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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Thermodynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transatlantic_cable" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transatlantic_cable"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Transatlantic cable</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Transatlantic_cable-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Transatlantic cable subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Transatlantic_cable-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calculations_on_data_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculations_on_data_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Calculations on data rate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculations_on_data_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientist_to_engineer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientist_to_engineer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Scientist to engineer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientist_to_engineer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disaster_and_triumph" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disaster_and_triumph"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Disaster and triumph</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disaster_and_triumph-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_expeditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_expeditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Later expeditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_expeditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Other contributions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_contributions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other contributions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span><i>Treatise on Natural Philosophy</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atmospheric_electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atmospheric_electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Atmospheric electricity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atmospheric_electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vortex_theory_of_the_atom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vortex_theory_of_the_atom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Vortex theory of the atom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vortex_theory_of_the_atom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Marine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Electrical standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Age of Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Later life and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Limits_of_classical_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limits_of_classical_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Limits of classical physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limits_of_classical_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouncements_later_proven_to_be_false" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouncements_later_proven_to_be_false"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Pronouncements later proven to be false</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouncements_later_proven_to_be_false-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eponyms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eponyms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Eponyms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eponyms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Honours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Arms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Cited sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cited_sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cited sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kelvin's_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kelvin's_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Kelvin's works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kelvin's_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biography,_history_of_ideas_and_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biography,_history_of_ideas_and_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Biography, history of ideas and criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biography,_history_of_ideas_and_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 84 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-84" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">84 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_1ste_Baron_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, 1ste Baron Kelvin – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="William Thomson, 1ste Baron Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%83%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86" title="لورد كلفن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لورد كلفن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="লৰ্ড কেলভিন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="লৰ্ড কেলভিন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilyam_Tomson_(Lord_Kelvin)" title="Vilyam Tomson (Lord Kelvin) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vilyam Tomson (Lord Kelvin)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="ویلیام تامسون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ویلیام تامسون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A8,_%E0%A7%A7%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="উইলিয়াম থমসন, ১ম ব্যারন কেলভিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উইলিয়াম থমসন, ১ম ব্যারন কেলভিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93_1_t%C4%81i_Kelvin_L%C3%A2m-chiok_William_Thomson" title="Tē 1 tāi Kelvin Lâm-chiok William Thomson – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tē 1 tāi Kelvin Lâm-chiok William Thomson" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_(%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD)" title="Уільям Томсан (лорд Кельвін) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Уільям Томсан (лорд Кельвін)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Lord Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%BD" title="Уилям Томсън – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Уилям Томсън" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_Barwn_1af_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, Barwn 1af Kelvin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="William Thomson, Barwn 1af Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_1._Baron_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, 1. Baron Kelvin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="William Thomson, 1. Baron Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BC_%CE%A4%CF%8C%CE%BC%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BD" title="Ουίλιαμ Τόμσον – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ουίλιαμ Τόμσον" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="ویلیام تامسون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ویلیام تامسون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson_(Lord_Kelvin)" title="William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C1%EB%8C%80_%EC%BC%88%EB%B9%88_%EB%82%A8%EC%9E%91_%EC%9C%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%97%84_%ED%86%B0%EC%8A%A8" title="제1대 켈빈 남작 윌리엄 톰슨 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제1대 켈빈 남작 윌리엄 톰슨" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B4_%D4%B9%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Ուիլյամ Թոմսոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուիլյամ Թոմսոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_1ma_barono_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, 1ma barono Kelvin – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="William Thomson, 1ma barono Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_I_barone_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, I barone Kelvin – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="William Thomson, I barone Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9D_%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F" title="ויליאם תומסון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויליאם תומסון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%82_%E0%B2%A5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ವಿಲಿಯಂ ಥಾಮ್ಸನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಲಿಯಂ ಥಾಮ್ಸನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="უილიამ ტომსონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უილიამ ტომსონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Уильям Томсон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Уильям Томсон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulielmus_Thomson,_baro_Kelvinus" title="Gulielmus Thomson, baro Kelvinus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gulielmus Thomson, baro Kelvinus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viljams_Tomsons" title="Viljams Tomsons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Viljams Tomsons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson_(Physiker)" title="William Thomson (Physiker) – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="William Thomson (Physiker)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson_(matematikus)" title="William Thomson (matematikus) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="William Thomson (matematikus)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Вилијам Томсон Келвин – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вилијам Томсон Келвин" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%BA_(%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%81)" title="വില്യം തോംസൺ (കെൽവിൻ പ്രഭു) – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വില്യം തോംസൺ (കെൽവിൻ പ്രഭു)" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="लॉर्ड केल्व्हिन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="लॉर्ड केल्व्हिन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="უილიამ ტომსონი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უილიამ ტომსონი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%83%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86" title="لورد كلفن – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لورد كلفن" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86" title="لرد کلوین – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="لرد کلوین" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_Baron_Pertama_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, Baron Pertama Kelvin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="William Thomson, Baron Pertama Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%86%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA_(%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7%E1%80%92%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%80%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%97%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA)" title="ဝီလီယမ် သော်မဆင် (လော့ဒ် ကယ်လဗင်) – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဝီလီယမ် သော်မဆင် (လော့ဒ် ကယ်လဗင်)" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson_(natuurkundige)" title="William Thomson (natuurkundige) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="William Thomson (natuurkundige)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8" title="केल्भिन थमसन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="केल्भिन थमसन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A3%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%88%E3%83%A0%E3%82%BD%E3%83%B3" title="ウィリアム・トムソン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウィリアム・トムソン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_Lord_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, Lord Kelvin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="William Thomson, Lord Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson_Kelvin" title="William Thomson Kelvin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="William Thomson Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_Lord_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, Lord Kelvin – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="William Thomson, Lord Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%86_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="ولیم تھامسن کیلون – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ولیم تھامسن کیلون" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%BC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%8C_%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%DA%93%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="ویلیام ټامسون، د کلوین لومړی بارون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ویلیام ټامسون، د کلوین لومړی بارون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_(%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD)" title="Томсон, Уильям (лорд Кельвин) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Томсон, Уильям (лорд Кельвин)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D" title="केल्विन् विलियं थाम्सन् लार्ड् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="केल्विन् विलियं थाम्सन् लार्ड्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%86%D8%B1%D8%AF_%DA%A9%DB%8E%D9%84%DA%A4%D9%86" title="لۆرد کێلڤن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="لۆرد کێلڤن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD,_1._%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Вилијам Томсон, 1. барон Келвин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вилијам Томсон, 1. барон Келвин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_1._baron_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, 1. baron Kelvin – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="William Thomson, 1. baron Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lord Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="வில்லியம் தாம்சன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வில்லியம் தாம்சன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99_%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88_1" title="วิลเลียม ทอมสัน บารอนเคลวินที่ 1 – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิลเลียม ทอมสัน บารอนเคลวินที่ 1" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вільям Томсон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вільям Томсон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson" title="William Thomson – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="William Thomson" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E4%BB%A3%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87%E7%94%B7%E7%88%B5%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E6%B1%A4%E5%A7%86%E6%A3%AE" title="第一代开尔文男爵威廉·汤姆森 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="第一代开尔文男爵威廉·汤姆森" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87%E7%94%B7%E7%88%B5" title="開爾文男爵 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="開爾文男爵" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87%E5%8B%8B%E7%88%B5" title="开尔文勋爵 – Chinese" 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<div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button 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mathematician (1824–1907)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other people named William Thomson, see <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="William Thomson (disambiguation)">William Thomson (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Honourable" title="The Right Honourable">The Right Honourable</a></div><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">The Lord Kelvin</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Knight_Grand_Cross_of_the_Royal_Victorian_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order">GCVO</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_(United_Kingdom)" title="Privy Council (United Kingdom)">PC</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Royal Society">PRS</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_William_Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin_by_T._%26_R._Annan_%26_Sons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sir_William_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin_by_T._%26_R._Annan_%26_Sons.jpg/220px-Sir_William_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin_by_T._%26_R._Annan_%26_Sons.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sir_William_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin_by_T._%26_R._Annan_%26_Sons.jpg/330px-Sir_William_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin_by_T._%26_R._Annan_%26_Sons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sir_William_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin_by_T._%26_R._Annan_%26_Sons.jpg/440px-Sir_William_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin_by_T._%26_R._Annan_%26_Sons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2483" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Kelvin, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900</span>, by T. & R. Annan & Sons</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">President of the Royal Society</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />1 December 1890 – 30 November 1895</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">Sir George Stokes</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">The Lord Lister</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1824-06-26</span>)</span>26 June 1824<br /><a href="/wiki/Belfast" title="Belfast">Belfast</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">17 December 1907<span style="display:none">(1907-12-17)</span> (aged 83)<br /><a href="/wiki/Largs" title="Largs">Largs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data">British<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal</a> (1865–1886)<br /><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Unionist_Party" title="Liberal Unionist Party">Liberal Unionist</a> (from 1886)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Margaret Crum</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1852; died 1870)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Frances Blandy</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1874⁠–⁠1907)<wbr /></div><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">None<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parent</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(mathematician)" title="James Thomson (mathematician)">James Thomson</a> (father)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engineer)" title="James Thomson (engineer)">James Thomson</a> (brother)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lord_Kelvin_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lord Kelvin's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lord_Kelvin_Signature.svg/128px-Lord_Kelvin_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lord_Kelvin_Signature.svg/192px-Lord_Kelvin_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lord_Kelvin_Signature.svg/256px-Lord_Kelvin_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="42" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Belfast_Academical_Institution" title="Royal Belfast Academical Institution">Royal Belfast Academical Institution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Glasgow University">Glasgow University</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Peterhouse,_Cambridge" title="Peterhouse, Cambridge">Peterhouse, Cambridge</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">List</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joule%E2%80%93Thomson_effect" title="Joule–Thomson effect">Joule–Thomson effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joule%E2%80%93Thomson_effect" title="Joule–Thomson effect">Joule-Thomson ideal gas coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voigt%E2%80%93Thomson_law" title="Voigt–Thomson law">Voigt–Thomson law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomson_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson effect">Thomson effect</a> (thermoelectric)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect#Thomson_relations" title="Thermoelectric effect">Thomson relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampere_balance" title="Ampere balance">Kelvin balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binnacle" title="Binnacle">Kelvin's balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayleigh%27s_equation_(fluid_dynamics)#Background" title="Rayleigh's equation (fluid dynamics)">Kelvin cat's eye pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_coupling#Kelvin_Coupling" title="Kinematic coupling">Kelvin coupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_galvanometer" title="Mirror galvanometer">Kelvin's mirror galvanometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin material">Kelvin material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_water_dropper" title="Kelvin water dropper">Kelvin water dropper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_instability" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz instability">Kelvin–Helmholtz instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_mechanism" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism">Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin-Helmholtz_luminosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin-Helmholtz luminosity">Kelvin-Helmholtz luminosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin-Planck_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin-Planck statement">Kelvin-Planck statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_paradox" title="Heat death paradox">Kelvin's heat death paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_time_scale" title="Thermal time scale">Kelvin–Helmholtz time scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%27s_minimum_energy_theorem" title="Kelvin's minimum energy theorem">Kelvin's minimum energy theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaire%E2%80%93Phelan_structure" title="Weaire–Phelan structure">Kelvin conjecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaire%E2%80%93Phelan_structure" title="Weaire–Phelan structure">Kelvin structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin problem">Kelvin foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_functions" title="Kelvin functions">Kelvin functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_transform" title="Kelvin transform">Kelvin transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%27s_circulation_theorem" title="Kelvin's circulation theorem">Kelvin's circulation theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes%27_theorem" title="Stokes' theorem">Kelvin–Stokes theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_bridge" title="Kelvin bridge">Kelvin bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin sensing">Kelvin sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_equation" title="Kelvin equation">Kelvin equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin-Varley_divider" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin-Varley divider">Kelvin-Varley divider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wake_pattern" title="Kelvin wake pattern">Kelvin wake pattern</a></li> <li>Kelvin angle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_Zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute Zero">Zero Kelvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_probe_force_microscope" title="Kelvin probe force microscope">Kelvin probe force microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy" title="Atomic force microscopy">Kelvin scanning probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_curb_sender" title="Automatic curb sender">Automatic curb sender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_theory" title="Cable theory">Cable theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_night_sky_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark night sky paradox">Dark night sky paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth's age paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_sounding" title="Depth sounding">Depth sounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissipation" title="Dissipation">Dissipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrostat" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyrostat">Gyrostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_squares" title="Law of squares">Law of squares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics" title="First law of thermodynamics">First law of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">Second law of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_vector_potential" title="Magnetic vector potential">Magnetic vector potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoresistance" title="Magnetoresistance">Magnetoresistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon" title="Maxwell's demon">Maxwell's demon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piezoresistive_effect" title="Piezoresistive effect">Piezoresistive effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siphon_recorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Siphon recorder">Siphon recorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stationary_phase_approximation" title="Stationary phase approximation">Stationary phase approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide-predicting_machine" title="Tide-predicting machine">Tide-predicting machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortex_theory_of_the_atom" title="Vortex theory of the atom">Vortex theory of the atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chirality" title="Chirality">Coining the term <i>chirality</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Coining the term <i>thermodynamics</i></a><sup id="cite_ref-kelvin1849_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kelvin1849-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Coining the term <i>kinetic energy</i></a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>First <a href="/wiki/Smith%27s_Prize" title="Smith's Prize">Smith's Prize</a> (1845)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> (1856)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Medal" title="Keith Medal">Keith Medal</a> (1864)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Matteucci_Medal" title="Matteucci Medal">Matteucci Medal</a> (1876)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Medal_(Royal_Society_of_Arts)" title="Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts)">Albert Medal</a> (1879)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> (1883)</li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Fritz_Medal" title="John Fritz Medal">John Fritz Medal</a> (1905)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Hopkins" title="William Hopkins">William Hopkins</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a><sup id="cite_ref-kelvinrayleigh_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kelvinrayleigh-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_Edward_Ayrton" title="William Edward Ayrton">William Edward Ayrton</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">It is believed the "PNP" in his signature stands for "Professor of Natural Philosophy". Kelvin also wrote under the pseudonym "P. Q. R."