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class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" 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[o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Conception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_copyrights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_copyrights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>National copyrights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_copyrights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continental_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continental_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Continental law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continental_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_copyright_treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_copyright_treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>International copyright treaties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_copyright_treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obtaining_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obtaining_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Obtaining protection</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Obtaining_protection-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Obtaining protection subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Obtaining_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ownership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ownership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ownership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ownership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eligible_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eligible_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Eligible works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eligible_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Originality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Originality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Originality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Originality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Registration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Registration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Registration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Registration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fixing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fixing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Fixing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fixing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright_notice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_notice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Copyright notice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright_notice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publisher's_copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publisher's_copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Publisher's copyright</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publisher's_copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Enforcement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Enforcement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Enforcement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Enforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Self-enforcement_measures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-enforcement_measures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Self-enforcement measures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-enforcement_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright_infringement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_infringement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Copyright infringement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright_infringement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rights_granted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rights_granted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Rights granted</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rights_granted-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rights granted subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rights_granted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Economic rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Moral rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Duration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations_and_exceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations_and_exceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Limitations and exceptions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Limitations_and_exceptions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Limitations and exceptions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Limitations_and_exceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Idea–expression_dichotomy_and_the_merger_doctrine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idea–expression_dichotomy_and_the_merger_doctrine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idea–expression_dichotomy_and_the_merger_doctrine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_first-sale_doctrine_and_exhaustion_of_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_first-sale_doctrine_and_exhaustion_of_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_first-sale_doctrine_and_exhaustion_of_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fair_use_and_fair_dealing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fair_use_and_fair_dealing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Fair use and fair dealing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fair_use_and_fair_dealing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accessible_copies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accessible_copies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Accessible copies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accessible_copies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_Service_Exemption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_Service_Exemption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Religious Service Exemption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_Service_Exemption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Useful_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Useful_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Useful articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Useful_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transfer,_assignment_and_licensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transfer,_assignment_and_licensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Transfer, assignment and licensing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Transfer,_assignment_and_licensing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Transfer, assignment and licensing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Transfer,_assignment_and_licensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Free_licenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_licenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Free licenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_licenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_domain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_domain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Public domain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_domain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Copyright</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 117 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-117" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">117 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopiereg" title="Kopiereg – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kopiereg" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht" title="Urheberrecht – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Urheberrecht" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahheevuoig%C3%A2dvuot%C3%A2" title="Tahheevuoigâdvuotâ – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Tahheevuoigâdvuotâ" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%8Dcera_riht" title="Bōcera riht – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Bōcera riht" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%81_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1" title="حقوق التأليف والنشر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حقوق التأليف والنشر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreitos_d%27autor" title="Dreitos d'autor – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Dreitos d'autor" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9F" title="কপিৰাইট – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কপিৰাইট" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derechos_d%27autor" title="Derechos d'autor – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Derechos d'autor" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BC%C9%99lliflik_h%C3%BCququ" title="Müəlliflik hüququ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müəlliflik hüququ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="মেধাস্বত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মেধাস্বত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hak_Cipta" title="Hak Cipta – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Hak Cipta" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%9E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Аўтарскае права – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аўтарскае права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%9E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Аўтарскае права – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Аўтарскае права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F" title="कॉपीराइट – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="कॉपीराइट" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Право на тиражиране – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Право на тиражиране" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht" title="Urheberrecht – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Urheberrecht" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorsko_pravo" title="Autorsko pravo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Autorsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drets_d%27autor" title="Drets d'autor – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Drets d'autor" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%C4%95%C3%A7-%D0%B8%D1%80%C4%95%D0%BA%C4%95" title="Автор тивĕç-ирĕкĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Автор тивĕç-ирĕкĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamalaod_sa_awtor" title="Pamalaod sa awtor – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pamalaod sa awtor" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorsk%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Autorské právo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Autorské právo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ch mw-list-item"><a href="https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direchun_i_mantituge%27" title="Direchun i mantituge' – Chamorro" lang="ch" hreflang="ch" data-title="Direchun i mantituge'" data-language-autonym="Chamoru" data-language-local-name="Chamorro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chamoru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawlfraint" title="Hawlfraint – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hawlfraint" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophavsret" title="Ophavsret – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ophavsret" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht" title="Urheberrecht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Urheberrecht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autori%C3%B5igus" title="Autoriõigus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Autoriõigus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πνευματική ιδιοκτησία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πνευματική ιδιοκτησία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Copyright" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C5%ADtorrajto_kaj_kopirajtaj_monopoloj" title="Aŭtorrajto kaj kopirajtaj monopoloj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aŭtorrajto kaj kopirajtaj monopoloj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egile-eskubideak" title="Egile-eskubideak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Egile-eskubideak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82_%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%AB%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="حق تکثیر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حق تکثیر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upphavsr%C3%A6ttur" title="Upphavsrættur – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Upphavsrættur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Copyright" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auteursrjocht" title="Auteursrjocht – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Auteursrjocht" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3ipcheart" title="Cóipcheart – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cóipcheart" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dereito_de_autor%C3%ADa" title="Dereito de autoría – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dereito de autoría" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8A%D8%AF%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%82" title="چاکۊدنحق – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="چاکۊدنحق" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%80%EC%9E%91%EA%B6%8C" title="저작권 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="저작권" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Հեղինակային իրավունք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հեղինակային իրավունք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="प्रतिलिप्यधिकार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रतिलिप्यधिकार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorsko_pravo" title="Autorsko pravo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Autorsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoroyuro" title="Autoroyuro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Autoroyuro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbengan_ti_kopia" title="Karbengan ti kopia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Karbengan ti kopia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hak_cipta" title="Hak cipta – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hak cipta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecto_de_autor" title="Derecto de autor – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Derecto de autor" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B6fundar%C3%A9ttur" title="Höfundaréttur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Höfundaréttur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Copyright" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="זכויות יוצרים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זכויות יוצרים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hak_cipta" title="Hak cipta – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Hak cipta" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="საავტორო უფლება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საავტორო უფლება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%90%D9%B9" title="کاپی رایِٹ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کاپی رایِٹ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B6%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B5_(%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5)_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81_%D2%9B%D2%B1%D2%9B%D1%8B%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96" title="Авторлық және (немесе) сабақтас құқықтар иесі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Авторлық және (немесе) сабақтас құқықтар иесі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakimiliki" title="Hakimiliki – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Hakimiliki" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maf%C3%AA_daneriy%C3%AA" title="Mafê daneriyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mafê daneriyê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Автордук укук – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Автордук укук" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ius_auctoris" title="Ius auctoris – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ius auctoris" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorties%C4%ABbas" title="Autortiesības – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Autortiesības" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auteursrecht" title="Auteursrecht – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Auteursrecht" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autori%C5%B3_teis%C4%97s" title="Autorių teisės – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Autorių teisės" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auteursrech" title="Auteursrech – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Auteursrech" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szerz%C5%91i_jog" title="Szerzői jog – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szerzői jog" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Авторско право – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Авторско право" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="പകർപ്പവകാശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പകർപ്പവകാശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manat%C4%81rua" title="Manatārua – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Manatārua" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ოავტორე ნება – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ოავტორე ნება" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hak_cipta" title="Hak cipta – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Hak cipta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hak_cipta" title="Hak cipta – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Hak cipta" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%85" title="Зохиогчийн эрх – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Зохиогчийн эрх" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BD%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA" title="မူပိုင်ခွင့် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မူပိုင်ခွင့်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auteursrecht" title="Auteursrecht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Auteursrecht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auteursrecht" title="Auteursrecht – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Auteursrecht" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="प्रतिलिपि अधिकार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्रतिलिपि अधिकार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%91%97%E4%BD%9C%E6%A8%A9" title="著作権 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="著作権" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opphavsrett" title="Opphavsrett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Opphavsrett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opphavsrett" title="Opphavsrett – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Opphavsrett" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Copyright" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mualliflik_huquqi" title="Mualliflik huquqi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mualliflik huquqi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%9F" title="ਕਾਪੀਰਾਈਟ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਾਪੀਰਾਈਟ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_di_autor" title="Derecho di autor – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Derecho di autor" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%BE_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D9%82" title="د چاپ او نشر حق – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د چاپ او نشر حق" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drit_d%27autor" title="Drit d'autor – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Drit d'autor" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawo_autorskie" title="Prawo autorskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawo autorskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direito_autoral" title="Direito autoral – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Direito autoral" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drepturi_de_autor" title="Drepturi de autor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Drepturi de autor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Авторское право – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Авторское право" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyricht" title="Copyricht – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Copyricht" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_drejta_e_autorit" title="E drejta e autorit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="E drejta e autorit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Copyright" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%B8" title="ප්‍රකාශන හිමිකම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රකාශන හිමිකම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Copyright" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82_%DB%BD_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7" title="حق ۽ واسطا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="حق ۽ واسطا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorsk%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Autorské právo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Autorské právo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avtorske_pravice" title="Avtorske pravice – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Avtorske pravice" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C_%D9%84%DB%95%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95" title="مافی لەبەرگرتنەوە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مافی لەبەرگرتنەوە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorsko_pravo" title="Autorsko pravo – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Autorsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorsko_pravo" title="Autorsko pravo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Autorsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hak_cipta" title="Hak cipta – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Hak cipta" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekij%C3%A4noikeus" title="Tekijänoikeus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tekijänoikeus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upphovsr%C3%A4tt" title="Upphovsrätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Upphovsrätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karapatang-sipi" title="Karapatang-sipi – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Karapatang-sipi" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="பதிப்புரிமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பதிப்புரிமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%81" title="కాపీహక్కు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కాపీహక్కు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%8C" title="ลิขสิทธิ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ลิขสิทธิ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B2%D0%B0%D2%9B%D2%9B%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Ҳаққи таксир – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҳаққи таксир" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telif_hakk%C4%B1" title="Telif hakkı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Telif hakkı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Авторське право – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Авторське право" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%B9" title="کاپی رائٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کاپی رائٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banjgienz" title="Banjgienz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Banjgienz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Copyright" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quy%E1%BB%81n_t%C3%A1c_gi%E1%BA%A3" title="Quyền tác giả – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Quyền tác giả" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abondroet_d%27_oteur" title="Abondroet d' oteur – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Abondroet d' oteur" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%91%97%E4%BD%9C%E6%9D%83" title="著作权 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="著作权" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%9B%D7%98" title="קאפירעכט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאפירעכט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyrights&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyrights">Copyrights</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Legal concept regulating rights of a creative work</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Copywriting" title="Copywriting">Copywriting</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">This article is about the legal right. For the symbol, see <a href="/wiki/Copyright_symbol" title="Copyright symbol">Copyright symbol</a>. For the band, see <a href="/wiki/Copyright_(band)" title="Copyright (band)">Copyright (band)</a>. 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/150px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/225px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/300px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authors%27_rights" title="Authors' rights">Authors' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_right" title="Database right">Database right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmers' rights">Farmers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_indication" title="Geographical indication">Geographical indication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">Indigenous intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">Industrial design right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit_layout_design_protection" title="Integrated circuit layout design protection">Integrated circuit layout design protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rights" title="Moral rights">Moral rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Peasants" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants">Peasants' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">Plant breeders' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">Plant genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Related_rights" title="Related rights">Related rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_protection_certificate" title="Supplementary protection certificate">Supplementary protection certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">Trademark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_model" title="Utility model">Utility model</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandonware" title="Abandonware">Abandonware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_and_copyright" title="Artificial intelligence and copyright">Artificial intelligence and copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brand_protection" title="Brand protection">Brand protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_abolition" title="Copyright abolition">Copyright abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">Copyright troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Criticism of copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea%E2%80%93expression_distinction" title="Idea–expression distinction">Idea–expression distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">Limitations and exceptions to copyright</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fair_dealing" title="Fair dealing">Fair dealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">Fair use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphrasing_of_copyrighted_material" title="Paraphrasing of copyrighted material">Paraphrasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_quote" title="Right to quote">Right to quote</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">Patent troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_intellectual_property" title="Outline of intellectual property">Outline of intellectual property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_patents" title="Outline of patents">Outline of patents</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <i>Higher categories:</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> and <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property" title="Template:Intellectual property"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property" title="Template talk:Intellectual property"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual_property" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual property"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>copyright</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> that gives its owner the exclusive legal right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a <a href="/wiki/Creative_work" title="Creative work">creative work</a>, usually for a limited time.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A copyright is subject to <a href="/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">limitations</a> based on public interest considerations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a> doctrine in the United States and <a href="/wiki/Fair_dealings" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair dealings">fair dealings</a> doctrine in the United Kingdom. </p><p>Some jurisdictions require "fixing" copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Ref. 1 describes US situation only, ref. 2 does not link to any content relevant to this article, ref. 3 is only related to sports, not suitable to use for a general article, ref. 4 is a standardised form with an agreement written for US jurisdiction, not suitable as reference (December 2020)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These rights normally include reproduction, control over <a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative works</a>, distribution, <a href="/wiki/Performing_rights" title="Performing rights">public performance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moral_rights" title="Moral rights">moral rights</a> such as attribution.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copyrights can be granted by public law and are in that case considered "territorial rights". This means that copyrights granted by the law of a certain state do not extend beyond the territory of that specific jurisdiction. Copyrights of this type vary by country; many countries, and sometimes a large group of countries, have made agreements with other countries on procedures applicable when works "cross" national borders or national rights are inconsistent.<sup id="cite_ref-International_Copyright_Law_Survey_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-International_Copyright_Law_Survey-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Typically, the public law <a href="/wiki/Copyright_term" title="Copyright term">duration of a copyright</a> expires 50 to 100 years after the creator dies, <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries%27_copyright_lengths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries' copyright lengths">depending on the jurisdiction</a>. Some countries require certain <a href="/wiki/Copyright_formalities" title="Copyright formalities">copyright formalities</a><sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to establishing copyright, others recognize copyright in any completed work, without a formal registration. When the copyright of a work expires, it enters the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_copyright" title="History of copyright">History of copyright</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:European_Output_of_Books_500%E2%80%931800.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/European_Output_of_Books_500%E2%80%931800.png/220px-European_Output_of_Books_500%E2%80%931800.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/European_Output_of_Books_500%E2%80%931800.png/330px-European_Output_of_Books_500%E2%80%931800.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/European_Output_of_Books_500%E2%80%931800.png/440px-European_Output_of_Books_500%E2%80%931800.png 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="953" /></a><figcaption>European output of books before the advent of copyright, 6th century to 18th century. Blue shows printed books. <a href="/wiki/Log-lin_plot" class="mw-redirect" title="Log-lin plot">Log-lin plot</a>; a straight line therefore shows an exponential increase.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div> <p>The concept of copyright developed after the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> came into use in Europe<sup id="cite_ref-histpersp_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histpersp-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 15th and 16th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was associated with a common law and rooted in the civil law system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinHugenholtz20193_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinHugenholtz20193-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The printing press made it much cheaper to produce works, but as there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. </p><p>Popular new works were immediately re-<a href="/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">set</a> and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.<sup id="cite_ref-reason_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reason-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Printing brought <a href="/wiki/Print_culture" title="Print culture">profound social changes</a>. The rise in <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> across <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> led to a dramatic increase in the <a href="/wiki/Demand" title="Demand">demand</a> for reading matter.<sup id="cite_ref-histpersp_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histpersp-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass audience.<sup id="cite_ref-reason_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reason-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In German-language markets before the advent of copyright, technical materials, like popular fiction, were inexpensive and widely available; it has been suggested this contributed to Germany's industrial and economic success.<sup id="cite_ref-reason_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reason-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conception">Conception</h3></div> <p>The concept of copyright first developed in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. In reaction to the printing of "scandalous books and pamphlets", the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">English Parliament</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Licensing_of_the_Press_Act_1662" title="Licensing of the Press Act 1662">Licensing of the Press Act 1662</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-histpersp_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histpersp-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which required all intended publications to be registered with the government-approved <a href="/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Stationers_and_Newspaper_Makers" title="Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers">Stationers' Company</a>, giving the Stationers the right to regulate what material could be printed.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a>, enacted in 1710 in England and Scotland, provided the first legislation to protect copyrights (but not authors' rights). The Copyright Act of 1814 extended more rights for authors but did not protect British from reprinting in the US. The <a href="/wiki/Berne_convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Berne convention">Berne International Copyright Convention</a> of 1886 finally provided protection for authors among the countries who signed the agreement, although the US did not join the Berne Convention until 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the US, the Constitution grants Congress the right to establish copyright and patent laws. Shortly after the Constitution was passed, Congress enacted the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1790" title="Copyright Act of 1790">Copyright Act of 1790</a>, modeling it after the Statute of Anne. While the national law protected authors' published works, authority was granted to the states to protect authors' unpublished works. The most recent major overhaul of copyright in the US, the <a href="/wiki/1976_Copyright_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="1976 Copyright Act">1976 Copyright Act</a>, extended federal copyright to works as soon as they are created and "fixed", without requiring publication or registration. State law continues to apply to unpublished works that are not otherwise copyrighted by federal law.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This act also changed the calculation of copyright term from a fixed term (then a maximum of fifty-six years) to "life of the author plus 50 years". These changes brought the US closer to conformity with the Berne Convention, and in 1989 the United States further revised its copyright law and joined the Berne Convention officially.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, in Asia. In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> in Europe, there was generally a lack of any concept of literary property due to the general relations of production, the specific organization of literary production and the role of culture in society. The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product and expression of the collective, rather than to see it as individual property. However, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of creative human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">commodification</a> of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copyright has developed into a concept that has a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, including not just literary work, but also forms of creative work such as <a href="/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction" title="Sound recording and reproduction">sound recordings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">films</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">photographs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_copyrights">National copyrights</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="History of copyright law of the United States">History of copyright law of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statute_of_anne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/220px-Statute_of_anne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="407" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/330px-Statute_of_anne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/440px-Statute_of_anne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> (the Copyright Act 1709) came into force in 1710.</figcaption></figure> <p>Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> gave authors and the publishers to whom they did chose to license their works, the right to publish the author's creations for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.<sup id="cite_ref-Rethinking_copyright:_history,_theory,_language_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rethinking_copyright:_history,_theory,_language-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by Vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or the Purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned." The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist. It began, "Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing ... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright Clause</a> of the United States, Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries." That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to their heirs. Yet scholars like Lawrence Lessig have argued that copyright terms have been extended beyond the scope imagined by the Framers. Lessig refers to the Copyright Clause as the "Progress Clause" to emphasize the social dimension of intellectual property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original length of copyright in the United States was 14 years, and it had to be explicitly applied for. If the author wished, they could apply for a second 14‑year monopoly grant, but after that the work entered the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>, so it could be used and built upon by others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continental_law">Continental law</h3></div> <p>In many jurisdictions of the European continent, comparable legal concepts to copyright did exist from the 16th century on but did change under Napoleonic rule into another legal concept: <i><a href="/wiki/Authors%27_rights" title="Authors' rights">authors' rights</a></i> or <i>creator's right</i> laws, from French: <i>droits d'auteur</i> and German <i><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Germany" title="Copyright law of Germany">Urheberrecht</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many modern-day publications the terms copyright and authors' rights are being mixed, or used as translations, but in a juridical sense the legal concepts do essentially differ.