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History of the Jews in Belgium - Wikipedia
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incidents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antisemitic_incidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aalst_annual_carnival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aalst_annual_carnival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Aalst annual carnival</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aalst_annual_carnival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_and_Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_and_Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Data and Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_and_Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notable people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDid%C3%A9_v_Belgii" title="Židé v Belgii – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Židé v Belgii" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Juden_in_Belgien" title="Geschichte der Juden in Belgien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Juden in Belgien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_des_Juifs_en_Belgique" title="Histoire des Juifs en Belgique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire des Juifs en Belgique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_degli_ebrei_in_Belgio" title="Storia degli ebrei in Belgio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia degli ebrei in Belgio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%94%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="יהדות בלגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יהדות בלגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joodse_gemeenschap_in_Belgi%C3%AB" title="Joodse gemeenschap in België – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Joodse gemeenschap in België" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_dos_judeus_na_B%C3%A9lgica" title="História dos judeus na Bélgica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História dos judeus na Bélgica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="История евреев Бельгии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Belgian Jews <br /> Belgische Joden/Juifs belges <br /> יהודים בלגיים/בעלגיאַן אידן</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kazerne_Dossin_-fotomuur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Kazerne_Dossin_-fotomuur.jpg/220px-Kazerne_Dossin_-fotomuur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Kazerne_Dossin_-fotomuur.jpg/330px-Kazerne_Dossin_-fotomuur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Kazerne_Dossin_-fotomuur.jpg/440px-Kazerne_Dossin_-fotomuur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Picture of Belgian Jews deported from the Dossin Barracks during the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">30,000-42,000<sup id="cite_ref-jewishvirtuallibrary_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jewishvirtuallibrary-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-visitflanders.com_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-visitflanders.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a> or other languages</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Irreligious</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EU-Belgium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EU-Belgium.svg/220px-EU-Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EU-Belgium.svg/330px-EU-Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EU-Belgium.svg/440px-EU-Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>The location of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> (dark green) in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></b> goes back to the 1st century CE until today. The Jewish community numbered 66,000 on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but after the war and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>, now is less than half that number. </p><p>Today, Belgium is home to more than 42,000 Jews,<sup id="cite_ref-visitflanders.com_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-visitflanders.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of whom two-thirds <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Antwerp" title="History of the Jews in Antwerp">live in Antwerp</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre_tombale_juive_belgique.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Pierre_tombale_juive_belgique.jpg/220px-Pierre_tombale_juive_belgique.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Pierre_tombale_juive_belgique.jpg/330px-Pierre_tombale_juive_belgique.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Pierre_tombale_juive_belgique.jpg/440px-Pierre_tombale_juive_belgique.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2144" data-file-height="1980" /></a><figcaption>Tombstone from <a href="/wiki/Tienen" title="Tienen">Tienen</a> dating from 1255-56, with the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> inscription: "A stone engraved and placed at the head of (the) lady Rivkah, daughter of Mr. Moses, who died in the year 5016 and who rests in the garden of <a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Eden</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:16_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jews_burned_at_stake,_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Jews_burned_at_stake%2C_manuscript.jpg/220px-Jews_burned_at_stake%2C_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Jews_burned_at_stake%2C_manuscript.jpg/330px-Jews_burned_at_stake%2C_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Jews_burned_at_stake%2C_manuscript.jpg/440px-Jews_burned_at_stake%2C_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Jews being burned at the stake. Miniature from a 14th-century manuscript</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Synagogue_of_Europe_brussels.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Great_Synagogue_of_Europe_brussels.JPG/150px-Great_Synagogue_of_Europe_brussels.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Great_Synagogue_of_Europe_brussels.JPG/225px-Great_Synagogue_of_Europe_brussels.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Great_Synagogue_of_Europe_brussels.JPG/300px-Great_Synagogue_of_Europe_brussels.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2455" data-file-height="3658" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_of_Europe" title="Great Synagogue of Europe">Great Synagogue</a>, Brussels</figcaption></figure> <p>The first Jews to arrive in the present-day territory of Belgium arrived with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> between the years 50 and 60 AD. Jews were mentioned in the Middle Ages in <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>, and in 1261 <a href="/wiki/Henry_III,_Duke_of_Brabant" title="Henry III, Duke of Brabant">Duke Henry III</a> ordered the expulsion of Jews and usurers from the province. The Jewish community suffered further during <a href="/wiki/The_Crusades" class="mw-redirect" title="The Crusades">the Crusades</a>, as many Jews who refused to be baptised were put to death. This early community mostly disappeared after the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_persecutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Death persecutions">Black Death persecutions</a> 1348–1350, and finally the <a href="/wiki/Brussels_massacre" title="Brussels massacre">Brussels massacre</a>, 1370.