</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin</b> (26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) was a British mathematician, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physicist</a> and engineer.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born in Belfast, he was the <a href="/wiki/Professor_of_Natural_Philosophy_(Glasgow)" title="Professor of Natural Philosophy (Glasgow)">professor of Natural Philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a> for 53 years, where he undertook significant research and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">mathematical analysis</a> of electricity, was instrumental in the formulation of the first and second <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics" title="Laws of thermodynamics">laws of thermodynamics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and contributed significantly to unifying <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, which was then in its infancy of development as an emerging academic discipline. He received the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> in 1883 and served as its <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Royal Society">president</a> from 1890 to 1895. In 1892, he became the first scientist to be elevated to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Absolute temperatures are stated in units of <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a> in Lord Kelvin's honour. While the existence of a coldest possible temperature, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>, was known before his work, Kelvin determined its correct value as approximately −273.15 degrees Celsius or −459.67 degrees <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Joule%E2%80%93Thomson_effect" title="Joule–Thomson effect">Joule–Thomson effect</a> is also named in his honour. </p><p>Kelvin worked closely with mathematics professor <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blackburn" title="Hugh Blackburn">Hugh Blackburn</a> in his work. He also had a career as an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a> engineer and inventor which propelled him into the public eye and earned him wealth, fame, and honours. For his work on the <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic telegraph project</a>, he was <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">knighted</a> in 1866 by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had extensive maritime interests and worked on the mariner's <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, which previously had limited reliability. </p><p>Kelvin was <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">ennobled</a> in 1892 in recognition of his achievements in thermodynamics, and of his opposition to <a href="/wiki/Irish_Home_Rule_movement" title="Irish Home Rule movement">Irish Home Rule</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> becoming Baron Kelvin, of <a href="/wiki/Largs" title="Largs">Largs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Ayr" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Ayr">County of Ayr</a>. The title refers to the <a href="/wiki/River_Kelvin" title="River Kelvin">River Kelvin</a>, which flows near his laboratory at the University of Glasgow's <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow#Gilmorehill" title="University of Glasgow">Gilmorehill</a> home at <a href="/wiki/Hillhead" title="Hillhead">Hillhead</a>. Despite offers of elevated posts from several world-renowned universities, Kelvin refused to leave Glasgow, remaining until his retirement from that post in 1899.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Active in industrial research and development, he was recruited around 1899 by <a href="/wiki/George_Eastman" title="George Eastman">George Eastman</a> to serve as vice-chairman of the board of the British company Kodak Limited, affiliated with <a href="/wiki/Eastman_Kodak" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastman Kodak">Eastman Kodak</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1904 he became <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_University_of_Glasgow" title="Chancellor of the University of Glasgow">chancellor of the University of Glasgow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kelvin resided in Netherhall, a redstone mansion in <a href="/wiki/Largs" title="Largs">Largs</a>, which he built in the 1870s and where he died in 1907. The <a href="/wiki/Hunterian_Museum_and_Art_Gallery" title="Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery">Hunterian Museum</a> at the University of Glasgow has a permanent exhibition on the work of Kelvin, which includes many of his original papers, instruments, and other artefacts, including his smoking pipe. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_work">Early life and work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family">Family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomson_family_lineage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Thomson_family_lineage.png/220px-Thomson_family_lineage.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Thomson_family_lineage.png/330px-Thomson_family_lineage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Thomson_family_lineage.png/440px-Thomson_family_lineage.png 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>The Thomson family tree: <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(mathematician)" title="James Thomson (mathematician)">James Thomson (mathematician)</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engineer)" title="James Thomson (engineer)">James Thomson (engineer)</a>, and William Thomson, were all professors at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a>, the latter two through their association with <a href="/wiki/William_Rankine" title="William Rankine">William Rankine</a>, another Glasgow professor, who worked to form one of the founding schools of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Thomson's father, <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(mathematician)" title="James Thomson (mathematician)">James Thomson</a>, was a teacher of mathematics and engineering at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Belfast_Academical_Institution" title="Royal Belfast Academical Institution">Royal Belfast Academical Institution</a> and the son of a farmer. James Thomson married Margaret Gardner in 1817 and, of their children, four boys and two girls survived infancy. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six years old.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>William and his elder brother <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engineer)" title="James Thomson (engineer)">James</a> were tutored at home by their father while the younger boys were tutored by their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from the major share of his father's encouragement, affection and financial support and was prepared for a career in engineering. </p><p>In 1832, his father was appointed professor of mathematics at <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, and the family moved there in October 1833. The Thomson children were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their father's rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 in London, and the boys were tutored in French in Paris. Much of Thomson's life during the mid-1840s was spent in <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. Language study was given a high priority. </p><p>His sister, Anna Thomson, was the mother of physicist <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_Bottomley" title="James Thomson Bottomley">James Thomson Bottomley</a> FRSE.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Youth">Youth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Youth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Lord_Kelvin" title="Special:EditPage/Lord Kelvin">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Lord+Kelvin%22">"Lord Kelvin"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Lord+Kelvin%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Lord+Kelvin%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Lord+Kelvin%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Lord+Kelvin%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Lord+Kelvin%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V72_D191_William_thomson_lord_kelvin_at_the_age_of_twenty_two.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/PSM_V72_D191_William_thomson_lord_kelvin_at_the_age_of_twenty_two.png/170px-PSM_V72_D191_William_thomson_lord_kelvin_at_the_age_of_twenty_two.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/PSM_V72_D191_William_thomson_lord_kelvin_at_the_age_of_twenty_two.png/255px-PSM_V72_D191_William_thomson_lord_kelvin_at_the_age_of_twenty_two.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/PSM_V72_D191_William_thomson_lord_kelvin_at_the_age_of_twenty_two.png/340px-PSM_V72_D191_William_thomson_lord_kelvin_at_the_age_of_twenty_two.png 2x" data-file-width="826" data-file-height="1127" /></a><figcaption>William Thomson, aged 22</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:University,_Glasgow,_Scotland,_ca._1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/University%2C_Glasgow%2C_Scotland%2C_ca._1895.jpg/220px-University%2C_Glasgow%2C_Scotland%2C_ca._1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/University%2C_Glasgow%2C_Scotland%2C_ca._1895.jpg/330px-University%2C_Glasgow%2C_Scotland%2C_ca._1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/University%2C_Glasgow%2C_Scotland%2C_ca._1895.jpg/440px-University%2C_Glasgow%2C_Scotland%2C_ca._1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3538" data-file-height="2618" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">meander</a> of the <a href="/wiki/River_Kelvin" title="River Kelvin">River Kelvin</a> containing the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Gothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Gothic">Neo-Gothic</a> Gilmorehill campus of the University of Glasgow designed by <a href="/wiki/George_Gilbert_Scott" title="George Gilbert Scott">George Gilbert Scott</a>, to which the university moved in the 1870s (photograph 1890s)</figcaption></figure> <p>Thomson attended the Royal Belfast Academical Institution, where his father was a professor in the university department. In 1834, aged 10, he began studying at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a>, not out of any precociousness; the university provided many of the facilities of an elementary school for able pupils, and this was a typical starting age. In school, he showed a keen interest in the classics along with his natural interest in the sciences. At age 12 he won a prize for translating <a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a> of Samosata's <i>Dialogues of the Gods</i> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> to English. </p><p>In the academic year 1839/1840, Thomson won the class prize in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> for his "Essay on the figure of the Earth" which showed an early facility for mathematical analysis and creativity. His physics tutor at this time was his namesake, <a href="/wiki/David_Thomson_(physicist)" title="David Thomson (physicist)">David Thomson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout his life, he would work on the problems raised in the essay as a <a href="/wiki/Coping" title="Coping">coping</a> strategy during times of personal stress. On the title page of this essay Thomson wrote the following lines from <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_Man" title="An Essay on Man">An Essay on Man</a>". These lines inspired Thomson to understand the natural world using the power and method of science: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>Go, wondrous creature! mount where Science guides;<br /> Go measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides;<br /> Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,<br /> Correct old Time, and regulate the sun; </p> </div></blockquote> <p>Thomson became intrigued with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fourier" title="Joseph Fourier">Joseph Fourier's</a> <i>Théorie analytique de la chaleur</i> (<i>The Analytical Theory of Heat</i>) and committed himself to study the "continental" mathematics resisted by a British establishment still working in the shadow of Sir <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been attacked by domestic mathematicians, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Kelland" title="Philip Kelland">Philip Kelland</a> authoring a critical book. The book motivated Thomson to write his first published <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">scientific paper</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under the pseudonym <i>P.Q.R.</i>, defending Fourier, which was submitted to <i><a href="/wiki/The_Quarterly_Journal_of_Pure_and_Applied_Mathematics" title="The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics">The Cambridge Mathematical Journal</a></i> by his father. A second P.Q.R. paper followed almost immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While on holiday with his family in <a href="/wiki/Lamlash" title="Lamlash">Lamlash</a> in 1841, he wrote a third, more substantial P.Q.R. paper <i>On the uniform motion of heat in homogeneous solid bodies, and its connection with the mathematical theory of electricity</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the paper he made remarkable connections between the mathematical theories of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">thermal conduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatics</a>, an analogy that <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> was ultimately to describe as one of the most valuable science-forming ideas<i>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cambridge">Cambridge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cambridge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>William's father was able to make a generous provision for his favourite son's education and, in 1841, installed him, with extensive letters of introduction and ample accommodation, at <a href="/wiki/Peterhouse,_Cambridge" title="Peterhouse, Cambridge">Peterhouse, Cambridge</a>. While at Cambridge, Thomson was active in sports, athletics and <a href="/wiki/Sculling" title="Sculling">sculling</a>, winning the Colquhoun Sculls in 1843.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He took a lively interest in the classics, music, and literature; but the real love of his intellectual life was the pursuit of science. The study of mathematics, physics, and in particular, of electricity, had captivated his imagination. In 1845 Thomson graduated as <a href="/wiki/Wrangler_(University_of_Cambridge)" title="Wrangler (University of Cambridge)">second wrangler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also won the first <a href="/wiki/Smith%27s_Prize" title="Smith's Prize">Smith's Prize</a>, which, unlike the <a href="/wiki/Tripos" title="Tripos">tripos</a>, is a test of original research. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Leslie_Ellis" title="Robert Leslie Ellis">Robert Leslie Ellis</a>, one of the examiners, is said to have declared to another examiner "You and I are just about fit to mend his pens."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1845, he gave the first mathematical development of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>'s idea that electric induction takes place through an intervening medium, or "<a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a>", and not by some incomprehensible "action at a distance". He also devised the mathematical technique of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in solving problems of <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatics</a>, the science which deals with the forces between electrically charged bodies at rest. It was partly in response to his encouragement that Faraday undertook the research in September 1845 that led to the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Faraday_effect" title="Faraday effect">Faraday effect</a>, which established that light and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were related. </p><p>He was elected a fellow of St. Peter's (as Peterhouse was often called at the time) in June 1845.<sup id="cite_ref-physicsworld_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physicsworld-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On gaining the fellowship, he spent some time in the laboratory of the celebrated <a href="/wiki/Henri_Victor_Regnault" title="Henri Victor Regnault">Henri Victor Regnault</a>, at Paris; but in 1846 he was appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Professor_of_Natural_Philosophy,_Glasgow" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor of Natural Philosophy, Glasgow">chair of natural philosophy</a> in the University of Glasgow. At age 22 he found himself wearing the gown of a professor in one of the oldest universities in the country and lecturing to the class of which he was a first year student a few years before. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Thermodynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1847, Thomson had already gained a reputation as a precocious and maverick scientist when he attended the <a href="/wiki/British_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association for the Advancement of Science">British Association for the Advancement of Science</a> annual meeting in <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>. At that meeting, he heard <a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> making yet another of his, so far, ineffective attempts to discredit the <a href="/wiki/Caloric_theory" title="Caloric theory">caloric theory</a> of heat and the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engine</a> built upon it by <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_L%C3%A9onard_Sadi_Carnot" title="Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot">Sadi Carnot</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Clapeyron" title="Émile Clapeyron">Émile Clapeyron</a>. Joule argued for the mutual convertibility of heat and <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical work">mechanical work</a> and for their mechanical equivalence. </p><p>Thomson was intrigued but sceptical. Though he felt that Joule's results demanded theoretical explanation, he retreated into an even deeper commitment to the Carnot–Clapeyron school. He predicted that the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> of ice must fall with <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, otherwise its expansion on freezing could be exploited in a <i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion" title="Perpetual motion">perpetuum mobile</a></i>. Experimental confirmation in his laboratory did much to bolster his beliefs. </p><p>In 1848, he extended the Carnot–Clapeyron theory further through his dissatisfaction that the <a href="/wiki/Gas_thermometer" title="Gas thermometer">gas thermometer</a> provided only an <a href="/wiki/Operational_definition" title="Operational definition">operational definition</a> of temperature. He proposed an <i><a href="/wiki/Absolute_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute temperature">absolute temperature</a> scale</i><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which "a unit of heat descending from a body A at the temperature <i>T</i>° of this scale, to a body B at the temperature (<i>T</i>−1)°, would give out the same mechanical effect <i>[work]</i>, whatever be the number <i>T</i>." Such a scale would be "quite independent of the physical properties of any specific substance."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By employing such a "waterfall", Thomson postulated that a point would be reached at which no further heat (caloric) could be transferred, the point of <i><a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a></i> about which <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Amontons" title="Guillaume Amontons">Guillaume Amontons</a> had speculated in 1702. "Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in French in 1824, the year of Lord Kelvin's birth, used −267 as an estimate of the absolute zero temperature. Thomson used data published by Regnault to <a href="/wiki/Calibration" title="Calibration">calibrate</a> his scale against established measurements. </p><p>In his publication, Thomson wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... The conversion of heat (or <i>caloric</i>) into mechanical effect is probably impossible, certainly undiscovered</p></blockquote><p>—But a footnote signalled his first doubts about the caloric theory, referring to Joule's <i>very remarkable discoveries</i>. Surprisingly, Thomson did not send Joule a copy of his paper, but when Joule eventually read it he wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of heat into work but that he was planning further experiments. Thomson replied on 27 October, revealing that he was planning his own experiments and hoping for a reconciliation of their two sides. </p><p>Thomson returned to critique Carnot's original publication and read his analysis to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> in January 1849,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> still convinced that the theory was fundamentally sound. However, though Thomson conducted no new experiments, over the next two years he became increasingly dissatisfied with Carnot's theory and convinced of Joule's. In February 1851 he sat down to articulate his new thinking. He was uncertain of how to frame his theory, and the paper went through several drafts before he settled on an attempt to reconcile Carnot and Joule. During his rewriting, he seems to have considered ideas that would subsequently give rise to the <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">second law of thermodynamics</a>. In Carnot's theory, lost heat was <i>absolutely lost,</i> but Thomson contended that it was "<i>lost to man</i> irrecoverably; but not lost in the material world". Moreover, his <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> beliefs led Thomson to <a href="/wiki/Extrapolation" title="Extrapolation">extrapolate</a> the second law to the cosmos, originating the idea of <a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">universal heat death</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I believe the tendency in the material world is for motion to become diffused, and that as a whole the reverse of concentration is gradually going on – I believe that no physical action can ever restore the heat emitted from the Sun, and that this source is not inexhaustible; also that the motions of the Earth and other planets are losing <i><a href="/wiki/Vis_viva" title="Vis viva">vis viva</a></i> which is converted into heat; and that although some <i>vis viva</i> may be restored for instance to the earth by heat received from the sun, or by other means, that the loss cannot be <i>precisely</i> compensated and I think it probable that it is under-compensated.