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id="toc-Invisible_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By-phrase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By-phrase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>By-phrase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By-phrase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impersonal_verbs_by_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impersonal_verbs_by_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Impersonal verbs by language</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impersonal_verbs_by_language-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impersonal verbs by language subsection</span> </button> <ul 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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>French</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>German</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Celtic_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celtic_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.5</span> <span>Celtic languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celtic_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.6</span> <span>Latin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tai-Kadai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tai-Kadai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Tai-Kadai</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tai-Kadai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Thai</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructed_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructed_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Constructed languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructed_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_to_other_linguistic_classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_to_other_linguistic_classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Comparison to other linguistic classifications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Comparison_to_other_linguistic_classifications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Comparison to other linguistic classifications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Comparison_to_other_linguistic_classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Weather_verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weather_verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Weather verb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weather_verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impersonal_pronoun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impersonal_pronoun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Impersonal pronoun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impersonal_pronoun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Null_objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Null_objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Null objects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Null_objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defective_verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defective_verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Defective verb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defective_verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_universal_grammar_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_universal_grammar_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In universal grammar theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_universal_grammar_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_dic%27hour" title="Verb dic'hour – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Verb dic'hour" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_impersonal" title="Verb impersonal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Verb impersonal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impersonal" title="Impersonal – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Impersonal" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbisikuline_tegumood" title="Umbisikuline tegumood – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Umbisikuline tegumood" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%83%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B1_%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Απρόσωπα ρήματα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Απρόσωπα ρήματα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbe_impersonnel" title="Verbe impersonnel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Verbe impersonnel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93pers%C3%B3nuleg_s%C3%B6gn" title="Ópersónuleg sögn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ópersónuleg sögn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbo_impersonale" title="Verbo impersonale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Verbo impersonale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szem%C3%A9lytelen_ige" title="Személytelen ige – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Személytelen ige" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbo_impessoal" title="Verbo impessoal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Verbo impessoal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_impersonal" title="Verb impersonal – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Verb impersonal" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viebe_sins_djin" title="Viebe sins djin – Walloon" 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For example, in the sentence "<i>It rains</i>", <i>rain</i> is an impersonal verb and the pronoun <i>it</i> corresponds to an <a href="/wiki/Exophora" title="Exophora">exophoric</a> referrent. In many languages the <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> takes a third person singular inflection and often appears with an expletive subject. In the <a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">active voice</a>, impersonal verbs can be used to express operation of nature, mental distress, and acts with no reference to the doer.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impersonal verbs are also called <b>weather verbs</b> because they frequently appear in the context of weather description.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">indefinite pronouns</a> may be called "impersonal", as they refer to an unknown person, like <i>one</i> or <i>someone</i>, and there is overlap between the use of the two. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Valency">Valency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Valency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Impersonal verbs appear only in <a href="/wiki/Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">non-finite</a> forms or with <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">third-person</a> inflection.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the third person, the subject is either implied or a dummy referring to people in general. The term "impersonal" simply means that the verb does not change according to grammatical person. In terms of <a href="/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">valency</a>, impersonal verbs are often avalent, as they often lack semantic <a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">arguments</a>. In the sentence <i>It rains</i>, the pronoun <i>it</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Dummy_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Dummy subject">dummy subject</a>; it is merely a syntactic placeholder—it has no concrete referent. In many other languages, there would be no subject at all. In Spanish, for example, <i>It is raining</i> could be expressed as simply <i>llueve</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_meteorological_expressions">Use in meteorological expressions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Use in meteorological expressions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Temperature expressions ("it is hot"), weather expressions ("it is snowing"), and daylight expressions ("it is dark") tend to lack independent participants with distinct semantic roles. While snow participates in snowing, very few other types of participants can participate, and the participant is indistinguishable from the event itself; this is similar to the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Cognate_object" title="Cognate object">cognate objects</a>. In addition, the participating snow is non-specific, and lacks a clear semantic role. Therefore, assigning the participating snow the role of 'referent' in the default English expression "it is snowing" would seem inappropriate. Instead, linguistics classify the "is snowing" in "it is snowing" as an impersonal verb.<sup id="cite_ref-eriksen_linguistics_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eriksen_linguistics-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meteorological expressions are often constructed with impersonal verbs in English. However, meteorological expressions are obviously not restricted solely to impersonal verbs, even in English; furthermore, different languages use different strategies for their default meteorological expressions and common idioms. In Palestinian Arabic, "Id-dunya ti-shti" translates to "It (the world) is raining" and uses a non-impersonal verb. "Vreme je sunčano", which means "the weather is sunny", is a common Serbian construction that uses a (non-impersonal) adverb rather than a verb.<sup id="cite_ref-eriksen_linguistics_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eriksen_linguistics-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms">Forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invisible_arguments">Invisible arguments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Invisible arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When an <a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">agent</a> is unspecified, impersonal verbs are also known as zero person construction, or impersonal construction. An implicit argument (an argument that is put forth without stating it directly) is present on a semantic level for both <a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>. The Finnic impersonal construction enables an event or state to be described without specifying the identity of the agent (actor). Despite this, the interpretation of the impersonal includes a referent of some sort (dummy). The zero person is not entirely the same as an impersonal.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finnish: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Sunnuntaina</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Sunday-on</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">voi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">can.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular">3sg</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nukkua</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sleep.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="infinitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pitkään.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">long.</p></div><p style="display: none;">Sunnuntaina voi nukkua pitkään.</p><p style="display: none;">Sunday-on can.PRS.3sg sleep.INF long.</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Estonian: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Pühapäeviti</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Sundays-on</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">saab</p><p style="margin: 0px;">can.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular">3sg</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sisse</p><p style="margin: 0px;">in.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="illative case ('into')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ILL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">magada.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sleep.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="infinitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Pühapäeviti saab sisse magada.</p><p style="display: none;">Sundays-on can.PRS.3sg in.ILL sleep.INF</p><p style="clear: left;">On Sundays you/one can sleep in.</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>There is a lack of an overt nominative subject in these constructions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By-phrase">By-phrase</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: By-phrase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some languages require their counterpart to the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> by-phrase be present (like <a href="/wiki/Palauan_language" title="Palauan language">Palauan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a>). Other languages disallow the presence of a by-phrase.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> does not allow the use of a by-phrase in its passive. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Zapukano</p><p style="margin: 0px;">was-knocked</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">w</p><p style="margin: 0px;">at</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">drzwi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">door</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(*przez</p><p style="margin: 0px;">(*by</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sąsiada)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">neighbor)</p></div><p style="display: none;">Zapukano w drzwi (*przez sąsiada)</p><p style="display: none;">was-knocked at door (*by neighbor)</p><p style="clear: left;">It was knocked at the door.<br /> There was a knock at the door.</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The content in the parenthesis causes the <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> sentence to be ungrammatical as who did the knocking cannot be overtly stated. As such, it might seem like it would be more grammatical to use impersonal verbs in such cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impersonal_verbs_by_language">Impersonal verbs by language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Impersonal verbs by language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, an impersonal verb always takes an impersonal pronoun (<i>it</i> in English, <i>il</i> in French, <i>es</i> in German, <i>het</i> in Dutch, <i>det</i> in Swedish) as its syntactical subject: </p> <dl><dd><i><b>It</b> snowed yesterday</i>. (English)</dd> <dd><i><b>Il</b> a neigé hier</i>. (French)</dd> <dd><i><b>Es</b> schneite gestern</i>. (German)</dd> <dd><i><b>Het</b> sneeuwde gisteren</i>. (Dutch)</dd> <dd><i><b>Det</b> snöade igår</i>. (Swedish)</dd></dl> <p>Occasionally an impersonal verb will allow an object to appear in apposition to the impersonal subject pronoun: </p> <dl><dd><i>It is raining <b>diamonds</b>.</i></dd></dl> <p>Or as an instrumental adjunct: </p> <dl><dd><i>It was pouring <b>with rain</b>.</i> (<a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a>)</dd></dl> <p>In some other languages (necessarily <a href="/wiki/Null_subject_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Null subject language">null subject languages</a> and typically <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_language" title="Pro-drop language">pro-drop languages</a>), such as <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> and all the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, an impersonal verb takes no <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> at all, but it is <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugated</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">third-person</a> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">singular</a>, which is much as though it had a third-person, singular subject. </p> <dl><dd><i>Nevó ayer.</i> (Spanish)</dd> <dd><i>Nevou ontem.</i> (Portuguese)</dd> <dd><i>Ha nevicato ieri.</i> (Italian)</dd> <dd><i>A nins ieri.</i> (Romanian)</dd> <dd><i>Sniježilo je jučer.</i> (Croatian)</dd> <dd><i>Havazott tegnap.</i> (Hungarian)</dd> <dd><i>Вчера вееше снег. / Včera veeše sneg.</i> (Macedonian)</dd></dl> <p>Other languages, those which require a subject, may permit an adjunct to assume that role. </p> <dl><dd><i>Unfortunately <b>the next day</b> poured with rain.</i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indo-European">Indo-European</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Indo-European"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English">English</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following sentences illustrate impersonal verbs: </p> <dl><dd>(1) It <b>rains</b>.</dd> <dd>(2) It is <b>cold</b>.</dd> <dd>(3) It is <b>growing dark</b>.</dd> <dd>(4) It <b>seems</b> <u>that there is no end to this</u>.</dd> <dd>(5) It is <b>unclear</b> <u>why he cut the rope</u>.</dd></dl> <p>The expletive pronoun <i>it</i> in these sentences does not denote a clear entity, yet the meaning is clear. In other words, the pronoun <i>it</i> has no clear antecedent.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English is so strict about requiring a subject that it supplies them for verbs that do not really require them. In sentences (4) and (5), <i>it</i> is in the subject position, while the real subject has been moved to the end of the sentence. </p><p>A simple test can be done to see if the sentence contains an impersonal verb. One checks to see if a given subject pronoun takes an antecedent in the previous clause or sentence, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Bukit_Timah" title="Bukit Timah">Bukit Timah</a> is 163.63 metres tall. It is the highest point in Singapore.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Bukit_Timah" title="Bukit Timah">Bukit Timah</a> is 163.63 metres tall. It <b>rains</b> frequently there.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The two examples may seem similar, but only the pronoun <i>it</i> in the first example links with the previous subject. The pronoun <i>it</i> in the second example, on the other hand, has no referent. The hill (Bukit Timah) does not rain, <i>it</i> rains. This demonstrates that <i>rain</i> is an impersonal verb.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spanish">Spanish</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Spanish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is no equivalent of the dummy subject <i>it</i> in Spanish. In <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, there are a few true impersonal avalent verbs. Most of them are "atmospheric verbs": </p> <dl><dd><i>Llueve</i></dd> <dd>It's raining</dd> <dd><i>Ha helado</i></dd> <dd>It froze</dd></dl> <p>Most <i>impersonal</i> constructions in Spanish involve using a special verb in<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What does a verb in a verb mean? (October 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> third-person <a href="/wiki/Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">defective verb</a> with a direct object as its only argument or use of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_se&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Impersonal se (page does not exist)">impersonal se</a></i> (not to be confused with other uses of <i>se</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two main impersonal verbs in Spanish: <i>haber</i> (to have, to be (there is/are, there were)) and <i>hacer</i> (to do). <i>Haber</i> is an irregular verb. When used as an impersonal verb in the present tense, it has a special conjugation for the third person singular (<i>hay</i>). Clauses with the verb <i>haber</i> do not have an explicit subject; its only argument is a direct object noun phrase that does not agree with the verb. <i>Haber</i> has its 'natural meaning' of <i>tener</i> 'to have'.