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Authors' rights are, generally speaking, from the start absolute property rights of an author of original work that one does not have to apply for. The law is automatically connecting an original work as intellectual property to its creator.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the concepts throughout the years have been mingled globally, due to international treaties and contracts, distinct differences between jurisdictions continue to exist.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Creator's law was enacted rather late in <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Germany" title="Copyright law of Germany">German speaking states</a> and the economic historian Eckhard Höffner argues that the absence of possibilities to maintain copyright laws in all these states in the early 19th century, encouraged the publishing of low-priced paperbacks for the masses. This was profitable for authors and led to a proliferation of books, enhanced knowledge, and was ultimately an important factor in the ascendency of Germany as a power during that century.<sup id="cite_ref-thad_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thad-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the introduction of creator's rights, German publishers started to follow English customs, in issuing only expensive book editions for wealthy customers.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Empirical evidence derived from the exogenous differential introduction of author's right (Italian: <i>diritto d’autore</i>) in Napoleonic Italy shows that "basic copyrights increased both the number and the quality of operas, measured by their popularity and durability".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_copyright_treaties">International copyright treaties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/International_copyright_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="International copyright agreements">International copyright agreements</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_copyright_agreements" title="List of parties to international copyright agreements">List of parties to international copyright agreements</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg/300px-Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg/450px-Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg/600px-Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7780" data-file-height="5164" /></a><figcaption><i> The Pirate Publisher—An International <a href="/wiki/Victorian_burlesque" title="Victorian burlesque">Burlesque</a> that has the Longest Run on Record</i>, from <i><a href="/wiki/Puck_(magazine)" title="Puck (magazine)">Puck</a></i>, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply copying newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.</figcaption></figure> <p>The 1886 <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">Berne Convention</a> first established recognition of authors' rights among <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereign nations</a>, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, protective rights for <a href="/wiki/Creative_works" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative works">creative works</a> do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not "register" or "apply for" these protective rights in countries adhering to the Berne Convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works_Article_5_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works_Article_5-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As soon as a work is "fixed", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all intellectual property rights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the rights expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Copyright,_Designs_and_Patents_Act_1988" title="Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988">Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988</a>. Specially, for educational and scientific research purposes, the Berne Convention provides the developing countries issue compulsory licenses for the translation or reproduction of copyrighted works within the limits prescribed by the convention. This was a special provision that had been added at the time of 1971 revision of the convention, because of the strong demands of the developing countries. The United States did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States and most <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> countries instead entered into the <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Convention" title="Buenos Aires Convention">Buenos Aires Convention</a> in 1910, which required a copyright notice on the work (such as <i><a href="/wiki/All_rights_reserved" title="All rights reserved">all rights reserved</a></i>), and permitted signatory nations to limit the duration of copyrights to shorter and renewable terms.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Universal_Copyright_Convention" title="Universal Copyright Convention">Universal Copyright Convention</a> was drafted in 1952 as another less demanding alternative to the Berne Convention, and ratified by nations such as the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and developing nations. </p><p>The regulations of the <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works" class="mw-redirect" title="Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works">Berne Convention</a> are incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Agreement_on_Trade-Related_Aspects_of_Intellectual_Property_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights">TRIPS</a> agreement (1995), thus giving the Berne Convention effectively near-global application.<sup id="cite_ref-Contemporary_Intellectual_Property:_Law_and_Policy_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Contemporary_Intellectual_Property:_Law_and_Policy-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1961, the <a href="/wiki/United_International_Bureaux_for_the_Protection_of_Intellectual_Property" title="United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property">United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Performers,_Producers_of_Phonograms_and_Broadcasting_Organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations">Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations</a>. In 1996, this organization was succeeded by the founding of the <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a>, which launched the 1996 <a href="/wiki/WIPO_Performances_and_Phonograms_Treaty" title="WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty">WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty</a> and the 2002 <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization_Copyright_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty">WIPO Copyright Treaty</a>, which enacted greater restrictions on the use of technology to copy works in the nations that ratified it. The <a href="/wiki/Trans-Pacific_Partnership" title="Trans-Pacific Partnership">Trans-Pacific Partnership</a> includes <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Pacific_Partnership_Intellectual_Property_Provisions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trans-Pacific Partnership Intellectual Property Provisions (page does not exist)">intellectual property provisions</a> relating to copyright. </p><p>Copyright laws and authors' right laws are standardized somewhat through these international conventions such as the Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and <a href="/wiki/International_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="International organizations">international organizations</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> require their member states to comply with them. All member states of the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> are obliged to establish minimum levels of copyright protection. Nevertheless, important differences between the national regimes continue to exist.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Obtaining_protection">Obtaining protection</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ownership">Ownership</h3></div> <p>The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author themself if the work is a "<a href="/wiki/Work_for_hire" title="Work for hire">work for hire</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a "Work for Hire". Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Author" title="Author">author</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fairuse.stanford.edu_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fairuse.stanford.edu-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But when more than one person creates the work, then a case of <a href="/wiki/Joint_authorship" title="Joint authorship">joint authorship</a> can be made provided some criteria are met. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eligible_works">Eligible works</h3></div> <p>Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works". Specifics vary by <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a>, but these can include <a href="/wiki/Poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Poem">poems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="Theses">theses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Protection_for_Fictional_Characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright Protection for Fictional Characters">fictional characters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">plays</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">literary works</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">motion pictures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choreography" title="Choreography">choreography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">musical</a> compositions, <a href="/wiki/Sound_recording" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound recording">sound recordings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">paintings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drawing" title="Drawing">drawings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculptures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photographs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer software">computer software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design">industrial designs</a>. Graphic <a href="/wiki/Designs" class="mw-redirect" title="Designs">designs</a> and industrial designs may have separate or overlapping laws applied to them in some jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-yu-2006_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yu-2006-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Art_and_copyright-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the copyright to a <a href="/wiki/Mickey_Mouse" title="Mickey Mouse">Mickey Mouse</a> cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating <a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative works</a> based on <a href="/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company" title="The Walt Disney Company">Disney's</a> particular <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic">anthropomorphic</a> mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are different enough not to be judged copies of Disney's.<sup id="cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Art_and_copyright-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Originality">Originality</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Threshold_of_originality" title="Threshold of originality">Threshold of originality</a></div> <p>Typically, a work must meet <a href="/wiki/Threshold_of_originality" title="Threshold of originality">minimal standards of originality</a> in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> there has to be some "skill, labour, and judgment" that has gone into it.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> instead. </p><p>Copyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually is an <a href="/wiki/Original_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Original work">original creation</a>, rather than based on <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism_checker" class="mw-redirect" title="Plagiarism checker">whether it is unique</a>; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Registration">Registration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_registration" title="Copyright registration">Copyright registration</a></div> <p>In all countries where the <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works" class="mw-redirect" title="Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works">Berne Convention</a> standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works_Article_5_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works_Article_5-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, while registration is not needed to exercise copyright, in jurisdictions where the laws provide for registration, it serves as <i><a href="/wiki/Prima_facie" title="Prima facie">prima facie</a></i> evidence of a valid copyright and enables the copyright holder to seek <a href="/wiki/Statutory_damages_for_copyright_infringement" title="Statutory damages for copyright infringement">statutory damages</a> and attorney's fees.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (In the US, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits.) </p><p>A widely circulated strategy to avoid the cost of copyright registration is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Poor_man%27s_copyright" title="Poor man's copyright">poor man's copyright</a>. It proposes that the creator send the work to themself in a sealed envelope by registered mail, using the <a href="/wiki/Postmark" title="Postmark">postmark</a> to establish the date. This technique has not been recognized in any published opinions of the United States courts. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">United States Copyright Office</a> says the technique is not a substitute for actual registration.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Intellectual_Property_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office">United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office</a> discusses the technique and notes that the technique (as well as commercial registries) does not constitute dispositive proof that the work is original or establish who created the work.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fixing">Fixing</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">Berne Convention</a> allows member countries to decide whether creative works must be "fixed" to enjoy copyright. Article 2, Section 2 of the Berne Convention states: "It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form." Some countries do not require that a work be produced in a particular form to obtain copyright protection. For instance, Spain, France, and Australia do not require fixation for copyright protection. The United States and Canada, on the other hand, require that most works must be "fixed in a tangible medium of expression" to obtain copyright protection.<sup id="cite_ref-cyber.law.harvard.edu_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cyber.law.harvard.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> US law requires that the fixation be stable and permanent enough to be "perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period of more than transitory duration". Similarly, Canadian courts consider fixation to require that the work be "expressed to some extent at least in some material form, capable of identification and having a more or less permanent endurance".<sup id="cite_ref-cyber.law.harvard.edu_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cyber.law.harvard.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Note this provision of US law: <i>c) Effect of Berne Convention.—No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto. Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto.</i><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright_notice">Copyright notice</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_notice" title="Copyright notice">Copyright notice</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copyright.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/220px-Copyright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/330px-Copyright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/440px-Copyright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="197" data-file-height="197" /></a><figcaption>A copyright symbol used in copyright notice</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitpr%C3%A4gel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Vitpr%C3%A4gel.jpg/220px-Vitpr%C3%A4gel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Vitpr%C3%A4gel.jpg/330px-Vitpr%C3%A4gel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Vitpr%C3%A4gel.jpg/440px-Vitpr%C3%A4gel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1111" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption>A copyright symbol embossed on a piece of paper</figcaption></figure> <p>Before 1989, United States law required the use of a copyright notice, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_symbol" title="Copyright symbol">copyright symbol</a> (©, the letter <b>C</b> inside a circle; Unicode <span class="nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style><span class="monospaced">U+00A9</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">©</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">COPYRIGHT SIGN</span>), the abbreviation "Copr.", or the word "Copyright", followed by the year of the first publication of the work and the name of the copyright holder.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several years may be noted if the work has gone through substantial revisions. The proper copyright notice for sound recordings of musical or other audio works is a <a href="/wiki/Sound_recording_copyright_symbol" title="Sound recording copyright symbol">sound recording copyright symbol</a> (℗, the letter <b>P</b> inside a circle, Unicode <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">U+2117</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">℗</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">SOUND RECORDING COPYRIGHT</span>), which indicates a sound recording copyright, with the letter <b>P</b> indicating a "<a href="/wiki/Phonorecord" title="Phonorecord">phonorecord</a>". In addition, the phrase <i><a href="/wiki/All_rights_reserved" title="All rights reserved">All rights reserved</a></i> which indicates that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use was once required to assert copyright, but that phrase is now legally obsolete. Almost everything on the Internet has some sort of copyright attached to it. Whether these things are watermarked, signed, or have any other sort of indication of the copyright is a different story however.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1989 the United States enacted the <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Berne Convention Implementation Act">Berne Convention Implementation Act</a>, amending the 1976 Copyright Act to conform to most of the provisions of the Berne Convention. As a result, the use of copyright notices has become optional to claim copyright, because the Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit – using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of "innocent infringement" being successful.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Publisher's_copyright"><span id="Publisher.27s_copyright"></span>Publisher's copyright</h3></div> <p>In the UK, the publisher of a work automatically owns the copyright in the "typographical arrangement of a published work", i.e. its layout and general appearance as a published work. This copyright lasts for 25 years after the end of the year in which the edition containing that arrangement was first published.