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharlin_1979_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharlin_1979-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Compensation would require <i>a creative act or an act possessing similar power</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Sharlin_1979_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharlin_1979-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulting in a <i>rejuvenating universe</i> (as Thomson had previously compared universal heat death to a clock running slower and slower, although he was unsure whether it would eventually reach <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a> and <i>stop for ever</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson also formulated the <a href="/wiki/Heat_death_paradox" title="Heat death paradox">heat death paradox</a> (Kelvin's paradox) in 1862, which uses the second law of thermodynamics to disprove the possibility of an infinitely old universe; this paradox was later extended by <a href="/wiki/William_Rankine" title="William Rankine">William Rankine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In final publication, Thomson retreated from a radical departure and declared "the whole theory of the motive power of heat is founded on ... two ... propositions, due respectively to Joule, and to Carnot and Clausius."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson went on to state a form of the second law: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is impossible, by means of inanimate material agency, to derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling it below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In the paper, Thomson supports the theory that heat was a form of motion but admits that he had been influenced only by the thought of Sir <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> and the experiments of Joule and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Robert_von_Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Robert von Mayer">Julius Robert von Mayer</a>, maintaining that experimental demonstration of the conversion of heat into work was still outstanding.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As soon as Joule read the paper he wrote to Thomson with his comments and questions. Thus began a fruitful, though largely epistolary, collaboration between the two men, Joule conducting experiments, Thomson analysing the results and suggesting further experiments. The collaboration lasted from 1852 to 1856, its discoveries including the <a href="/wiki/Joule%E2%80%93Thomson_effect" title="Joule–Thomson effect">Joule–Thomson effect</a>, sometimes called the Kelvin–Joule effect, and the published results<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> did much to bring about general acceptance of Joule's work and the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic theory</a>. </p><p>Thomson published more than 650 scientific papers<sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and applied for 70 patents (not all were issued). Regarding science, Thomson wrote the following: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In physical science a first essential step in the direction of learning any subject is to find principles of numerical reckoning and practicable methods for measuring some quality connected with it. I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of <i>science</i>, whatever the matter may be.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transatlantic_cable">Transatlantic cable</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Transatlantic cable"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calculations_on_data_rate">Calculations on data rate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Calculations on data rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">To understand the technical issues in which Thomson became involved, see <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Bandwidth_problems" title="Submarine communications cable">Submarine communications cable: Bandwidth problems</a>.</div> <p>Though eminent in the academic field, Thomson was obscure to the general public. In September 1852, he married childhood sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Crum" title="Walter Crum">Walter Crum</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but her health broke down on their honeymoon, and over the next 17 years Thomson was distracted by her suffering. On 16 October 1854, <a href="/wiki/George_Gabriel_Stokes" class="mw-redirect" title="George Gabriel Stokes">George Gabriel Stokes</a> wrote to Thomson to try to re-interest him in work by asking his opinion on some experiments of Faraday on the proposed <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic telegraph cable</a>. </p><p>Faraday had demonstrated how the construction of a cable would limit the rate at which messages could be sent—in modern terms, the <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">bandwidth</a>. Thomson jumped at the problem and published his response that month.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He expressed his results in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Data_signaling_rate" title="Data signaling rate">data rate</a> that could be achieved and the economic consequences in terms of the potential revenue of the transatlantic undertaking. In a further 1855 analysis,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson stressed the impact that the design of the cable would have on its profitability. </p><p>Thomson contended that the signalling speed through a given cable was inversely proportional to the <a href="/wiki/Square_(algebra)" title="Square (algebra)">square</a> of the length of the cable. Thomson's results were disputed at a meeting of the British Association in 1856 by <a href="/wiki/Wildman_Whitehouse" title="Wildman Whitehouse">Wildman Whitehouse</a>, the electrician of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Telegraph_Company" title="Atlantic Telegraph Company">Atlantic Telegraph Company</a>. Whitehouse had possibly misinterpreted the results of his own experiments but was doubtless feeling financial pressure as plans for the cable were already well under way. He believed that Thomson's calculations implied that the cable must be "abandoned as being practically and commercially impossible". </p><p>Thomson attacked Whitehouse's contention in a letter to the popular <i><a href="/wiki/The_Athenaeum_(British_magazine)" title="The Athenaeum (British magazine)">Athenaeum</a></i> magazine,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pitching himself into the public eye. Thomson recommended a larger <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductor</a> with a larger <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)" title="Cross section (geometry)">cross section</a> of <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulation</a>. He thought Whitehouse no fool and suspected that he might have the practical skill to make the existing design work. Thomson's work had attracted the attention of the project's undertakers. In December 1856, he was elected to the board of directors of the Atlantic Telegraph Company. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientist_to_engineer">Scientist to engineer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Scientist to engineer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomson became scientific adviser to a team with Whitehouse as chief electrician and Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tilston_Bright" title="Charles Tilston Bright">Charles Tilston Bright</a> as chief engineer, but Whitehouse had his way with the specification, supported by Faraday and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_F._B._Morse" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel F. B. Morse">Samuel F. B. Morse</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_William_Thomson%27s_telegraphic_syphon_recorder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sir_William_Thomson%27s_telegraphic_syphon_recorder.jpg/170px-Sir_William_Thomson%27s_telegraphic_syphon_recorder.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sir_William_Thomson%27s_telegraphic_syphon_recorder.jpg/255px-Sir_William_Thomson%27s_telegraphic_syphon_recorder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sir_William_Thomson%27s_telegraphic_syphon_recorder.jpg/340px-Sir_William_Thomson%27s_telegraphic_syphon_recorder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>William Thomson's telegraphic syphon recorder, on display at Porthcurno Telegraph Museum, in January 2019</figcaption></figure> <p>Thomson sailed on board the cable-laying ship <a href="/wiki/HMS_Agamemnon_(1852)" title="HMS Agamemnon (1852)">HMS <i>Agamemnon</i></a> in August 1857, with Whitehouse confined to land owing to illness, but the voyage ended after 380 miles (610 km) when the cable parted. Thomson contributed to the effort by publishing in the <i>Engineer</i> the whole theory of the <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stresses</a> involved in the laying of a <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">submarine communications cable</a>, showing when the line is running out of the ship, at a constant speed in a uniform depth of water, it sinks in a slant or straight incline from the point where it enters the water to that where it touches the bottom.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thomson developed a complete system for operating a submarine telegraph that was capable of sending a <a href="/wiki/Character_(computing)" title="Character (computing)">character</a> every 3.5 seconds. He patented the key elements of his system, the <a href="/wiki/Mirror_galvanometer" title="Mirror galvanometer">mirror galvanometer</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siphon_recorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Siphon recorder">siphon recorder</a>, in 1858. Whitehouse still felt able to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. It was not until Thomson convinced the board that using purer copper for replacing the lost section of cable would improve data capacity, that he first made a difference to the execution of the project.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The board insisted that Thomson join the 1858 cable-laying expedition, without any financial compensation, and take an active part in the project. In return, Thomson secured a trial for his mirror galvanometer, which the board had been unenthusiastic about, alongside Whitehouse's equipment. Thomson found the access he was given unsatisfactory, and the <i>Agamemnon</i> had to return home following a disastrous storm in June 1858. In London, the board was about to abandon the project and mitigate their losses by selling the cable. Thomson, <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_West_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrus West Field">Cyrus West Field</a> and <a href="/wiki/Curtis_M._Lampson" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtis M. Lampson">Curtis M. Lampson</a> argued for another attempt and prevailed, Thomson insisting that the technical problems were tractable. Though employed in an advisory capacity, Thomson had, during the voyages, developed a real engineer's instincts and skill at practical problem-solving under pressure, often taking the lead in dealing with emergencies and being unafraid to assist in manual work. A cable was completed on 5 August. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disaster_and_triumph">Disaster and triumph</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Disaster and triumph"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomson's fears were realised when Whitehouse's apparatus proved insufficiently sensitive and had to be replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued to maintain that it was his equipment that was providing the service and started to engage in desperate measures to remedy some of the problems. He fatally damaged the cable by applying 2,000 <a href="/wiki/Volts" class="mw-redirect" title="Volts">volts</a>. When the cable failed completely Whitehouse was dismissed, though Thomson objected and was reprimanded by the board for his interference. Thomson subsequently regretted that he had acquiesced too readily to many of Whitehouse's proposals and had not challenged him with sufficient vigour.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A joint committee of inquiry was established by the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trade" title="Board of Trade">Board of Trade</a> and the Atlantic Telegraph Company. Most of the blame for the cable's failure was found to rest with Whitehouse.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The committee found that, though underwater cables were notorious in their lack of <a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">reliability</a>, most of the problems arose from known and avoidable causes. Thomson was appointed one of a five-member committee to recommend a specification for a new cable. The committee reported in October 1863.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 1865, Thomson sailed on the cable-laying expedition of the <a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Eastern" title="SS Great Eastern">SS <i>Great Eastern</i></a>, but the voyage was dogged by technical problems. The cable was lost after 1,200 miles (1,900 km) had been laid, and the project was abandoned. A further attempt in 1866 laid a new cable in two weeks, and then recovered and completed the 1865 cable. The enterprise was feted as a triumph by the public, and Thomson enjoyed a large share of the adulation. Thomson, along with the other principals of the project, was <a href="/wiki/Knighted" class="mw-redirect" title="Knighted">knighted</a> on 10 November 1866. To exploit his inventions for signalling on long submarine cables, Thomson entered into a partnership with <a href="/wiki/C._F._Varley" title="C. F. Varley">C. F. Varley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fleeming_Jenkin" title="Fleeming Jenkin">Fleeming Jenkin</a>. In conjunction with the latter, he also devised an <a href="/wiki/Automatic_curb_sender" title="Automatic curb sender">automatic curb sender</a>, a kind of <a href="/wiki/Telegraph_key" title="Telegraph key">telegraph key</a> for sending messages on a cable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_expeditions">Later expeditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Later expeditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lord_Kelvin%27s_sailing_yacht_Lalla_Rookh_B31360403_0002_0053.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lord_Kelvin%27s_sailing_yacht_Lalla_Rookh_B31360403_0002_0053.jpg/220px-Lord_Kelvin%27s_sailing_yacht_Lalla_Rookh_B31360403_0002_0053.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lord_Kelvin%27s_sailing_yacht_Lalla_Rookh_B31360403_0002_0053.jpg/330px-Lord_Kelvin%27s_sailing_yacht_Lalla_Rookh_B31360403_0002_0053.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lord_Kelvin%27s_sailing_yacht_Lalla_Rookh_B31360403_0002_0053.jpg/440px-Lord_Kelvin%27s_sailing_yacht_Lalla_Rookh_B31360403_0002_0053.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4220" data-file-height="2498" /></a><figcaption>Lord Kelvin's sailing yacht <i>Lalla Rookh</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Thomson took part in the laying of the French Atlantic submarine communications cable of 1869, and with Jenkin was engineer of the Western and Brazilian and Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted by vacation student <a href="/wiki/James_Alfred_Ewing" class="mw-redirect" title="James Alfred Ewing">James Alfred Ewing</a>. He was present at the laying of the <a href="/wiki/Bel%C3%A9m" title="Belém">Pará</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pernambuco" title="Pernambuco">Pernambuco</a> section of the Brazilian coast cables in 1873. </p><p>Thomson's wife, Margaret, died on 17 June 1870, and he resolved to make changes in his life. Already addicted to seafaring, in September he purchased a 126-ton <a href="/wiki/Schooner" title="Schooner">schooner</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_named_Lalla_Rookh#Lalla_Rookh_(1870_ship)" title="List of ships named Lalla Rookh">Lalla Rookh</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and used it as a base for entertaining friends and scientific colleagues. His maritime interests continued in 1871 when he was appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Public_inquiry" title="Public inquiry">Board of Enquiry</a> into the sinking of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Captain_(1869)" title="HMS Captain (1869)">HMS <i>Captain</i></a>. </p><p>In June 1873, Thomson and Jenkin were on board the <i>Hooper</i>, bound for <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> with 2,500 miles (4,020 km) of cable when the cable developed a fault. An unscheduled 16-day stop-over in <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a> followed, and Thomson became good friends with Charles R. Blandy and his three daughters. On 2 May 1874 he set sail for Madeira on the <i>Lalla Rookh</i>. As he approached the harbour, he signalled to the Blandy residence "Will you marry me?" and Fanny (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes". Thomson married Fanny, 13 years his junior, on 24 June 1874. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubert_von_Herkomer03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Hubert_von_Herkomer03.jpg/170px-Hubert_von_Herkomer03.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Hubert_von_Herkomer03.jpg/255px-Hubert_von_Herkomer03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Hubert_von_Herkomer03.jpg/340px-Hubert_von_Herkomer03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Lord Kelvin by <a href="/wiki/Hubert_von_Herkomer" title="Hubert von Herkomer">Hubert von Herkomer</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_contributions">Other contributions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other contributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy"><i>Treatise on Natural Philosophy</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Treatise on Natural Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy" title="Treatise on Natural Philosophy">Treatise on Natural Philosophy</a></div> <p>Over the period 1855 to 1867, Thomson collaborated with <a href="/wiki/Peter_Guthrie_Tait" title="Peter Guthrie Tait">Peter Guthrie Tait</a> on a textbook that founded the study of <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> first on the mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a>, the description of motion without regard to <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a>. The text developed <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">dynamics</a> in various areas but with constant attention to energy as a unifying principle. A second edition appeared in 1879, expanded to two separately bound parts. The textbook set a standard for early education in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atmospheric_electricity">Atmospheric electricity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Atmospheric electricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomson made significant contributions to <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity" title="Atmospheric electricity">atmospheric electricity</a> for the relatively short time for which he worked on the subject, around 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He developed several instruments for measuring the atmospheric electric field, using some of the electrometers he had initially developed for telegraph work, which he tested at Glasgow and whilst on holiday on Arran. His measurements on Arran were sufficiently rigorous and well-calibrated that they could be used to deduce air pollution from the Glasgow area, through its effects on the atmospheric electric field.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson's water dropper electrometer was used for measuring the atmospheric electric field at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Observatory" title="King's Observatory">Kew Observatory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eskdalemuir_Observatory" title="Eskdalemuir Observatory">Eskdalemuir Observatory</a> for many years,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one was still in use operationally at the Kakioka Observatory in Japan<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until early 2021. Thomson may have unwittingly observed atmospheric electrical effects caused by the <a href="/wiki/Carrington_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrington event">Carrington event</a> (a significant geomagnetic storm) in early September 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vortex_theory_of_the_atom">Vortex theory of the atom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Vortex theory of the atom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vortex_theory_of_the_atom" title="Vortex theory of the atom">Vortex theory of the atom</a></div> <p>Between 1870 and 1890 the vortex atom theory, which purported that an <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Vortex" title="Vortex">vortex</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">aether</a>, was popular among British physicists and mathematicians. Thomson pioneered the theory, which was distinct from the 17th century vortex theory of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> in that Thomson was thinking in terms of a unitary continuum theory, whereas Descartes was thinking in terms of three different types of matter, each relating respectively to emission, transmission, and reflection of light.<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 60 scientific papers were written by approximately 25 scientists. Following the lead of Thomson and Tait,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the branch of <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a> called <a href="/wiki/Knot_theory" title="Knot theory">knot theory</a> was developed. Thomson's initiative in this complex study that continues to inspire new mathematics has led to persistence of the topic in <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine">Marine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Marine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DSCN1739-thomson-tide-machine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/DSCN1739-thomson-tide-machine.jpg/170px-DSCN1739-thomson-tide-machine.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/DSCN1739-thomson-tide-machine.jpg/255px-DSCN1739-thomson-tide-machine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/DSCN1739-thomson-tide-machine.jpg/340px-DSCN1739-thomson-tide-machine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Thomson's <a href="/wiki/Tide-predicting_machine" title="Tide-predicting machine">tide-predicting machine</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Thomson was an enthusiastic yachtsman, his interest in all things relating to the sea perhaps arising from, or fostered by, his experiences on the <i>Agamemnon</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Eastern" title="SS Great Eastern">Great Eastern</a></i>. Thomson introduced a <a href="/wiki/Kelvite_sounding_machine" title="Kelvite sounding machine">new method of deep-sea depth sounding</a>, in which a steel <a href="/wiki/Piano_wire" title="Piano wire">piano wire</a> replaces the ordinary hand line. The wire glides so easily to the bottom that "flying soundings" can be taken while the ship is at full speed. Thomson added a pressure gauge to register the depth of the sinker.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About the same time he revived the <a href="/wiki/Sumner_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumner method">Sumner method</a> of finding a ship's position, and calculated a set of tables for its ready application. </p><p>During the 1880s, Thomson worked to perfect the adjustable <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> to correct errors arising from <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_deviation" title="Magnetic deviation">magnetic deviation</a> owing to the increased use of iron in <a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">naval architecture</a>. Thomson's design was a great improvement on the older instruments, being steadier and less hampered by friction. The deviation caused by the ship's magnetism was corrected by movable iron masses at the <a href="/wiki/Binnacle" title="Binnacle">binnacle</a>. Thomson's innovations involved much detailed work to develop principles identified by <a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> and others, but contributed little in terms of novel physical thinking. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective in gaining acceptance of his instrument by <a href="/wiki/The_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="The Admiralty">The Admiralty</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Lord_Kelvin_Mariner%27s_Compass_with_Sun_Dial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sir_Lord_Kelvin_Mariner%27s_Compass_with_Sun_Dial.jpg/220px-Sir_Lord_Kelvin_Mariner%27s_Compass_with_Sun_Dial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sir_Lord_Kelvin_Mariner%27s_Compass_with_Sun_Dial.jpg/330px-Sir_Lord_Kelvin_Mariner%27s_Compass_with_Sun_Dial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sir_Lord_Kelvin_Mariner%27s_Compass_with_Sun_Dial.jpg/440px-Sir_Lord_Kelvin_Mariner%27s_Compass_with_Sun_Dial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3513" data-file-height="3745" /></a><figcaption>Kelvin Mariner's Compass</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Scientific biographers of Thomson, if they have paid any attention at all to his compass innovations, have generally taken the matter to be a sorry saga of dim-witted naval administrators resisting marvellous innovations from a superlative scientific mind. Writers sympathetic to the Navy, on the other hand, portray Thomson as a man of undoubted talent and enthusiasm, with some genuine knowledge of the sea, who managed to parlay a handful of modest ideas in compass design into a commercial monopoly for his own manufacturing concern, using his reputation as a bludgeon in the law courts to beat down even small claims of originality from others, and persuading the Admiralty and the law to overlook both the deficiencies of his own design and the virtues of his competitors'. </p><p>The truth, inevitably, seems to lie somewhere between the two extremes.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> had been among the first to suggest that a <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">lighthouse</a> might be made to signal a distinctive number by occultations of its light, but Thomson pointed out the merits of the <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> for the purpose, and urged that the signals should consist of short and long flashes of the light to represent the dots and dashes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_standards">Electrical standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Electrical standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomson did more than any other electrician up to his time in introducing accurate methods and apparati for measuring electricity. As early as 1845 he pointed out that the experimental results of <a href="/wiki/William_Snow_Harris" title="William Snow Harris">William Snow Harris</a> were in accordance with the laws of <a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Coulomb</a>. In the <i>Memoirs of the Roman Academy of Sciences</i> for 1857 he published a description of his divided ring <a href="/wiki/Electrometer" title="Electrometer">electrometer</a>, based on the electroscope of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Friedrich_von_Bohnenberger" title="Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger">Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger</a>. He introduced a chain or series of effective instruments, including the quadrant electrometer, which cover the entire field of electrostatic measurement. He invented the <a href="/wiki/Current_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Current balance">current balance</a>, also known as the <i>Kelvin balance</i> or <i>Ampere balance</i> (<i>SiC</i>), for the precise specification of the <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">ampere</a>, the standard unit of <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a>. From around 1880 he was aided by the electrical engineer <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maclean" title="Magnus Maclean">Magnus Maclean</a> <a href="/wiki/FRSE" class="mw-redirect" title="FRSE">FRSE</a> in his electrical experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1893, Thomson headed an international commission to decide on the design of the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a> <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">power station</a>. Despite his belief in the superiority of <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">electric power transmission</a>, he endorsed Westinghouse's <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> system which had been demonstrated at the <a href="/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition">Chicago World's Fair</a> of that year. Even after Niagara Falls, Thomson still held to his belief that direct current was the superior system.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Acknowledging his contribution to electrical standardisation, the <a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">International Electrotechnical Commission</a> elected Thomson as its first president at its preliminary meeting, held in London on 26–27 June 1906. "On the proposal of the President [Mr Alexander Siemens, Great Britain], secounded [sic] by Mr Mailloux [US Institute of Electrical Engineers] the Right Honorable Lord Kelvin, <a href="/wiki/G.C.V.O." class="mw-redirect" title="G.C.V.O.">G.C.V.O.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit" title="Order of Merit">O.M.</a>, was unanimously elected first President of the Commission", minutes of the Preliminary Meeting Report read.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_Earth">Age of Earth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Age of Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lord_Kelvin_Vanity_Fair_1897-04-29.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lord_Kelvin_Vanity_Fair_1897-04-29.jpg/170px-Lord_Kelvin_Vanity_Fair_1897-04-29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lord_Kelvin_Vanity_Fair_1897-04-29.jpg/255px-Lord_Kelvin_Vanity_Fair_1897-04-29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Lord_Kelvin_Vanity_Fair_1897-04-29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="562" /></a><figcaption>Kelvin caricatured by <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Ward" title="Leslie Ward">Spy</a> for <i><a href="/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)" title="Vanity Fair (British magazine)">Vanity Fair</a></i>, 1897</figcaption></figure> <p>Kelvin made an early physics-based estimation of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">age of Earth</a>. Given his youthful work on the figure of Earth and his interest in heat conduction, it is no surprise that he chose to investigate Earth's cooling and to make historical inferences of Earth's age from his calculations. Thomson was a <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationist</a> in a broad sense, but he was not a '<a href="/wiki/Flood_geology" title="Flood geology">flood geologist</a>'<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (a view that had <a href="/wiki/Flood_geology#Criticisms_and_retractions:_the_downfall_of_diluvialism" title="Flood geology">lost mainstream scientific support</a> by the 1840s.)<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He contended that the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics" title="Laws of thermodynamics">laws of thermodynamics</a> operated from the birth of the universe and envisaged a dynamic process that saw the organisation and evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and other structures, followed by a gradual "heat death". He developed the view that Earth had once been too hot to support life and contrasted this view with that of <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">uniformitarianism</a>, that conditions had remained constant since the indefinite past. He contended that "This earth, certainly a moderate number of millions of years ago, was a red-hot globe ... ."<sup id="cite_ref-Burchfield_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burchfield-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the publication of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> in 1859, Thomson saw evidence of the relatively short habitable age of Earth as tending to contradict Darwin's gradualist explanation of slow <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> bringing about <a href="/wiki/Biological_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological diversity">biological diversity</a>. Thomson's own views favoured a version of <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">theistic evolution</a> sped up by divine guidance.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His calculations showed that the Sun could not have possibly existed long enough to allow the slow incremental development by <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>—unless it was heated by an energy source beyond the knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> science. He was soon drawn into public disagreement with geologists and with Darwin's supporters <a href="/wiki/John_Tyndall" title="John Tyndall">John Tyndall</a> and <a href="/wiki/T._H._Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="T. H. Huxley">T. H. Huxley</a>. In his response to Huxley's address to the Geological Society of London (1868) he presented his address "Of Geological Dynamics" (1869)<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which, among his other writings, challenged the geologists' assertion that Earth must be vastly old, perhaps billions of years in age.<sup id="cite_ref-England_et_al_2007_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-England_et_al_2007-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thomson's initial 1864 estimate of Earth's age was from 20 to 400 million years old. These wide limits were due to his uncertainty about the melting temperature of rock, to which he equated Earth's interior temperature,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the uncertainty in thermal conductivities and specific heats of rocks. Over the years he refined his arguments and reduced the upper bound by a factor of ten, and in 1897 Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, ultimately settled on an estimate that Earth was 20–40 million years old.<sup id="cite_ref-Burchfield_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burchfield-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a letter published in Scientific American Supplement 1895 Kelvin criticized geologists' estimates of the age of rocks and the age of Earth, including the views published by Darwin, as "vaguely vast age".<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His exploration of this estimate can be found in his 1897 address to the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Institute" title="Victoria Institute">Victoria Institute</a>, given at the request of the institute's president <a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Stokes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as recorded in that institute's journal <i><a href="/wiki/Science_and_Christian_Belief" title="Science and Christian Belief">Transactions</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although his former assistant <a href="/wiki/John_Perry_(engineer)" title="John Perry (engineer)">John Perry</a> published a paper in 1895 challenging Kelvin's assumption of low <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a> inside Earth, and thus showing a much greater age,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this had little immediate impact. The discovery in 1903 that <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> releases heat led to Kelvin's estimate being challenged, and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> famously made the argument in a 1904 lecture attended by Kelvin that this provided the unknown energy source Kelvin had suggested, but the estimate was not overturned until the development in 1907 of <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> of rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-England_et_al_2007_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-England_et_al_2007-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery of radioactivity largely invalidated Kelvin's estimate of the age of Earth. Although he eventually paid off a gentleman's bet with Strutt on the importance of radioactivity in Earth's geology, he never publicly acknowledged this because he thought he had a much stronger argument restricting the age of the Sun to no more than 20 million years. Without sunlight, there could be no explanation for the sediment record on Earth's surface. At the time, the only known source for solar energy was <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a>. It was only when <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">thermonuclear fusion</a> was recognised in the 1930s that Kelvin's age paradox was truly resolved.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, modern cosmology recognizes the Kelvin period in the early life of a star, during which it shines from gravitational energy (correctly calculated by Kelvin) before fusion and the main sequence begins. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jubilee_of_Baron_Kelvin._Photograph_by_Maclure,_Macdonald_%26_Wellcome_V0028635_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jubilee_of_Baron_Kelvin._Photograph_by_Maclure%2C_Macdonald_%26_Wellcome_V0028635_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Jubilee_of_Baron_Kelvin._Photograph_by_Maclure%2C_Macdonald_%26_Wellcome_V0028635_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jubilee_of_Baron_Kelvin._Photograph_by_Maclure%2C_Macdonald_%26_Wellcome_V0028635_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Jubilee_of_Baron_Kelvin._Photograph_by_Maclure%2C_Macdonald_%26_Wellcome_V0028635_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jubilee_of_Baron_Kelvin._Photograph_by_Maclure%2C_Macdonald_%26_Wellcome_V0028635_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Jubilee_of_Baron_Kelvin._Photograph_by_Maclure%2C_Macdonald_%26_Wellcome_V0028635_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2197" data-file-height="1710" /></a><figcaption>Kelvin on a pleasure cruise on the <a href="/wiki/River_Clyde" title="River Clyde">River Clyde</a> aboard the <a href="/wiki/Clyde_steamer" title="Clyde steamer">steamer</a> <i>Glen Sannox</i> for his 17 June 1896 "<a href="/wiki/Jubilee" title="Jubilee">jubilee</a>" as Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:No-nb_bldsa_k2a001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/No-nb_bldsa_k2a001.jpg/220px-No-nb_bldsa_k2a001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/No-nb_bldsa_k2a001.jpg/330px-No-nb_bldsa_k2a001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/No-nb_bldsa_k2a001.jpg/440px-No-nb_bldsa_k2a001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4052" data-file-height="3139" /></a><figcaption>Lord Kelvin and Lady Kelvin hosting Norwegians <a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Fridtjof Nansen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eva_Nansen" title="Eva Nansen">Eva Nansen</a> visiting at their house in February 1897</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life_and_death">Later life and death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Later life and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Thomson_family_grave_and_memorial,_Glasgow_Necropolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Thomson_family_grave_and_memorial%2C_Glasgow_Necropolis.jpg/170px-The_Thomson_family_grave_and_memorial%2C_Glasgow_Necropolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Thomson_family_grave_and_memorial%2C_Glasgow_Necropolis.jpg/255px-The_Thomson_family_grave_and_memorial%2C_Glasgow_Necropolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Thomson_family_grave_and_memorial%2C_Glasgow_Necropolis.jpg/340px-The_Thomson_family_grave_and_memorial%2C_Glasgow_Necropolis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2056" data-file-height="3088" /></a><figcaption>The grave of the Thomson family, <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Necropolis" title="Glasgow Necropolis">Glasgow Necropolis</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the winter of 1860–61 Kelvin slipped on the ice while <a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">curling</a> near his home at Netherhall and fractured his leg, causing him to miss the 1861 Manchester meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science and to limp thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He remained something of a celebrity on both sides of the Atlantic until his death. </p><p>Thomson remained a devout believer in Christianity throughout his life; attendance at chapel was part of his daily routine.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He saw his Christian faith as supporting and informing his scientific work, as is evident from his address to the annual meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Evidence_Society" title="Christian Evidence Society">Christian Evidence Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on 23 May 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/1902_Coronation_Honours" title="1902 Coronation Honours">1902 Coronation Honours</a> list published on 26 June 1902 (the original day of the <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Edward_VII_and_Alexandra" title="Coronation of Edward VII and Alexandra">coronation of Edward VII and Alexandra</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kelvin was appointed a <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Councillor</a> and one of the first members of the new <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit" title="Order of Merit">Order of Merit</a> (OM). He received the order from the King on 8 August 1902<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was sworn a member of the council at <a href="/wiki/Buckingham_Palace" title="Buckingham Palace">Buckingham Palace</a> on 11 August 1902.<sup id="cite_ref-LG27464_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LG27464-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his later years he often travelled to his town house at 15 Eaton Place, off <a href="/wiki/Eaton_Square" title="Eaton Square">Eaton Square</a> in London's <a href="/wiki/Belgravia" title="Belgravia">Belgravia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 1907 he caught a chill and his condition deteriorated until he died at his Scottish country seat, Netherhall, in Largs on 17 December.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the request of <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, the undertakers Wylie & Lochhead prepared an oak coffin lined with lead. In the dark of the winter evening the cortege set off from Netherhall for <a href="/wiki/Largs_railway_station" title="Largs railway station">Largs railway station</a>, a distance of about a mile. Large crowds witnessed the passing of the cortege, and shopkeepers closed their premises and dimmed their lights. The coffin was placed in a special <a href="/wiki/Midland_Railway" title="Midland Railway">Midland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_and_South_Western_Railway" title="Glasgow and South Western Railway">Glasgow and South Western Railway</a> van. The train set off at 8:30 pm for <a href="/wiki/Kilmarnock" title="Kilmarnock">Kilmarnock</a>, where the van was attached to the overnight express to <a href="/wiki/St_Pancras_railway_station" title="St Pancras railway station">St Pancras railway station</a> in London.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Scotsman,_23_December_1907_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Scotsman,_23_December_1907-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kelvin's funeral was on 23 December 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Abbey was crowded, including representatives from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, along with representatives from France, Italy, Germany, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, Russia, the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and <a href="/wiki/Monaco" title="Monaco">Monaco</a>. Kelvin's grave is in the <a href="/wiki/Nave" title="Nave">nave</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Choir_screen" class="mw-redirect" title="Choir screen">choir screen</a>, and close to the graves of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwin's son, Sir <a href="/wiki/George_Darwin" title="George Darwin">George Darwin</a>, was one of the pall-bearers.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The University of Glasgow held a memorial service for Kelvin in the Bute Hall. Kelvin had been a member of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Episcopal_Church" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a>, attached to St Columba's Episcopal Church in Largs, and when in Glasgow to St Mary's Episcopal Church (now, <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Cathedral,_Glasgow" title="St Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow">St Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-The_Scotsman,_23_December_1907_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Scotsman,_23_December_1907-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time as the funeral in Westminster Abbey, a service was held in St Columba's Episcopal Church, Largs, attended by a large congregation including burgh dignitaries.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lord Kelvin is memorialised on the Thomson family grave in <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Necropolis" title="Glasgow Necropolis">Glasgow Necropolis</a>. The family grave has a second modern memorial, erected by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Philosophical_Society_of_Glasgow" title="Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow">Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow</a>; a society of which he was president in the periods 1856–58 and 1874–77.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg/220px-Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg/330px-Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg/440px-Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1477" data-file-height="1992" /></a><figcaption>Kelvin in 1906 by Russell & Sons</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limits_of_classical_physics">Limits of classical physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Limits of classical physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1884, Lord Kelvin led a <a href="/wiki/Master_class" title="Master class">master class</a> on "Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light" at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kelvin referred to the <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_wave_equation" title="Acoustic wave equation">acoustic wave equation</a> describing sound as waves of pressure in air and attempted to describe also an <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave_equation" title="Electromagnetic wave equation">electromagnetic wave equation</a>, presuming a <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous aether</a> susceptible to vibration. The study group included <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_W._Morley" title="Edward W. Morley">Edward W. Morley</a> who subsequently performed the <a href="/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment" title="Michelson–Morley experiment">Michelson–Morley experiment</a>, which found no luminiferous aether. Kelvin did not provide a text, but <a href="/wiki/A._S._Hathaway" class="mw-redirect" title="A. S. Hathaway">A. S. Hathaway</a> took notes and duplicated them with a <a href="/wiki/Mimeograph#Papyrograph" title="Mimeograph">papyrograph</a>. As the subject matter was under active development, Kelvin amended that text and in 1904 it was typeset and published. Kelvin's attempts to provide mechanical models ultimately failed in the electromagnetic regime. Starting from his lecture in 1884, he was the first scientist to formulate the hypothetical concept of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>; he then attempted to define and locate some "dark bodies" in the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was skeptical about Maxwell's prediction of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_pressure" title="Radiation pressure">radiation pressure</a>, but admitted that it did exist after seeing <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Lebedev" title="Pyotr Lebedev">Pyotr Lebedev</a>'s experimental proof of radiation pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 27 April 1900 he gave a widely reported lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light" to the Royal Institution.