish behavioural measures for the authorisation of the Avon/Natura merger* <br class='autobr' /> The authorisation of the merger, which involves two important beauty and personal care products companies, was subordinated to compliance with behavioural measures <br class='autobr' /> The National Commission (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/henrik-ballebye-okholm">Henrik Ballebye Okholm</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/stephanie-spahn">Stephanie Spahn</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/trine-kaerskund-norgaard">Trine Kærslund Nørgaard</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/victor-ahlqvist">Victor Ahlqvist</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/kalle-kantanen">Kalle Kantanen</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/special-issues/nordic-competition-law/nordic-competition-law-an-overview-of-eu-and-national-case-law" rel="bookmark">Nordic Competition Law: An overview of EU and national case law</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-10-10T22:00:00Z">11 October 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120650 introduction entry-content"><p>Public enforcement of competition law in the Nordic countries has remained active with several recent in-depth merger inquiries, antitrust investigations, and State aid cases. The authorities have further investigated markets viewed as susceptible to competition concerns through market studies; for example, the groceries market has been under examination across the region. The Nordic countries share common policy objectives as manifested through recently proposed or already implemented legislative amendments, which give authorities powers to call in potentially problematic below-threshold mergers and to remedy competition concerns on the back of self-initiated market investigations. This article is based on interviews with Danish, Finnish, and Icelandic national competition authorities and prominent competition law practitioners from law firms in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, covering developments over the past 12 months.</p></div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/danish-competition-authority">Danish Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/september-2024/the-danish-competition-authority-accepts-commitments-from-a-dominant-financial" rel="bookmark">The Danish Competition Authority accepts commitments from a dominant financial services company over exclusivity agreements suspected of breaching Art. 102 TFEU <em>(Nykredit)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-24T22:00:00Z">25 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120768 introduction entry-content"> <p>Nykredit has committed to changing the terms of the cooperation between Totalkredit and 41 banks regarding distribution of mortgage loans* <br class='autobr' /> The case concerns a possible infringement of TEUF Article 102 and the Danish counterpart (Danish Competition Act section 11) by Totalkredit. <br class='autobr' /> Totalkredit (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/us-department-of-justice-antitrust-division">US Department of Justice Antitrust Division</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/september-2024/the-us-doj-files-a-lawsuit-against-a-payment-card-services-company-for" rel="bookmark">The US DoJ files a lawsuit against a payment card services company for illegally monopolizing debit markets <em>(Visa)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-23T22:00:00Z">24 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120739 introduction entry-content"> <p>Justice Department Sues Visa for Monopolizing Debit Markets* <br class='autobr' /> Visa’s Exclusionary and Anticompetitive Conduct Undermines Choice and Innovation in Payments and Imposes Enormous Costs on Consumers, Merchants, and the American Economy <br class='autobr' /> The Justice Department filed a civil antitrust lawsuit today (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/mexican-competition-authority">Mexican Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/september-2024/the-mexican-competition-authority-investigates-the-possible-existence-of" rel="bookmark">The Mexican Competition Authority investigates the possible existence of unlawful exclusivities in payment services, deposits and cash withdrawals in stores</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-03T22:00:00Z">4 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120544 introduction entry-content"> <p>Cofece investigates the possible existence of unlawful exclusivities in payment services, deposits and cash withdrawals in stores* Most Mexicans use cash as a payment method. It is important that the population that does not have access to traditional financial services, such as banks, has more (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/asheesh-agarwal">Asheesh Agarwal</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-us-district-court-for-the-district-of-columbia-initiates-hearings-to" rel="bookmark">The US District Court for the District of Columbia initiates hearings to determine a remedy for illegal monopolization by a Big Tech firm <em>(Google)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-09T22:00:00Z">10 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-121079 introduction entry-content"> <p>Prudence and Precedent Counsel Modest Remedies in Google Search Case* <br class='autobr' /> Later this fall, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia will hold hearings to determine the proper remedy in the Google search case. Among other options, the court could restrict Google’s ability to sign (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/Italian-Competition-Authority">Italian Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-italian-competition-authority-fines-a-taxi-cooperative-for-imposing-non" rel="bookmark">The Italian Competition Authority fines a taxi cooperative for imposing non-compete obligations on its members <em>(Radiotaxi 3570)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-07T22:00:00Z">8 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120253 introduction entry-content"> <p>I801AB - Italian Competition Antitrust: Fine of over €140,000 to Radiotaxi 3570 for non-compliance* <br class='autobr' /> The Italian Competition Authority had warned the cooperative that prevents member taxi drivers from allocating a share of their unused capacity to competing intermediary platforms in the (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/antonio-di-domenico">Antonio Di Domenico</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/chris-margison">Chris Margison</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/musa-mansuar">Musa Mansuar</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-canadian-competition-authority-issues-guidance-on-its-preliminary" rel="bookmark">The Canadian Competition Authority issues guidance on its preliminary enforcement approach to competitor property controls under the Competition Act</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-06T22:00:00Z">7 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120449 introduction entry-content"> <p>The Competition Bureau (the “Bureau”) recently published interim guidance (the “Guidance”) outlining its preliminary enforcement approach to competitor property controls under the Competition Act (the “Act”). The Guidance was published after Parliament’s recent amendments to the Act in Bill C-59 (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/us-department-of-justice-antitrust-division">US Department of Justice Antitrust Division</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-us-district-court-for-the-district-of-columbia-rules-in-a-landmark-case" rel="bookmark">The