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sephardim">Sephardim</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sephardim"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 16th century, many <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardic Jews</a> who had been <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_and_Muslims_by_Manuel_I_of_Portugal" title="Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal">expelled</a> from <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a> settled in Belgium and <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands">the Netherlands</a>. In addition, many <a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a> (<a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">crypto-Jews</a> who outwardly professed Christianity) settled in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> at the end of the 15th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_history">Later history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Later history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austrian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a>) rule in Belgium started in 1713. Particularly under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a>, Jews acquired more rights, such as those to practice crafts, own land, and operate their own cemeteries. A number of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazi</a> Jews immigrated to the area in that period. The status of Jews in Belgium improved further under French and Dutch rule. </p><p>Shortly following <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian independence</a>, in 1831, Judaism was recognized as an official religion (besides <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a>, the country's majority faith, and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a>). On 17 March 1832 the <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistoire_central_isra%C3%A9lite_de_Belgique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consistoire central israélite de Belgique">Central Jewish Consistory of Belgium</a> was founded as the official representative of the Jewish religion to the Belgian authorities. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_of_Europe" title="Great Synagogue of Europe">Great Synagogue of Brussels</a> was built in 1876–1877. </p><p>Around the turn of the century, the focal point of the world's diamond trade shifted from <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> to Antwerp, bringing many Jewish diamond traders and polishers to the city. During World War I, many fled to the neutral <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, but they returned after the war. Many Polish and Romanian Jews immigrated during the 1920s while <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> persecutions brought waves of German and Austrian Jews in the 1930s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holocaust">Holocaust</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Holocaust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Monument_to_the_Jewish_Martyrs_of_Belgium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/National_Monument_to_the_Jewish_Martyrs_of_Belgium.jpg/150px-National_Monument_to_the_Jewish_Martyrs_of_Belgium.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/National_Monument_to_the_Jewish_Martyrs_of_Belgium.jpg/225px-National_Monument_to_the_Jewish_Martyrs_of_Belgium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/National_Monument_to_the_Jewish_Martyrs_of_Belgium.jpg/300px-National_Monument_to_the_Jewish_Martyrs_of_Belgium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>National Monument to the Jewish Martyrs of Belgium, in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">The Holocaust in Belgium</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_40898_Belgium_jews_memorial_in_Neve_Illan_Forest.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/PikiWiki_Israel_40898_Belgium_jews_memorial_in_Neve_Illan_Forest.JPG/220px-PikiWiki_Israel_40898_Belgium_jews_memorial_in_Neve_Illan_Forest.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/PikiWiki_Israel_40898_Belgium_jews_memorial_in_Neve_Illan_Forest.JPG/330px-PikiWiki_Israel_40898_Belgium_jews_memorial_in_Neve_Illan_Forest.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/PikiWiki_Israel_40898_Belgium_jews_memorial_in_Neve_Illan_Forest.JPG/440px-PikiWiki_Israel_40898_Belgium_jews_memorial_in_Neve_Illan_Forest.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Memorial to Belgian Jews in <a href="/wiki/Neve_Ilan" title="Neve Ilan">Neve Ilan</a> forest</figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to the Second World War, and its peak, the Jewish community of Belgium consisted of roughly 70,000 Jews (35,000 resided in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> and 25,000 in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>). About 22,000 Jews at that time were <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">German Jewish</a> refugees. Only 6% of the Jewish population were of Belgian nationality. Belgium was occupied by Nazi Germany between May 1940 and September 1944, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semitic</a> policies were adopted throughout Belgium, even though popular resistance in some cities hindered their full application. Belgian local police rounded up Jews, on three occasions in Antwerp, assisting the German in fulfilling their murderous policy towards the Jews. Approximately 45% of the Belgian Jews (25.484 people) were deported to concentration camps from <a href="/wiki/Mechelen_transit_camp" title="Mechelen transit camp">Dossin Barracks in Mechelen</a>, primarily to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a>. Only 1,200 of the deportees survived the war. The <a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_de_D%C3%A9fense_des_Juifs" class="mw-redirect" title="Comité de Défense des Juifs">Committee for Jewish Defence</a>, which worked with the national resistance movement <a href="/wiki/Front_de_l%27Ind%C3%A9pendance" title="Front de l'Indépendance">Front de l'Indépendance</a>, was the largest Jewish defence movement in Belgium during the war. Some Belgian Jews who fled Belgium in 1940 were deported on transports from Drancy, France. A total of 28,900 Belgian Jews perished between 1942 and 1945. Belgium was the only occupied country in which a transport (<a href="/wiki/Twentieth_convoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Twentieth convoy">Train XX</a>) was halted to give deportees a chance to escape. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgium_ID_card_for_a_foreign_Jewish_woman_used_in_Vichy_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Belgium_ID_card_for_a_foreign_Jewish_woman_used_in_Vichy_France.jpg/220px-Belgium_ID_card_for_a_foreign_Jewish_woman_used_in_Vichy_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Belgium_ID_card_for_a_foreign_Jewish_woman_used_in_Vichy_France.jpg/330px-Belgium_ID_card_for_a_foreign_Jewish_woman_used_in_Vichy_France.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Belgium_ID_card_for_a_foreign_Jewish_woman_used_in_Vichy_France.jpg/440px-Belgium_ID_card_for_a_foreign_Jewish_woman_used_in_Vichy_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2638" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption>Belgium ID card for a foreign Jewish woman used in Vichy France.</figcaption></figure> <p>The National Monument to the Jewish Martyrs of Belgium is in Brussels. More than twenty thousand names of Belgian Jewish victims are inscribed on the walls of the Monument, some of whom were killed on Belgian territory, but many of whom were shipped off to the death camps and executed in the East. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Today">Today</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A9%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%9C_2103.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A9%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%9C_2103.jpeg/220px-%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A9%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%9C_2103.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A9%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%9C_2103.jpeg/330px-%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A9%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%9C_2103.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A9%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%9C_2103.jpeg/440px-%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A9%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%9C_2103.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> and Moscow Chief Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Pinchas_Goldschmidt" title="Pinchas Goldschmidt">Pinchas Goldschmidt</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_of_Europe" title="Great Synagogue of Europe">Great Synagogue</a> of Brussels, 2016</figcaption></figure> <p>Today,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This sentence was added in 2007 but there is no citation (December 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> there are around 42,000 Jews in Belgium. The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Community_of_Antwerp" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Community of Antwerp">Jewish Community of Antwerp</a> (about 20,000 people) is one of the largest single communities in Europe, and one of the last places in the world where <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> is its primary language (mirroring certain Orthodox and Hassidic communities in New York, London and Israel). In addition a very high percentage (95%) of Jewish children in Antwerp receive a Jewish education. In contemporary Belgium, five Jewish newspapers and more than 45 active <a href="/wiki/Synagogues" class="mw-redirect" title="Synagogues">synagogues</a> exist, 30 of which are in Antwerp. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antisemitic_incidents">Antisemitic incidents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Antisemitic incidents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_antisemitism_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary antisemitism in Belgium">Contemporary antisemitism in Belgium</a></div> <p>According to JTA<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> report, the number of antisemitic incidents in 2012 was the highest since 2009. 80 antisemitic incidents were reported throughout Belgium in 2012, a 23% increase from 2011 and an overall increase of 34% since 2000. Five of the incidents involved physical attacks, three of which occurred in Antwerp.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2013, Isi Leibler, the former president of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_Council_of_Australian_Jewry" title="Executive Council of Australian Jewry">Executive Council of Australian Jewry</a>, reported on the alarming increase in the levels of antisemitism in Belgium. Leibler described a wide use of antisemitic caricatures in the media including a caricature on the official central Flanders educational website, comparing Israel to Nazi Germany. In addition, he described an increase of 30% in the number of antisemitic incidents including physical assaults and vandalism of Jewish institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, according to a survey conducted among eight Jewish communities in eight European Union countries, 88% of Belgian Jews feel that in the course of recent years, antisemitism has intensified in their country. 10% of the Belgian survey respondents reported suffering from incidents of physical violence or threats due to their Jewish affiliation since 2008. Most of the victims did not report the incidents to the police.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The increased frequency of antisemitic attacks started in May 2014, when a <a href="/wiki/Algerians_in_France" title="Algerians in France">Franco-Algerian</a> from <a href="/wiki/Roubaix" title="Roubaix">Roubaix</a> killed four people in a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Belgium_shooting" title="Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting">shooting at the Belgian Jewish Museum</a> in Brussels.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two days later, a young Muslim man entered the CCU (Jewish Cultural Center) while an event was taking place and shouted racist slurs.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A month later, a school bus in Antwerp, that was driving 5-year-old Jewish children was stoned by a group of Muslim teens.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of August 2014, a 75-year-old Jewish woman was hit and pushed to the ground because of her Jewish-sounding surname.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism reported six racist incidents, three of which tool place as a part of different demonstrations against <a href="/wiki/Operation_Protective_Edge" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Protective Edge">Operation Protective Edge</a> in Gaza (July–August 2014). Those demonstrations included antisemitic slurs such as "slaughter the Jews" and "Death to the Jews."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aalst_annual_carnival">Aalst annual carnival</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Aalst annual carnival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2009, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> added the annual <a href="/wiki/Carnival_of_Aalst" title="Carnival of Aalst">Carnival of Aalst</a> to its extended <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_Lists" title="UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists">Intangible Cultural Heritage List</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2019, a float showcasing Jewish stereotypes was displayed at the carnival. The float was widely condemned by major European Jewish groups and Belgium's Jewish community.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a report to UNESCO following a complaint by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Forum_der_Joodse_Organisaties&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Forum der Joodse Organisaties (page does not exist)">Forum der Joodse Organisaties</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_der_Joodse_Organisaties" class="extiw" title="nl:Forum der Joodse Organisaties">nl</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Equal_Opportunities_and_Opposition_to_Racism" title="Centre for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism">Unia</a>, the country's watchdog on racism, said the float was of a clearly antisemitic kind, but that no <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Anti-Racism_Law" title="Belgian Anti-Racism Law">laws</a> were breached. </p><p>After the city's mayor refused to ban a repeat of such displays, he asked UNESCO through a statement to regional <a href="/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Belgium" title="List of television stations in Belgium">TV Oost</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to strip the Aalst carnival of World Heritage status, which UNESCO did in December 2019, "over recurring repetition of racist and antisemitic representations". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_and_Analysis">Data and Analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Data and Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A review study published in 2015 by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_Global_Antisemitism_and_Policy" title="Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy">Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy (ISGAP)</a> revealed that in a survey conducted in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, more than half of the Muslim origin respondents agreed with antisemitic statements, such as: "Jews want to dominate everything" and "Jews incite to war and blame others". The review, which analysed a few studies regarding antisemitism in Europe, found that the level of antisemitic attitudes is significantly higher among Muslims than among non-Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">ADL</a> (Anti-Defamation League) audit published in June 2015 revealed an increase in level of concern about violence against Jews in Belgium. In addition, 7% of the participants claimed that the number of Jews murdered in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> has been greatly exaggerated by history. In a follow-up survey 53% of the respondents agreed with the statement: "Violence against Jews is a symptom of deep anti-Jewish feelings among some people in my country". The ADL also conducted a research of anti-Jewish attitudes inside the Muslim population of Belgium. The results showed that 82% of Muslim Belgium agreed with the state "Jews have too much power in the business world", compared to 36% of the national population who agreed with it. In all eleven categories included in the research, the Muslim population reached higher levels of agreement with anti-Jewish stereotypes.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 2015 the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights_Agency" title="Fundamental Rights Agency">Fundamental Rights Agency</a> published its annual overview of data on antisemitism available in the European Union. The finding of the file presents a persistent increase in the number of antisemitic incidents in Belgium through the last ten years. Data of the Interfederal Centre for Equal Opportunities displayed in the file, shows that 130 Complaints of antisemitism were received during 2014, compared to 85 complaints in 2013. Furthermore, the number of incidents in each category has increased in 2014, compared with 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">ADL</a> (Anti-Defamation League) published on 2016 an update for their "ADL Global 100",<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that contained an update of the antisemitic attitudes toward Jews in Belgium. The findings showed a decrease in the percentage of the population harboring antisemitic attitudes (21% in 2015, compare to 27% in 2014). In addition, the survey shows that 46% of the respondents agree with the phrase "Jews are more loyal to Israel than to this country", and that 39% of the respondents agree with the phrase "Jews still talk too much about what happened to them in the Holocaust".