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two "dark clouds" he was alluding to were confusion surrounding how matter moves through the aether (including the puzzling results of the Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications that the <a href="/wiki/Equipartition_theorem" title="Equipartition theorem">equipartition theorem</a> in <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> might break down. Two major physical theories were developed during the 20th century starting from these issues: for the former, the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>; for the second, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. In 1905 <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> published the so-called <i>annus mirabilis</i> papers, one of which explained the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>'s discovery of energy quanta which was the foundation of quantum mechanics, another of which described <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, and the last of which explained <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a> in terms of statistical mechanics, providing a strong argument for the existence of atoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouncements_later_proven_to_be_false">Pronouncements later proven to be false</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Pronouncements later proven to be false"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like many scientists, Thomson made some mistakes in predicting the future of technology. </p><p>His biographer Silvanus P. Thompson writes that "When <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a>'s discovery of the X-rays was announced at the end of 1895, Lord Kelvin was entirely skeptical, and regarded the announcement as a hoax. The papers had been full of the wonders of Röntgen's rays, about which Lord Kelvin was intensely skeptical until Röntgen himself sent him a copy of his Memoir"; on 17 January 1896, having read the paper and seen the photographs, he wrote Röntgen a letter saying that "I need not tell you that when I read the paper I was very much astonished and delighted. I can say no more now than to congratulate you warmly on the great discovery you have made"<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kelvin had his own hand X-rayed in May 1896.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His forecast for practical aviation (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was negative. In 1896 he refused an invitation to join the Aeronautical Society, writing "I have not the smallest molecule of faith in aerial navigation other than ballooning or of expectation of good results from any of the trials we hear of."<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 1902 newspaper interview he predicted that "No balloon and no aeroplane will ever be practically successful."<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A statement falsely attributed to Kelvin is: "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement." This has been widely misattributed to Kelvin since the 1980s, either without citation or stating that it was made in an address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1900).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no evidence that Kelvin said this,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-horgan_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horgan-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the quote is instead a paraphrase of Albert A. Michelson, who in 1894 stated: "... it seems probable that most of the grand underlying principles have been firmly established ... An eminent physicist remarked that the future truths of physical science are to be looked for in the sixth place of decimals."<sup id="cite_ref-horgan_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horgan-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar statements were given earlier by others, such as <a href="/wiki/Philipp_von_Jolly" title="Philipp von Jolly">Philipp von Jolly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attribution to Kelvin in 1900 is presumably a confusion with his "Two clouds" lecture and which on the contrary pointed out areas that would subsequently see revolutions. </p><p>In 1898, Kelvin predicted that only 400 years of oxygen supply remained on the planet, due to the rate of burning combustibles.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his calculation, Kelvin assumed that <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> was the only source of free oxygen; he did not know all of the components of the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_cycle" title="Oxygen cycle">oxygen cycle</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="But isn't it overwhelmingly photosynthesis? See talk page. (March 2015)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Lord_Kelvin#Dubious" title="Talk:Lord Kelvin">discuss</a></i>]</sup> He could not even have known all of the sources of photosynthesis: for example the <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacterium">cyanobacterium</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i>—which accounts for more than half of marine photosynthesis—was not discovered until 1986. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eponyms">Eponyms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Eponyms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Lord_Kelvin" title="List of things named after Lord Kelvin">List of things named after Lord Kelvin</a></div> <p>A variety of physical phenomena and concepts with which Thomson is associated are named <i>Kelvin</i>, including: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect#Thomson_effect" title="Thermoelectric effect">Thermoelectric Thomson effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_bridge" title="Kelvin bridge">Kelvin bridge</a> (also known as Thomson bridge)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_functions" title="Kelvin functions">Kelvin functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_instability" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz instability">Kelvin–Helmholtz instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_luminosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz luminosity">Kelvin–Helmholtz luminosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_mechanism" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism">Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin material">Kelvin material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joule%E2%80%93Kelvin_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Joule–Kelvin effect">Joule–Kelvin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-terminal_sensing" title="Four-terminal sensing">Kelvin sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_transform" title="Kelvin transform">Kelvin transform</a> in potential theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wake_pattern" title="Kelvin wake pattern">Kelvin wake pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_water_dropper" title="Kelvin water dropper">Kelvin water dropper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_paradox" title="Heat death paradox">Kelvin's heat death paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%27s_circulation_theorem" title="Kelvin's circulation theorem">Kelvin's circulation theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Stokes_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin–Stokes theorem">Kelvin–Stokes theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Varley_divider" title="Kelvin–Varley divider">Kelvin–Varley divider</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/SI" class="mw-redirect" title="SI">SI</a> unit of temperature, <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a></li></ul> </div> <p>Mount Kelvin in New Zealand's <a href="/wiki/Paparoa_Range" title="Paparoa Range">Paparoa Range</a> was named after him by botanist William Trownson.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honours">Honours</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Honours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_bust_of_Baron_Kelvin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bronze_bust_of_Baron_Kelvin.jpg/220px-Bronze_bust_of_Baron_Kelvin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bronze_bust_of_Baron_Kelvin.jpg/330px-Bronze_bust_of_Baron_Kelvin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bronze_bust_of_Baron_Kelvin.jpg/440px-Bronze_bust_of_Baron_Kelvin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1119" data-file-height="1488" /></a><figcaption>Bronze bust of Lord Kelvin by A. McFarlane Shannan, Glasgow, Scotland</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>, 1847. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Medal" title="Keith Medal">Keith Medal</a>, 1864.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Victoria_Jubilee_Prize" title="Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize">Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize</a>, 1887.</li> <li>President, 1873–1878, 1886–1890, 1895–1907.</li></ul></li> <li>Foreign member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a>, 1851.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a>, 1851. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a>, 1856.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a>, 1883.</li> <li>President, 1890–1895.</li></ul></li> <li>Hon. Member of the Royal College of Preceptors (<a href="/wiki/College_of_Teachers" class="mw-redirect" title="College of Teachers">College of Teachers</a>), 1858.</li> <li>Hon. Member of the <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Engineers_and_Shipbuilders_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland">Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland</a>, 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">Knighted</a> 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Commander of the Imperial <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Rose" title="Order of the Rose">Order of the Rose</a> (Brazil), 1873.</li> <li>Commander of the <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Honour" title="Legion of Honour">Legion of Honour</a> (France), 1881. <ul><li>Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour, 1889.</li></ul></li> <li>Knight of the Prussian Order <a href="/wiki/Pour_le_M%C3%A9rite" title="Pour le Mérite">Pour le Mérite</a>, 1884.</li> <li>Commander of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Leopold_(Belgium)" title="Order of Leopold (Belgium)">Order of Leopold (Belgium)</a>, 1890.</li> <li><b>Baron Kelvin</b>, of <a href="/wiki/Largs" title="Largs">Largs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Traditional_counties_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional counties of Scotland">County</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ayrshire" title="Ayrshire">Ayr</a>, 1892.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title derives from the <a href="/wiki/River_Kelvin" title="River Kelvin">River Kelvin</a>, which runs by the grounds of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a>. His title died with him, as he was survived by neither heirs nor close relations.<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_memorial_of_William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin,_University_of_Glasgow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/The_memorial_of_William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin%2C_University_of_Glasgow.jpg/220px-The_memorial_of_William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin%2C_University_of_Glasgow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/The_memorial_of_William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin%2C_University_of_Glasgow.jpg/330px-The_memorial_of_William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin%2C_University_of_Glasgow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/The_memorial_of_William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin%2C_University_of_Glasgow.jpg/440px-The_memorial_of_William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin%2C_University_of_Glasgow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>The memorial of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin in <a href="/wiki/Kelvingrove_Park" title="Kelvingrove Park">Kelvingrove Park</a> next to the University of Glasgow</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Victorian_Order" title="Royal Victorian Order">Knight Grand Cross of the Victorian Order</a>, 1896.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Honorary degree <i><a href="/wiki/Legum_doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Legum doctor">Legum doctor</a></i> (LL.D.), <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, 5 May 1902.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>One of the first members of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit_(Commonwealth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Merit (Commonwealth)">Order of Merit</a>, 1902.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Most_Honourable_Privy_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council">Privy Counsellor</a>, 11 August 1902.<sup id="cite_ref-LG27464_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LG27464-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Honorary degree <i>Doctor mathematicae</i> from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Frederick_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Frederick University">Royal Frederick University</a> on 6 September 1902, when they celebrated the centenary of the birth of mathematician <a href="/wiki/Niels_Henrik_Abel" title="Niels Henrik Abel">Niels Henrik Abel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>First international recipient of <a href="/wiki/John_Fritz_Medal" title="John Fritz Medal">John Fritz Medal</a>, 1905.</li> <li>Order of the First Class of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Sacred_Treasure" title="Order of the Sacred Treasure">Sacred Treasure of Japan</a>, 1901.</li> <li>He is buried in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, London next to <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>.</li> <li>Lord Kelvin was commemorated on the £20 note issued by the <a href="/wiki/Clydesdale_Bank" title="Clydesdale Bank">Clydesdale Bank</a> in 1971; in the current issue of banknotes, his image appears on the bank's £100 note. He is shown holding his adjustable compass and in the background is a map of the transatlantic cable.<sup id="cite_ref-scotbanks_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scotbanks-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2011 he was inducted to the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Engineering_Hall_of_Fame" title="Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame">Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ScHallOfFame_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ScHallOfFame-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Refrigeration_Day" title="World Refrigeration Day">World Refrigeration Day</a>, is 26 June. It was chosen to celebrate his birth date and has been held annually, since 2019.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arms">Arms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Arms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="max-width: 100%"> <caption class="nowrap">Coat of arms of Lord Kelvin </caption> <tbody><tr> <td style="width: 220px;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg/150px-Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg/225px-Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg/300px-Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="179" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Arms_of_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin.svg/180px-Arms_of_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Arms_of_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin.svg/270px-Arms_of_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Arms_of_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin.svg/360px-Arms_of_Thomson%2C_Baron_Kelvin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> </td> <td style="min-width:175px;"> <dl><dt>Notes</dt> <dd>The arms of Lord Kelvin consist of:<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Crest</dt> <dd>A cubit arm erect, vested azure, cuffed argent, the hand grasping five ears of rye proper.</dd> <dt>Escutcheon</dt> <dd>Argent, a stag's head caboshed gules, on a chief azure a thunderbolt proper, winged or, between two spur revels of the first.</dd> <dt>Supporters</dt> <dd>On the dexter side a student of the University of Glasgow, habited, holding in his dexter hand a marine voltmeter, all proper. On the sinister side a sailor, habited, holding in the dexter hand a coil, the rope passing through the sinister, and suspended therefrom a sinker of a sounding machine, also all proper.</dd> <dt>Motto</dt> <dd>Honesty without fear.</dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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.references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGrabiner2002" class="citation journal cs1">Grabiner, Judy (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/ims/bull48/BR4801.pdf">"<i>Creators of Mathematics: The Irish Connection</i> (book review)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Irish Math. Soc. Bull</i>. <b>48</b>: 67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.33232%2FBIMS.0048.65.68">10.33232/BIMS.0048.65.68</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin">"William Thomson, Baron Kelvin"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=William+Thomson%2C+Baron+Kelvin&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2019&rft.au=Sharlin%2C+Harold+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FWilliam-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electricscotland.com/history/other/william_thomson.htm">"Significant Scots. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)"</a>. <i>Electric Scotland</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Electric+Scotland&rft.atitle=Significant+Scots.+William+Thomson+%28Lord+Kelvin%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.electricscotland.com%2Fhistory%2Fother%2Fwilliam_thomson.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/william-thomson-lord-kelvin/">"William Thomson, Lord Kelvin. Scientist, Mathematician and Engineer"</a>. <i>Westminster Abbey</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2018</span>. <q>His first wife was Margaret Crum and he married secondly Frances Blandy but had no children.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Westminster+Abbey&rft.atitle=William+Thomson%2C+Lord+Kelvin.+Scientist%2C+Mathematician+and+Engineer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westminster-abbey.org%2Fabbey-commemorations%2Fcommemorations%2Fwilliam-thomson-lord-kelvin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kelvinrayleigh-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kelvinrayleigh_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanford2019" class="citation conference cs1">Ranford, Paul (September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338819094"><i>John William Strutt-- the 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919): Recently studied correspondence</i></a>. p. 25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=John+William+Strutt--+the+3rd+Baron+Rayleigh+%281842%E2%80%931919%29%3A+Recently+studied+correspondence&rft.pages=25&rft.date=2019-09&rft.aulast=Ranford&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338819094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kelvin1849-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kelvin1849_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1849" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, William (1849). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2133961">"An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat; with Numerical Results deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam"</a>. <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>. <b>16</b> (5): 541–574. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0080456800022481">10.1017/s0080456800022481</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120335729">120335729</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=An+Account+of+Carnot%27s+Theory+of+the+Motive+Power+of+Heat%3B+with+Numerical+Results+deduced+from+Regnault%27s+Experiments+on+Steam&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=541-574&rft.date=1849&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0080456800022481&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120335729%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2133961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Smith, Crosbie. "Thomson, William". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F36507">10.1093/ref:odnb/36507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thomson%2C+William&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F36507&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Crosbie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dib.ie/biography/thomson-william-a8542">"You are being redirected..."</a> <i>www.dib.ie</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dib.ie&rft.atitle=You+are+being+redirected...&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dib.ie%2Fbiography%2Fthomson-william-a8542&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Multiple sources: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2009" class="citation cs2">Martin, Elizabeth, ed. (2009), "Kelvin, Sir William Thomson, Lord", <i>The New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers and Editors</i> (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199545155.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780199545155.001.0001</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954515-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954515-5"><bdi>978-0-19-954515-5</bdi></a>, <q>British theoretical and experimental physicist</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Oxford+Dictionary+for+Scientific+Writers+and+Editors&rft.atitle=Kelvin%2C+Sir+William+Thomson%2C+Lord&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199545155.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954515-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnowles2014" class="citation cs2">Knowles, Elizabeth, ed. (2014), <i>Lord Kelvin Oxford Dictionary of Quotations</i> (8th ed.), Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199668700.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780199668700.001.0001</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966870-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966870-0"><bdi>978-0-19-966870-0</bdi></a>, <q>Lord Kelvin 1824–1907 British physicist and natural philosopher</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Kelvin+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Quotations&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199668700.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966870-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaphamNicholson2014" class="citation cs2">Clapham, Christopher; Nicholson, James, eds. 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MacMillan and Co., Limited. p. 98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+William+Thomson%2C+Baron+Kelvin+of+Largs&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=MacMillan+and+Co.