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For a general history of human beings, see <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a>. For a general history of Earth, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/History_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="History (disambiguation)">History (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output 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li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> History is the systematic study of the past. As an <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a>, it analyzes and interprets <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> to construct <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narratives</a> about what happened and explain why it happened, focusing primarily on the <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human past</a>. Some theorists categorize history as a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, while others see it as part of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> or consider it a hybrid discipline. Similar debates surround the purpose of history, for example, whether its main aim is theoretical, to uncover the <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, or practical, to learn lessons from the past. In a slightly different sense, the term history refers not to an academic field but to the <a href="/wiki/Past" title="Past">past</a> itself or to individual texts about the past. History is a broad discipline encompassing many branches. Some focus on specific <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">time periods</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient history</a>, while others concentrate on particular <a href="/wiki/Geographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic">geographic</a> regions, such as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">history of Africa</a>. Thematic categorizations include <a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a>. Branches associated with specific research methods include <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">quantitative history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparative_history" title="Comparative history">comparative history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">oral history</a>. <a href="/wiki/Historical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical research">Historical research</a> relies on <a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">primary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sources">secondary sources</a> to reconstruct past events and validate interpretations. <a href="/wiki/Source_criticism" title="Source criticism">Source criticism</a> is used to evaluate these sources, assessing their authenticity, content, and reliability. Historians integrate the perspectives of several individual sources to develop a coherent narrative. Different schools of thought, such as <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, have distinct <a href="/wiki/Methodological" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological">methodological</a> approaches. History emerged as a field of inquiry in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient period">ancient period</a> to replace myth-infused narratives, with influential early traditions originating in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">China</a>, and later also in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>. Historical writing evolved throughout the ages and became increasingly professional, particularly during the 19th century, when a rigorous methodology and various academic institutions were established. History is related to many fields, including <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definition">1 Definition</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Purpose">1.1 Purpose</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Etymology">1.2 Etymology</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Methods">2 Methods</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Sources_and_source_criticism">2.1 Sources and source criticism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Synthesis_and_schools_of_thought">2.2 Synthesis and schools of thought</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Areas_of_study">3 Areas of study</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#By_period">3.1 By period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#By_geographic_location">3.2 By geographic location</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#By_theme">3.3 By theme</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Others">3.4 Others</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Evolution_of_the_discipline">4 Evolution of the discipline</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Related_fields">5 Related fields</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Historiography">5.1 Historiography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Philosophy_of_history">5.2 Philosophy of history</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Historical_objectivity">5.2.1 Historical objectivity</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Education">5.3 Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Other_fields">5.4 Other fields</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#References">7 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Notes">7.1 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Citations">7.2 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Sources">7.3 Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#External_links">8 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> As an <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a>, history is the study of the past.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> It conceptualizes and describes what happened by collecting and analysing <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> to construct <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narratives</a>. These narratives cover not only how events unfolded but also why they happened and in which contexts, providing an explanation of relevant background conditions and <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal</a> mechanisms. History further examines the meaning of historical events and the underlying <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">human motives</a> driving them.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> In a slightly different sense, history refers to the past events themselves. In this sense, history is what happened rather than the academic field studying what happened. When used as a <a href="/wiki/Countable_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Countable noun">countable noun</a>, a history is a representation of the past in the form of a history text. History texts are cultural products involving active <a href="/wiki/Interpretation_(philosophy)" title="Interpretation (philosophy)">interpretation</a> and reconstruction. The narratives presented in them can change as historians discover new evidence or reinterpret already-known sources. The nature of the past itself, by contrast, is static and unchangeable.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Some historians focus on the interpretative and explanatory aspects to distinguish histories from <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a>, arguing that chronicles only catalogue events in chronological order, whereas histories aim at a comprehensive understanding of their causes, contexts, and consequences.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[a]</a> Traditionally, history was primarily concerned with written documents. It focused on <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Invention of writing">invention of writing</a>, leaving <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[b]</a> to other fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a> Today, history has a broader scope as one of the disciplines interested in human history before the invention of writing.