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_people">Notable people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notable people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Category:Belgian_people_of_Jewish_descent" title="Category:Belgian people of Jewish descent">Category:Belgian people of Jewish descent</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Alechinsky" title="Pierre Alechinsky">Pierre Alechinsky</a>, artist<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Cahen_d%27Anvers" title="Louis Cahen d'Anvers">Louis Cahen d'Anvers</a>, banker<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Banitt" title="Menachem Banitt">Menachem Banitt</a>, scholar<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_(singer)" title="Blanche (singer)">Ellie Blanche Delvaux (Blanche)</a>, singer<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginie_Efira" title="Virginie Efira">Virginie Efira</a>, actress<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">François Englert</a>, theoretical physicist, <a href="/wiki/Nobel_prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel prize">Nobel prize</a> laureate<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_Flam" title="Leopold Flam">Leopold Flam</a>, philosopher<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Frank_(lawyer)" title="Louis Frank (lawyer)">Louis Frank</a>, lawyer<sup id="cite_ref-:_2_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:_2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:_4_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:_4-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Freilich_(politician)" title="Michael Freilich (politician)">Michael Freilich</a>, politician<sup id="cite_ref-n-va_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-n-va-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hymans" title="Paul Hymans">Paul Hymans</a>, politician, second president of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Lambersy" title="Werner Lambersy">Werner Lambersy</a>, poet<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettina_Le_Beau" title="Bettina Le Beau">Bettina Le Beau</a>, actress<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Loewenstein" title="Alfred Loewenstein">Alfred Loewenstein</a>, financier<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mischa%C3%ABl_Modrikamen" title="Mischaël Modrikamen">Mischaël Modrikamen</a>, politician and lawyer<sup id="cite_ref-Liphshiz_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liphshiz-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Neujean" title="Nat Neujean">Nat Neujean</a>, sculptor<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Oz" title="Frank Oz">Frank Oz</a>, actor<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Chaïm Perelman</a>, philosopher<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a>, physical chemist<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9e_Rosenfeld" title="Andrée Rosenfeld">Andrée Rosenfeld</a>, archaeologist<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jacobsen_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Rosenfeld" title="Léon Rosenfeld">Léon Rosenfeld</a>, physicist and Marxist<sup id="cite_ref-Jacobsen_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie_Rosseneu" title="Amélie Rosseneu">Amélie Rosseneu</a>, judoka<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Salmon" title="Gaston Salmon">Gaston Salmon</a>, fencer, Olympic champion<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Samuel" title="Adolphe Samuel">Adolphe Samuel</a>, music critic<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Claude_Van_Damme" title="Jean-Claude Van Damme">Jean-Claude Van Damme</a>, actor<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgile_Vandeput" title="Virgile Vandeput">Virgile Vandeput</a>, alpine skier<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eriek_Verpale" title="Eriek Verpale">Eriek Verpale</a>, writer<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89liane_Vogel-Polsky" title="Éliane Vogel-Polsky">Éliane Vogel-Polsky</a>, lawyer and feminist<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Wilm%C3%A8s" title="Sophie Wilmès">Sophie Wilmès</a>, politician, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Belgium" title="Prime Minister of Belgium">Prime Minister of Belgium</a><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Zacca%C3%AF" title="Jonathan Zaccaï">Jonathan Zaccaï</a>, actor<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/32px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/48px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/64px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="780" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Belgium" title="Portal:Belgium">Belgium portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/24px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/36px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/48px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaim_Kreiswirth" title="Chaim Kreiswirth">Chaim Kreiswirth</a>, the former <a href="/wiki/Chief_Rabbi" title="Chief Rabbi">Chief Rabbi</a> of Antwerp</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenman_Synagogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenman Synagogue">Eisenman Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Antwerp" title="History of the Jews in Antwerp">History of the Jews in Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93Israel_relations" title="Belgium–Israel relations">Belgium–Israel relations</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-jewishvirtuallibrary-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jewishvirtuallibrary_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Jewish_Year_Book" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">American Jewish Year Book. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html">"The Jewish Population of the World (2010)"</a>. <i><a 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jhm.nl/culture-and-history/the-netherlands/introduction">the original</a> on 20 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joods+Historisch+Museum+-+Joods+Cultureel+Kwartier&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jhm.nl%2Fculture-and-history%2Fthe-netherlands%2Fintroduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%205944.pdf">"Belgium"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Yad-Vashem.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Belgium&rft.pub=Yad-Vashem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yadvashem.org%2Fodot_pdf%2Fmicrosoft%2520word%2520-%25205944.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:16_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ullmann, Salomon. <i>Histoire des juifs en Belgique jusqu’au XVIIIe siècle: (notes et documents)</i> . Antwerp</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Au nom de l'antisionisme: l'image des Juifs et d'Israël dans la ... </i> p27 Joël Kotek, Dan Kotek - 2005 "Des émeutes antijuives s'ensuivent. La profanation de l'hostie, que les chrétiens identifient à la personne même du Christ, serait la répétition du crime du calvaire. En 1370, une vingtaine de Juifs sont brûlés à Bruxelles."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jta.org/">"Home"</a>. <i>jta.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jta.org&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jta.org/2013/08/16/news-opinion/world/anti-semitic-level-in-belgium-highest-since-2009#ixzz2e23mw72G">"Anti-Semitism attacks in Belgium highest since 2009"</a>. 