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><i><b>Hay</b> un libro (aquí).</i></dd> <dd>There is a book (here).</dd> <dd><i><b>Hay</b> muchos libros.</i></dd> <dd>There are many books.</dd> <dd><i><b>Hubo</b> muchos libros (que no se vendieron).</i></dd> <dd>There were many books (that were not sold).</dd></dl> <p>Less frequently, and only in some expressions with a limited number of nouns in singular, the verb "hacer" in the 3rd singular is used as impersonal (<i>Hacer</i> is a very common verb meaning 'to do'). </p> <dl><dd><i><b>Hace</b> frío.</i></dd> <dd>It's cold.</dd> <dd><i><b>Hizo</b> frío ayer.</i></dd> <dd>It was cold yesterday.</dd> <dd><i><b>Hace</b> viento.</i></dd> <dd>It's windy.</dd></dl> <p>Spanish will add the pronoun <i>se</i> in front of verbs to form general sentences. Impersonal voice using <i>se</i> will use a singular verb since <i>se</i> can be replaced by <i>uno</i>. </p> <dl><dd><i>¿Cómo <b>se</b> escribe "Apple"?</i></dd> <dd>How do you spell "Apple"?</dd></dl> <p>The passive voice in Spanish has similar characteristics following that of the impersonal <i>se</i>. It is normally formed by using <i>se</i> + the third person singular or plural conjugation of a verb, similar to the impersonal <i>se</i>. This use of <i>se</i> is easily confused with the medial <i>se</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>Active voice:</dd> <dd><i>Mis amigos comieron torta</i> (European and American Spanish)</dd> <dd>My friends ate cake (i.e. some of the cake)</dd> <dd><i>Mis amigos comieron la torta</i> (American Spanish, less frequent in European Spanish)</dd> <dd>My friends ate the cake</dd></dl> <dl><dd>Medial meaning:</dd> <dd><i>Mis amigos se comieron la torta</i></dd> <dd>My friends ate all the cake</dd></dl> <dl><dd>Passive voice:</dd> <dd>Esta torta <i><b>se</b> come tradicionalmente en Navidad.</i></dd> <dd>This cake is normally eaten during Christmas</dd> <dd><i><b>Se</b> vende esta casa.</i></dd> <dd>This house is for sale</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French">French</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: French"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs can be impersonal in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> when they do not take a real personal subject as they do not represent any action, occurrence or state-of-being that can be attributed to a person, place or a thing.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In French, as in English, these impersonal verbs take on the impersonal pronoun - <i>il</i> in French. </p> <dl><dd><i>Il <b>faut que</b> tu fasses tes devoirs.</i></dd> <dd>It is necessary that you do your homework.</dd></dl> <p>The <i>il</i> is a dummy subject and does not refer to anything in particular in this phrase. The most common impersonal form is <i>il y a</i>, meaning <i>there is</i>, <i>there are</i>. Note its other tenses <i>(il y avait, il y a eu, il y aura, etc.)</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French makes a distinction between a dummy subject and an actual subject in clauses with infinitives by the use of a different preposition. The preposition <i>de</i> is used with dummy subjects and the preposition <i>à</i> is used with real subjects. Compare: </p> <dl><dd>It's important to learn. (= Learning is important.) - dummy subject</dd> <dd><i>Il est important <b>d'</b>apprendre.</i></dd></dl> <dl><dd>It's important to learn. (= This is important to learn.) - real subject</dd> <dd><i>Il est important <b>à</b> apprendre.</i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="German">German</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: German"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Impersonal verbs are relatively common in German, often in constructions about a state or process. Common examples include <i>es brennt</i> ("there is a fire", literally "it burns"), <i>es zieht</i> ("there is a draft", literally "it draws") and <i>es klopft</i> ("there is a knock at the door", literally "it knocks"), as well as the whimsical <i>es weihnachtet sehr</i> ("it is very Christmassy", literally "it is Christmas-ing hard").<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many statements asserting existence also use an impersonal form. Often the equivalent sentences in English start with <i>there</i>. </p> <dl><dd><i>Es gibt</i></dd> <dd>There is</dd> <dd><i>Es kamen</i></dd> <dd>There came</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Celtic_languages">Celtic languages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Celtic languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> also possess impersonal verbal forms though their use is usually translated into English by forms such as 'one sees' (Welsh: <i>gwelir</i>), 'one did' (Welsh: <i>gwnaethpwyd</i>), 'one is' (Irish: <i>táthar</i>) etc., in which he 'one' is taken to be an empty subject. For weather, personal verbs are used in Celtic languages, e.g. Welsh <i>Mae hi'n bwrw eira</i> 'it is snowing'. </p><p>Verbs meaning <a href="/wiki/Existential_clause" title="Existential clause">existence</a> may also be impersonal. </p> <dl><dd><b>Mae</b> llyfrau.<i> / <b>Mae</b> llyfr.</i> (Welsh)</dd> <dd><b>Tá</b> leabhair <b>ann</b>. <i>/ <b>Tá</b> leabhar <b>ann</b>.</i> (Irish)</dd> <dd>There are (some) books. / There is a book.</dd></dl> <p>However, sometimes there are <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verbs</a> with more or less the same <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (linguistic)">meaning</a>: </p> <dl><dd>Mae llyfrau'n <b>bodoli</b>.<i> / Mae llyfr yn <b>bodoli</b>.</i> (Welsh)</dd> <dd>(Some) books exist. / A book exists.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Latin">Latin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> has several impersonal verbs, most often seen in the third person singular. The real subject of the sentence will not be in the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a> but is most often in the <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative case</a>. These verbs include: </p> <ul><li>Decet – it becomes/suits; it is right/proper</li> <li>Libet – it pleases</li> <li>Licet – it is permitted/allowed</li> <li>Oportet – it is proper/fitting</li> <li>Placet – it is agreed/resolved</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tai-Kadai">Tai-Kadai</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tai-Kadai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thai">Thai</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Thai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Impersonal verbs in <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> do not allow for an overt grammatical subject.