%2C+Limited&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Silvanus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb31360403_0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physicsworld-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physicsworld_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCartney2002" class="citation news cs1">McCartney, Mark (1 December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080715173557/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/16484">"William Thomson: king of Victorian physics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_World" title="Physics World">Physics World</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/16484">the original</a> on 15 July 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+World&rft.atitle=William+Thomson%3A+king+of+Victorian+physics&rft.date=2002-12-01&rft.aulast=McCartney&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fcws%2Farticle%2Fprint%2F16484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang,_H.2004" class="citation book cs1">Chang, H. (2004). "4". <i>Inventing Temperature: Measurement and Scientific Progress</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517127-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517127-3"><bdi>978-0-19-517127-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4&rft.btitle=Inventing+Temperature%3A+Measurement+and+Scientific+Progress&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517127-3&rft.au=Chang%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson,_W.1848" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, W. (1848). "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault's observations". <i>Mathematical and Physical Papers</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511996009.040">10.1017/cbo9780511996009.040</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02898-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02898-1"><bdi>978-1-108-02898-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+an+Absolute+Thermometric+Scale+founded+on+Carnot%27s+Theory+of+the+Motive+Power+of+Heat%2C+and+calculated+from+Regnault%27s+observations&rft.btitle=Mathematical+and+Physical+Papers&rft.pages=100-106&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1848&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511996009.040&rft.isbn=978-1-108-02898-1&rft.au=Thomson%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson,_W.1849" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, W. (1849). "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat; with Numerical Results deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1634618"><i>Mathematical and Physical Papers</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 113–164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511996009.042">10.1017/cbo9780511996009.042</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02898-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02898-1"><bdi>978-1-108-02898-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Account+of+Carnot%27s+Theory+of+the+Motive+Power+of+Heat%3B+with+Numerical+Results+deduced+from+Regnault%27s+Experiments+on+Steam&rft.btitle=Mathematical+and+Physical+Papers&rft.pages=113-164&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1849&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511996009.042&rft.isbn=978-1-108-02898-1&rft.au=Thomson%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1634618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharlin_1979-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharlin_1979_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharlin_1979_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Sharlin">Sharlin</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOtis2002" class="citation magazine cs1">Otis, Laura (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordworldsclassics.com/view/10.1093/owc/9780199554652.001.0001/isbn-9780199554652">"Literature and Science in the Nineteenth Century: An Anthology"</a>. <i>OUP Oxford</i>. Vol. 1. pp. 60–67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OUP+Oxford&rft.atitle=Literature+and+Science+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+An+Anthology&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=60-67&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Otis&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordworldsclassics.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fowc%2F9780199554652.001.0001%2Fisbn-9780199554652&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1862" class="citation magazine cs1">Thomson, William (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_age_of_the_suns_heat.html">"On the Age of the Sun's Heat"</a>. <i>Macmillan's Magazine</i>. Vol. 5. pp. 388–393.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Macmillan%27s+Magazine&rft.atitle=On+the+Age+of+the+Sun%27s+Heat&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=388-393&rft.date=1862&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzapatopi.net%2Fkelvin%2Fpapers%2Fon_the_age_of_the_suns_heat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson,_W.1852" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, W. (1852). "On the dynamical theory of heat; with numerical results deduced from Mr. Joule's equivalent of a thermal unit and M. Regnault's observations on steam". <i>Mathematical and Physical Papers</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 174–332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511996009.049">10.1017/cbo9780511996009.049</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02898-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02898-1"><bdi>978-1-108-02898-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+dynamical+theory+of+heat%3B+with+numerical+results+deduced+from+Mr.+Joule%27s+equivalent+of+a+thermal+unit+and+M.+Regnault%27s+observations+on+steam&rft.btitle=Mathematical+and+Physical+Papers&rft.pages=174-332&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1852&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511996009.049&rft.isbn=978-1-108-02898-1&rft.au=Thomson%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1851" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, W. (March 1851). "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule's equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault's Observations on Steam". <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>. <b>XX</b> (part II): 261–268, 289–298.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=On+the+Dynamical+Theory+of+Heat%2C+with+numerical+results+deduced+from+Mr+Joule%27s+equivalent+of+a+Thermal+Unit%2C+and+M.+Regnault%27s+Observations+on+Steam&rft.volume=XX&rft.issue=part+II&rft.pages=261-268%2C+289-298&rft.date=1851-03&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> Also published in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1852" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, W. (December 1852). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/londonedinburghp04maga">"On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule's equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault's Observations on Steam"</a>. <i>Phil. Mag</i>. 4. <b>IV</b> (22): 8–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phil.+Mag.&rft.atitle=On+the+Dynamical+Theory+of+Heat%2C+with+numerical+results+deduced+from+Mr+Joule%27s+equivalent+of+a+Thermal+Unit%2C+and+M.+Regnault%27s+Observations+on+Steam&rft.volume=IV&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=8-21&rft.date=1852-12&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flondonedinburghp04maga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomson, W. (1851) <i>p.</i>183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoule,_J._P.Thomson,_W.2011" class="citation book cs1">Joule, J. P.; Thomson, W. (30 June 2011). "On the thermal effects of fluids in motion". <i>Mathematical and Physical Papers</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–455. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511996009.050">10.1017/cbo9780511996009.050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+thermal+effects+of+fluids+in+motion&rft.btitle=Mathematical+and+Physical+Papers&rft.pages=333-455&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-06-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511996009.050&rft.au=Joule%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Thomson%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1891" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, W. 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2011GL048511">"Initial effect of the Fukushima accident on atmospheric electricity"</a>. <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>. <b>38</b> (15). <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011GeoRL..3815811T">2011GeoRL..3815811T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2011GL048511">10.1029/2011GL048511</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73530372">73530372</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Initial+effect+of+the+Fukushima+accident+on+atmospheric+electricity&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=15&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73530372%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2011GL048511&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011GeoRL..3815811T&rft.aulast=Takeda&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Yamauchi%2C+M.&rft.au=Makino%2C+M.&rft.au=Owada%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2011GL048511&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kragh-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kragh_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKragh2002" class="citation journal cs1">Kragh, Helge (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4084776">"The Vortex Atom: A Victorian Theory of Everything"</a>. <i>Centaurus</i>. <b>44</b> (1–2): 32–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0498.2002.440102.x">10.1034/j.1600-0498.2002.440102.x</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Centaurus&rft.atitle=The+Vortex+Atom%3A+A+Victorian+Theory+of+Everything&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=32-114&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1034%2Fj.1600-0498.2002.440102.x&rft.aulast=Kragh&rft.aufirst=Helge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4084776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1867" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, Wm. (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_vortex_atoms.html">"On Vortex Atoms"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>. <b>6</b>: 94–105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0370164600045430">10.1017/S0370164600045430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=On+Vortex+Atoms&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=94-105&rft.date=1867&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0370164600045430&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Wm.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fzapatopi.net%2Fkelvin%2Fpapers%2Fon_vortex_atoms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilliman,_Robert_H.1963" class="citation journal cs1">Silliman, Robert H. (1963). "William Thomson: Smoke Rings and Nineteenth-Century Atomism". <i>Isis</i>. <b>54</b> (4): 461–474. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349764">10.1086/349764</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/228151">228151</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144988108">144988108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=William+Thomson%3A+Smoke+Rings+and+Nineteenth-Century+Atomism&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=461-474&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144988108%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F228151%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349764&rft.au=Silliman%2C+Robert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1910" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Silvanus_P._Thompson" title="Silvanus P. Thompson">Thompson, Silvanus Phillips</a> (1910). <i>The life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs</i>. London: Macmillan. p. 723. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5894345318">5894345318</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+of+William+Thomson%2C+Baron+Kelvin+of+Largs&rft.place=London&rft.pages=723&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1910&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5894345318&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Silvanus+Phillips&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Lindley">Lindley</a>, p. 259</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://strathclyde.ica-atom.org/maclean-magnus-1857-1937-electrical-engineer">"Maclean, Magnus, 1857–1937, electrical engineer"</a>. <i>University of Strathclyde Archives</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Strathclyde+Archives&rft.atitle=Maclean%2C+Magnus%2C+1857%E2%80%931937%2C+electrical+engineer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstrathclyde.ica-atom.org%2Fmaclean-magnus-1857-1937-electrical-engineer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Lindley">Lindley</a>, p. 293</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIEC" class="citation web cs1">IEC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502223234/https://www.iec.ch/about/history/documents/pdf/IEC_Founding_Meeting_Report_1906.pdf">"1906 Preliminary Meeting Report, pp 46–48"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The minutes from our first meeting</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iec.ch/about/history/documents/pdf/IEC_Founding_Meeting_Report_1906.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+minutes+from+our+first+meeting&rft.atitle=1906+Preliminary+Meeting+Report%2C+pp+46%E2%80%9348&rft.au=IEC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iec.ch%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FIEC_Founding_Meeting_Report_1906.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Sharlin">Sharlin</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImbrieImbrie1986" class="citation book cs1">Imbrie, John; Imbrie, Katherine Palmer (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/iceagessolvingmy0000imbr_w0f3/page/40"><i>Ice ages: solving the mystery</i></a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-44075-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-44075-3"><bdi>978-0-674-44075-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ice+ages%3A+solving+the+mystery&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-674-44075-3&rft.aulast=Imbrie&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Imbrie%2C+Katherine+Palmer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ficeagessolvingmy0000imbr_w0f3%2Fpage%2F40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungStearley2008" class="citation book cs1">Young, Davis A.; Stearley, Ralph F. (2008). <i>The Bible, rocks, and time : geological evidence for the age of the earth</i>. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2876-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2876-0"><bdi>978-0-8308-2876-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible%2C+rocks%2C+and+time+%3A+geological+evidence+for+the+age+of+the+earth&rft.place=Downers+Grove%2C+Ill.&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=IVP+Academic&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-2876-0&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Davis+A.&rft.au=Stearley%2C+Ralph+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burchfield-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burchfield_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burchfield_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurchfield1990" class="citation book cs1">Burchfield, Joe D. (1990). <i>Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth</i>. University of Chicago Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08043-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08043-7"><bdi>978-0-226-08043-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Kelvin+and+the+Age+of+the+Earth&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08043-7&rft.aulast=Burchfield&rft.aufirst=Joe+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler,_Peter_J.1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Bowler, Peter J.</a> (1983). <i>The eclipse of Darwinism: anti-Darwinian evolution theories in the decades around 1900</i> (paperback ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 23–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4391-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4391-4"><bdi>978-0-8018-4391-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+eclipse+of+Darwinism%3A+anti-Darwinian+evolution+theories+in+the+decades+around+1900&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=23-24&rft.edition=paperback&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-4391-4&rft.au=Bowler%2C+Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/of_geological_dynamics.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Of Geological Dynamics" excerpts"</a>. Zapatopi.net<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Of+Geological+Dynamics%22+excerpts&rft.pub=Zapatopi.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fzapatopi.net%2Fkelvin%2Fpapers%2Fof_geological_dynamics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-England_et_al_2007-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-England_et_al_2007_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-England_et_al_2007_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kelvin did pay off gentleman's bet with Strutt on the importance of radioactivity in the Earth. The Kelvin period does exist in the evolution of stars. They shine from gravitational energy for a while (correctly calculated by Kelvin) before fusion and the main sequence begins. Fusion was not understood until well after Kelvin's time. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngland,_P.Molnar,_P.Righter,_F.2007" class="citation journal cs1">England, P.; Molnar, P.; Righter, F. (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FGSAT01701A.1">"John Perry's neglected critique of Kelvin's age for the Earth: A missed opportunity in geodynamics"</a>. <i>GSA Today</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 4–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007GSAT...17R...4E">2007GSAT...17R...4E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FGSAT01701A.1">10.1130/GSAT01701A.1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GSA+Today&rft.atitle=John+Perry%27s+neglected+critique+of+Kelvin%27s+age+for+the+Earth%3A+A+missed+opportunity+in+geodynamics&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-9&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FGSAT01701A.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007GSAT...17R...4E&rft.au=England%2C+P.&rft.au=Molnar%2C+P.&rft.au=Righter%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1130%252FGSAT01701A.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tung, K. K. (2007) <i>Topics in Mathematical Modeling</i>. Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691116426" title="Special:BookSources/9780691116426">9780691116426</a>. pp. 243–251. In Thomson's theory the Earth's age is proportional to the <i>square</i> of the difference between interior temperature and surface temperature, so that the uncertainty in the former leads to an even larger relative uncertainty in the age.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1862" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, William (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2202654">"On the Secular Cooling of the Earth"</a>. <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>. <b>XXIII</b>: 160–161. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0080456800018512">10.1017/s0080456800018512</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126038615">126038615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=On+the+Secular+Cooling+of+the+Earth&rft.volume=XXIII&rft.pages=160-161&rft.date=1862&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0080456800018512&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A126038615%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2202654&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamblin1989" class="citation book cs1">Hamblin, W. Kenneth (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earthsdynamicsys00hamb_1/page/135"><i>The Earth's Dynamic Systems 5th ed</i></a>. Macmillan Publishing Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earthsdynamicsys00hamb_1/page/135">135</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-349381-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-349381-2"><bdi>978-0-02-349381-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earth%27s+Dynamic+Systems+5th+ed&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-02-349381-2&rft.aulast=Hamblin&rft.aufirst=W.+Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearthsdynamicsys00hamb_1%2Fpage%2F135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeuel-Fabianek" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Heuel-Fabianek, Burkhard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315459191">"Natürliche Radioisotope: die "Atomuhr" für die Bestimmung des absoluten Alters von Gesteinen und archäologischen Funden"</a>. <i>StrahlenschutzPraxis</i>. 1/2017: 31–42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=StrahlenschutzPraxis&rft.atitle=Nat%C3%BCrliche+Radioisotope%3A+die+%22Atomuhr%22+f%C3%BCr+die+Bestimmung+des+absoluten+Alters+von+Gesteinen+und+arch%C3%A4ologischen+Funden&rft.volume=1%2F2017&rft.pages=31-42&rft.aulast=Heuel-Fabianek&rft.aufirst=Burkhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F315459191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson,_Silvanus_Phillips1977" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, Silvanus Phillips (January 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sSeKh7OWAcgC">"The life of Lord Kelvin"</a>. <i>American Journal of Physics</i>. <b>45</b> (10): 1095. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977AmJPh..45.1010T">1977AmJPh..45.1010T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.10735">10.1119/1.10735</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8284-0292-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8284-0292-7"><bdi>978-0-8284-0292-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=The+life+of+Lord+Kelvin&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1095&rft.date=1977-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.10735&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977AmJPh..45.1010T&rft.isbn=978-0-8284-0292-7&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Silvanus+Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsSeKh7OWAcgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson,_Silvanus_Phillips1977" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, Silvanus Phillips (January 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sSeKh7OWAcgC">"The life of Lord Kelvin"</a>. <i>American Journal of Physics</i>. <b>45</b> (10): 998. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977AmJPh..45.1010T">1977AmJPh..45.1010T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.10735">10.1119/1.10735</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8284-0292-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8284-0292-7"><bdi>978-0-8284-0292-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=The+life+of+Lord+Kelvin&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=998&rft.date=1977-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.10735&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977AmJPh..45.1010T&rft.isbn=978-0-8284-0292-7&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Silvanus+Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsSeKh7OWAcgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perry, John (1895) "On the age of the earth," <i>Nature</i>, <b>51</b> : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015038750868;view=1up;seq=266">224–227</a>, 341–342, 582–585. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/naturelo51londuoft#page/224/mode/2up">51:224</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/naturelo51londuoft#page/340/mode/2up">51:341</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/naturelo51londuoft#page/582/mode/2up">51:582</a> at Internet Archive)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStacey2000" class="citation journal cs1">Stacey, Frank D. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JB900028">"Kelvin's age of the Earth paradox revisited"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Geophysical_Research" title="Journal of Geophysical Research">Journal of Geophysical Research</a></i>. <b>105</b> (B6): 13155–13158. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000JGR...10513155S">2000JGR...10513155S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JB900028">10.1029/2000JB900028</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Kelvin%27s+age+of+the+Earth+paradox+revisited&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=B6&rft.pages=13155-13158&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2000JB900028&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000JGR...10513155S&rft.aulast=Stacey&rft.aufirst=Frank+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2000JB900028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCartney & Whitaker (2002), reproduced on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/15/12/6">Institute of Physics website</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomson, W. (1889) <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/William_Thomson%27s_account_of_his_Christian_faith" class="extiw" title="s:William Thomson's account of his Christian faith">Address to the Christian Evidence Society</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Finality of this Globe, Hampshire Telegraph, 15 June 1889, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"The Coronation Honours". <i>The Times</i>. No. 36804. London. 26 June 1902. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=The+Coronation+Honours&rft.issue=36804&rft.pages=p.-5&rft.date=1902-06-26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Court Circular". <i>The Times</i>. No. 36842. London. 9 August 1902. p. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Court+Circular&rft.issue=36842&rft.pages=p.-6&rft.date=1902-08-09&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette27470" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/27470/page/5679">"No. 27470"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a></i>. 2 September 1902. p. 5679.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+27470&rft.pages=5679&rft.date=1902-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F27470%2Fpage%2F5679&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LG27464-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LG27464_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LG27464_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette27464" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/27464/page/5173">"No. 27464"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a></i>. 