<a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[c]</a> It is controversial whether history is a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> or forms part of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. Like social scientists, historians formulate <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a>, gather objective evidence, and present arguments based on this evidence. At the same time, history aligns closely with the humanities because of its reliance on subjective aspects associated with interpretation, <a href="/wiki/Storytelling" title="Storytelling">storytelling</a>, human experience, and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[10]</a> Some historians strongly support one or the other classification while others characterize history as a hybrid discipline that does not belong to one category at the exclusion of the other.<a href="#cite_note-14">[11]</a> History contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">pseudohistory</a>, a label used to describe practices that deviate from historiographical standards by relying on disputed historical evidence, selectively ignoring genuine evidence, or using other means to distort the historical record. Often motivated by specific <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideological agendas</a>, pseudohistorical practices mimic <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">historical methodology</a> to promote misleading narratives that lack rigorous analysis and scholarly consensus.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-15">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purpose">Purpose</h3></div> Various suggestions about the purpose or value of history have been made. Some historians propose that its primary function is the pure discovery of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> about the past. This view emphasizes that the disinterested pursuit of truth is an <a href="/wiki/End_in_itself" class="mw-redirect" title="End in itself">end in itself</a>, while external purposes, associated with ideology or <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, threaten to undermine the accuracy of historical research by distorting the past. In this role, history also challenges traditional <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myths</a> lacking factual support.<a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a> A different perspective suggests that the main value of history lies in the lessons it teaches for the present. This view is based on the idea that an understanding of the past can guide <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>, for example, to avoid repeating previous mistakes.<a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a> A related perspective focuses on a general understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">human condition</a>, making people aware of the diversity of <a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">human behaviour</a> across different contexts—similar to what one can learn by visiting foreign countries.<a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a> History can also foster <a href="/wiki/Social_cohesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cohesion">social cohesion</a> by providing people with a <a href="/wiki/Collective_identity" title="Collective identity">collective identity</a> through a shared past, helping to preserve and cultivate cultural heritage and values across generations.<a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a> For some scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Whig_historians" class="mw-redirect" title="Whig historians">whig historians</a> and the Marxist scholar <a href="/wiki/E._H._Carr" title="E. H. Carr">E. H. Carr</a>, history is a key to understanding the present<a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a> and, in Carr's case, shaping the future.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2002p2-21">[18]</a> Certain historians also argue that the purpose of history is to explain change and causes of events, concerns which, in their view, distinguish the historian from the <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2002p2-21">[18]</a> History is sometimes used for political or ideological purposes, for instance, to justify the status quo by emphasising the respectability of certain traditions or to promote change by highlighting past injustices.<a href="#cite_note-22">[19]</a> Pushed to extreme forms, this can result in pseudohistory or <a href="/wiki/Historical_denialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical denialism">historical denialism</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[d]</a> when evidence is intentionally ignored or misinterpreted to construct a misleading narrative serving external interests.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-15">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Photo of a damaged text written in black ink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg/220px-POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="1111"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 228px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg/220px-POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg" data-alt="Photo of a damaged text written in black ink" data-width="220" data-height="228" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg/330px-POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg/440px-POxy_v0017_n2099_a_01_hires_-_cropped.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, an Ancient Greek historical text, found in Egypt</figcaption></figure> The word history comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> term <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%B5%CF%83%CF%84%CF%89%CF%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἵστωρ">ἵστωρ</a> (histōr), meaning 'learned, wise man'. It gave rise to the Ancient Greek word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἱστορία">ἱστορία</a> (historiā), which had a wide meaning associated with inquiry in general and giving testimony. The term was later adopted into <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> as historia. In <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman times</a>, the meaning of the term shifted, placing more emphasis on narrative aspects and the art of presentation rather than focusing on investigation and testimony.<a href="#cite_note-25">[21]</a> The word entered <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> in the 14th century via the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> term histoire.<a href="#cite_note-26">[22]</a> At this time, it meant 'story, tale', encompassing both factual and fictional narratives. In the 15th century, its meaning shifted to cover the branch of knowledge studying the past in addition to narratives about the past.<a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a> In the 18th and 19th centuries, the word history became more closely associated with factual accounts and evidence-based inquiry, coinciding with the professionalization of historical inquiry.<a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a> The dual meaning, referring to both mere stories and factual accounts of the past, is present in the terms for history in many other European languages. They include the French histoire, the Italian storia, and the German Geschichte.<a href="#cite_note-29">[25]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a></div> The historical method is a <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">set of techniques</a> historians use to research and interpret the past, covering the processes of collecting, evaluating, and synthesizing evidence.<a href="#cite_note-31">[e]</a> It seeks to ensure scholarly rigour, accuracy, and reliability in how historical <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> is chosen, analysed, and interpreted.