US District Court for the District of Columbia rules in a landmark case that a Big Tech search engine unlawfully maintained its monopoly through exclusive agreements that foreclosed a substantial share of the market from rivals <em>(Google)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-04T22:00:00Z">5 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120079 introduction entry-content"> <p>Justice Department Statements on the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia’s Decision in U.S. v Google* <br class='autobr' /> The Justice Department issued the following statements from Attorney General Merrick B. Garland and Assistant Attorney General Jonathan Kanter of the Justice Department’s (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/omer-er">Omer Er</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-us-district-court-for-the-district-of-columbia-rules-a-big-tech-firm-is-a" rel="bookmark">The US District Court for the District of Columbia rules a Big Tech firm is a monopolist and sought to maintain its position through exclusive contracts that foreclosed competition thereby breaching Section 2 of the Sherman Act <em>(Google)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-04T22:00:00Z">5 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120118 introduction entry-content"> <p>“Google is a Monopoly,” Declares Federal Judge: Implications for Big Tech and Digital Markets* <br class='autobr' /> On August 5, 2024, U.S. District Judge Amit P. Mehta ruled that Alphabet’s Google violated U.S. antitrust laws through its search business practices. This landmark decision represents a significant (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/thomas-o-barnett">Thomas O. Barnett</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/anne-y-lee">Anne Y. Lee</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/kate-patchen">Kate Patchen</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/cortlin-h-lannin">Cortlin H. Lannin</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-us-district-court-for-the-district-of-columbia-holds-that-a-big-tech-firm" rel="bookmark">The US District Court for the District of Columbia holds that a Big Tech firm violated Section 2 of the Sherman Act by maintaining its monopoly in the general search and general text advertising markets through exclusive distribution agreements <em>(Google)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-04T22:00:00Z">5 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120257 introduction entry-content"> <p>On August 5, 2024, Judge Amit Mehta of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia concluded that Google has monopolized markets for online searches and search text advertising and unlawfully engaged in exclusionary conduct in those markets. Specifically, the court found that Google (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/robert-milne">Robert Milne</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/edward-thrasher">Edward Thrasher</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-us-district-court-for-the-district-of-columbia-rules-that-a-big-tech-firm" rel="bookmark">The US District Court for the District of Columbia rules that a Big Tech firm unlawfully maintained its monopoly in the market for online search text ads through exclusive agreements that substantially foreclosed rivals from the market <em>(Google)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-04T22:00:00Z">5 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120297 introduction entry-content"> <p>On August 8, 2024, Judge Amit P. Mehta of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia issued his much anticipated and long-awaited opinion in the U.S. Department of Justice’s (DOJ) case challenging Google’s alleged dominance in online search markets. In his nearly 300-page (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/alden-abbott">Alden Abbott</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-us-district-court-for-the-district-of-columbia-brands-a-big-tech-firm-a" rel="bookmark">The US District Court for the District of Columbia brands a Big Tech firm a monopolist seeking to maintain its position through anticompetitive exclusivity agreements <em>(Google)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-04T22:00:00Z">5 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120386 introduction entry-content"> <p>Google Monopolization Ruling May Not Hold Up On Appeal* <br class='autobr' /> In an Aug. 5 order, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia held that Google engaged in illegal monopolization of internet “general search services” and “general text search advertising.” This decision, dubbed “an historic (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/daniel-gilman-42097">Daniel Gilman</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/august-2024/the-us-district-court-for-the-district-of-columbia-declares-a-big-tech-firm" rel="bookmark">The US District Court for the District of Columbia declares a Big Tech firm illegally maintained its monopoly through concluding exclusivity agreements <em>(Google)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-04T22:00:00Z">5 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120394 introduction entry-content"> <p>Readers of Truth on the Market are no doubt aware of Judge Amit Mehta’s Aug. 5 decision in the Google search antitrust case—that is, his 286-page memorandum and order finding Google liable for violating Section 2 of the Sherman Act (specifically, illegal monopoly maintenance in two markets: (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="pagination more"><a id='pagination_articles_related' class='pagination_ancre'></a> <ul class="pager"> <li class="next"><a href='//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause?debut_articles_related=15#pagination_articles_related' class='lien_pagination more' rel='next'>More…</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection subsection_articles related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-articles"> <span>Articles</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXvRhKtpyjRgDOlJuRJnWk2AC03kaJvfg6EkYMoB0xO0O4LARBuDdlDGJ5eNmSG30cb5YTztOQ4W1bg0MUcpOSn1/KtKIPLxRGiShomk29YN4mPtiLFsScqgyt/vT+DhNYuLo89IGzLUzThpgBmmCo4jmFj/R/7/99aDlqFvoADgvbeAUCC495J7pz1WBhi5ZMNJ0bYBFTP41YwP78W1WFgvAs77ypzOaskFRn0SDuRENBWCXthrbcconytI+u4TAonADgqWq6fMIBsEyeEoxyP36SgutKl9eWzwnaTiOWuXD+es84f/zocx2eTB3j9t70oE+br/Acowrs5d0as86WG9tYngA==' data-origin="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/faustine-viala">Faustine Viala</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/severine-schrameck">Séverine Schrameck</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/etienne-pfister">Etienne Pfister</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/sophie-mitouard">Sophie Mitouard</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/gonenc-gurkaynak">Gönenç Gürkaynak</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2023/conferences/new-frontiers-of-antitrust-paris-22-june-2023" rel="bookmark">New Frontiers of Antitrust (Paris, 22 June 2023)</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-10-31T23:00:00Z">November 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-115326 introduction entry-content"> <p>On the 22nd of June, the 14th edition of the “New Frontiers of Antitrust conference was held in Paris and organized by Concurrences. 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Previous law cases on broadcasting right restrictions highlighted the risk of anticompetitive foreclosure through such contractual clauses. 