12 August 1902. p. 5173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+27464&rft.pages=5173&rft.date=1902-08-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F27464%2Fpage%2F5173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Death of Lord Kelvin". <i>Times</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Scotsman,_23_December_1907-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Scotsman,_23_December_1907_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Scotsman,_23_December_1907_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Scotsman, 23 December 1907</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, Alfred Rupert (1966) <i>The Abbey Scientists</i>. London: Roger & Robert Nicholson. p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glasgow Herald, 24 December 1907</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glasgow Evening Times, 23 December 1907</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyal_Philosophical_Society_of_Glasgow2008" class="citation book cs1">Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201124180449/https://royalphil.org/Sessions/No%20Mean%20Society.pdf"><i>No Mean Society: 200 years of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 2nd Ed</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9544965-0-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9544965-0-0"><bdi>978-0-9544965-0-0</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://royalphil.org/Sessions/No%20Mean%20Society.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 24 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Mean+Society%3A+200+years+of+the+Royal+Philosophical+Society+of+Glasgow.+2nd+Ed&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Royal+Philosophical+Society+of+Glasgow&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-9544965-0-0&rft.au=Royal+Philosophical+Society+of+Glasgow&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froyalphil.org%2FSessions%2FNo%2520Mean%2520Society.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kargon, Robert and Achinstein, Peter (1987) <i>Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures and Modern Theoretical Physics: historical and philosophical perspectives</i>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-11117-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-11117-9">0-262-11117-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cerncourier.com/a/how-dark-matter-became-a-particle/">"How dark matter became a particle"</a>. CERN Courier. 13 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+dark+matter+became+a+particle&rft.pub=CERN+Courier&rft.date=2017-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcerncourier.com%2Fa%2Fhow-dark-matter-became-a-particle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept16/Bertone/Bertone2.html">"A History of Dark Matter- Gianfranco Bertone & Dan Hooper"</a>. <i>ned.ipac.caltech.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ned.ipac.caltech.edu&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Dark+Matter-+Gianfranco+Bertone+%26+Dan+Hooper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fned.ipac.caltech.edu%2Flevel5%2FSept16%2FBertone%2FBertone2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhramov1986" class="citation journal cs1">Khramov, Yu A (31 December 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1070/PU1986v029n12ABEH003609">"Petr Nikolaevich Lebedev and his school (On the 120th anniversary of the year of his birth)"</a>. <i>Soviet Physics Uspekhi</i>. <b>29</b> (12): 1127–1134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1070%2FPU1986v029n12ABEH003609">10.1070/PU1986v029n12ABEH003609</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-5670">0038-5670</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soviet+Physics+Uspekhi&rft.atitle=Petr+Nikolaevich+Lebedev+and+his+school+%28On+the+120th+anniversary+of+the+year+of+his+birth%29&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1127-1134&rft.date=1986-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1070%2FPU1986v029n12ABEH003609&rft.issn=0038-5670&rft.aulast=Khramov&rft.aufirst=Yu+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1070%2FPU1986v029n12ABEH003609&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Lord Kelvin, Nineteenth Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light", reproduced in <i>Notices of the Proceedings at the Meetings of the Members of the Royal Institution of Great Britain with Abstracts of the Discourses</i>, Volume 16, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA363">p. 363–397</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Magazine" title="Philosophical Magazine">The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science</a></i>, Series 6, volume 2, pages 1–40 (1901)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1910" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Silvanus (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofwillthom02thomrich"><i>The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs</i></a>. Vol. 2. MacMillan and Co., Limited.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+William+Thomson%2C+Baron+Kelvin+of+Largs&rft.pub=MacMillan+and+Co.%2C+Limited&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Silvanus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeofwillthom02thomrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=6002">The Royal Society, London</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/letters.html#baden-powell">Letter from Lord Kelvin to Baden Powell</a> 8 December 1896</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/interview_aeronautics_and_wireless.html">Interview</a> in the <i>Newark Advocate</i> 26 April 1902</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, Paul and Brown, Julian. (1988) <i>Superstring: A theory of everything?</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521437752" title="Special:BookSources/9780521437752">9780521437752</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isaacson, Walter (2007) <i>Einstein: His Life and Universe</i>. Simon & Schuster. p. 575. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781416586913" title="Special:BookSources/9781416586913">9781416586913</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-horgan-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-horgan_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-horgan_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Horgan_(journalist)" title="John Horgan (journalist)">Horgan, John</a> (1996) <i>The End of Science</i>. Broadway Books. p. 19. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780553061741" title="Special:BookSources/9780553061741">9780553061741</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightman2005" class="citation book cs1">Lightman, Alan P. (2005). <i>The discoveries: great breakthroughs in twentieth-century science, including the original papers</i>. Toronto: Alfred A. 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London. 8 September 1902. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Foreign+degrees+for+British+men+of+Science&rft.issue=36867&rft.pages=p.-4&rft.date=1902-09-08&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uio.no/om/tall-og-fakta/aresdoktorer/tidligere-aresdoktorer/1902-1910/">"Honorary doctorates from the University of Oslo 1902–1910"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Honorary+doctorates+from+the+University+of+Oslo+1902%E2%80%931910&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uio.no%2Fom%2Ftall-og-fakta%2Faresdoktorer%2Ftidligere-aresdoktorer%2F1902-1910%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> <i>(in Norwegian)</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scotbanks-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-scotbanks_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotbanks.org.uk/banknotes_current_clydesdale_bank.php">"Current Banknotes : Clydesdale Bank"</a>. The Committee of Scottish Clearing Bankers<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Current+Banknotes+%3A+Clydesdale+Bank&rft.pub=The+Committee+of+Scottish+Clearing+Bankers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotbanks.org.uk%2Fbanknotes_current_clydesdale_bank.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ScHallOfFame-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ScHallOfFame_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.nls.uk/scientists/biographies/lord-kelvin/">"Lord Kelvin biography – Science Hall of Fame – National Library of Scotland"</a>. <i>digital.nls.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=digital.nls.uk&rft.atitle=Lord+Kelvin+biography+%E2%80%93+Science+Hall+of+Fame+%E2%80%93+National+Library+of+Scotland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.nls.uk%2Fscientists%2Fbiographies%2Flord-kelvin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1910" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Silvanus (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofwillthom02thomrich"><i>The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs</i></a>. Vol. 2. MacMillan and Co., Limited. p. 914.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+William+Thomson%2C+Baron+Kelvin+of+Largs&rft.pages=914&rft.pub=MacMillan+and+Co.%2C+Limited&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Silvanus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeofwillthom02thomrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cited_sources">Cited sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Cited sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Lindley" class="citation book cs1">Lindley, D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/degreeskelvintal0000lind"><i>Degrees Kelvin: A Tale of Genius, Invention and Tragedy</i></a>. Joseph Henry Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-09073-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-09073-5"><bdi>978-0-309-09073-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Degrees+Kelvin%3A+A+Tale+of+Genius%2C+Invention+and+Tragedy&rft.pub=Joseph+Henry+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-309-09073-5&rft.au=Lindley%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdegreeskelvintal0000lind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Sharlin" class="citation book cs1">Sharlin, H. I. (1979). <i>Lord Kelvin: The Dynamic Victorian</i>. Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-00203-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-00203-3"><bdi>978-0-271-00203-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Kelvin%3A+The+Dynamic+Victorian&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-271-00203-3&rft.au=Sharlin%2C+H.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kelvin's_works"><span id="Kelvin.27s_works"></span>Kelvin's works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Kelvin's works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomsonTait1867" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, W.; Tait, P. G. (1867). <i>Treatise on Natural Philosophy</i>. Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatise+on+Natural+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Tait%2C+P.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> 2nd edition, 1883. (reissued by <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-00537-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-00537-1">978-1-108-00537-1</a>) <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treatisnatphil01kelvrich">Treatise on Natural Philosophy (Part I)</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treatisnatphil02kelvrich">Treatise on Natural Philosophy (Part II)</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomsonTait1872" class="citation book cs1">——; Tait, P. G (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementsnatural00kelvgoog"><i>Elements of Natural Philosophy</i></a>. At the University press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Natural+Philosophy&rft.pub=At+the+University+press&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Tait%2C+P.+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementsnatural00kelvgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> (reissued by <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01448-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01448-9">978-1-108-01448-9</a>) 2nd edition, 1879.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=6480219"><i>Elasticity and heat</i></a>. Edinburgh: Adam & Charles Black. 1880.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elasticity+and+heat&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Adam+%26+Charles+Black&rft.date=1880&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D6480219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1881" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, W. (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KcNAAAAQAAJ&q=Bacon+and+Shakespeare+on+Vivisection&pg=PA5"><i>Shakespeare and Bacon on Vivisection</i></a>. Sands & McDougall.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare+and+Bacon+on+Vivisection&rft.pub=Sands+%26+McDougall&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-KcNAAAAQAAJ%26q%3DBacon%2Band%2BShakespeare%2Bon%2BVivisection%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomsonTait1872" class="citation book cs1">——; Tait, P. G (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementsnatural00kelvgoog"><i>Elements of Natural Philosophy</i></a>. At the University press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Natural+Philosophy&rft.pub=At+the+University+press&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Tait%2C+P.+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementsnatural00kelvgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> (reissued by <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01448-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01448-9">978-1-108-01448-9</a>) 2nd edition, 1879.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1882–1911" class="citation book cs1">—— (1882–1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000167345"><i>Mathematical and Physical Papers</i></a>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+and+Physical+Papers&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1882%2F1911&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F000167345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> (6 volumes) <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicaland01kelvgoog">Volume I. 1841–1853</a> (<a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicaland02kelvgoog">Volume II. 1853–1856</a> (<a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicaland03kelvgoog">Volume III. Elasticity, heat, electro-magnetism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miun.aat1571.0004.001;view=1up;seq=3">Volume IV. Hydrodynamics and general dynamics</a> (Hathitrust)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicalphys05kelvuoft">Volume V. Thermodynamics, cosmical and geological physics, molecular and crystalline theory, electrodynamics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicalphys06kelvuoft">Volume VI. Voltaic theory, radioactivity, electrions, navigation and tides, miscellaneous</a> (<a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1904" class="citation book cs1">—— (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/baltimorelecture00kelviala"><i>Baltimore Lectures on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010blmd.book.....T">2010blmd.book.....T</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/04015391">04015391</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1041059646">1041059646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Baltimore+Lectures+on+Molecular+Dynamics+and+the+Wave+Theory+of+Light&rft.date=1904&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1041059646&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F04015391&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010blmd.book.....T&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbaltimorelecture00kelviala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> (reissued by <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-00767-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-00767-2">978-1-108-00767-2</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1912" class="citation journal cs1">—— (1912). "Collected Papers in Physics and Engineering". <i>Nature</i>. <b>90</b> (2256): 563–565. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000EFOL8">B0000EFOL8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913Natur..90..563P">1913Natur..90..563P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F090563a0">10.1038/090563a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3957852">3957852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Collected+Papers+in+Physics+and+Engineering&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=2256&rft.pages=563-565&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F090563a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0000EFOL8%23id-name%3DASIN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3957852%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1913Natur..90..563P&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1990" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, D. B., ed. (1990). <i>The Correspondence Between Sir George Gabriel Stokes and Sir William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs</i>. (2 vols), Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32831-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32831-9"><bdi>978-0-521-32831-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Correspondence+Between+Sir+George+Gabriel+Stokes+and+Sir+William+Thomson%2C+Baron+Kelvin+of+Largs&rft.pub=%282+vols%29%2C+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32831-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHörz2000" class="citation book cs1">Hörz, H. (2000). <i>Naturphilosophie als Heuristik?: Korrespondenz zwischen Hermann von Helmholtz und Lord Kelvin (William Thomson)</i>. Basilisken-Presse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-925347-56-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-925347-56-6"><bdi>978-3-925347-56-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naturphilosophie+als+Heuristik%3F%3A+Korrespondenz+zwischen+Hermann+von+Helmholtz+und+Lord+Kelvin+%28William+Thomson%29&rft.pub=Basilisken-Presse&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-925347-56-6&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6rz&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biography,_history_of_ideas_and_criticism"><span id="Biography.2C_history_of_ideas_and_criticism"></span>Biography, history of ideas and criticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Biography, history of ideas and criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchwald,_J._Z.1977" class="citation journal cs1">Buchwald, J. Z. (1977). "William Thomson and the mathematization of Faraday's electrostatics". <i>Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences</i>. <b>8</b>: 101–136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27757369">10.2307/27757369</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757369">27757369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Studies+in+the+Physical+Sciences&rft.atitle=William+Thomson+and+the+mathematization+of+Faraday%27s+electrostatics&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=101-136&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F27757369&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27757369%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Buchwald%2C+J.+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCardoso_Dias,_D.M.1996" class="citation journal cs1">Cardoso Dias, D.M. (1996). "William Thomson and the Heritage of Caloric". <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Science" title="Annals of Science">Annals of Science</a></i>. <b>53</b> (5): 511–520. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033799600200361">10.1080/00033799600200361</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=William+Thomson+and+the+Heritage+of+Caloric&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=511-520&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033799600200361&rft.au=Cardoso+Dias%2C+D.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGooding,_D.1980" class="citation journal cs1">Gooding, D. (1980). "Faraday, Thomson, and the concept of the magnetic field". <i>British Journal for the History of Science</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 91–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087400017726">10.1017/S0007087400017726</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145573114">145573114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Faraday%2C+Thomson%2C+and+the+concept+of+the+magnetic+field&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=91-120&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087400017726&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145573114%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Gooding%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGossick,_B._R.1976" class="citation journal cs1">Gossick, B. 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(1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.53570"><i>Lord Kelvin: An Account of His Scientific Life and Work</i></a>. London: J. M. Dent & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Kelvin%3A+An+Account+of+His+Scientific+Life+and+Work&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+M.+Dent+%26+Co&rft.date=1908&rft.au=Gray%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.53570&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen,_G.Lloyd,_J._T.1970" class="citation journal cs1">Green, G. & Lloyd, J. T. (1970). 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(eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kelvinsbaltimore00lord/page/82">"Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures and Modern Theoretical Physics; Historical and Philosophical Perspectives"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>42</b> (1): 82–84. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989PhT....42a..82K">1989PhT....42a..82K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2810888">10.1063/1.2810888</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-11117-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-11117-1"><bdi>978-0-262-11117-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Kelvin%27s+Baltimore+Lectures+and+Modern+Theoretical+Physics%3B+Historical+and+Philosophical+Perspectives&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82-84&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2810888&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989PhT....42a..82K&rft.isbn=978-0-262-11117-1&rft.aulast=Kargon&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Achinstein%2C+Peter&rft.au=Brown%2C+Laurie+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkelvinsbaltimore00lord%2Fpage%2F82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing,_A._G.1925" class="citation journal cs1">King, A. 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(1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924031222494"><i>Heroes of the Telegraph</i></a>. London: Religious Tract Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heroes+of+the+Telegraph&rft.pub=London%3A+Religious+Tract+Society&rft.date=1891&rft.au=Munro%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924031222494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray,_D.1924" class="citation book cs1">Murray, D. (1924). <i>Lord Kelvin as Professor in the Old College of Glasgow</i>. Glasgow: Maclehose & Jackson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Kelvin+as+Professor+in+the+Old+College+of+Glasgow&rft.pub=Glasgow%3A+Maclehose+%26+Jackson&rft.date=1924&rft.au=Murray%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell,_A.1912" class="citation book cs1">Russell, A. (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lordkelvinhislif00russ#page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Lord Kelvin: His Life and Work</i></a>. London: T. C. & E. C.Jack<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Kelvin%3A+His+Life+and+Work&rft.pub=London%3A+T.+C.+%26+E.+C.Jack&rft.date=1912&rft.au=Russell%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Flordkelvinhislif00russ%23page%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_C.Wise,_M._N.1989" class="citation book cs1">Smith, C. & Wise, M. N. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2JYWeyAXpHUC&pg=PR7"><i>Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26173-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26173-9"><bdi>978-0-521-26173-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+and+Empire%3A+A+Biographical+Study+of+Lord+Kelvin&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-26173-9&rft.au=Smith%2C+C.&rft.au=Wise%2C+M.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2JYWeyAXpHUC%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson,_S._P.1910" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, S. P. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b31360403_0001"><i>Life of William Thomson: Baron Kelvin of Largs</i></a>. London: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+William+Thomson%3A+Baron+Kelvin+of+Largs&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1910&rft.au=Thompson%2C+S.