<a href="#cite_note-32">[27]</a> Historical research often starts with a <a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">research question</a> to define the scope of the inquiry. Some research questions focus on a simple description of what happened. Others aim to explain why a particular event occurred, refute an existing theory, or confirm a new hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-33">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_and_source_criticism">Sources and source criticism</h3></div> To answer research questions, historians rely on various types of evidence to reconstruct the past and support their conclusions. Historical evidence is usually divided into <a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">primary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sources">secondary sources</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[29]</a> A primary source is a source that originated during the period that is studied. Primary sources can take various forms, such as official documents, letters, diaries, eyewitness accounts, photographs, and audio or video recordings. They also include historical remains examined in <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Medical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical sciences">medical sciences</a>, such as artefacts and <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> unearthed from <a href="/wiki/Excavations" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavations">excavations</a>. Primary sources offer the most direct evidence of historical events.<a href="#cite_note-35">[30]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Collections_Archive,_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History,_St._Petersburg,_FL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Photo of archive storage area; on the left, the hand cranks to operate shelving units; on the right, the shelves of one unit containing storage boxes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Collections_Archive%2C_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History%2C_St._Petersburg%2C_FL.jpg/220px-Collections_Archive%2C_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History%2C_St._Petersburg%2C_FL.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Collections_Archive%2C_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History%2C_St._Petersburg%2C_FL.jpg/220px-Collections_Archive%2C_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History%2C_St._Petersburg%2C_FL.jpg" data-alt="Photo of archive storage area; on the left, the hand cranks to operate shelving units; on the right, the shelves of one unit containing storage boxes" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Collections_Archive%2C_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History%2C_St._Petersburg%2C_FL.jpg/330px-Collections_Archive%2C_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History%2C_St._Petersburg%2C_FL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Collections_Archive%2C_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History%2C_St._Petersburg%2C_FL.jpg/440px-Collections_Archive%2C_St._Petersburg_Museum_of_History%2C_St._Petersburg%2C_FL.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Archives preserve large quantities of original sources for researchers to access.</figcaption></figure> A secondary source is a source that analyses or interprets information found in other sources.<a href="#cite_note-36">[31]</a> Whether a document is a primary or a secondary source depends not only on the document itself but also on the purpose for which it is used. For example, if a historian writes a text about slavery based on an analysis of historical documents, then the text is a secondary source on slavery and a primary source on the historian's opinion.<a href="#cite_note-37">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[f]</a> Consistency with available sources is one of the main standards of historical works. For instance, the discovery of new sources may lead historians to revise or dismiss previously accepted narratives.<a href="#cite_note-40">[34]</a> To find and access primary and secondary sources, historians consult <a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">archives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libraries" class="mw-redirect" title="Libraries">libraries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Museum" title="Museum">museums</a>. Archives play a central role by preserving countless original sources and making them available to researchers in a systematic and accessible manner. Thanks to technological advances, historians increasingly rely on online resources, which offer vast digital <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">databases</a> with efficient methods to search and access specific documents.<a href="#cite_note-41">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Source_criticism" title="Source criticism">Source criticism</a> is the process of analysing and evaluating the information a source provides.<a href="#cite_note-43">[g]</a> Typically, this process begins with external criticism, which evaluates the authenticity of a source. It addresses the questions of when and where the source was created and seeks to identify the author, understand their reason for producing the source, and determine if it has undergone some type of modification since its creation. Additionally, the process involves distinguishing between original works, mere copies, and deceptive forgeries.<a href="#cite_note-44">[37]</a> Internal criticism evaluates the content of a source, typically beginning with the clarification of the meaning within the source. This involves disambiguating individual terms that could be misunderstood but may also require a general translation if the source is written in an ancient language.<a href="#cite_note-46">[h]</a> Once the information content of a source is understood, internal criticism is specifically interested in determining accuracy. Critics ask whether the information is reliable or misrepresents the topic and further question whether the source is comprehensive or omits important details. One way to make these assessments is to evaluate whether the author was able, in principle, to provide a faithful presentation of the studied event and to consider the influences of their intentions and prejudices. Being aware of the inadequacies of a source helps historians decide whether and which aspects of it to trust, and how to use it to construct a narrative.<a href="#cite_note-47">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthesis_and_schools_of_thought">Synthesis and schools of thought</h3></div> The selection, analysis, and criticism of sources result in the validation of a large collection of mostly isolated statements about the past. As a next step, sometimes termed historical synthesis, historians examine how the individual pieces of evidence fit together to form part of a larger story.<a href="#cite_note-49">[i]</a> Constructing this broader perspective is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the topic as a whole. It is a creative aspect<a href="#cite_note-51">[j]</a> of historical writing that reconstructs, interprets, and explains what happened by showing how different events are connected.<a href="#cite_note-52">[42]</a> In this way, historians address not only which events occurred but also why they occurred and what consequences they had.<a href="#cite_note-53">[43]</a> While there are no universally accepted techniques for this synthesis, historians rely on various interpretative tools and approaches in this process.<a href="#cite_note-54">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Auguste_Comte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Drawing of a seated man in formal dark clothes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Auguste_Comte.jpg/220px-Auguste_Comte.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="2048"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 282px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Auguste_Comte.jpg/220px-Auguste_Comte.jpg" data-alt="Drawing of a seated man in formal dark clothes" data-width="220" data-height="282" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Auguste_Comte.jpg/330px-Auguste_Comte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Auguste_Comte.jpg/440px-Auguste_Comte.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> articulated <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, advocating a science-based approach to history.<a href="#cite_note-55">[45]</a></figcaption></figure> One tool to provide an accessible overview of complex developments is the use of <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodization</a>, which divides a timeframe into different periods, each organized around central themes or developments that shaped the period. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">three-age system</a> divides early human history into <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> based on the predominant materials and technologies during these periods.