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The development of its (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/bruno-lasserre">Bruno Lasserre</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2007/editorial/justification-of-exclusivity-clause-a-case-by-case-approach" rel="bookmark">Justification of Exclusivity Clause:</br>A case by case approach</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2007-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2007</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-13035 introduction entry-content"> <p>Bruno Lasserre presents David Bosco’s work on exclusivity obligation. It advocates more flexible antitrust authorities, therefore greater freedom for players to choose between two models of exchange organization, exclusivity or free interplay of supply and demand. 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We will focus our attention on two types of behavior that have recently come to the (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="pagination more"><ul class="pager"> <li class="next"><a href='//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause?debut_articles_related=15#pagination_articles_related' class='lien_pagination more' rel='next'>More…</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-events"> <span>Events</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXTRhW9u6jRg7ds+fTcC9OyOd08aCNxLLBzHMoRDLhcvybASSmMCa1mhoBl8w2cfpiEo1kZo/aFhdpW9xx7Jm2B6No6oUfUwuMo+buEu1KBYjOEGVC8bEAm0Th099cB72Jkj9zxOy9QoY8jv/mS9al3WjP0TfTIAE6MGeoWyd6Fe2vSasXEdRenDllnpLGWOkEyjmUDbyLmkMYiPCcmiT/w3m3tP3tgaztVK5wnNGoh6H96Zego3PQvvMUYwbR7LXASxSv7Cbhthvighzx0NeWj2SmxVvLD957LZ1NEeglNZ+41o4ViNuOZ4ryvBTY6/ezQzS+HGFcCxmLo4DbyOTfgjYDvGBK7' 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<section class="subsection subsections_books related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-books"> <span>Books</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXvRhW9uyjRg789gx6JF1eyOV08Pverh/3w7tAgmN9P4Q/0TSmMCa2mCGPaLrr7S0oHGC+uYZD+f1aq5bScAj9RMhDLqoQN2usApwunc5gvwwqVYge0Il8aYP4kzFVx7qk0LMJMKAZ6x7izuwV3AW4rga1tES48XJAg7oz8Nxb5cirJpW7ZdzehxiXW8Aac/UO+0dDLTUxLFiRidl7OvYlzlxc7ac5yeXR5Q0BnNGbhxlJ4UTsY8TTCI12lop5Yr39m/214BXl99vgjxzw06EhmujCVVurD+d3L51NEefElfFuYzs4ELK3cEuExNa/jB+yqYbT2abX92+SqEo7T4qhbuKMMWzq7' data-origin="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause"> <div class='item short'>  <article class="entry article article-doc-livre hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/ignacio-herrera-anchustegui">Ignacio Herrera Anchustegui</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a 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href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#j" data-anchor="#j">j</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#k" data-anchor="#k">k</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#l" data-anchor="#l">l</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#m" data-anchor="#m">m</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#n" data-anchor="#n">n</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#o" data-anchor="#o">o</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#p" data-anchor="#p">p</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#r" data-anchor="#r">r</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#s" data-anchor="#s">s</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#t" data-anchor="#t">t</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#u" data-anchor="#u">u</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#v" data-anchor="#v">v</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause#w" data-anchor="#w">w</a> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="a"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">a</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/absolute-territorial-protection">Absolute territorial protection </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-dominant-position-en">Abuse of dominant position</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-economic-dependence">Abuse of economic dependence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/access-to-the-file-en">Access to the file</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/actual-competitor">Actual competitor </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/administered-prices">Administered prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/advisory-committee-118302">Advisory committee</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agent-en">Agent</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agreement-notion-en">Agreement (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ai-collusion-algorithm">AI Collusion (Algorithm)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/AKZO-Procedure">AKZO Procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/amicus-curiae">Amicus curiae</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ancillary-restraints">Ancillary restraints </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/annulment">Annulment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-market-distortions">Anticompetitive Market Distortions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-object-or-effect-en">Anticompetitive object or effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-practices">Anticompetitive practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Antitrust">Antitrust</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/applicable-law">Applicable law</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/arbitration">Arbitration</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/article-11-letter">Article 11 letter </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/artificial-intelligence">Artificial Intelligence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/aec-as-efficient-competitor-principle-and-test">As-Efficient Competitor (AEC)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="b"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">b</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/barriers-to-entry-en">Barriers to entry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bertrand-nash-equilibrium">Bertrand (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bid-rigging">Bid rigging</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/block-exemption-regulation">Block exemption (Regulation) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/boycott">Boycott</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/brand-competition-en">Brand competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bundling">Bundling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/burden-of-proof">Burden of proof</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/buyer-power">Buyer power </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="c"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">c</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/cartel">Cartel </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/clearance-phase-ii-merger">Clearance phase II (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collecting-society">Collecting society </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-dominance">Collective dominance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-redress-class-action">Collective redress (class action)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/comity">Comity </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/commission-communication">Commission communication</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competence">Competence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competition-policy-89181">Competition policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/complaint">Complaint </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Compliance-programme">Compliance programme </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/compulsory-license">Compulsory license</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concentration-indexes-en">Concentration indexes</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concerted-practices-en">Concerted practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concession-86056">Concession</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concurrent-jurisdiction">Concurrent jurisdiction</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Consortium-12192">Consortium </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumer-protection">Consumer protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumers-associations-en">Consumers’ associations</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-change">Control (change)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-notion">Control (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cooperation-between-competition-authorities-en">Cooperation between competition authorities</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/coordinated-effects">Coordinated effects</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/copyright">Copyright</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corruption">Corruption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cost-based-access">Cost-based access</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cournot-nash-equilibrium">Cournot (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/criminal-sanctions">Criminal sanctions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cross-subsidisation">Cross subsidisation </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="d"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">d</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/damages">Damages</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/de-minimis-notice">De minimis notice</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/digital-markets-act">Digital Markets Act</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/direct-effect">Direct effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/discriminatory-practices">Discriminatory practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/distribution-agreement">Distribution agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/divestiture">Divestiture</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/dominance-notion">Dominance (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/downstream-market-117440">Downstream market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="e"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">e</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/echr">ECHR</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-analysis">Economic analysis</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-efficiency">Economic efficiency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economies-of-scale">Economies of scale </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ecosystem-failures">Ecosystem Failures</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effect-on-trade-between-member-states">Effect on trade between Member States</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effective-judicial-protection">Effective judicial protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effects-doctrine-118100">Effects doctrine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/efta-surveillance-authority-esa-court">EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA) & Court </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/environmental-protection-en">Environmental protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/error-costs-108946">Error costs</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/essential-facility">Essential facility</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/european-competition-network-ecn-en">European Competition Network (ECN)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/excessive-prices-en">Excessive prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exchange-of-information">Exchanges of information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusionary-practice">Exclusionary practice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exclusive-distribution-12218">Exclusive distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en">Exclusive purchasing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-right-art-106-tfeu">Exclusive right (Art. 106 TFEU)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause">Exclusivity clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exhaustion">Exhaustion </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Extra-territoriality">Extra-territoriality</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="f"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">f</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Failing-firm-defence">Failing firm defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fidelity-rebates">Fidelity rebates</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Fine">Fine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fintech">Fintech</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreclosure-117887">Foreclosure</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-direct-investment-fdi">Foreign direct investment (FDI)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-subsidies">Foreign Subsidies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/form-co">Form CO (EU) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/frand">FRAND</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Free-riding">Free riding </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="g"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">g</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/geographic-market">Geographic market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corporate-group">Group of undertakings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/group-purchasing-organization">Group purchasing organization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/guidelines-119080">Guidelines</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/gun-jumping">Gun jumping</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="h"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">h</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/hard-core-restrictions">Hard core restrictions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Hearing-officer">Hearing officer </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/horizontal-agreement">Horizontal cooperation agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/hsr-filing-us-108854">HSR Filing (US)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="i"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">i</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/independence-and-impartiality">Independence and impartiality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/individual-exemption-86377">Individual exemption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/industrial-policy">Industrial policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/intellectual-property-right-en">Intellectual property right</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/inter-brand-competition">Inter-brand competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Interim-measures">Interim measures </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-co-operation">International co-operation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-competition-network-icn">International competition network (ICN) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/investigations-inquiries-en">Investigations / inquiries</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="j"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">j</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/judicial-review">Judicial review</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="k"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">k</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Know-how">Know-how </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="l"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">l</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/legal-privilege">Legal privilege</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Leniency-programme">Leniency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/lerner-index">Lerner index</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/letter-of-formal-notice-118055">Letter of formal notice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/licensing">Licensing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/limitation-period-119083">Limitation Period </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="m"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">m</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/margin-squeeze">Margin squeeze</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/marginal-costs">Marginal costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-economy-investor">Market economy investor</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-power">Market power</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-share">Market share </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/media-pluralism">Media pluralism</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-notion-12318-en">Merger (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-prohibition">Merger (prohibition)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-withdrawal-118046">Merger (withdrawal)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Merger-control-procedure">Merger control procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-remedies-100323">Merger remedies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/minority-shareholdings-89176">Minority shareholdings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/misinformation">Misinformation</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/mobility-barriers-117741">Mobility Barriers</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Monopoly">Monopoly </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="n"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">n</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/ne-bis-in-idem-86490">Ne bis in idem</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/negative-clearance-118047">Negative clearance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Network-effect">Network effect </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-compete-obligation-12156-en">Non-compete obligation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-horizontal-mergers">Non-Horizontal Mergers </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/notification-12310">Notification</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/nullity">Nullity </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="o"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">o</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/oligopoly">Oligopoly </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/online-platforms">Online Platforms</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="p"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">p</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/parallel-imports-parallel-trade-en">Parallel imports (parallel trade)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/passing-on-en">Passing-on</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Passive-sales">Passive sales </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/patents">Patents</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/pay-for-delay">Pay-for-delay</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/periodic-penalty-payment">Periodic penalty payment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/potential-competition">Potential competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/predatory-pricing">Predatory pricing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/preliminary-rulings-art-267-tfue">Preliminary ruling (Art. 267 TFUE) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-discrimination-en">Price discrimination </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-leadership">Price leadership</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-signaling">Price signalling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-fixing-agreement">Price-fixing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/prices-en">Prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equal-treatment">Principle of equal treatment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equivalence">Principle of equivalence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-proportionality">Principle of proportionality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privacy-and-data-protection">Privacy and data protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/private-enforcement">Private enforcement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privatization-en">Privatization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/procedural-autonomy">Procedural autonomy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/professional-association-86373-en">Professional association</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/public-procurement">Public procurement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Public-undertaking">Public undertaking</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="r"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">r</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/r-d-agreement">R&D agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/case-referral-system-mergers">Referral (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/refusal-to-deal">Refusal to deal</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/the-registry-of-the-general-court-of-the-european-union">Registry of the General Court of the European Union</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Relevant-market">Relevant market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/remedies-antitrust-en">Remedies (antitrust)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/request-for-information">Request for information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-below-cost-en">Resale below cost </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-price-maintenance-rpm">Resale price maintenance (RPM)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/restriction-on-exportation">Restriction on exportation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/rule-of-reason">Rule of reason</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="s"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">s</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/sunk-costs-117836"> Sunk Costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sector-inquiry">Sector inquiry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/selective-distribution">Selective distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/self-preference-111802">Self-Preference</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Services-of-general-economic">Services of general economic interest </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Single-branding">Single branding </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sole-control">Sole