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Enforcement">Enforcement</h2></div> <p>Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(private_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil law (private law)">civil law</a> court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes in some jurisdictions. While <a href="/wiki/Copyright_registry" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright registry">central registries</a> are kept in some countries which aid in proving claims of ownership, registering does not necessarily prove ownership, nor does the fact of copying (even without permission) necessarily <a href="/wiki/Legal_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal proof">prove</a> that copyright was infringed. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but are now becoming more commonplace as copyright collectives such as the <a href="/wiki/RIAA" class="mw-redirect" title="RIAA">RIAA</a> are increasingly targeting the <a href="/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">file sharing</a> home Internet user. Thus far, however, most such cases against file sharers have been settled out of court. (<i>See <a href="/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_file_sharing" title="Legal aspects of file sharing">Legal aspects of file sharing</a></i>) </p><p>In most jurisdictions the copyright holder must bear the cost of enforcing copyright. This will usually involve engaging legal representation, administrative or court costs. In light of this, many copyright disputes are settled by a direct approach to the infringing party in order to settle the dispute out of court. </p><p>"... by 1978, the scope was expanded to apply to any 'expression' that has been 'fixed' in any medium, this protection granted automatically whether the maker wants it or not, no registration required."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-enforcement_measures">Self-enforcement measures</h3></div> <p>With older technology like paintings, books, phonographs, and film, it is generally not feasible for consumers to make copies on their own, so producers can simply require payment when transferring physical possession of the storage medium. The equivalent for digital online content is a <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="Paywall">paywall</a>. </p><p>The introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Photocopier" title="Photocopier">photocopier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">cassette tape</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Videotape" title="Videotape">videotape</a> made it easier for consumers to copy materials like books and music, but each time a copy was made, it lost some fidelity. Digital media like text, audio, video, and software (even when stored on physical media like <a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">compact discs</a> and <a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVDs</a>) can be copied losslessly, and shared on the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, creating a much bigger threat to producer revenue. Some have used <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a> technology to restrict non-playback access through encryption and other means. <a href="/wiki/Digital_watermark" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital watermark">Digital watermarks</a> can be used to trace copies, deterring infringement with a more credible threat of legal consequences. <a href="/wiki/Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">Copy protection</a> is used for both digital and pre-Internet electronic media. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright_infringement">Copyright infringement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></div> <p>For a work to be considered to infringe upon copyright, its use must have occurred in a nation that has domestic copyright laws or adheres to a bilateral treaty or established international convention such as the <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works" class="mw-redirect" title="Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works">Berne Convention</a> or <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization_Copyright_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty">WIPO Copyright Treaty</a>. Improper use of materials outside of legislation is deemed "unauthorized edition", not copyright infringement.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the IP Commission Report the annual cost of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_infringement" title="Intellectual property infringement">intellectual property infringement</a> to the US economy "continues to exceed $225 billion in counterfeit goods, pirated software, and theft of trade secrets and could be as high as $600 billion."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2019 study sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/Global_Innovation_Policy_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Innovation Policy Center">US Chamber of Commerce Global Innovation Policy Center</a> (GIPC), in partnership with <a href="/wiki/NERA_Economic_Consulting" class="mw-redirect" title="NERA Economic Consulting">NERA Economic Consulting</a> "estimates that global online piracy costs the U.S. economy at least $29.2 billion in lost revenue each year."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An August 2021 report by the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Citizens_Alliance" title="Digital Citizens Alliance">Digital Citizens Alliance</a> states that "online criminals who offer stolen movies, TV shows, games, and live events through websites and apps are reaping $1.34 billion in annual advertising revenues." This comes as a result of users visiting pirate websites who are then subjected to pirated content, malware, and fraud.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rights_granted">Rights granted</h2></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organisation</a>, copyright protects two types of rights. Economic rights allow right owners to derive financial reward from the use of their works by others. Moral rights allow authors and creators to take certain actions to preserve and protect their link with their work. The author or creator may be the owner of the economic rights or those rights may be transferred to one or more copyright owners. Many countries do not allow the transfer of moral rights.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_rights">Economic rights</h3></div> <p>With any kind of property, its owner may decide how it is to be used, and others can use it lawfully only if they have the owner's permission, often through a license. The owner's use of the property must, however, respect the legally recognised rights and interests of other members of society. So the owner of a copyright-protected work may decide how to use the work, and may prevent others from using it without permission. National laws usually grant copyright owners exclusive rights to allow third parties to use their works, subject to the legally recognised rights and interests of others.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most copyright laws state that authors or other right owners have the right to authorise or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. Right owners can authorise or prohibit: </p> <ul><li>reproduction of the work in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;</li> <li>distribution of copies of the work;</li> <li>public performance of the work;</li> <li>broadcasting or other communication of the work to the public;</li> <li>translation of the work into other languages; and</li> <li>adaptation of the work, such as turning a novel into a screenplay.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moral_rights">Moral rights</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moral_rights" title="Moral rights">Moral rights</a></div> <p>Moral rights are concerned with the non-economic rights of a creator. They protect the creator's connection with a work as well as the integrity of the work. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. In some EU countries, such as France, moral rights last indefinitely. In the UK, however, moral rights are finite. That is, the right of attribution and the right of integrity last only as long as the work is in copyright. When the copyright term comes to an end, so too do the moral rights in that work. This is just one reason why the moral rights regime within the UK is often regarded as weaker or inferior to the protection of moral rights in continental Europe and elsewhere in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Berne Convention, in Article 6bis, requires its members to grant authors the following rights: </p> <ol><li>the right to claim authorship of a work (sometimes called the right of paternity or the right of attribution); and</li> <li>the right to object to any distortion or modification of a work, or other derogatory action in relation to a work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).</li></ol> <p>These and other similar rights granted in national laws are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Berne Convention requires these rights to be independent of authors' economic rights. Moral rights are only accorded to individual authors and in many national laws they remain with the authors even after the authors have transferred their economic rights. This means that even where, for example, a film producer or publisher owns the economic rights in a work, in many jurisdictions the individual author continues to have moral rights.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently, as a part of the debates being held at the <a href="/wiki/US_Copyright_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="US Copyright Office">US Copyright Office</a> on the question of inclusion of Moral Rights as a part of the framework of the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States">Copyright Law in United States</a>, the Copyright Office concluded that many diverse aspects of the current moral rights patchwork – including copyright law's derivative work right, state moral rights statutes, and contract law – are generally working well and should not be changed. Further, the Office concludes that there is no need for the creation of a blanket moral rights statute at this time. However, there are aspects of the US moral rights patchwork that could be improved to the benefit of individual authors and the copyright system as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States">Copyright Law in the United States</a>, several exclusive rights are granted to the holder of a copyright, as are listed below: </p> <ul><li>protection of the work;</li> <li>to determine and decide how, and under what conditions, the work may be marketed, publicly displayed, reproduced, distributed, etc.</li> <li>to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies; (including, typically, electronic copies)</li> <li>to import or export the work;</li> <li>to create <a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative works</a>; (works that adapt the original work)</li> <li>to perform or display the work publicly;</li> <li>to sell or cede these rights to others;</li> <li>to transmit or display by radio, video or internet.<sup id="cite_ref-yu-2006_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yu-2006-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The basic right when a work is protected by copyright is that the holder may determine and decide how and under what conditions the protected work may be used by others. This includes the right to decide to distribute the work for free. This part of copyright is often overseen. The phrase "exclusive right" means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise those rights, and others are prohibited from using the work without the holder's permission. Copyright is sometimes called a "negative right", as it serves to prohibit certain people (e.g., readers, viewers, or listeners, and primarily publishers and would be publishers) from doing something they would otherwise be able to do, rather than permitting people (e.g., authors) to do something they would otherwise be unable to do. In this way it is similar to the <a href="/wiki/Unregistered_design_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Unregistered design right">unregistered design right</a> in <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European law">European law</a>. The rights of the copyright holder also permit them to not use or exploit their copyright, for some or all of the term. There is, however, a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_copyright" title="Philosophy of copyright">philosophical interpretation of copyright law</a> that is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a <a href="/wiki/Property_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Property right">property right</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Moral_rights_(copyright_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral rights (copyright law)">moral right</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/UK_copyright_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK copyright law">UK copyright law</a> gives creators both economic rights and moral rights. While 'copying' someone else's work without permission may constitute an infringement of their economic rights, that is, the reproduction right or the right of communication to the public, whereas, 'mutilating' it might infringe the creator's moral rights. In the UK, moral rights include the right to be identified as the author of the work, which is generally identified as the right of attribution, and the right not to have your work subjected to 'derogatory treatment', that is the right of integrity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_India" title="Copyright law of India">Indian copyright law</a> is at parity with the international standards as contained in <a href="/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">TRIPS</a>. The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Phonograms_Convention" title="Geneva Phonograms Convention">Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms</a> and is an active member of the <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) and <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization</a> (UNESCO). The Indian system provides both the economic and moral rights under different provisions of its Indian Copyright Act of 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duration">Duration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_term" title="Copyright term">Copyright term</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries%27_copyright_length" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries' copyright length">List of countries' copyright length</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/300px-Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/450px-Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/600px-Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of US copyright law (currently based on the date of creation or publication)</figcaption></figure> <p>Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work (e.g. musical composition, novel), whether the work has been <a href="/wiki/Publication" title="Publication">published</a>, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing works is a fixed number of years after the date of creation or publication. Under most countries' laws (for example, the United States<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the United Kingdom<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire. </p><p>The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to require copyrights to be <a href="/wiki/Copyright_renewal_in_the_United_States" title="Copyright renewal in the United States">renewed</a> after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France. Many countries have extended the length of their copyright terms (sometimes retroactively). International treaties establish minimum terms for copyrights, but individual countries may enforce longer terms than those.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, all books and other works, except for sound recordings, published before 1929 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain. The applicable date for sound recordings in the United States is before 1923.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, works published before 1964 that did not have their copyrights renewed 28 years after first publication year also are in the public domain. Hirtle points out that the great majority of these works (including 93% of the books) were not renewed after 28 years and are in the public domain.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Books originally published outside the US by non-Americans are exempt from this renewal requirement, if they are still under copyright in their home country. </p><p>But if the intended exploitation of the work includes publication (or distribution of derivative work, such as a film based on a book protected by copyright) outside the US, the terms of copyright around the world must be considered. If the author has been dead more than 70 years, the work is in the public domain in most, but not all, countries. </p><p>In 1998, the length of a copyright in the United States was increased by 20 years under the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" title="Copyright Term Extension Act">Copyright Term Extension Act</a>. This legislation was the subject of substantial criticism following allegations that the bill was strongly promoted by corporations which had valuable copyrights which otherwise would have expired.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations_and_exceptions">Limitations and exceptions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">Limitations and exceptions to copyright</a></div> <p>In many jurisdictions, copyright law makes exceptions to these restrictions when the work is copied for the purpose of commentary or other related uses. United States copyright law does not cover names, titles, short phrases or listings (such as ingredients, recipes, labels, or formulas).<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are protections available for those areas copyright does not cover, such as <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idea–expression_dichotomy_and_the_merger_doctrine"><span id="Idea.E2.80.93expression_dichotomy_and_the_merger_doctrine"></span>Idea–expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Idea%E2%80%93expression_divide" class="mw-redirect" title="Idea–expression divide">Idea–expression divide</a></div> <p>The idea–expression divide differentiates between ideas and expression, and states that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the ideas themselves. This principle, first clarified in the 1879 case of <i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Selden" title="Baker v. Selden">Baker v. Selden</a></i>, has since been codified by the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a> at 17 U.S.C. § 102(b). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_first-sale_doctrine_and_exhaustion_of_rights">The first-sale doctrine and exhaustion of rights</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First-sale_doctrine" title="First-sale doctrine">First-sale doctrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exhaustion_of_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Exhaustion of rights">Exhaustion of rights</a></div> <p>Copyright law does not restrict the owner of a copy from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or <a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a>. In the United States this is known as the <a href="/wiki/First-sale_doctrine" title="First-sale doctrine">first-sale doctrine</a>, and was established by the <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">courts</a> to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand <a href="/wiki/Bookstore" class="mw-redirect" title="Bookstore">bookstores</a>. </p><p>Some countries may have <a href="/wiki/Parallel_importation" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel importation">parallel importation</a> restrictions that allow the copyright holder to control the <a href="/wiki/Aftermarket_(merchandise)" title="Aftermarket (merchandise)">aftermarket</a>. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed does infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as <a href="/wiki/Exhaustion_of_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Exhaustion of rights">exhaustion of rights</a> in other countries and is a principle which also applies, though somewhat differently, to <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> rights. While this doctrine permits the transfer of the particular legitimate copy involved, it does not permit making or distributing additional copies. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Kirtsaeng_v._John_Wiley_%26_Sons,_Inc." title="Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.">Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 2013, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> held in a 6–3 decision that the first-sale doctrine applies to goods manufactured abroad with the copyright owner's permission and then imported into the US without such permission. The case involved a plaintiff who imported Asian editions of textbooks that had been manufactured abroad with the publisher-plaintiff's permission. The defendant, without permission from the publisher, imported the textbooks and resold on <a href="/wiki/EBay" title="EBay">eBay</a>. The Supreme Court's holding severely limits the ability of copyright holders to prevent such importation. </p><p>In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying one's own legitimately obtained copy of a copyrighted work, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement <a href="/wiki/Moral_rights_(copyright_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral rights (copyright law)">moral rights</a>, a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fair_use_and_fair_dealing">Fair use and fair dealing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">Fair use</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fair_dealing" title="Fair dealing">Fair dealing</a></div> <p>Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a> doctrine, codified by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Act_of_1976" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a> as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution without permission of the copyright holder or payment to same. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. Those factors are: </p> <ol><li>the purpose and character of one's use;</li> <li>the nature of the copyrighted work;</li> <li>what amount and proportion of the whole work was taken;</li> <li>the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and many other <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">courts</a> or through <a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</a>. The concept is sometimes not well defined; however in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In <i><a href="/wiki/Alberta_(Education)_v._Canadian_Copyright_Licensing_Agency_(Access_Copyright)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright)">Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright)</a></i>, 2012 SCC 37, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a> concluded that limited copying for educational purposes could also be justified under the fair dealing exemption. In Australia, the fair dealing exceptions under the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright Act 1968">Copyright Act 1968</a> (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyrighted material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and critique; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Legal_advice" title="Legal advice">legal advice</a>). Under current <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Australia">Australian law</a>, although it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner, owners of a legitimate copy are permitted to "format shift" that work from one medium to another for personal, private use, or to "time shift" a broadcast work for later, once and only once, viewing or listening. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in machine readable form for a computer. </p><p>In the United States the AHRA (<a href="/wiki/Audio_Home_Recording_Act" title="Audio Home Recording Act">Audio Home Recording Act</a> Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for <a href="/wiki/Royalties" class="mw-redirect" title="Royalties">royalties</a> on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.</p></blockquote> <p>Later acts amended US Copyright law so that for certain purposes making 10 copies or more is construed to be commercial, but there is no general rule permitting such copying. Indeed, making one complete copy of a work, or in many cases using a portion of it, for commercial purposes will not be considered fair use. The <a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> prohibits the manufacture, importation, or distribution of devices whose intended use, or only significant commercial use, is to bypass an access or copy control put in place by a copyright owner.<sup id="cite_ref-yu-2006_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yu-2006-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An appellate court has held that fair use is not a defense to engaging in such distribution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Undocumented claim (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Lenz_v._Universal_Music_Corp." title="Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.">Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.</a>,</i> the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit</a> affirmed the lower court decision, holding that "fair use is 'authorized by the law' and a copyright holder must consider the existence of fair use before sending a takedown notification" under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_European_Union" title="Copyright law of the European Union">EU copyright laws</a> recognise the right of EU member states to implement some national exceptions to copyright. Examples of those exceptions are: </p> <ul><li>photographic reproductions on paper or any similar medium of works (excluding sheet music) provided that the rightholders receives fair compensation;</li> <li>reproduction made by libraries, educational establishments, museums or archives, which are non-commercial;</li> <li>archival reproductions of broadcasts;</li> <li>uses for the benefit of people with a disability;</li> <li>for demonstration or repair of equipment;</li> <li>for non-commercial research or private study;</li> <li>when used in <a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">parody</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accessible_copies">Accessible copies</h3></div> <p>It is legal in several countries including the United Kingdom and the United States to produce alternative versions (for example, in large print or braille) of a copyrighted work to provide improved access to a work for blind and visually impaired people without permission from the copyright holder.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_Service_Exemption">Religious Service Exemption</h3></div> <p>In the US there is a Religious Service Exemption (1976 law, section 110[3]), namely "performance of a non-dramatic literary or musical work or of a dramatico-musical work of a religious nature or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly" shall not constitute infringement of copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Useful_articles">Useful articles</h3></div> <p>In Canada, items deemed <i>useful articles</i> such as clothing designs are exempted from copyright protection under the <i><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_(Canada)" title="Copyright Act (Canada)">Copyright Act</a></i> if reproduced more than 50 times.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fast_fashion" title="Fast fashion">Fast fashion</a> brands may reproduce clothing designs from smaller companies without violating copyright protections.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transfer,_assignment_and_licensing"><span id="Transfer.2C_assignment_and_licensing"></span><span class="anchor" id="Transfer_and_licensing,_and_assignment"></span> Transfer, assignment and licensing</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Collective_rights_management" title="Collective rights management">Collective rights management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extended_collective_licensing" title="Extended collective licensing">Extended collective licensing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_license" title="Compulsory license">Compulsory license</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Copyright_transfer_agreement" title="Copyright transfer agreement">Copyright transfer agreement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:All_rights_reserved.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/All_rights_reserved.jpg/300px-All_rights_reserved.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/All_rights_reserved.jpg/450px-All_rights_reserved.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/All_rights_reserved.jpg/600px-All_rights_reserved.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>Generic DVD: <i><a href="/wiki/All_rights_reserved" title="All rights reserved">All rights reserved</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>A copyright, or aspects of it (e.g. reproduction alone, all but moral rights), may be assigned or transferred from one party to another.<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a musician who records an album will often sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyright in the recordings in exchange for royalties and other considerations. The creator (and original copyright holder) benefits, or expects to, from production and marketing capabilities far beyond those of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed at minimal cost through the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>; however, the <a href="/wiki/Record_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Record industry">record industry</a> attempts to provide promotion and marketing for the artist and their work so it can reach a much larger audience. A copyright holder need not transfer all rights completely, though many publishers will insist. Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time. </p><p>A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective,<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights(2)_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights(2)-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example under the Australian <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Australia#Copyright_Act_1968" title="Copyright law of Australia">Copyright Act 1968</a> the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the US Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be granted in a written instrument signed by the grantor. No special form of transfer or grant is required. A simple document that identifies the work involved and the rights being granted is sufficient. Non-exclusive grants (often called non-exclusive licenses) need not be in writing under <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">US law</a>. They can be oral or even implied by the behavior of the parties. Transfers of copyright ownership, including exclusive licenses, may and should be recorded in the U.S. Copyright Office. (Information on recording transfers is available on the Office's web site.) While recording is not required to make the grant effective, it offers important benefits, much like those obtained by recording a deed in a <a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a> transaction. </p><p>Copyright may also be <a href="/wiki/License" title="License">licensed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a prescribed <a href="/wiki/Statutory_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory license">statutory license</a> (e.g. musical works in the United States used for radio broadcast or performance). This is also called a <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_license" title="Compulsory license">compulsory license</a>, because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by an agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights(3)_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights(3)-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Failure to follow the proper procedures would place the copier at risk of an infringement suit. Because of the difficulty of following every individual work, <a href="/wiki/Copyright_collective" title="Copyright collective">copyright collectives</a> or <a href="/wiki/Collecting_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Collecting societies">collecting societies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Performance_rights_organisation" title="Performance rights organisation">performing rights organizations</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/ASCAP" class="mw-redirect" title="ASCAP">ASCAP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_Music_Incorporated" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcast Music Incorporated">BMI</a>, and <a href="/wiki/SESAC" title="SESAC">SESAC</a>) have been formed to collect royalties for hundreds (thousands and more) works at once. Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what avoidance of procedural hassle would justify. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_licenses">Free licenses</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Free_license" title="Free license">Free license</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Open-source_license" title="Open-source license">Open-source license</a></div> <p>Copyright licenses known as <i>open</i> or free licenses seek to grant several rights to licensees, either for a fee or not. <i>Free</i> in this context is not as much of a reference to price as it is to freedom. What constitutes free licensing has been characterised in a number of similar definitions, including by order of longevity the <a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Software Definition">Free Software Definition</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Debian_Free_Software_Guidelines" class="mw-redirect" title="Debian Free Software Guidelines">Debian Free Software Guidelines</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Source Definition">Open Source Definition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works" title="Definition of Free Cultural Works">Definition of Free Cultural Works</a>. Further refinements to these definitions have resulted in categories such as <a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Permissive_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Permissive license">permissive</a>. Common examples of free licences are the <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GNU General Public License</a>, <a href="/wiki/BSD_license" class="mw-redirect" title="BSD license">BSD licenses</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons_licenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative Commons licenses">Creative Commons licenses</a>. </p><p>Founded in 2001 by <a href="/wiki/James_Boyle_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Boyle (academic)">James Boyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hal_Abelson" title="Hal Abelson">Hal Abelson</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a> (CC) is a non-profit organization<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which aims to facilitate the legal sharing of creative works. To this end, the organization provides a number of generic copyright license options to the public, <a href="/wiki/Gratis_versus_libre" title="Gratis versus libre">gratis</a>. These licenses allow copyright holders to define conditions under which others may use a work and to specify what types of use are acceptable.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Terms of use have traditionally been negotiated on an individual basis between copyright holder and potential licensee. Therefore, a general CC license outlining which rights the copyright holder is willing to waive enables the general public to use such works more freely. Six general types of CC licenses are available (although some of them are not properly free per the above definitions and per Creative Commons' own advice). These are based upon copyright-holder stipulations such as whether they are willing to allow modifications to the work, whether they permit the creation of derivative works and whether they are willing to permit commercial use of the work.<sup id="cite_ref-Rubin_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubin-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2009<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> approximately 130 million individuals had received such licenses.<sup id="cite_ref-Rubin_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubin-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Criticism of copyright</a></div> <p>Some sources are critical of particular aspects of the copyright system. This is known as a debate over <a href="/wiki/Copynorms" title="Copynorms">copynorms</a>. Particularly to the background of uploading content to internet platforms and the digital exchange of original work, there is discussion about the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_aspects_of_downloading_and_streaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright aspects of downloading and streaming">copyright aspects of downloading and streaming</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_aspects_of_hyperlinking_and_framing" title="Copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing">copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing</a>. </p><p>Concerns are often couched in the language of <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights" title="Digital rights">digital rights</a>, digital freedom, <a href="/wiki/Database_right" title="Database right">database rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_data" title="Open data">open data</a> or <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discussions include <i><a href="/wiki/Free_Culture_(book)" title="Free Culture (book)">Free Culture</a></i>, a 2004 book by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a>. Lessig coined the term <a href="/wiki/Permission_culture" title="Permission culture">permission culture</a> to describe a worst-case system. The documentaries <i><a href="/wiki/Good_Copy_Bad_Copy" title="Good Copy Bad Copy">Good Copy Bad Copy</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/RiP!:_A_Remix_Manifesto" title="RiP!: A Remix Manifesto">RiP!: A Remix Manifesto</a></i> discuss copyright. Some suggest an <a href="/wiki/Alternative_compensation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative compensation system">alternative compensation system</a>. In Europe consumers are acting up against the raising costs of music, film and books, and as a result <a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Parties</a> have been created. Some groups reject copyright altogether, taking an <a href="/wiki/Copyright_abolition" title="Copyright abolition">anti-copyright</a> stance. The perceived inability to enforce copyright online leads some to advocate <a href="/wiki/Crypto-anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-anarchism">ignoring legal statutes when on the web</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_domain">Public domain</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></div> <p>Copyright, like other <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual property rights">intellectual property rights</a>, is subject to a statutorily determined term. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the public domain and may be used or exploited by anyone without obtaining permission, and normally without payment. However, in <a href="/wiki/Paying_public_domain" title="Paying public domain">paying public domain</a> regimes the user may still have to pay royalties to the state or to an authors' association. Courts in common law countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have rejected the doctrine of a <a href="/wiki/Common_law_copyright" title="Common law copyright">common law copyright</a>. Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publicly available. Works posted in the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a>, for example, are publicly available, but are not generally in the public domain. Copying such works may therefore violate the author's copyright. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adelphi_Charter" title="Adelphi Charter">Adelphi Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">Artificial scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authors%27_rights" title="Authors' rights">Authors' rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Related_rights" title="Related rights">related rights</a>, roughly equivalent concepts in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> countries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud">Copyfraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_abolition" title="Copyright abolition">Copyright abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Alliance" title="Copyright Alliance">Copyright Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_alternatives" title="Copyright alternatives">Copyright alternatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_for_Creativity" title="Copyright for Creativity">Copyright for Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Copyright in architecture in the United States">Copyright in architecture in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_on_the_content_of_patents_and_in_the_context_of_patent_prosecution" title="Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution">Copyright on the content of patents and in the context of patent prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Criticism of copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property#Criticisms" title="Intellectual property">Criticism of intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directive_on_Copyright_in_the_Digital_Single_Market" title="Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market">Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market</a> (European Union)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Remedy_Clarification_Act" title="Copyright Remedy Clarification Act">Copyright Remedy Clarification Act</a> (CRCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_watermarking" title="Digital watermarking">Digital watermarking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_panorama" title="Freedom of panorama">Freedom of panorama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_literacies" class="mw-redirect" title="Information literacies">Information literacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_protection_of_typefaces" title="Intellectual property protection of typefaces">Intellectual property protection of typefaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Copyright_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Copyright Acts">List of Copyright Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_copyright_case_law" title="List of copyright case law">List of copyright case law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_property" title="Literary property">Literary property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_release" title="Model release">Model release</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracopyright" title="Paracopyright">Paracopyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_copyright" title="Philosophy of copyright">Philosophy of copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_and_the_law" title="Photography and the law">Photography and the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_patent" title="Printing patent">Printing patent</a>, a precursor to copyright</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_copying_levy" title="Private copying levy">Private copying levy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_music" title="Production music">Production music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">Rent-seeking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction_fees" title="Reproduction fees">Reproduction fees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_copyright" title="Software copyright">Software copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threshold_pledge_system" title="Threshold pledge system">Threshold pledge system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Book_Day" title="World Book Day">World Book and Copyright Day</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+copyright&rft.pub=Oxford+Dictionaries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fcopyright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/copyright">"Definition of Copyright"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jetlaw.org/publish/journal-conventions/">the original</a> on 13 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vanderbilt+Journal+of+Entertainment+%26+Technology+Law&rft.atitle=Journal+Conventions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jetlaw.org%2Fpublish%2Fjournal-conventions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackshaw2011" class="citation book cs1">Blackshaw, Ian S. (20 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kz1F6uAHtaEC"><i>Sports Marketing Agreements: Legal, Fiscal and Practical Aspects</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789067047937" title="Special:BookSources/9789067047937"><bdi>9789067047937</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sports+Marketing+Agreements%3A+Legal%2C+Fiscal+and+Practical+Aspects&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2011-10-20&rft.isbn=9789067047937&rft.aulast=Blackshaw&rft.aufirst=Ian+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkz1F6uAHtaEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman2008" class="citation book cs1">Kaufman, Roy (16 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xD_iBwAAQBAJ"><i>Publishing Forms and Contracts</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190451264" title="Special:BookSources/9780190451264"><bdi>9780190451264</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Publishing+Forms+and+Contracts&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008-07-16&rft.isbn=9780190451264&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxD_iBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmadSnehil2011" class="citation web cs1">Ahmad, Tabrez; Snehil, Soumya (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180603211523/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1839527">"Significance of Fixation in Copyright Law"</a>. <i>SSRN</i>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1839527">1839527</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1839527">the original</a> on 3 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SSRN&rft.atitle=Significance+of+Fixation+in+Copyright+Law&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1839527%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Ahmad&rft.aufirst=Tabrez&rft.au=Snehil%2C+Soumya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1839527&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ01.pdf">"Copyright Basics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.copyright.gov</i>. U.S. Copyright Office. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ01.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.copyright.gov&rft.atitle=Copyright+Basics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.copyright.gov%2Fcircs%2Fcirc01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-International_Copyright_Law_Survey-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-International_Copyright_Law_Survey_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcopyrightlaw.com/copyrightsurvey">"International Copyright Law Survey"</a>. Mincov Law Corporation. 13 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Copyright+Law+Survey&rft.pub=Mincov+Law+Corporation&rft.date=2021-10-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcopyrightlaw.com%2Fcopyrightsurvey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-histpersp-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-histpersp_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-histpersp_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-histpersp_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Copyright in Historical Perspective</i>, p. 136-137, Patterson, 1968, Vanderbilt Univ. Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joanna Kostylo, "From Gunpowder to Print: The Common Origins of Copyright and Patent", in Ronan Deazley et al., <i>Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright</i> (Cambridge: Open Book, 2010), 21-50; online at books.openedition.org/obp/1062</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinHugenholtz20193-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinHugenholtz20193_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsteinHugenholtz2019">Goldstein & Hugenholtz 2019</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reason-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reason_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reason_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reason_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThadeusz2010" class="citation news cs1">Thadeusz, Frank (18 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/no-copyright-law-the-real-reason-for-germany-s-industrial-expansion-a-710976.html">"No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?"</a>. <i>Spiegel Online</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spiegel+Online&rft.atitle=No+Copyright+Law%3A+The+Real+Reason+for+Germany%27s+Industrial+Expansion%3F&rft.date=2010-08-18&rft.aulast=Thadeusz&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fzeitgeist%2Fno-copyright-law-the-real-reason-for-germany-s-industrial-expansion-a-710976.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNipps2014" class="citation journal cs1">Nipps, Karen (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/1/17219056/1/677787.pdf">"<i>Cum privilegio</i>: Licensing of the Press Act of 1662"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Library Quarterly</i>. <b>84</b> (4): 494–500. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F677787">10.1086/677787</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0024-2519">0024-2519</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144070638">144070638</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/1/17219056/1/677787.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Library+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Cum+privilegio%3A+Licensing+of+the+Press+Act+of+1662&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=494-500&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144070638%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0024-2519&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F677787&rft.aulast=Nipps&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1%2F17219056%2F1%2F677787.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDay_O'Connor2002" class="citation journal cs1">Day O'Connor, Sandra (2002). "Copyright Law from an American Perspective". <i>Irish Jurist</i>. <b>37</b>: 16–22. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44027015">44027015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Irish+Jurist&rft.atitle=Copyright+Law+from+an+American+Perspective&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=16-22&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44027015%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Day+O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bettig, Ronald V. (1996). <i>Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. Westview Press</i>. p. 9–17. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-1385-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-1385-6">0-8133-1385-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rethinking_copyright:_history,_theory,_language-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rethinking_copyright:_history,_theory,_language_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonan2006" class="citation book cs1">Ronan, Deazley (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dMYXq9V1JBQC"><i>Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language</i></a>. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84542-282-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84542-282-0"><bdi>978-1-84542-282-0</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+copyright%3A+history%2C+theory%2C+language&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84542-282-0&rft.aulast=Ronan&rft.aufirst=Deazley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdMYXq9V1JBQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html">"Statute of Anne"</a>. Copyrighthistory.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statute+of+Anne&rft.pub=Copyrighthistory.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.copyrighthistory.com%2Fanne.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence Lessig, Free Culture (Penguin, 2004), 131ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In French civic law the <i>droit d'auteur</i> is part of the <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economie.gouv.fr/apie/propriete-intellectuelle-publications/droit-auteur-image-numerique-1">Code de la propriété intellectuelle</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Italian state of Venetia, adopting Napoleon's law, calls it "diritto d’autore" as part of the "proprietà intellettuale": "<i>la più preziosa e la più sacra delle proprietà</i>" - see: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://123dok.org/article/governare-istruzione-e-stampa-le-riforme-napoleoniche.q05p4vnx">"Governare istruzione e stampa. Le riforme Napoleoniche"</a>. <i>123dok</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214185743/https://123dok.org/article/governare-istruzione-e-stampa-le-riforme-napoleoniche.q05p4vnx">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=123dok&rft.atitle=Governare+istruzione+e+stampa.+Le+riforme+Napoleoniche&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F123dok.org%2Farticle%2Fgovernare-istruzione-e-stampa-le-riforme-napoleoniche.q05p4vnx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilipp_Otto_AktualisierungValie_Djordjevic_Sebastian_Deterding2013" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Philipp Otto Aktualisierung; Valie Djordjevic Sebastian Deterding (15 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bpb.de/themen/digitalisierung/urheberrecht/169971/urheberrecht-und-copyright/">"Urheberrecht und Copyright"</a>. <i>bpb.de</i> (in German)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bpb.de&rft.atitle=Urheberrecht+und+Copyright&rft.date=2013-07-15&rft.au=Philipp+Otto+Aktualisierung&rft.au=Valie+Djordjevic+Sebastian+Deterding&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpb.de%2Fthemen%2Fdigitalisierung%2Furheberrecht%2F169971%2Furheberrecht-und-copyright%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDommerink2004" class="citation journal cs1">Dommerink, Egbert (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/lessen.PDF">"Lessen uit de geschiedenis van het auteursrecht"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>University of Amsterdam, Institute for Information Law / Publications</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230803203521/https://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/lessen.PDF">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Amsterdam%2C+Institute+for+Information+Law+%2F+Publications&rft.atitle=Lessen+uit+de+geschiedenis+van+het+auteursrecht&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Dommerink&rft.aufirst=Egbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ivir.nl%2Fpublicaties%2Fdownload%2Flessen.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inpi.fr/comprendre-la-propriete-intellectuelle/les-autres-modes-de-protection/le-droit-dauteur">"Le droit d'auteur"</a>. <i>INPI.fr</i> (in French). 28 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=INPI.fr&rft.atitle=Le+droit+d%27auteur&rft.date=2015-07-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inpi.fr%2Fcomprendre-la-propriete-intellectuelle%2Fles-autres-modes-de-protection%2Fle-droit-dauteur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/copyright">"Copyright | Definition, Examples, & Facts"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>. 18 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Copyright+%7C+Definition%2C+Examples%2C+%26+Facts&rft.date=2023-11-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fcopyright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thad-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thad_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_Thadeusz2010" class="citation magazine cs1">Frank Thadeusz (18 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/0,1518,710976,00.html">"No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2015</span>. <q>Sigismund Hermbstädt, for example, a chemistry and pharmacy professor in Berlin, who has long since disappeared into the oblivion of history, earned more royalties for his "Principles of Leather Tanning" published in 1806 than British author Mary Shelley did for her horror novel "Frankenstein," which is still famous today.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=No+Copyright+Law%3A+The+Real+Reason+for+Germany%27s+Industrial+Expansion%3F&rft.date=2010-08-18&rft.au=Frank+Thadeusz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fzeitgeist%2F0%2C1518%2C710976%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Famous writer <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heinrich Heine</a> for example, asked his publisher in 1854: "Due to the tremendously high prices you have established, I will hardly see a second edition of the book anytime soon. But you must set lower prices, dear Campe, for otherwise I really don't see why I was so lenient with my material interests."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiorcelliMoser2020" class="citation journal cs1">Giorcelli, Michela; Moser, Petra (March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w26885">"Copyright and Creativity. Evidence from Italian Opera During the Napoleonic Age"</a>. <i>National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw26885">10.3386/w26885</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Bureau+of+Economic+Research+Working+Paper+Series&rft.atitle=Copyright+and+Creativity.+Evidence+from+Italian+Opera+During+the+Napoleonic+Age&rft.date=2020-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw26885&rft.aulast=Giorcelli&rft.aufirst=Michela&rft.au=Moser%2C+Petra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nber.org%2Fpapers%2Fw26885&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works_Article_5-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works_Article_5_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works_Article_5_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120911051959/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P109_16834">"Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Article 5"</a>. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P109_16834">the original</a> on 11 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Berne+Convention+for+the+Protection+of+Literary+and+Artistic+Works+Article+5&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftreaties%2Fen%2Fip%2Fberne%2Ftrtdocs_wo001.html%23P109_16834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garfinkle, Ann M; Fries, Janet; Lopez, Daniel; Possessky, Laura (1997). "Art conservation and the legal obligation to preserve artistic intent". <a href="/wiki/JAIC" class="mw-redirect" title="JAIC">JAIC</a> 36 (2): 165–179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.pdf">"International Copyright Relations of the United States"</a>, U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/culture/copyright/html_eng/ucc52ms.pdf">Parties to the Geneva Act of the Universal Copyright Convention</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080625003242/http://www.unesco.org/culture/copyright/html_eng/ucc52ms.pdf">Archived</a> 25 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> as of 1 January 2000: the dates given in the document are dates of ratification, not dates of coming into force. The Geneva Act came into force on 16 September 1955, for the first twelve to have ratified (which included four non-members of the Berne Union as required by Art. 9.1), or three months after ratification for other countries.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copyright.ht/en">165 Parties to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306215357/http://copyright.ht/en">Archived</a> 6 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> as of May 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Contemporary_Intellectual_Property:_Law_and_Policy-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Contemporary_Intellectual_Property:_Law_and_Policy_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacQueen,_Hector_LCharlotte_WaeldeGraeme_T_Laurie2007" class="citation book cs1">MacQueen, Hector L; Charlotte Waelde; Graeme T Laurie (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Iwcn4pT0OoC"><i>Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926339-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926339-4"><bdi>978-0-19-926339-4</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Intellectual+Property%3A+Law+and+Policy&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926339-4&rft.au=MacQueen%2C+Hector+L&rft.au=Charlotte+Waelde&rft.au=Graeme+T+Laurie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Iwcn4pT0OoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">17 U.S.C. § 201(b); Cmty. for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Community_for_Creative_Non-Violence_v._Reid" title="Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid">Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fairuse.stanford.edu-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fairuse.stanford.edu_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStim2013" class="citation web cs1">Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/overview/faqs/copyright-ownership/">"Copyright Ownership: Who Owns What?"