16 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anti-Semitism+attacks+in+Belgium+highest+since+2009&rft.date=2013-08-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2F2013%2F08%2F16%2Fnews-opinion%2Fworld%2Fanti-semitic-level-in-belgium-highest-since-2009%23ixzz2e23mw72G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131007024457/http://www.jwire.com.au/featured-articles/anti-semitism-in-belgium-reaches-new-heights-writes-isi-leibler/37362">"Anti-Semitism in Belgium Reaches New Heights…writes Isi Leibler"</a>. <i>www.jwire.com.au</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jwire.com.au/featured-articles/anti-semitism-in-belgium-reaches-new-heights-writes-isi-leibler/37362">the original</a> on 7 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jwire.com.au&rft.atitle=Anti-Semitism+in+Belgium+Reaches+New+Heights%E2%80%A6writes+Isi+Leibler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jwire.com.au%2Ffeatured-articles%2Fanti-semitism-in-belgium-reaches-new-heights-writes-isi-leibler%2F37362&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antisemitism.org.il/article/83043/antisemitism-intensifies-belgium">"Antisemitism intensifies in Belgium"</a>. CFCA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antisemitism+intensifies+in+Belgium&rft.pub=CFCA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fantisemitism.org.il%2Farticle%2F83043%2Fantisemitism-intensifies-belgium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antisemitism.org.il/article/87513/4-killed-shooting-outside-jewish-museum-brussels">"4 killed in shooting outside Jewish Museum in Brussels"</a>. <i>CFCA</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CFCA&rft.atitle=4+killed+in+shooting+outside+Jewish+Museum+in+Brussels&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fantisemitism.org.il%2Farticle%2F87513%2F4-killed-shooting-outside-jewish-museum-brussels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antisemitism.org.il/article/87651/antisemitic-threats-near-ccu-jewish-cultural-center-building">"Antisemitic threats near the CCU (Jewish Cultural Center) building"</a>. <i>The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Coordination+Forum+for+Countering+Antisemitism&rft.atitle=Antisemitic+threats+near+the+CCU+%28Jewish+Cultural+Center%29+building&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fantisemitism.org.il%2Farticle%2F87651%2Fantisemitic-threats-near-ccu-jewish-cultural-center-building&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antisemitism.org.il/article/87885/school-bus-carrying-ultra-orthodox-jewish-children-stoned-anti-jewish-attack">"School bus carrying ultra-Orthodox Jewish children stoned in anti-Jewish attack"</a>. <i>The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Coordination+Forum+for+Countering+Antisemitism&rft.atitle=School+bus+carrying+ultra-Orthodox+Jewish+children+stoned+in+anti-Jewish+attack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fantisemitism.org.il%2Farticle%2F87885%2Fschool-bus-carrying-ultra-orthodox-jewish-children-stoned-anti-jewish-attack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antisemitism.org.il/article/90161/antisemitic-attack-against-75-old-woman">"Antisemitic attack against 75 old woman"</a>. <i>CFCA</i>. La- Libre<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CFCA&rft.atitle=Antisemitic+attack+against+75+old+woman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fantisemitism.org.il%2Farticle%2F90161%2Fantisemitic-attack-against-75-old-woman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antisemitism.org.il/article/88525/demonstration-features-calls-%E2%80%98slaughter-jews%E2%80%99">"Demonstration features calls to 'slaughter the Jews"</a>. <i>CFCA</i>. JTA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CFCA&rft.atitle=Demonstration+features+calls+to+%27slaughter+the+Jews&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fantisemitism.org.il%2Farticle%2F88525%2Fdemonstration-features-calls-%25E2%2580%2598slaughter-jews%25E2%2580%2599&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/12/10/belgian-parade-may-lose-its-place-unescos-world-heritage-list-after-it-allowed-an-anti-semitic-float/">A Belgian parade may lose its place on UNESCO’s World Heritage List after it allowed an anti-Semitic float</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.algemeiner.com/2019/12/17/unesco-removes-belgium-carnival-with-antisemitic-float-from-heritage-list/">UNESCO Removes Belgium Carnival With Antisemitic Float From Heritage List</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ynetnews.com/article/SJokopG0H">Israel welcomes Belgian parade's removal from UNESCO list</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/13/unesco-removes-racist-belgian-carnival-aalst-from-heritage-list">"Unesco removes 'racist' Belgian carnival from heritage list"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Unesco+removes+%27racist%27+Belgian+carnival+from+heritage+list&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2019%2Fdec%2F13%2Funesco-removes-racist-belgian-carnival-aalst-from-heritage-list&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJikeli" class="citation web cs1">Jikeli, Gunther. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402125643/http://isgap.org/2015/02/24/antisemitic-attitudes-among-muslims-in-europe-a-review-of-recent-surveys/">"Antisemitic Attitudes Among Muslims in Europe A Review of Recent Surveys"</a>. <i>Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isgap.org/2015/02/24/antisemitic-attitudes-among-muslims-in-europe-a-review-of-recent-surveys/">the original</a> on 2 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+for+the+Study+of+Global+Antisemitism+and+Policy&rft.atitle=Antisemitic+Attitudes+Among+Muslims+in+Europe+A+Review+of+Recent+Surveys&rft.aulast=Jikeli&rft.aufirst=Gunther&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisgap.org%2F2015%2F02%2F24%2Fantisemitic-attitudes-among-muslims-in-europe-a-review-of-recent-surveys%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global100.adl.org/public/ADL-Global-100-Executive-Summary2015.pdf">"ADL Global 100- An Index of Antisemitism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Anti-Defamation League<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ADL+Global+100-+An+Index+of+Antisemitism&rft.pub=Anti-Defamation+League&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobal100.adl.org%2Fpublic%2FADL-Global-100-Executive-Summary2015.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2015-antisemitism-update_en.pdf">"Antisemitism Overview of data available in the European Union 2004–2014"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. European Union agency for fundamental rights<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antisemitism+Overview+of+data+available+in+the+European+Union+2004%E2%80%932014&rft.pub=European+Union+agency+for+fundamental+rights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffra.europa.eu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffra_uploads%2Ffra-2015-antisemitism-update_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global100.adl.org/">"ADL Global 100"</a>. <i>global100</i>. ADL<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=global100&rft.atitle=ADL+Global+100&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobal100.adl.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span>(An international survey conducted in 2013-2014 to measure antisemitic opinions in 100 countries around the world)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global100.adl.org/#country/belgium/2015">"Belgium 2015"</a>. <i>gobal100</i>. ADL<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gobal100&rft.atitle=Belgium+2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobal100.adl.org%2F%23country%2Fbelgium%2F2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.moma.org/documents/moma_catalogue_1822_300062651.pdf">"Pierre Alechinsky, a print retrospective: an exhibition"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. MoMa. 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pierre+Alechinsky%2C+a+print+retrospective%3A+an+exhibition&rft.pub=MoMa&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.moma.org%2Fdocuments%2Fmoma_catalogue_1822_300062651.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kivoila.com/pierre-alechinsky-fostered-a-key-link-between-western-and-eastern-avant-gardism/">"PIERRE ALECHINSKY FOSTERED A KEY LINK BETWEEN WESTERN AND EASTERN AVANT-GARDISM"</a>. <i>www.kivoila.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.kivoila.com&rft.atitle=PIERRE+ALECHINSKY+FOSTERED+A+KEY+LINK+BETWEEN+WESTERN+AND+EASTERN+AVANT-GARDISM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkivoila.com%2Fpierre-alechinsky-fostered-a-key-link-between-western-and-eastern-avant-gardism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Cahen d'Anvers family claimed descent from the Davidic Line see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishrefugees.org.uk/tag/jews-of-turkey">jewish refugees</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.obi-il.org/piks/lelien_1.pdf">http://www.obi-il.org/piks/lelien_1.pdf</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D3zfJEmm314C&dq=%22max+berenblut%22&pg=PA28"><i>Vernacular Voices: Language and Identity in Medieval French Jewish Communities</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. 6 June 2011. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812205350" title="Special:BookSources/9780812205350"><bdi>9780812205350</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vernacular+Voices%3A+Language+and+Identity+in+Medieval+French+Jewish+Communities&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2011-06-06&rft.isbn=9780812205350&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD3zfJEmm314C%26dq%3D%2522max%2Bberenblut%2522%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jta.org/2017/05/14/news-opinion/israel-middle-east/british-media-others-erroneously-report-israels-withdrawal-from-eurovision">British media, others erroneously report Israel’s withdrawal from Eurovision</a> JTA, May 14, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmée_Cuttat2016" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Edmée Cuttat (23 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.femina.ch/societe/actu-societe/virginie-efira-sur-les-traces-de-mary-poppins">"Virginie Efira, sur les traces de Mary Poppins"</a> [Virginie Efira, in the footsteps of Mary Poppins]. <i>Femina</i> (in Swiss French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Femina&rft.atitle=Virginie+Efira%2C+sur+les+traces+de+Mary+Poppins&rft.date=2016-05-23&rft.au=Edm%C3%A9e+Cuttat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.femina.ch%2Fsociete%2Factu-societe%2Fvirginie-efira-sur-les-traces-de-mary-poppins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span><br />- <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamya_Yakoubaly" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Samya Yakoubaly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.purepeople.com/article/virginie-efira-revele-pourquoi-elle-a-choisi-d-appeler-sa-fille-ali_a197682/1">"Virginie Efira révèle pourquoi elle a choisi d'appeler sa fille Ali..."</a> [Virginie Efira reveals why she chose to call her daughter Ali...]. <i>Purepeople</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Purepeople&rft.atitle=Virginie+Efira+r%C3%A9v%C3%A8le+pourquoi+elle+a+choisi+d%27appeler+sa+fille+Ali...&rft.au=Samya+Yakoubaly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.purepeople.com%2Farticle%2Fvirginie-efira-revele-pourquoi-elle-a-choisi-d-appeler-sa-fille-ali_a197682%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/francois-englert">"François Englert"</a>. Jewish Virtual Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fran%C3%A7ois+Englert&rft.pub=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Ffrancois-englert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vub.be/en/news/afterthought-great-flam-debate-vub">"An afterthought to the great Flam debate"</a>. <i>www.vub.be</i>. 8 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vub.be&rft.atitle=An+afterthought+to+the+great+Flam+debate&rft.date=2023-03-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vub.be%2Fen%2Fnews%2Fafterthought-great-flam-debate-vub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:_2-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:_2_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Françoise De Bueger-Van Lierde, At the origin of the feminist movement in Belgium. “The Popelin Affair”, periodical : Belgian Revue de Philologie et d'Histoire, volume 50, number 4, date : 1972, read online : <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.persee">https://www.persee</a>. en / doc / rbph_0035-0818_1972_num_50_4_2941</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:_4-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:_4_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dictionary of Belgian women: 19th and 20th centuries, Lannoo Uitgeverij, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87386-434-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-87386-434-7">978-2-87386-434-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-n-va-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-n-va_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.n-va.be/wie-is-wie/michael-freilich">"Michael Freilich"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Michael+Freilich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.n-va.be%2Fwie-is-wie%2Fmichael-freilich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGergely2019" class="citation web cs1">Gergely, Thomas (25 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iejudaisme.com/post/salomon-louis-hymans-et-la-braban%C3%A7onne">"Salomon Louis Hymans et la Brabançonne"</a>. Institut D'etudes du Judaisme<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Salomon+Louis+Hymans+et+la+Braban%C3%A7onne&rft.pub=Institut+D%27etudes+du+Judaisme&rft.date=2019-10-25&rft.aulast=Gergely&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iejudaisme.com%2Fpost%2Fsalomon-louis-hymans-et-la-braban%25C3%25A7onne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoffaux" class="citation web cs1">Goffaux, Pascal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rtbf.be/article/werner-lambersy-presence-dun-poete-disparu-11141066">"Werner Lambersy, présence d'un poète disparu"</a>. RTBF.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Werner+Lambersy%2C+pr%C3%A9sence+d%27un+po%C3%A8te+disparu&rft.pub=RTBF&rft.aulast=Goffaux&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rtbf.be%2Farticle%2Fwerner-lambersy-presence-dun-poete-disparu-11141066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJollesRubinstein2011" class="citation book cs1">Jolles, Michael A.; Rubinstein, W. (27 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_T_HCg17ufIC"><i>The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 555. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230304666" title="Special:BookSources/9780230304666"><bdi>9780230304666</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Anglo-Jewish+History&rft.pages=555&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2011-01-27&rft.isbn=9780230304666&rft.aulast=Jolles&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Rubinstein%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_T_HCg17ufIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrivatHuebner1929" class="citation book cs1">Privat, Maurice; Huebner, Friedrich Markus (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHfZAAAAMAAJ"><i>Finanz giganten Alfred Loewensteins glück und ende</i></a>. E.A. Seemann. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finanz+giganten+Alfred+Loewensteins+gl%C3%BCck+und+ende&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=E.A.+Seemann&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Privat&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft.au=Huebner%2C+Friedrich+Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHfZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liphshiz-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Liphshiz_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiphshiz2018" class="citation web cs1">Liphshiz, Cnaan (3 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414235935/https://fr.timesofisrael.com/un-avocat-juif-belge-est-le-meilleur-allie-de-steve-bannon-en-europe/">"Un avocat juif belge est le meilleur allié de Steve Bannon en Europe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times_of_Israel" title="The Times of Israel">The Times of Israel</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fr.timesofisrael.com/un-avocat-juif-belge-est-le-meilleur-allie-de-steve-bannon-en-europe/">the original</a> on 14 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Un+avocat+juif+belge+est+le+meilleur+alli%C3%A9+de+Steve+Bannon+en+Europe&rft.pub=The+Times+of+Israel&rft.date=2018-12-03&rft.aulast=Liphshiz&rft.aufirst=Cnaan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.timesofisrael.com%2Fun-avocat-juif-belge-est-le-meilleur-allie-de-steve-bannon-en-europe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikhman1998" class="citation book cs1">Mikhman, Dan (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gpk7P_mMFyUC&pg=PA549"><i>Belgium and the Holocaust: Jews, Belgians, Germans</i></a>. Berghahn Books. p. 549. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-308-068-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-308-068-3"><bdi>978-965-308-068-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belgium+and+the+Holocaust%3A+Jews%2C+Belgians%2C+Germans&rft.pages=549&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-965-308-068-3&rft.aulast=Mikhman&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGpk7P_mMFyUC%26pg%3DPA549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2007" class="citation news cs1">Clark, John (12 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-aug-12-ca-frankoz12-story.html">"Frank Oz and that little voice inside"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2015</span>. <q>[Oz's] mother was Flemish, his father Dutch, and he spent the first five years of his life in Belgium</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Frank+Oz+and+that+little+voice+inside&rft.date=2007-08-12&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-2007-aug-12-ca-frankoz12-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414151744/https://datebook.sfchronicle.com/art-exhibits/muppet-master-frank-oz-shares-haunting-puppets-from-his-familys-past">"Muppet master Frank Oz shares haunting puppets from his family's past"</a>. San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datebook.sfchronicle.com/art-exhibits/muppet-master-frank-oz-shares-haunting-puppets-from-his-familys-past">the original</a> on 14 April 2023. <q>Oz's parents — Dutch-Jewish woodworker and puppeteer Isidore "Mike" Oznowicz and Flemish-Catholic couturier/costumer Frances Oznowicz</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Muppet+master+Frank+Oz+shares+haunting+puppets+from+his+family%27s+past&rft.pub=San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatebook.sfchronicle.com%2Fart-exhibits%2Fmuppet-master-frank-oz-shares-haunting-puppets-from-his-familys-past&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/perelman-chaim">"Chaim Perelman"</a>. <i>www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Chaim+Perelman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fperelman-chaim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Multiple sources: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeroy2003" class="citation book cs1">Leroy, Francis (13 March 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3-G3vi5av28C&q=prigogine+anti+semitic&pg=PA80"><i>Francis Leroy. A century of Nobel Prizes recipients: chemistry, physics, and medicine (p. 80)</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203014189" title="Special:BookSources/9780203014189"><bdi>9780203014189</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francis+Leroy.+A+century+of+Nobel+Prizes+recipients%3A+chemistry%2C+physics%2C+and+medicine+%28p.+80%29&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003-03-13&rft.isbn=9780203014189&rft.aulast=Leroy&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3-G3vi5av28C%26q%3Dprigogine%2Banti%2Bsemitic%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1431987/Vicomte-Ilya-Prigogine.html">"Vicomte Ilya Prigogine (Obituary, The Telegraph)"</a>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. 5 June 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Vicomte+Ilya+Prigogine+%28Obituary%2C+The+Telegraph%29&rft.date=2003-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fobituaries%2F1431987%2FVicomte-Ilya-Prigogine.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamageShipp2009" class="citation book cs1">Ramage, Magnus; Shipp, Karen (29 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_80mmfL-i0MC&q=prigogine+jewish&pg=PA227"><i>Magnus Ramage, Karen Shipp. Systems Thinkers (p. 227)</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848825253" title="Special:BookSources/9781848825253"><bdi>9781848825253</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magnus+Ramage%2C+Karen+Shipp.+Systems+Thinkers+%28p.+227%29&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009-09-29&rft.isbn=9781848825253&rft.aulast=Ramage&rft.aufirst=Magnus&rft.au=Shipp%2C+Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_80mmfL-i0MC%26q%3Dprigogine%2Bjewish%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=108305&sectioncode=26">"Andrew Robinson. Time and notion"</a>. Timeshighereducation.co.uk. 17 July 1998<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Andrew+Robinson.+Time+and+notion&rft.pub=Timeshighereducation.co.uk&rft.date=1998-07-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timeshighereducation.co.uk%2Fstory.asp%3FstoryCode%3D108305%26sectioncode%3D26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425092616/http://www.chaosforum.com/docs/denkers/column7.html">"Time and Change"</a>. Chaosforum.com. 28 May 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaosforum.com/docs/denkers/column7.html">the original</a> on 25 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Time+and+Change&rft.pub=Chaosforum.com&rft.date=2003-05-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaosforum.com%2Fdocs%2Fdenkers%2Fcolumn7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pagerankstudio.com/Blog/2010/09/ilya-prigogine-biography-life-and-career-facts-invented/">"Biography of Ilya Prigogine"</a>. Pagerankstudio.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biography+of+Ilya+Prigogine&rft.pub=Pagerankstudio.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpagerankstudio.com%2FBlog%2F2010%2F09%2Filya-prigogine-biography-life-and-career-facts-invented%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOuzmanSmith" class="citation web cs1">Ouzman, Sven; Smith, Claire. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n10414/pdf/ch05.pdf">"Women in Australian rock art research: The legacies of Andrée Rosenfeld and Patricia Vinnicombe - Andrée Jean Rosenfeld (1934–2008)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Women+in+Australian+rock+art+research%3A+The+legacies+of+Andr%C3%A9e+Rosenfeld+and+Patricia+Vinnicombe+-+Andr%C3%A9e+Jean+Rosenfeld+%281934%E2%80%932008%29&rft.pages=75&rft.aulast=Ouzman&rft.aufirst=Sven&rft.au=Smith%2C+Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress-files.anu.edu.au%2Fdownloads%2Fpress%2Fn10414%2Fpdf%2Fch05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacobsen-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobsen_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobsen_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsen2012" class="citation book cs1">Jacobsen, Anja Skaar (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iTmepJvm08UC"><i>Léon Rosenfeld Physics, Philosophy, and Politics in the Twentieth Century</i></a>. World Scientific. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789814307819" title="Special:BookSources/9789814307819"><bdi>9789814307819</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%C3%A9on+Rosenfeld+Physics%2C+Philosophy%2C+and+Politics+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789814307819&rft.aulast=Jacobsen&rft.aufirst=Anja+Skaar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiTmepJvm08UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wrestling.com.ua/en/news/article/traditsionnaya/14_01_03_belgiyskaya_dzyudoistka_ameli_rosseneu_budet_vyistupat_za_izrail/">"THE BELGIAN JUDOIST AMELIE ROSSENEU WILL PLAY FOR ISRAEL"</a>. <i>www.wrestling.com</i>. 3 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wrestling.com&rft.atitle=THE+BELGIAN+JUDOIST+AMELIE+ROSSENEU+WILL+PLAY+FOR+ISRAEL&rft.date=2014-01-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wrestling.com.ua%2Fen%2Fnews%2Farticle%2Ftraditsionnaya%2F14_01_03_belgiyskaya_dzyudoistka_ameli_rosseneu_budet_vyistupat_za_izrail%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2004" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Paul (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tGcPDXOjxMoC&pg=PA241"><i>Jews and the Olympic Games: The Clash Between Sport and Politics : with a Complete Review of Jewish Olympic Medallists</i></a>. Sussex Academic Press. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903900-87-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903900-87-1"><bdi>978-1-903900-87-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+and+the+Olympic+Games%3A+The+Clash+Between+Sport+and+Politics+%3A+with+a+Complete+Review+of+Jewish+Olympic+Medallists&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-903900-87-1&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtGcPDXOjxMoC%26pg%3DPA241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaeck-Schilders_·1986" class="citation book cs1">Baeck-Schilders ·, Hedwige (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EToIAQAAMAAJ"><i>Emile Wambach (1854-1924) en het Antwerpse muziekleven</i></a>. AWLSK. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789065693761" title="Special:BookSources/9789065693761"><bdi>9789065693761</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emile+Wambach+%281854-1924%29+en+het+Antwerpse+muziekleven&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=AWLSK&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9789065693761&rft.aulast=Baeck-Schilders+%C2%B7&rft.aufirst=Hedwige&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEToIAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vandamme.ru/articles/1996/11-11-1996.htm">Getting a kick out of stardom</a> By Pearl Sheffy Gefen, The Jerusalem Post: 29 November 1996</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinai2014" class="citation web cs1">Sinai, Allon (20 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/sports/israeli-skier-vandeput-misses-giant-slalom-due-to-late-leg-injury-341980">"Israeli skier Vandeput misses Giant Slalom due to late leg injury"</a>. The Jerusalem Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Israeli+skier+Vandeput+misses+Giant+Slalom+due+to+late+leg+injury&rft.pub=The+Jerusalem+Post&rft.date=2014-02-20&rft.aulast=Sinai&rft.aufirst=Allon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fsports%2Fisraeli-skier-vandeput-misses-giant-slalom-due-to-late-leg-injury-341980&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlokBlokWallet2007" class="citation book cs1">Blok, Hanna; Blok, Lodewijk; Wallet, Bart (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l4fvMPlVdhAC"><i>Bibliografie over het Jodendom en Israël voor het Nederlandse Talgebied, 1992-2006</i></a>. Peeters. p. 402. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042919679" title="Special:BookSources/9789042919679"><bdi>9789042919679</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bibliografie+over+het+Jodendom+en+Isra%C3%ABl+voor+het+Nederlandse+Talgebied%2C+1992-2006&rft.pages=402&rft.pub=Peeters&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789042919679&rft.aulast=Blok&rft.aufirst=Hanna&rft.au=Blok%2C+Lodewijk&rft.au=Wallet%2C+Bart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl4fvMPlVdhAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coleurope.eu/news/eliane-vogel-polsky-chosen-patronne-de-promotion-2021/2022">"Éliane VOGEL-POLSKY chosen as "patronne de promotion" 2021/2022"</a>. <i>www.coleurope.eu</i>. College of Europe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.coleurope.eu&rft.atitle=%C3%89liane+VOGEL-POLSKY+chosen+as+%22patronne+de+promotion%22+2021%2F2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.coleurope.eu%2Fnews%2Feliane-vogel-polsky-chosen-patronne-de-promotion-2021%2F2022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.israelhayom.com/2019/10/31/belgium-names-first-ever-jewish-female-prime-minister/">"Belgium names first ever Jewish, female prime minister"</a>. Israel-Hayom. JNS. 31 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Belgium+names+first+ever+Jewish%2C+female+prime+minister&rft.date=2019-10-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.israelhayom.com%2F2019%2F10%2F31%2Fbelgium-names-first-ever-jewish-female-prime-minister%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrangeray2021" class="citation news cs1">Grangeray, Emilie (2 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lemonde.fr/m-perso/article/2021/05/02/jonathan-zaccai-imaginer-le-pire-c-est-quelque-chose-pour-lequel-je-suis-assez-doue_6078833_4497916.html">"Jonathan Zaccaï : " Imaginer le pire, c'est quelque chose pour lequel je suis assez doué "<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Le Monde.fr</i>. <a href="/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde.fr&rft.atitle=Jonathan+Zacca%C3%AF+%3A+%22+Imaginer+le+pire%2C+c%27est+quelque+chose+pour+lequel+je+suis+assez+dou%C3%A9+%22&rft.date=2021-05-02&rft.aulast=Grangeray&rft.aufirst=Emilie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Fm-perso%2Farticle%2F2021%2F05%2F02%2Fjonathan-zaccai-imaginer-le-pire-c-est-quelque-chose-pour-lequel-je-suis-assez-doue_6078833_4497916.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Moore, Bob. "Jewish Self-Help and Rescue in the Netherlands during the Holocaust in Comparative Perspective," <i>Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis</i> (2011) 124#4 pp 492–505, a comparison with Belgium</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogeauRoyen2011" class="citation news cs1">Rogeau, Olivier; Royen, Marie-Cécile (28 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131002122523/http://www.kuleuven.be/thomas/images/algemeen/actualiteit/tijdschriften/acjcb/communaute_juive_LV_28_01_2011.pdf">"Juifs de Belgique"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Vif" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Vif">Le Vif</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Katholieke_Universiteit_Leuven" class="mw-redirect" title="Katholieke Universiteit Leuven">Katholieke Universiteit Leuven</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kuleuven.be/thomas/images/algemeen/actualiteit/tijdschriften/acjcb/communaute_juive_LV_28_01_2011.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Vif&rft.atitle=Juifs+de+Belgique&rft.date=2011-01-28&rft.aulast=Rogeau&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft.au=Royen%2C+Marie-C%C3%A9cile&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kuleuven.be%2Fthomas%2Fimages%2Falgemeen%2Factualiteit%2Ftijdschriften%2Facjcb%2Fcommunaute_juive_LV_28_01_2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.JewishBelgium.org">Jewish Belgium</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170202001344/http://www.jewishbelgium.org/">Archived</a> 2 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chabad.org/centers/default_cdo/country/Belgium">Chabad-Lubavitch centers in Belgium</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Belgium.html#1">The Virtual Jewish History Tour - Belgium</a> at <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070224120747/http://www.visitbelgium.com/jewish.htm">visitbelgium.com/jewish, Jewish sites in Belgium</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20110706133719/http://www.cicb.be/en/home_en.htm">Jewish Museum of Deportation and Resistance</a> This museum in Mechelen traces the story of the many Jews who were deported during the occupation. The archives are accessible to those seeking information on the fate of family members.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">History of the Jews in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Albania" title="History of the Jews in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Andorra" title="History of the Jews in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of the Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Croatia" title="History of the Jews in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iceland" title="History of the Jews in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Liechtenstein" title="History of the Jews in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Luxembourg" title="History of the Jews in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malta" title="History of the Jews in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Monaco" title="History of the Jews in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Montenegro" title="History of the Jews in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_North_Macedonia" title="History of the Jews in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_San_Marino" title="History of the Jews in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Slovakia" title="History of the Jews in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Slovenia" title="History of the Jews in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Switzerland" title="History of the Jews in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_England" title="History of the Jews in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Abkhazia" title="History of the Jews in Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kosovo" title="History of the Jews in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Ossetia" title="History of the Jews in South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Transnistria" title="History of the Jews in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Faroe_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Faroe Islands (page does not exist)">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gibraltar" title="History of the Jews in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guernsey" title="History of the Jews in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Jews in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jersey" title="History of the Jews in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐api‐ext.codfw.main‐59bc7696‐fv94z Cached time: 20241128134940 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.779 seconds Real time usage: 0.935 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 14945/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 136778/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 11175/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 17/100 Expensive parser 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