control</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/specialization-agreements">Specialization agreements </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Spill-over-effects">Spill-over effects </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/standard-essential-patent-sep">Standard-Essential Patent (SEP)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-action-defense">State action defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-compatibility">State aid (compatibility)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-existing-aid">State aid (existing aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-notification-en">State aid (notification)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid">State aid (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-recovery">State aid (recovery) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-unlawful-aid">State aid (unlawful aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/State-measure">State measure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Statement-of-objections-SO">Statement of objections (SO) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Substitutability">Substitutability </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sustainability">Sustainability</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/switching-costs">Switching Costs</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="t"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">t</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/technology-transfer">Technology transfer</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/test-siec-merger-en">Test SIEC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-slc-src-sdc-tests">Test SLC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/tipping">Tipping</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/business-secrets">Trade Secrets</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trademark">Trademark</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trustee-mergers-en">Trustee (mergers)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/turnover-threshold-merger">Turnover threshold (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/two-sided-market">Two-sided market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="u"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">u</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/undertaking-notion">Undertaking (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/unfair-competition">Unfair competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/universal-service-118054">Universal Service</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/upstream-market">Upstream market </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="v"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">v</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/variable-costs">Variable costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Vertical-agreement">Vertical agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/vertical-restraints-or-restrictions">Vertical restraints (or restrictions)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="w"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">w</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/White-clause">White clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/withdrawal-of-the-benefit-of-a-block-exemption">Withdrawal (of the benefit of a block exemption)</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> <script type="text/javascript"> jQuery(function(){ // hack on appelle 1 scrollspy sur body et 1 sur window pour pas les melanger jQuery(window).scrollspy({ target: '#menu-definition', offset: 130 }); jQuery('body').scrollspy({ target: '#definition-index', offset: 130 }); jQuery(document).scrollspy({ target: '#related-index', offset: 130 }); // Affichage de l'index var $btn_index 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srcset="local/adapt-img/320/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732269721 320w, local/adapt-img/640/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732270930 640w, local/adapt-img/960/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266627 960w, local/adapt-img/1440/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266747 1440w, local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266189 3000w" sizes="(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw" type="image/webp"> <img src='local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266629' alt='Présentation Filigranes Les 5 Travaux d'Europe' width='3000' height='160' class='adapt-img' srcset='local/adapt-img/320/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732272327 320w, local/adapt-img/640/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266627 640w, local/adapt-img/960/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732274538 960w, local/adapt-img/1440/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732269360 1440w, local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266629 3000w' sizes='(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw' /></picture></a> </div> <div class="item "> <a 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(min-resolution: 1.5dppx)" srcset="local/adapt-img/320/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732277529 480w, local/adapt-img/640/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266627 960w, local/adapt-img/960/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732270976 1440w, local/adapt-img/1440/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266622 2160w, local/adapt-img/3000/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732268300 4500w" sizes="(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw" type="image/webp"><source media="(-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 1.5), (min-resolution: 1.5dppx)" srcset="local/adapt-img/320/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732277558 480w, local/adapt-img/640/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732277174 960w, local/adapt-img/960/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732277555 1440w, local/adapt-img/1440/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732272968 2160w, local/adapt-img/3000/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732274035 4500w" sizes="(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw" type="image/png"><source media="(-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 1), (min-resolution: 1dppx)" srcset="local/adapt-img/320/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732269721 320w, local/adapt-img/640/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732270930 640w, local/adapt-img/960/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266627 960w, local/adapt-img/1440/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266747 1440w, local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266189 3000w" sizes="(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw" type="image/webp"> <img src='local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266629' alt='Présentation Filigranes Les 5 Travaux d'Europe' width='3000' height='160' class='adapt-img' srcset='local/adapt-img/320/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732272327 320w, local/adapt-img/640/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266627 640w, local/adapt-img/960/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732274538 960w, local/adapt-img/1440/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732269360 1440w, local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266629 3000w' sizes='(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw' /></picture></a> </div> <div class="item "> <a 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