</a>. <i>The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project</i>. Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Center+for+Internet+and+Society+Fair+Use+Project&rft.atitle=Copyright+Ownership%3A+Who+Owns+What%3F&rft.date=2013-03-27&rft.aulast=Stim&rft.aufirst=Rich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffairuse.stanford.edu%2Foverview%2Ffaqs%2Fcopyright-ownership%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yu-2006-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yu-2006_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yu-2006_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yu-2006_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu2006" class="citation book cs1">Yu, Peter K, ed. (30 December 2006). <i>Intellectual property and information wealth: copyright and related rights</i>. Westport, Connecticut, US: Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98882-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98882-1"><bdi>978-0-275-98882-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+property+and+information+wealth%3A+copyright+and+related+rights&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut%2C+US&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2006-12-30&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98882-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span> Praeger is part of the Greenwood Publishing Group. Hardcover. Possible alternative ISBN 978-0-275-98883-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization2016" class="citation book cs1">World Intellectual Property Organization (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4081"><i>Understanding Copyright and Related Rights</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. WIPO. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.34667%2Ftind.36289">10.34667/tind.36289</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789280528046" title="Special:BookSources/9789280528046"><bdi>9789280528046</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Copyright+and+Related+Rights&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=WIPO&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.34667%2Ftind.36289&rft.isbn=9789280528046&rft.au=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fpublications%2Fen%2Fdetails.jsp%3Fid%3D4081&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Art_and_copyright-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon2001" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Stokes (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h-XBqKIryaQC"><i>Art and copyright</i></a>. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-225-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-225-9"><bdi>978-1-84113-225-9</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+and+copyright&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84113-225-9&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Stokes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh-XBqKIryaQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Express Newspaper Plc v News (UK) Plc</i>, F.S.R. 36 (1991)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.pdf">"Subject Matter and Scope of Copyright"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>copyright.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=copyright.gov&rft.atitle=Subject+Matter+and+Scope+of+Copyright&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcopyright.gov%2Ftitle17%2F92chap1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-general.html#poorman">"Copyright in General (FAQ)"</a>. U.S. Copyright Office<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Copyright+in+General+%28FAQ%29&rft.pub=U.S.+Copyright+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.copyright.gov%2Fhelp%2Ffaq%2Ffaq-general.html%23poorman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipo.gov.uk/copy/c-claim/c-register.htm">"Copyright Registers"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005014901/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/copy/c-claim/c-register.htm">Archived</a> 5 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/copy/c-about/c-auto.htm">"Automatic right"</a>, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cyber.law.harvard.edu-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cyber.law.harvard.edu_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cyber.law.harvard.edu_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See Harvard Law School, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/copyrightforlibrarians/Module_3:_The_Scope_of_Copyright_Law#Fixation"><i>Module 3: The Scope of Copyright Law</i></a>. 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Palmer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tomgpalmer.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/morallyjustified.pdf">"Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified?"</a> Accessed 5 February 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalmia2017" class="citation web cs1">Dalmia, Vijay Pal (14 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/655852/Copyright/Copyright+Law+In+India+Everything+You+Must+Know">"Copyright Law In India"</a>. <i>Mondaq</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mondaq&rft.atitle=Copyright+Law+In+India&rft.date=2017-12-14&rft.aulast=Dalmia&rft.aufirst=Vijay+Pal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mondaq.com%2Findia%2Fx%2F655852%2FCopyright%2FCopyright%2BLaw%2BIn%2BIndia%2BEverything%2BYou%2BMust%2BKnow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17  U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/305">§ 305</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19953297_en_3.htm">part II</a>, Amendments of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNimmer2003" class="citation book cs1">Nimmer, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RYfRCNxgPO4C"><i>Copyright: Sacred Text, Technology, and the DMCA</i></a>. Kluwer Law International. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-8876-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-8876-2"><bdi>978-90-411-8876-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50606064">50606064</a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copyright%3A+Sacred+Text%2C+Technology%2C+and+the+DMCA&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Kluwer+Law+International&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50606064&rft.isbn=978-90-411-8876-2&rft.aulast=Nimmer&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRYfRCNxgPO4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://copyright.cornell.edu/resources/publicdomain.cfm">Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States</a>"., <i><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Peter B. Hirtle, "Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States 1 January 2015" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyright.cornell.edu/resources/publicdomain.cfm">online at footnote 8</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150226112433/http://copyright.cornell.edu/resources/publicdomain.cfm">Archived</a> 26 February 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence Lessig, <i>Copyright's First Amendment</i>, 48 UCLA L. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CBC+Radio&rft.atitle=Dupes+offer+cheap+fashion+to+Canadians%2C+but+small+businesses+say+they%27re+paying+the+price&rft.date=2023-07-17&rft.aulast=Moran&rft.aufirst=Padraig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fradio%2Fthecurrent%2Fdupes-online-shopping-fast-fashion-1.6908904&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LvRRvXBIi8MC"><i>WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights</i></a>. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1271-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1271-7"><bdi>978-92-805-1271-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=WIPO+Guide+on+the+Licensing+of+Copyright+and+Related+Rights&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-92-805-1271-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLvRRvXBIi8MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights(2)-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights(2)_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LvRRvXBIi8MC"><i>WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights</i></a>. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1271-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1271-7"><bdi>978-92-805-1271-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=WIPO+Guide+on+the+Licensing+of+Copyright+and+Related+Rights&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-92-805-1271-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLvRRvXBIi8MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights(3)-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIPO_Guide_on_the_Licensing_of_Copyright_and_Related_Rights(3)_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LvRRvXBIi8MC"><i>WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights</i></a>. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2004. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1271-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1271-7"><bdi>978-92-805-1271-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=WIPO+Guide+on+the+Licensing+of+Copyright+and+Related+Rights&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-92-805-1271-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLvRRvXBIi8MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CC-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/">"Creative Commons Website"</a>. <i>creativecommons.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=creativecommons.org&rft.atitle=Creative+Commons+Website&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcreativecommons.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rubin-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rubin, R. E. (2010) 'Foundations of Library and Information Science: Third Edition', Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, p. 341</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edri.org/press-release-meps-ignore-expert-advice-and-vote-for-mass-internet-censorship/">"MEPs ignore expert advice and vote for mass internet censorship"</a>. European Digital Rights. 20 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MEPs+ignore+expert+advice+and+vote+for+mass+internet+censorship&rft.pub=European+Digital+Rights&rft.date=2018-06-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedri.org%2Fpress-release-meps-ignore-expert-advice-and-vote-for-mass-internet-censorship%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edri.org/our-work/copyright-week-2019-copyright-as-tool-of-censorship/">"Copyright Week 2019: Copyright as a tool of censorship"</a>. <i>European Digital Rights (EDRi)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Digital+Rights+%28EDRi%29&rft.atitle=Copyright+Week+2019%3A+Copyright+as+a+tool+of+censorship&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedri.org%2Four-work%2Fcopyright-week-2019-copyright-as-tool-of-censorship%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/may/23/copyright-law-internet-mumsnet">"Revealed: How copyright law is being misused to remove material from the internet"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 23 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Revealed%3A+How+copyright+law+is+being+misused+to+remove+material+from+the+internet&rft.date=2016-05-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2016%2Fmay%2F23%2Fcopyright-law-internet-mumsnet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Armstrong, E. (1990). <i>Before copyright: the French book-privilege system, 1498-1526</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Atkinson, Juliette.(2012). <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Alexander the Great': Dumas's Conquest of Early-Victorian England". <i>Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America</i> 106 (4): 417–47.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Dowd,_Litigation_handbook" class="citation book cs1">Dowd, Raymond J. (2006). <i>Copyright Litigation Handbook</i> (1st ed.). Thomson West. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-96279-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-96279-4"><bdi>0-314-96279-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copyright+Litigation+Handbook&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Thomson+West&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-314-96279-4&rft.aulast=Dowd&rft.aufirst=Raymond+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ellis, Sara R. <i>Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic</i>, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010), <i>available at</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1735745">Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuman_Ghosemajumder" title="Shuman Ghosemajumder">Ghosemajumder, Shuman</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/8438">Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Sloan_School_of_Management" title="MIT Sloan School of Management">MIT Sloan School of Management</a>, 2002.</li> <li>Johns, A. (2009). <i>Piracy: the intellectual property wars from Gutenberg to Gates</i>. University of Chicago Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lehman" title="Bruce Lehman">Lehman, Bruce</a>: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170812095023/https://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/doc/ipnii/">Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure</a></i> (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)</li> <li>Lindsey, Marc: <i>Copyright Law on Campus.</i> <a href="/wiki/Washington_State_University" title="Washington State University">Washington State University</a> Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87422-264-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87422-264-7">978-0-87422-264-7</a>.</li> <li>Loewenstein, J. (2002). <i>The author's due: printing and the prehistory of copyright</i>. The University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Mazzone, Jason. <i><a href="/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud">Copyfraud</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244">SSRN</a></li> <li>McDonagh, Luke. <i>Is Creative use of Musical Works without a licence acceptable under Copyright?</i> International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law (IIC) 4 (2012) 401–426, available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2521081">SSRN</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNimmerDavid_Nimmer1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Melville_Nimmer" title="Melville Nimmer">Nimmer, Melville</a>; David Nimmer (1997). <a href="/wiki/Nimmer_on_Copyright" title="Nimmer on Copyright"><i>Nimmer on Copyright</i></a>. Matthew Bender. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8205-1465-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8205-1465-9"><bdi>0-8205-1465-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nimmer+on+Copyright&rft.pub=Matthew+Bender&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8205-1465-9&rft.aulast=Nimmer&rft.aufirst=Melville&rft.au=David+Nimmer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1968" class="citation book cs1">Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). <i>Copyright in Historical Perspective</i>. Online Version. Vanderbilt University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8265-1373-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8265-1373-5"><bdi>0-8265-1373-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copyright+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.series=Online+Version&rft.pub=Vanderbilt+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-8265-1373-5&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=Lyman+Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rife, by Martine Courant. <i>Convention, Copyright, and Digital Writing</i> (Southern Illinois University Press; 2013) 222 pages; Examines legal, pedagogical, and other aspects of online authorship.</li> <li>Rose, M. (1995). <i>Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright</i>. Harvard University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2008" class="citation book cs1">Rosen, Ronald (2008). <i>Music and Copyright</i>. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533836-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533836-2"><bdi>978-0-19-533836-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+and+Copyright&rft.place=Oxford+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533836-2&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Shipley, David E. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1076789">Thin But Not Anorexic: Copyright Protection for Compilations and Other Fact Works</a>" UGA Legal Studies Research Paper No. 08-001; <i>Journal of Intellectual Property Law</i>, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.</li> <li>Silverthorne, Sean. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&t=innovation">Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060630024153/http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&t=innovation">Archived</a> 30 June 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a> Working Knowledge, 2004.</li> <li>Sorce Keller, Marcello. "Originality, Authenticity and Copyright", <i>Sonus</i>, VII(2007), no. 2, pp. 77–85.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Steinberg,_Five_hundred_years" class="citation book cs1">Steinberg, S.H.; Trevitt, John (1996). <i>Five Hundred Years of Printing</i> (4th ed.). London and New Castle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-884718-19-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-884718-19-1"><bdi>1-884718-19-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Five+Hundred+Years+of+Printing&rft.place=London+and+New+Castle&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=The+British+Library+and+Oak+Knoll+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=1-884718-19-1&rft.au=Steinberg%2C+S.H.&rft.au=Trevitt%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStory,_AlanDarch,_ColinHalbert,_Deborah2006" class="citation book cs1">Story, Alan; Darch, Colin; Halbert, Deborah, eds. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130816113145/http://copysouth.org/en/documents/csdossier.pdf"><i>The Copy/South Dossier: Issues in the Economics, Politics and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Copy/South Research Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9553140-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9553140-1-8"><bdi>978-0-9553140-1-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://copysouth.org/en/documents/csdossier.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Copy%2FSouth+Dossier%3A+Issues+in+the+Economics%2C+Politics+and+Ideology+of+Copyright+in+the+Global+South&rft.pub=Copy%2FSouth+Research+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-9553140-1-8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcopysouth.org%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fcsdossier.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRansom1956" class="citation book cs1">Ransom, Harry Huntt (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lvZEAAAAMAAJ"><i>The First Copyright Statute</i></a>. Austin: University of Texas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780292732353" title="Special:BookSources/9780292732353"><bdi>9780292732353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Copyright+Statute&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=9780292732353&rft.aulast=Ransom&rft.aufirst=Harry+Huntt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlvZEAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbottMadiganMossoffOsenga" class="citation web cs1">Abbott, Alden; Madigan, Kevin; Mossoff, Adam; Osenga, Kristen; Rosen, Zvi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://regproject.org/wp-content/uploads/Paper-Holding-States-Accountable-for-Copyright-Piracy.pdf">"Holding States Accountable for Copyright Piracy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Regulatory Transparency Project</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://regproject.org/wp-content/uploads/Paper-Holding-States-Accountable-for-Copyright-Piracy.