<sup id="cite_ref-Kitima_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitima-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impersonal verbs occur only with <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitive verbs">transitive verbs</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>kəət<sup>3</sup></b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>happen</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">phɛɛndinwaày</p><p style="margin: 0px;">earthquake</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thîï<sup>4</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">at</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yîïpùn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Japan</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>kəət3</b> phɛɛndinwaày thîï4 yîïpùn</p><p style="display: none;"><b>happen</b> earthquake at Japan</p><p style="clear: left;">There is an earthquake in Japan.</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*man</p><p style="margin: 0px;">*it</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>kəət<sup>3</sup></b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>happen</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">phɛɛndinwaày</p><p style="margin: 0px;">earthquake</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thîï<sup>4</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">in</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yîïpùn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Japan</p></div><p style="display: none;">*man <b>kəət3</b> phɛɛndinwaày thîï4 yîïpùn</p><p style="display: none;">*it <b>happen</b> earthquake in Japan</p><p style="clear: left;">*There is an earthquake in Japan.</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>There is no allowance for the presence of a non-referential subject <i>man</i> 'it' in the case frame. In general, it is not allowed in formal speech, such as news reports. However, the presence of non-referential subject <i>man</i> can occur in the <a href="/wiki/Colloquial" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloquial">colloquial</a> form.<sup id="cite_ref-Kitima_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitima-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">man</p><p style="margin: 0px;">it</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>mii</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>exist</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">phîï</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ghost</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nay</p><p style="margin: 0px;">in</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bâan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nii</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dûay</p><p style="margin: 0px;">also</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="th" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">rəə</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Ques</p></div><p style="display: none;">man <b>mii</b> phîï nay bâan nii dûay rəə</p><p style="display: none;">it <b>exist</b> ghost in house this also Ques</p><p style="clear: left;">Is there also a ghost in this house?</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Subdivision into non-inception and inception subclasses can occur depending on whether the verb may occur with the path adverb <i>khin</i> 'up'.<sup id="cite_ref-Kitima_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitima-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constructed_languages">Constructed languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Constructed languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a> language <a href="/wiki/Interlingua" title="Interlingua">Interlingua</a>, verbs are not conjugated by person. Impersonal verbs take the pronoun <i>il</i>: </p> <dl><dd><i>Il ha nivate heri.</i></dd></dl> <p>In the auxiliary language <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>, where verbs also are not conjugated for person, impersonal verbs are simply stated with no subject given or implied, even though Esperanto is otherwise <i>not</i> a null subject language: </p> <dl><dd><i>Neĝis hieraŭ.</i><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>In the logical language <a href="/wiki/Lojban" title="Lojban">Lojban</a>, impersonal verbs simply have no first argument filled and might not have any arguments filled at all: </p> <dl><dd><i>carvi ca lo prulamdei</i></dd></dl> <p>where <i>carvi</i> is a verb meaning <i>x<sub>1</sub> rains to x<sub>2</sub> from x<sub>3</sub></i> (<i>x<sub>1</sub></i>, <i>x<sub>2</sub></i>, and <i>x<sub>3</sub></i> being <a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">core arguments</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_to_other_linguistic_classifications">Comparison to other linguistic classifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Comparison to other linguistic classifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weather_verb">Weather verb</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Weather verb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs which are used to describe the weather, are often noted to be impersonal verbs in some languages. Some linguists consider the impersonal subject of a weather verb to be a "<a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">dummy pronoun</a>", while others have been critical of this interpretation on the basis of their role as objects in the arguments of verb clauses.<sup id="cite_ref-weather-verb-dummy-pronoun_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weather-verb-dummy-pronoun-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, there are weather verbs which may take no subject or object.<sup id="cite_ref-language-to-meteorology_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-language-to-meteorology-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impersonal_pronoun">Impersonal pronoun</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Impersonal pronoun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An impersonal pronoun, or dummy pronoun, lacks a reference; in English, the usual example is "it" when used with an impersonal verb.