<a href="#cite_note-56">[46]</a> Another methodological tool is the examination of silences, gaps or omissions in the historical record of events that occurred but did not leave significant evidential traces. Silences can happen when contemporaries find information too obvious to document but may also occur if there are specific reasons to withhold or destroy information.<a href="#cite_note-auto-57">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[k]</a> Conversely, when large <a href="/wiki/Dataset" class="mw-redirect" title="Dataset">datasets</a> are available, <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">quantitative approaches</a> can be used. For instance, economic and social historians commonly employ <a href="/wiki/Statistical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical analysis">statistical analysis</a> to identify patterns and trends associated with large groups.<a href="#cite_note-60">[49]</a> Different schools of thought often come with their own methodological implications for how to write history.<a href="#cite_note-61">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivists</a> emphasize the scientific nature of historical inquiry, focusing on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> to discover <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objective truths</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[51]</a> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernists</a> reject <a href="/wiki/Grand_narratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand narratives">grand narratives</a> that claim to offer a single, objective truth. Instead, they highlight the <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">subjective</a> nature of historical interpretation, which leads to a multiplicity of divergent perspectives.<a href="#cite_note-63">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxists</a> interpret historical developments as expressions of economic forces and <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> highlights long-term social and economic trends while relying on quantitative and interdisciplinary methods.<a href="#cite_note-65">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist historians</a> study the role of <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> in history, with a particular interest in the experiences of women to challenge <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal</a> perspectives.<a href="#cite_note-66">[55]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Areas_of_study">Areas of study</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> History is a wide field of inquiry encompassing many branches. Some branches focus on a specific time period, while others concentrate on a particular geographic region or a distinct theme. Specializations of different types can usually be combined; for example, a work on economic history in ancient Egypt merges temporal, regional, and thematic perspectives. For topics with a broad scope, the amount of primary sources is often too extensive for an individual historian to review, forcing them to either narrow the scope of their topic or rely on secondary sources to arrive at a wide overview.<a href="#cite_note-67">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_period">By period</h3></div> Chronological division is a common approach to organizing the vast expanse of history into more manageable segments. Different <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periods</a> are often defined based on dominant themes that characterize a specific time frame and significant events that initiated these developments or brought them to an end. Depending on the selected context and level of detail, a period may be as short as a decade or longer than several centuries.<a href="#cite_note-68">[57]</a> A traditionally influential approach divides <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a> into <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">post-classical history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern history">early modern history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[l]</a> Depending on the region and theme, the time frames covered by these periods can vary and historians may use entirely different periodizations.<a href="#cite_note-72">[60]</a> For example, traditional periodizations of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese history">Chinese history</a> follow the <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">main dynasties</a>,<a href="#cite_note-73">[61]</a> and the division into <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-Columbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">colonial</a>, and post-colonial periods plays a central role in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">history of the Americas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[62]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucy_Mexico.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Photo of the skeleton of a female hominin in a standing position, displayed in a museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Lucy_Mexico.jpg/130px-Lucy_Mexico.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="228" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="700"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 130px;height: 228px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Lucy_Mexico.jpg/130px-Lucy_Mexico.jpg" data-alt="Photo of the skeleton of a female hominin in a standing position, displayed in a museum" data-width="130" data-height="228" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Lucy_Mexico.jpg/195px-Lucy_Mexico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Lucy_Mexico.jpg/260px-Lucy_Mexico.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Historians draw on evidence from various fields to examine prehistory, including fossils like <a href="/wiki/Lucy_(Australopithecus)" title="Lucy (Australopithecus)">Lucy</a>.</figcaption></figure> The study of prehistory includes the examination of the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">human-like species</a> several million years ago, leading to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">anatomically modern humans</a> about 200,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-75">[63]</a> Subsequently, <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">humans migrated out of Africa</a> to populate most of the earth. Towards the end of prehistory, technological advances in the form of new and improved tools led many groups to give up their established <a href="/wiki/Nomadic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic">nomadic</a> lifestyle, based on <a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_gathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunting and gathering">hunting and gathering</a>, in favour of a <a href="/wiki/Sedentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedentary">sedentary</a> lifestyle supported by <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">early forms of agriculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[64]</a> The absence of written documents from this period presents researchers with unique challenges. It results in an interdisciplinary approach relying on other forms of evidence from fields such as <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[65]</a> Ancient historians examine the <a href="/wiki/Cradles_of_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Cradles of civilization">emergence of the first major civilizations</a> in regions such as <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley">Indus Valley</a>, China, and Peru, beginning as early as 3500 BCE in some regions. The new social, economic, and political complexities necessitated the <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Invention of writing">development of writing systems</a>. Thanks to advancements in agriculture, surplus food allowed these civilizations to support larger populations, accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, the establishment of trade networks, and the emergence of regional empires. Meanwhile, influential religious systems and philosophical ideas were first formulated, such as <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[66]</a> In the study of post-classical history, which began around 500 CE, historians note the growing influence of religions. <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a> religions, like Buddhism, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, spread rapidly and established themselves as <a href="/wiki/World_religions" title="World religions">world religions</a>, marking a cultural shift as they gradually replaced local belief systems. Meanwhile, inter-regional trade networks flourished, leading to increased technological and cultural exchange. Conquering many territories in Asia and Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> became a dominant force during the 13th and 14th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-79">[67]</a> Historians focused on early modern history, which started roughly 1500 CE, commonly highlight how European states rose to global power. As <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empires</a>, they explored and <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonized</a> large parts of the world. As a result, the Americas were integrated into the global network, triggering a vast biological exchange of plants, animals, people, and diseases.<a href="#cite_note-81">[m]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> prompted major discoveries and accelerated technological progress. It was accompanied by other intellectual developments, such as <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, which ushered in <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[69]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Oil painting of worker in an iron rolling mill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2199"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 137px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" data-alt="Oil painting of worker in an iron rolling mill" data-width="220" data-height="137" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on economic and social life, marking the transition from <a href="/wiki/Agrarian_society" title="Agrarian society">agrarian</a> to <a href="/wiki/Industrial_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial societies">industrial societies</a>.</figcaption></figure> In the study of modern history, which began at the end of the 18th century, historians are interested in how the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> transformed economies by introducing more efficient modes of production. Western powers <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Imperialism">established vast colonial empires</a>, gaining superiority through industrialized military technology. The increased international exchange of goods, ideas, and people marked the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. Various social revolutions challenged <a href="/wiki/Autocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic">autocratic</a> and colonial regimes, paving the way for <a href="/wiki/Democracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Democracies">democracies</a>. Many developments in fields like science, technology, economy, living standards, and human population accelerated at unprecedented rates. This happened despite the widespread destruction caused by two <a href="/wiki/World_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="World wars">world wars</a>, which rebalanced international power relations by undermining European dominance.<a href="#cite_note-83">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_geographic_location">By geographic location</h3></div> Areas of historical study can also be categorized by the geographic locations they examine.<a href="#cite_note-84">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> plays a central role in history through its influence on <a href="/wiki/Food_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Food production">food production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a>, economic activities, political boundaries, and cultural interactions.<a href="#cite_note-85">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[n]</a> Some historical works limit their scope to small regions, such as a village or a settlement. Others focus on broad territories that encompass entire continents, like the histories of Africa, Asia, Europe, the Americas, and Oceania.<a href="#cite_note-88">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Photo of the Pyramids of Giza, with the three main pyramids at the center against a blue sky in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg/220px-Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="10104" data-file-height="4210"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 92px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg/220px-Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg" data-alt="Photo of the Pyramids of Giza, with the three main pyramids at the center against a blue sky in the background" data-width="220" data-height="92" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg/330px-Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg/440px-Pyramids_of_the_Giza_Necropolis.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pyramids_of_Giza" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyramids of Giza">Pyramids of Giza</a> showcase the lasting heritage of the ancient Egyptian civilization.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">history of Africa</a> begins with the examination of the evolution of anatomically modern humans.<a href="#cite_note-89">[75]</a> Ancient historians describe how the invention of writing and the establishment of civilization happened in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> in the 4th millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-90">[76]</a> Over the next millennia, other notable civilizations and kingdoms formed in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Axum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[77]</a> Islam began spreading across North Africa in the 7th century CE and became the dominant faith in many empires. Meanwhile, trade along the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_route" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-Saharan route">trans-Saharan route</a> intensified.<a href="#cite_note-92">[78]</a> Beginning in the 15th century, millions of Africans were enslaved and forcibly transported to the Americas as part of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[79]</a> Most of the continent <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">was colonized</a> by European powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-94">[80]</a> Among rising <a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">nationalism</a>, African states gradually <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">gained independence</a> in the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, a period that saw economic progress, rapid population growth, and struggles for political stability.<a href="#cite_note-95">[81]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Portrait of an old, bearded Genghis dressed in white clothing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg/220px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3180" data-file-height="4040"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 279px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg/220px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg" data-alt="Portrait of an old, bearded Genghis dressed in white clothing" data-width="220" data-height="279" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg/330px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg/440px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>In the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> conquered large parts of Asia, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>.</figcaption></figure> Historians studying the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">history of Asia</a> note the arrival of anatomically modern humans around 100,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-96">[82]</a> As one of the cradles of civilization, Asia was home to some of the first ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China, which began to emerge in the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE.<a href="#cite_note-97">[83]</a> In the following millennia, all major world religions and several influential philosophical traditions were conceived and spread, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, Christianity, and Islam.<a href="#cite_note-98">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> facilitated trade and cultural exchange across <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, while powerful empires rose and fell, such as the Mongol Empire, which dominated the continent during the 13th and 14th centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-99">[85]</a> European influence grew over the following centuries, culminating in the 19th and early 20th centuries when many parts of Asia came under direct colonial control <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Asia" title="Decolonisation of Asia">until the end of World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[86]</a> The post-independence period was characterized by modernization, economic growth, and a steep increase in population.<a href="#cite_note-101">[87]</a> In the study of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">history of Europe</a>, historians describe the arrival of the first anatomically modern humans about 45,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-102">[88]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> laid the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">philosophy</a>, and politics in the first millennium BCE,<a href="#cite_note-103">[89]</a> while their cultural heritage continued within the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and its continuation, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[90]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a> began with the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in the 5th century CE and was marked by the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread of Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[91]</a> Starting in the 15th century, European exploration and colonization interconnected the globe, while cultural, intellectual, and scientific developments transformed Western societies.<a href="#cite_note-106">[92]</a> From the late 18th to the early 20th centuries, European global dominance was further solidified by the Industrial Revolution and the establishment of large overseas colonies.<a href="#cite_note-107">[93]</a> It came to an end because of the devastating effects of two world wars.<a href="#cite_note-108">[94]</a> In the following <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> era, the continent was divided into a <a href="/wiki/Western_bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Western bloc">Western</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern bloc">Eastern bloc</a>. They pursued political and economic integration in the aftermath of the Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-109">[95]</a> Examining the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">history of the Americas</a>, historians document that the first humans arrived around 20,000 to 15,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-110">[96]</a> The Americas were home to some of the earliest civilizations, like the <a href="/wiki/Norte_Chico_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Norte Chico civilization">Norte Chico civilization</a> in South America and the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olmec_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec civilization">Olmec civilizations</a> in Central America.<a href="#cite_note-111">[97]</a> Over the next millennia, major empires arose beside them, such as the <a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inca_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca empire">Inca empires</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[98]</a> Following the arrival of the Europeans from the late 15th century onwards, the spread of newly introduced diseases drastically reduced the local population. Together with <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">colonization</a> and the massive influx of African slaves, it led to the collapse of major empires as demographic and cultural landscapes were reshaped.<a href="#cite_note-113">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">Independence movements</a> in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the formation of new nations across the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-114">[100]</a> In the 20th century, the United States emerged as a dominant global power and a key player in the Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-115">[101]</a> In the study of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">history of Oceania</a>, historians note the arrival of humans about 60,000 to 50,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-116">[102]</a> They established <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">diverse regional societies and cultures</a>, first in Australia and Papua New Guinea and later also on other <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Islands">Pacific Islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[103]</a> The arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century prompted significant transformations, and by the end of the 19th century, most of the region had come under Western control.<a href="#cite_note-118">[104]</a> Oceania was dragged into various conflicts during the world wars and experienced <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Oceania" title="Decolonisation of Oceania">decolonization in the post-war period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_theme">By theme</h3></div> Historians often limit their inquiry to a specific theme belonging to a particular field.<a href="#cite_note-120">[106]</a> Some historians propose a general subdivision into three major themes: <a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social history</a>. However, the boundaries between these branches are vague and their relation to other thematic branches, such as <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">intellectual history</a>, is not always clear.<a href="#cite_note-121">[107]</a> Political history studies the organization of <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> in society, examining how power structures arise, develop, and interact. Throughout most of recorded history, <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a> or state-like structures have been central to this field of study. It explores how a state was <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">organized internally</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Political_faction" title="Political faction">factions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">parties</a>, leaders, and other political institutions. It also examines which <a href="/wiki/Policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Policies">policies</a> were implemented and how the state interacted with other states.<a href="#cite_note-122">[108]</a> Political history has been studied since antiquity, making it the oldest branch of history, while other major subfields have only become established branches in the past century.<a href="#cite_note-123">[109]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Photo of a reconstructed medieval trebuchet on a stone platform against a cloudy sky in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg/220px-Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3092" data-file-height="2058"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg/220px-Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg" data-alt="Photo of a reconstructed medieval trebuchet on a stone platform against a cloudy sky in the background" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg/330px-Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg/440px-Tr%C3%A9buchet_Castelnaud.