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Regulatory+Transparency+Project&rft.atitle=Holding+States+Accountable+for+Copyright+Piracy&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=Alden&rft.au=Madigan%2C+Kevin&rft.au=Mossoff%2C+Adam&rft.au=Osenga%2C+Kristen&rft.au=Rosen%2C+Zvi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fregproject.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FPaper-Holding-States-Accountable-for-Copyright-Piracy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsteinHugenholtz2019" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Paul; Hugenholtz, P. Bernt (30 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IvarDwAAQBAJ"><i>International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006063-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006063-3"><bdi>978-0-19-006063-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Copyright%3A+Principles%2C+Law%2C+and+Practice&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019-08-30&rft.isbn=978-0-19-006063-3&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Hugenholtz%2C+P.+Bernt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIvarDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Wikisource:Copyright_law" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Wikisource:Copyright law">Copyright law</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Copyright</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Copyright">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Copyright&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoraes2020" class="citation web cs1">Moraes, Frank (2 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whoishostingthis.com/resources/copyright-guide/">"Copyright Law In 2020 Explained In One Page"</a>. <i>WhoIsHostingThis.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WhoIsHostingThis.com&rft.atitle=Copyright+Law+In+2020+Explained+In+One+Page&rft.date=2020-10-02&rft.aulast=Moraes&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whoishostingthis.com%2Fresources%2Fcopyright-guide%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright" class="Z3988"></span> A simplified guide.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/">WIPOLex</a> from <a href="/wiki/WIPO" class="mw-redirect" title="WIPO">WIPO</a>; global database of treaties and statutes relating to intellectual property</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ShowResults.jsp?country_id=ALL&start_year=ANY&end_year=ANY&search_what=C&treaty_id=15">Copyright Berne Convention: Country List</a> List of the 164 members of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/policy/state-sovereign-immunity/Sovereign%20Immunity%20Report%20final.pdf">Copyright and State Sovereign Immunity</a>", August 2021, U.S. Copyright Office</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://illusionofmore.com/podcast-the-multi-billion-dollar-piracy-industry-with-tom-galvin-of-digital-citizens-alliance/">The Multi-Billion-Dollar Piracy Industry with Tom Galvin of Digital Citizens Alliance</a>", 27 August 2021 by David Newhoff, <i>The Illusion of More</i> podcast</li> <li>Education <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyrightcortex.org/">Copyright Cortex</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lawtech.jus.unitn.it/index.php/copyright-history/bibliography">A Bibliography on the Origins of Copyright and Droit d'Auteur</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-912-introduction-to-copyright-law-january-iap-2006/">MIT OpenCourseWare 6.912 Introduction to Copyright Law</a> Free self-study course with video lectures as offered during the January 2006, Independent Activities Period (IAP)</li></ul></li> <li>US <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyright.gov/title17/">Copyright Law of the United States Documents</a>, US Government</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo55676">Compendium of Copyright Practices</a> (3rd ed.) <a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">United States Copyright Office</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054823/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/copyrite.htm">Copyright</a> from <i>UCB Libraries GovPubs</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/067.html">Early Copyright Records</a> From the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/">Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li>UK <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/topic/intellectual-property/copyright">Copyright: Detailed information</a> at the UK Intellectual Property Office</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyrightservice.co.uk/copyright/p01_uk_copyright_law">Fact sheet P-01: UK copyright law</a> (Issued April 2000, amended 25 November 2020) at the UK Copyright Service</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output 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title="List of countries' copyright lengths">Copyright lengths by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_copyright_treaties" title="International copyright treaties">International copyright treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_copyright_agreements" title="List of parties to international copyright agreements">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_treaties_protecting_rights_related_to_copyright" title="List of parties to international treaties protecting rights related to copyright">related rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_the_shorter_term" title="Rule of the shorter term">Rule of the shorter term</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_Benin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright law of Benin (page does not exist)">Benin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_au_B%C3%A9nin" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur au Bénin">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Burundi" title="Copyright law of Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Cameroon" title="Copyright law of Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Egypt" title="Copyright law of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Ivory Coast (page does not exist)">Ivory Coast</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_en_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur en Côte d'Ivoire">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Madagascar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Madagascar (page does not exist)">Madagascar</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_%C3%A0_Madagascar" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur à Madagascar">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Morocco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Morocco (page does not exist)">Morocco</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droits_d%27auteur_et_droits_voisins_au_Maroc" class="extiw" title="fr:Droits d'auteur et droits voisins au Maroc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Mozambique (page does not exist)">Mozambique</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Мозамбике">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Senegal">Senegal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_(S%C3%A9n%C3%A9gal)" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur (Sénégal)">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_South_Africa" title="Copyright law of South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/90px-Copyright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/135px-Copyright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/180px-Copyright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="197" data-file-height="197" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Argentina" title="Copyright law of Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_Bermuda" title="Copyright in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Bolivia" title="Copyright law of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Brazil" title="Copyright law of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Canada" title="Copyright law of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Chile" title="Copyright law of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Copyright in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Ecuador (page does not exist)">Ecuador</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_de_autor_en_Ecuador" class="extiw" title="es:Derecho de autor en Ecuador">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_El_Salvador" title="Copyright law of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Honduras" title="Copyright law of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Panama" title="Copyright law of Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Peru" title="Copyright law of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Uruguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Uruguay (page does not exist)">Uruguay</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_de_autor_en_Uruguay" class="extiw" title="es:Derecho de autor en Uruguay">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Venezuela" title="Copyright law of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_and_copyright_issues" title="Afghanistan and copyright issues">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Azerbaijan" title="Copyright law of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Bangladesh" title="Copyright law of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Hong_Kong" title="Copyright law of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_India" title="Copyright law of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Indonesia" title="Copyright law of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Israel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Israel (page does not exist)">Israel</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Израиле">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Japan" title="Copyright law of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Jordan" title="Copyright law of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Kazakhstan" title="Copyright law of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Кыргызстане">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_North_Korea" title="Copyright law of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_South_Korea" title="Copyright law of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Lebanon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Lebanon (page does not exist)">Lebanon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Ливане">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Malaysia" title="Copyright law of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Mongolia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Mongolia (page does not exist)">Mongolia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Монголии">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Myanmar" title="Copyright law of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Nepal" title="Copyright law of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Oman" title="Copyright law of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Pakistan" title="Copyright law of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Philippines" title="Copyright law of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Copyright law of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Copyright law of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Syria" title="Copyright law of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Tajikistan" title="Copyright law of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Thailand" title="Copyright law of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_(Vereinigte_Arabische_Emirate)" class="extiw" title="de:Urheberrecht (Vereinigte Arabische Emirate)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Uzbekistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Uzbekistan (page does not exist)">Uzbekistan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%A3%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Узбекистане">ru</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_European_Union" title="Copyright law of the European Union">European Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_Austria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright law of Austria (page does not exist)">Austria</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_(%C3%96sterreich)" class="extiw" title="de:Urheberrecht (Österreich)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Belgium (page does not exist)">Belgium</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_en_Belgique" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur en Belgique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_France" title="Copyright law of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Germany" title="Copyright law of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Greece" title="Copyright law of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ireland" title="Copyright law of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Italy" title="Copyright law of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Latvia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Latvia (page does not exist)">Latvia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Латвии">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Lithuania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Lithuania (page does not exist)">Lithuania</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Литве">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Luxembourg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Luxembourg (page does not exist)">Luxembourg</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_(Luxemburg)" class="extiw" title="de:Urheberrecht (Luxemburg)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Netherlands" title="Copyright law of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Poland" title="Copyright law of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Romania" title="Copyright law of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Spain" title="Copyright law of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sweden" title="Copyright law of Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Albania" title="Copyright law of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Armenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Armenia (page does not exist)">Armenia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Армении">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Belarus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Belarus (page does not exist)">Belarus</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Белоруссии">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Georgia" title="Copyright law of Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Kazakhstan" title="Copyright law of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Киргизии">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Moldova" title="Copyright law of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Russia" title="Copyright law of Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Copyright law of the Soviet Union">USSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Copyright law of the Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Serbia" title="Copyright law of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Switzerland" title="Copyright law of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Turkey" title="Copyright law of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_Ukraine" title="Copyright in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Copyright law of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Australia" title="Copyright law of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_New_Zealand" title="Copyright law of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Copyright_law_by_country" title="Category:Copyright law by country">Category:Copyright law by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Intellectual_property_activism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template talk:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intellectual_property_activism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> activism</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">Artificial scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_by_copyright" title="Censorship by copyright">Censorship by copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">Copyright troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gripe_site" title="Gripe site">Gripe site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_file_sharing" title="Legal aspects of file sharing">Legal aspects of file sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(culture)" title="Mashup (culture)">Mashup</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_novel" title="Mashup novel">novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(video)" title="Mashup (video)">videos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopolies_of_knowledge" title="Monopolies of knowledge">Monopolies of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_piracy" title="Music piracy">Music piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_views_on_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal views on patents">Patents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">software patent debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">trolling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_rights_reversed" title="All rights reversed">All rights reversed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_alternatives" title="Copyright alternatives">Alternative compensation system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-copyright_notice" title="Anti-copyright notice">Anti-copyright notice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_copyleft_works" title="Commercial use of copyleft works">Commercial use of copyleft works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_sell-through" title="Electronic sell-through">Electronic sell-through</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-software_license" title="Free-software license">Free-software license</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Open content">Open content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_music_model" title="Open music model">Open music model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patentleft" title="Patentleft">Open patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">Open source</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">Prizes instead of patents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inducement_prize_contest" title="Inducement prize contest">contests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Share-alike" title="Share-alike">Share-alike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">Video on demand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Access_to_Knowledge_movement" title="Access to Knowledge movement">Access to Knowledge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyright</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Alliance" title="Copyright Alliance">Copyright Alliance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyleft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Transformative_Works" title="Organization for Transformative Works">Organization for Transformative Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piratbyr%C3%A5n" title="Piratbyrån">Piratbyrån</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Knowledge" title="Public Knowledge">Public Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_library" title="Shadow library">Shadow library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Free_Culture" title="Students for Free Culture">Students for Free Culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sunde" title="Peter Sunde">Peter Sunde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Steal_This_Film" title="Steal This Film">Steal This Film</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Good_Copy_Bad_Copy" title="Good Copy Bad Copy">Good Copy Bad Copy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/RiP!:_A_Remix_Manifesto" title="RiP!: A Remix Manifesto">RiP!: A Remix Manifesto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/TPB_AFK" title="TPB AFK">TPB AFK</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Internet%27s_Own_Boy" title="The Internet's Own Boy">The Internet's Own Boy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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