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sources classify certain uses of "<a href="/wiki/One_(pronoun)" title="One (pronoun)">one</a>" (ex. "what should one say?") or "<a href="/wiki/Generic_you" title="Generic you">you</a>" (ex. "you only live once") as "human impersonal pronouns".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An impersonal pronoun, when used, serves as an empty placeholder, or "dummy subject", for the sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples: </p> <dl><dd><b>You</b> would think the inner dome of heaven had fallen.</dd> <dd>The young comedian was awful; <b>one</b> felt embarrassed for him.</dd> <dd>If <b>one</b> fails, then one must try harder next time.</dd></dl> <p>When the pronoun <i>one</i> is used in the numerical sense (rather than as a dummy pronoun), a different pronoun can be used subsequently to referring to the same entity. </p> <dl><dd>We watched as <b>one</b> [of the ospreys] dried its feathers in the sun.</dd> <dd><b>One</b> [driver] pulled her car over to the side.</dd></dl> <p>Generally, it is not ideal to mix the impersonal pronoun one with another pronoun in the same sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>If <i>one</i> fails, then he/you must simply try harder.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Null_objects">Null objects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Null objects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the concept of impersonal verbs is closely related to phenomenon of null subjects, null objects have to do with the lack of the obligatory projection of an object position.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>In French</b> </p> <dl><dd><i>C'est pas lui qui l'a écrit, son livre, le pape, c'est quelqu'un qui lui écrit</i> __.</dd> <dd>The Pope didn't write his book himself, someone writes __ for him.</dd></dl> <p><b>In English</b> </p> <dl><dd>Why then do the psychic gifts often seem to tease __, confuse __ and obstruct __?</dd></dl> <p>Null objects can be understood as implicit <a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">anaphoric</a> direct objects, that is, those whose referents can be understood from the prior or ongoing discourse context as well as sufficiently salient in that context not only to be encoded <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronominally</a>, but even to be entirely omitted. However, it is not imperative that the referent of the direct object has been referred to explicitly previously in the discourse; it could instead be accessible extra-linguistically due to its salience to the interlocutors.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defective_verb">Defective verb</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Defective verb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An impersonal verb is different from a <a href="/wiki/Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">defective verb</a> in that, with an impersonal verb, only one possible syntactical subject is meaningful (either expressed or not), whereas with a defective verb, certain choices of subject might not be grammatically possible, because the verb does not have a complete conjugation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_universal_grammar_theory">In universal grammar theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: In universal grammar theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Impersonal verbs can be considered null subject data. They involve a general concern in <a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative grammar</a>: determining the nature and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Phonetically" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetically">phonetically</a> null but syntactically present entities (<a href="/wiki/Empty_category_principle" title="Empty category principle">empty categories</a>). Since, by definition, these entities are absent from the speech signal, it is of interest that language learners still can come to have information about them. As this phenomenon could not have resulted from sufficient prior experience, it suggests the role of <a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">universal grammar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender-specific_and_gender-neutral_third-person_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-specific and gender-neutral third-person pronouns">Gender-specific and gender-neutral third-person pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_you" title="Generic you">Generic you</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impersonal_passive_voice" title="Impersonal passive voice">Impersonal passive voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_(pronoun)" title="One (pronoun)">Impersonal pronoun "one"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null-subject_language" title="Null-subject language">Null-subject language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammar)" title="Transitivity (grammar)">Transitivity (grammar)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impersonal_verb&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loureiro-Porto, L. 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Retrieved on 20 March 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cummins S., Roberge, Y., (2004). Null objects in French and English. In: Auger, J., Clements, J.C., Vance, B. (Eds.), <i>Contemporary Approaches to Romance Linguistics</i>: Selected papers from the <i>33rd Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages</i> (LSRL). John Benjamins, Amsterdam, 121–138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwenter, Scott A (2006). Null Objects across South America. Selected Proceedings of the <i>8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium</i>, ed. Timothy L. Face and Carol A. Klee, 23-36. 