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb31360403_0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span> In two volumes <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lifeofwilliamtho01thomuoft#page/n9/mode/2up">Volume 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lifeofwillthom02thomrich#page/n7/mode/2up">Volume 2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTunbridge,_P.1992" class="citation book cs1">Tunbridge, P. (1992). <i>Lord Kelvin: His Influence on Electrical Measurements and Units</i>. Peter Peregrinus: London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-237-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-237-0"><bdi>978-0-86341-237-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Kelvin%3A+His+Influence+on+Electrical+Measurements+and+Units&rft.place=Peter+Peregrinus&rft.pub=London&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-86341-237-0&rft.au=Tunbridge%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_D.1910" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, D. (1910). <i>William Thomson, Lord Kelvin: His Way of Teaching</i>. Glasgow: John Smith & Son.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Thomson%2C+Lord+Kelvin%3A+His+Way+of+Teaching&rft.pub=Glasgow%3A+John+Smith+%26+Son&rft.date=1910&rft.au=Wilson%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_D._B.1987" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, D. B. (1987). <i>Kelvin and Stokes: A Comparative Study in Victorian Physics</i>. Bristol: Hilger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85274-526-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85274-526-7"><bdi>978-0-85274-526-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kelvin+and+Stokes%3A+A+Comparative+Study+in+Victorian+Physics&rft.place=Bristol&rft.pub=Hilger&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-85274-526-7&rft.au=Wilson%2C+D.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Kelvin&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br /><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:William_Thomson_(1824-1907)" class="extiw" title="s:Author:William Thomson (1824-1907)">William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" 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sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Kelvin,_William_Thomson,_Baron" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kelvin, William Thomson, Baron">Kelvin, William Thomson, Baron</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/48139">Works by Lord Kelvin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Thomson.html">"Lord Kelvin"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lord+Kelvin&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FThomson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALord+Kelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28William+Thomson%2C+1st+Baron+Kelvin%29%20OR%20%28%221824-1907%22%20AND%20Kelvin%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Lord Kelvin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/10522">Works by Lord Kelvin</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=979"><i>Heroes of the Telegraph</i></a> at <a href="/wiki/The_Online_Books_Page" class="mw-redirect" title="The Online Books Page">The Online Books Page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071203034027/https://sheemere.hautetfort.com/archive/2007/10/16/des-chevaux-sur-mars.html">"Horses on Mars", from Lord Kelvin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/15/12/6">William Thomson: king of Victorian physics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a> website</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/CPNSS/pdf/DP_withCover_Measurement/Meas-DP%2026%2002%20C.pdf">Measuring the Absolute: William Thomson and Temperature</a></i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502045339/http://www.lse.ac.uk/CPNSS/pdf/DP_withCover_Measurement/Meas-DP%2026%2002%20C.pdf">Archived</a> 2 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>), <a href="/wiki/Hasok_Chang" title="Hasok Chang">Hasok Chang</a> and Sang Wook Yi (<a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a> file)</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/notice?N=FRBNF37278042">Reprint of papers on electrostatics and magnetism</a></i> (gallica)</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moleculartactics00kelviala">The Molecular Tactics of a Crystal</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/quotes/">Quotations</a>—This collection includes sources for many quotes.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100412061437/http://science.theleys.net/kelvin.htm">Kelvin Building Opening – The Leys School, Cambridge (1893)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/">The Kelvin Library</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid lightgreen">Professional and academic associations </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Stokes</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b>36th <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">President of the Royal Society</a> </b><br />1890–1895 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Dalrymple,_10th_Earl_of_Stair" title="John Dalrymple, 10th Earl of Stair">The Earl of Stair</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_University_of_Glasgow" title="Chancellor of the University of Glasgow">Chancellor of the University of Glasgow</a> </b><br />1904–1907 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Primrose,_5th_Earl_of_Rosebery" title="Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery">The Earl of Rosebery</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1851–1900)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> (1851)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (1852)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Wilhelm_Dove" title="Heinrich Wilhelm Dove">Heinrich Wilhelm Dove</a> (1853)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Peter_M%C3%BCller" title="Johannes Peter Müller">Johannes Peter Müller</a> (1854)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Foucault" title="Léon Foucault">Léon Foucault</a> (1855)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Milne-Edwards" title="Henri Milne-Edwards">Henri Milne-Edwards</a> (1856)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul" title="Michel Eugène Chevreul">Michel Eugène Chevreul</a> (1857)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a> (1858)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Eduard Weber</a> (1859)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bunsen" title="Robert Bunsen">Robert Bunsen</a> (1860)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> (1861)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Graham_(chemist)" title="Thomas Graham (chemist)">Thomas Graham</a> (1862)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Sedgwick" title="Adam Sedgwick">Adam Sedgwick</a> (1863)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (1864)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Chasles" title="Michel Chasles">Michel Chasles</a> (1865)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker" title="Julius Plücker">Julius Plücker</a> (1866)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ernst_von_Baer" title="Karl Ernst von Baer">Karl Ernst von Baer</a> (1867)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a> (1868)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Victor_Regnault" title="Henri Victor Regnault">Henri Victor Regnault</a> (1869)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> (1870)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Mayer" title="Julius von Mayer">Julius Robert von Mayer</a> (1871)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> (1872)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> (1873)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> (1874)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_von_Hofmann" title="August Wilhelm von Hofmann">August Wilhelm von Hofmann</a> (1875)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a> (1876)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Dwight_Dana" title="James Dwight Dana">James Dwight Dana</a> (1877)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Boussingault" title="Jean-Baptiste Boussingault">Jean-Baptiste Boussingault</a> (1878)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Clausius" title="Rudolf Clausius">Rudolf Clausius</a> (1879)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester" title="James Joseph Sylvester">James Joseph Sylvester</a> (1880)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Adolphe_Wurtz" title="Charles Adolphe Wurtz">Charles Adolphe Wurtz</a> (1881)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cayley" title="Arthur Cayley">Arthur Cayley</a> (1882)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Thomson</a> (1883)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Ludwig" title="Carl Ludwig">Carl Ludwig</a> (1884)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz</a> (1885)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Ernst_Neumann" title="Franz Ernst Neumann">Franz Ernst Neumann</a> (1886)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a> (1887)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> (1888)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Salmon" title="George Salmon">George Salmon</a> (1889)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Newcomb" title="Simon Newcomb">Simon Newcomb</a> (1890)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stanislao_Cannizzaro" title="Stanislao Cannizzaro">Stanislao Cannizzaro</a> (1891)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a> (1892)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Gabriel Stokes</a> (1893)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Frankland" title="Edward Frankland">Edward Frankland</a> (1894)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Weierstrass" title="Karl Weierstrass">Karl Weierstrass</a> (1895)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gegenbaur" title="Carl Gegenbaur">Carl Gegenbaur</a> (1896)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker" title="Albert von Kölliker">Albert von Kölliker</a> (1897)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Huggins" title="William Huggins">William Huggins</a> (1898)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">John William Strutt</a> (1899)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Berthelot" title="Marcellin Berthelot">Marcellin Berthelot</a> (1900)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template talk:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">Presidents</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Brouncker,_2nd_Viscount_Brouncker" title="William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker">Viscount Brouncker</a> (1662)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Williamson_(English_politician)" title="Joseph Williamson (English politician)">Joseph Williamson</a> (1677)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> (1680)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Hoskyns,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir John Hoskyns, 2nd Baronet">John Hoskyns</a> (1682)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Wyche" title="Cyril Wyche">Cyril Wyche</a> (1683)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a> (1684)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Vaughan,_3rd_Earl_of_Carbery" title="John Vaughan, 3rd Earl of Carbery">Earl of Carbery</a> (1686)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Herbert,_8th_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke">Earl of Pembroke</a> (1689)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Southwell_(diplomat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Southwell (diplomat)">Robert Southwell</a> (1690)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Montagu,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" title="Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax">Charles Montagu</a> (1695)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Somers,_1st_Baron_Somers" title="John Somers, 1st Baron Somers">Lord Somers</a> (1698)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1703)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a> (1727)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Folkes" title="Martin Folkes">Martin Folkes</a> (1741)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Parker,_2nd_Earl_of_Macclesfield" title="George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield">Earl of Macclesfield</a> (1752)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Douglas,_14th_Earl_of_Morton" title="James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton">Earl of Morton</a> (1764)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1768)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_West_(antiquary)" title="James West (antiquary)">James West</a> (1768)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1772)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Pringle_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pringle (physician)">John Pringle</a> (1772)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a> (1778)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" title="William Hyde Wollaston">William Hyde Wollaston</a> (1820)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> (1820)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Davies_Gilbert" title="Davies Gilbert">Davies Gilbert</a> (1827)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Prince_Augustus_Frederick,_Duke_of_Sussex" title="Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex">Duke of Sussex</a> (1830)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Compton,_2nd_Marquess_of_Northampton" title="Spencer Compton, 2nd Marquess of Northampton">Marquess of Northampton</a> (1838)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Parsons,_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse" title="William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse">Earl of Rosse</a> (1848)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Wrottesley,_2nd_Baron_Wrottesley" title="John Wrottesley, 2nd Baron Wrottesley">Lord Wrottesley</a> (1854)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Collins_Brodie,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet">Benjamin Collins Brodie</a> (1858)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a> (1861)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> (1871)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a> (1873)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Spottiswoode" title="William Spottiswoode">William Spottiswoode</a> (1878)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> (1883)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Gabriel Stokes</a> (1885)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lord Kelvin</a> (1890)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> (1895)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Huggins" title="William Huggins">William Huggins</a> (1900)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> (1905)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Geikie" title="Archibald Geikie">Archibald Geikie</a> (1908)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> (1913)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1915)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> (1920)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1925)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> (1930)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> (1935)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> (1940)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(organic_chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Robinson (organic chemist)">Robert Robinson</a> (1945)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian,_1st_Baron_Adrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian">Lord Adrian</a> (1950)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Lord Todd</a> (1975)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Sir Michael Atiyah</a> (1990)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Sir Aaron Klug</a> (1995)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_May,_Baron_May_of_Oxford" title="Robert May, Baron May of Oxford">Lord May</a> (2000)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Rees,_Baron_Rees_of_Ludlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow">Lord Rees</a> (2005)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Sir Paul Nurse</a> (2010)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venki Ramakrishnan</a> (2015)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(statistician)" title="Adrian Smith (statistician)">Adrian Smith</a> (2020)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template talk:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Scientists whose names are used as units</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI base units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">André-Marie Ampère</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">ampere</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lord Kelvin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI derived units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Celsius" title="Anders Celsius">Anders Celsius</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Farad" title="Farad">farad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Harold_Gray" title="Louis Harold Gray">Louis Harold Gray</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Henry_(unit)" title="Henry (unit)">henry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohm</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_von_Siemens" title="Werner von Siemens">Werner von Siemens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Siemens_(unit)" title="Siemens (unit)">siemens</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Maximilian_Sievert" title="Rolf Maximilian Sievert">Rolf Maximilian Sievert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">tesla</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Eduard Weber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Weber_(unit)" title="Weber (unit)">weber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-SI metric (<a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units" title="Centimetre–gram–second system of units">cgs</a>) units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Jonas_%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m" title="Anders Jonas Ångström">Anders Jonas Ångström</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstrom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a> (<a href="/wiki/Debye" title="Debye">debye</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lor%C3%A1nd_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s" title="Loránd Eötvös">Loránd Eötvös</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eotvos_(unit)" title="Eotvos (unit)">eotvos</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gal_(unit)" title="Gal (unit)">gal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gauss_(unit)" title="Gauss (unit)">gauss</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(physicist)" title="William Gilbert (physicist)">William Gilbert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(unit)" title="Gilbert (unit)">gilbert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Kayser" title="Heinrich Kayser">Heinrich Kayser</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kayser_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayser (unit)">kayser</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lambert_(unit)" title="Lambert (unit)">lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Langley" title="Samuel Langley">Samuel Langley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Langley_(unit)" title="Langley (unit)">langley</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maxwell_(unit)" title="Maxwell (unit)">maxwell</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oersted" title="Oersted">oersted</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_L%C3%A9onard_Marie_Poiseuille" title="Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille">Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poise_(unit)" title="Poise (unit)">poise</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stokes_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes (unit)">stokes</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rayl" title="Rayl">rayl</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_units" title="Imperial units">Imperial</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_customary_units" title="United States customary units">US<br /> customary</a> units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gabriel_Fahrenheit" title="Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit">Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foot-lambert" title="Foot-lambert">foot-lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macquorn_Rankine" class="mw-redirect" title="Macquorn Rankine">William John Macquorn Rankine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rankine_scale" title="Rankine scale">degree Rankine</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bel_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bel (unit)">bel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">dalton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Faraday_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday (unit)">faraday</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Mache" title="Heinrich Mache">Heinrich Mache</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mache_(unit)" title="Mache (unit)">Mache</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neper" title="Neper">neper</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur" title="René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur</a> (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale" title="Réaumur scale">degree Réaumur</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">roentgen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thomson_(unit)" title="Thomson (unit)">thomson</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> (<a href="/wiki/Torr" title="Torr">torr</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="List of scientists whose names are used as units">List of scientists whose names are used as units</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants">Scientists whose names are used in physical constants</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">People whose names are used in chemical element names</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q122701#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q122701#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q122701#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121259810">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/29592835">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/46571/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJxmB8GkPXrrdhCHMHPfbd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118777033">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79139223">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12270383k">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12270383k">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00518412">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Kelvin, William : Thomson <barone>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/MILV046322">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35265200">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=mzk2003202351&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1429435">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070034982">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90070490">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000148331&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000218170">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=245605">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/c9prs1lw494xhq7">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810628161605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007263627905171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058516597206706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=234972">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:thomson.william-lord-kelvin">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/250184">MathSciNet</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/sir-william-thomson/">Leopoldina</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/888776">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3318/dib.008542.v1">Ireland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118777033.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118777033">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/031500994">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6xd13bf">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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