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Military history studies armed conflicts, including advancements in military technology, like <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchets</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military history</a> are closely related to political history. Diplomatic history examines <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a> between states. It covers <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">foreign policy</a> topics such as negotiations, strategic considerations, <a href="/wiki/Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties">treaties</a>, and conflicts between nations as well as the role of <a href="/wiki/International_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="International organizations">international organizations</a> in these processes.<a href="#cite_note-124">[110]</a> Military history studies the impact and development of <a href="/wiki/Armed_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed conflict">armed conflicts</a> in human history. This includes the examination of specific events, like the analysis of a particular battle and the discussion of the different causes of a war. It also involves more general considerations about the evolution of warfare, including advancements in <a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">military technology</a>, strategies, tactics, and institutions.<a href="#cite_note-125">[111]</a> Economic history examines how <a href="/wiki/Commodities" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodities">commodities</a> are produced, exchanged, and consumed. It covers economic aspects such as the use of land, <a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">labour</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> of goods, the costs and <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_income" class="mw-redirect" title="Distribution of income">distribution of income</a> and <a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_wealth" title="Distribution of wealth">wealth</a>. Economic historians typically focus on general trends in the form of impersonal forces, such as <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>, rather than the actions and decisions of individuals. If enough data is available, they rely on quantitative methods, like statistical analysis. For periods before the modern era, available data is often limited, forcing economic historians to rely on scarce sources and extrapolate information from them.<a href="#cite_note-126">[112]</a> Social history is a broad field investigating social phenomena, but its precise definition is disputed. Some theorists understand it as the study of everyday life outside the domains of politics and economics, including cultural practices, family structures, community interactions, and education. A closely related approach focuses on experience rather than activities, examining how members of particular social groups, like <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">races</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">genders</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Age_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Age group">age groups</a>, experienced their world. Other definitions see social history as the study of social problems, like poverty, disease, and crime, or take a broader perspective by examining how whole <a href="/wiki/Societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Societies">societies</a> developed.<a href="#cite_note-127">[113]</a> Closely related fields include <a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">gender history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious history">religious history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[114]</a> Intellectual history is the history of ideas, and studies how concepts, philosophies, and <a href="/wiki/Ideologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideologies">ideologies</a> have evolved. It is particularly interested in academic fields but not limited to them, including the study of the beliefs and prejudices of ordinary people. In addition to studying intellectual movements themselves, it also examines the cultural and social contexts that shaped them and their influence on other historical developments.<a href="#cite_note-129">[115]</a> As closely related fields, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a> investigates the development of philosophical thought<a href="#cite_note-130">[116]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a> studies the evolution of scientific theories and practices.<a href="#cite_note-131">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">Art history</a>, another connected discipline, examines historical <a href="/wiki/Works_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Works of art">works of art</a> and the development of artistic activities, <a href="/wiki/Artistic_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Artistic style">styles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Artistic_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Artistic movement">movements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a> studies the relation between humans and their environment. It seeks to understand how humans and the rest of nature have affected each other in the course of history.<a href="#cite_note-133">[119]</a> Other thematic branches include <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">constitutional history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">urban history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">business history</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history of technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_history" title="Medical history">medical history</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">history of education</a>, and <a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">people's history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3></div> Some branches of history are characterized by the <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methods</a> they employ, such as <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">quantitative history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_history" title="Digital history">digital history</a>, which rely on <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative methods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">digital media</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Comparative_history" title="Comparative history">Comparative history</a> compares historical phenomena from distinct times, regions, or cultures to examine their similarities and differences.<a href="#cite_note-136">[122]</a> Unlike most other branches, <a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">oral history</a> relies on oral reports rather than written documents, encompassing eyewitness accounts, <a href="/wiki/Hearsay" title="Hearsay">hearsay</a>, and communal <a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">legends</a>. It reflects the personal experiences, interpretations, and <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memories</a> of common people, showcasing not only what objectively happened but also how people subjectively remember it.<a href="#cite_note-137">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_history" title="Counterfactual history">Counterfactual history</a> uses <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_thinking" title="Counterfactual thinking">counterfactual thinking</a> to examine alternative courses of history, exploring what could have happened under different circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-138">[124]</a> Certain branches of history are distinguished by their theoretical outlook, such as <a href="/wiki/Marxist_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist history">Marxist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">feminist history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[125]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_World_(1820).