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lexical_categories" title="Template talk:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lexical_categories_and_their_features" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">Lexical categories</a> and their features</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Noun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract / Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjectival_noun_(Japanese)" title="Adjectival noun (Japanese)">Adjectival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_nouns" title="Bare nouns">Bare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Countable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong</a> / <a href="/wiki/Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">Attributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converb" title="Converb">Converb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">Finite</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">Nonfinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">Gerund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supine" title="Supine">Supine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgressive_(linguistics)" title="Transgressive (linguistics)">Transgressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">Ambitransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andative_and_venitive" title="Andative and venitive">Andative / Venitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">Anticausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocausative_verb" title="Autocausative verb">Autocausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captative_verb" title="Captative verb">Captative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenative_verb" title="Catenative verb">Catenative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_verb" title="Compound verb">Compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">Defective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">Denominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">Deponent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_verb" title="Dynamic verb">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_case-marking" title="Exceptional case-marking">Exceptional case-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Impersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">Inchoative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labile_verb" title="Labile verb">Labile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">Lexical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_verb" title="Light verb">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_verb" title="Performative verb">Performative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">Predicative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_verbs" title="Pure verbs">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_and_irregular_verbs" title="Regular and irregular verbs">Regular / Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">Separable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stretched_verb" title="Stretched verb">Stretched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">Unaccusative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">Unergative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjective</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Anti-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalized_adjective" title="Nominalized adjective">Nominalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Non-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">Postpositive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Pure intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Relative subsective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Subsective</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctive_adverb" title="Conjunctive adverb">Conjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_genitive" title="Adverbial genitive">Genitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locative_adverb" title="Locative adverb">Locative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">Prepositional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">Pronominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronoun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bound_variable_pronoun" title="Bound variable pronoun">Bound variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunctive_pronoun" title="Disjunctive pronoun">Disjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">Distributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_sentence" title="Donkey sentence">Donkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">Formal / Informal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Gender-neutral</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gender-specific_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-specific pronoun">Gender-specific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Inclusive / Exclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">Indefinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">Intensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">Reciprocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">Relative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resumptive_pronoun" title="Resumptive pronoun">Resumptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak pronoun">Strong / Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> / <a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">Prepositional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casally_modulated_preposition" title="Casally modulated preposition">Casally modulated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Stranded</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">Determiner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Article</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Quantifier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">Particle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_particle" title="Modal particle">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_particle" title="Noun particle">Noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coverb" title="Coverb">Coverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">Interjection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideophone" title="Ideophone">Ideophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">Onomatopoeia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">Preverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedure_word" title="Procedure word">Procedure word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-form" title="Pro-form">Pro-form</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-verb" title="Pro-verb">Pro-verb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pro-sentence" title="Pro-sentence">Pro-sentence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prop-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Prop-word">Prop-word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yes_and_no" title="Yes and no">Yes and no</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" 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