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="An old double-hemisphere map of the world" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Map_of_the_World_%281820%29.jpg/220px-Map_of_the_World_%281820%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6576" data-file-height="3801"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 127px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Map_of_the_World_%281820%29.jpg/220px-Map_of_the_World_%281820%29.jpg" data-alt="An old double-hemisphere map of the world" data-width="220" data-height="127" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Map_of_the_World_%281820%29.jpg/330px-Map_of_the_World_%281820%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Map_of_the_World_%281820%29.jpg/440px-Map_of_the_World_%281820%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/World_history" class="mw-redirect" title="World history">World history</a> examines history on a global level, incorporating the whole of <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[126]</a></figcaption></figure> Some distinctions focus on the scope of the studied topic. <a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a> is the branch with the broadest scope, covering everything from the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> to the present, incorporating elements of <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a> is another branch with a wide topic. It examines <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a> as a whole, starting with the evolution of human-like species.<a href="#cite_note-142">[128]</a> The terms <a href="/wiki/Macrohistory" title="Macrohistory">macrohistory</a>, mesohistory, and <a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">microhistory</a> refer to different scales of analysis, ranging from large-scale patterns that affect the whole globe to detailed studies of <a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">local contexts</a>, small communities, <a href="/wiki/Family_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Family history">family histories</a>, particular individuals, or specific events.<a href="#cite_note-143">[129]</a> Closely related to microhistory is the genre of <a href="/wiki/Historical_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical biography">historical biography</a>, which recounts an individual's life in its historical context and the legacy it left.<a href="#cite_note-144">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_history" title="Public history">Public history</a> involves activities that present history to the <a href="/wiki/General_public" class="mw-redirect" title="General public">general public</a>. It usually happens outside the traditional academic settings in contexts like <a href="/wiki/Museum" title="Museum">museums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historical_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical site">historical sites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heritage_tourism" title="Heritage tourism">heritage tourism</a>, and popular media.<a href="#cite_note-145">[131]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Evolution_of_the_discipline">Evolution of the discipline</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> Before the invention of writing, the preservation and transmission of historical knowledge were limited to oral traditions.<a href="#cite_note-146">[132]</a> Early forms of historical writing mixed facts with mythological elements, such as the <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Mesopotamia">ancient Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[133]</a> Published in the 5th century BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 484–420 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-149">[o]</a> was one of the foundational texts of the Western historical tradition, putting more emphasis on factual accounts and evidence-based inquiry than previous works.<a href="#cite_note-150">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 460–400 BCE) followed and further refined Herodotus's approach but focused more on particular political and military developments in contrast to the wide scope and <a href="/wiki/Ethnographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnographic">ethnographic</a> elements of Herodotus's work.<a href="#cite_note-151">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> historiography was heavily influenced by Greek traditions. It often included not only historical facts but also <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">moral judgments</a> of <a href="/wiki/Historical_figure" title="Historical figure">historical figures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[p]</a> One school used an <a href="/wiki/Annalistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Annalistic">annalistic</a> style, arranging past events chronologically by year, while other historians preferred continuous prose.<a href="#cite_note-154">[138]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Photo of historical manuscript written in black ink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg/220px-%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="98" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1333"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 98px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg/220px-%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg" data-alt="Photo of historical manuscript written in black ink" data-width="220" data-height="98" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg/330px-%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg/440px-%E3%80%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E3%80%8F%E5%94%90%E5%86%99%E6%9C%AC.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a> was one of the earliest comprehensive accounts of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">history of China</a> and the wider world known to the Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-155">[139]</a></figcaption></figure> Another complex <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">tradition of historical writing</a> emerged in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, with early precursors starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE. It considered annals the highest form of historical writing and emphasized verification through sources. This tradition was associated with <a href="/wiki/Confucian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian philosophy">Confucian philosophy</a> and closely tied to the government in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">ruling dynasty</a>. Chinese historians established a coherent and systematic method for recording historical events earlier than other traditions.<a href="#cite_note-156">[140]</a> Of particular influence was the work of <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 145–86/85 BCE), whose meticulous research method and inclusion of alternative viewpoints shaped subsequent historiographical standards.<a href="#cite_note-157">[141]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a>, historical writing was closely associated with religion. It often did not clearly distinguish between fact and myth, as seen in works like the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[142]</a> In Europe starting in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> and continuing through the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a>, history was primarily documented by the <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a> in the form of chronicles. <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> historians drew from <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> traditions and reinterpreted the past from a religious perspective as a narrative highlighting God's divine plan.<a href="#cite_note-159">[143]</a> Influential contributions shaping this tradition were made by <a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesarea">Eusebius of Caesarea</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 260/275–339 CE), <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (354–430 CE), and <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 672/3–735 CE).<a href="#cite_note-160">[144]</a> In the Islamic world, historical writing was similarly influenced by religion, interpreting the past from a <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> perspective. It placed great importance on the <a href="/wiki/Isnad" title="Isnad">chain of transmission</a> to preserve the authority of historical accounts.<a href="#cite_note-161">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">Al-Tabari</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 838/839–923 CE) wrote a comprehensive history, spanning from the creation of the world to his present day. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (1332–1406 CE) reflected on philosophical issues underlying the practice of historians, such as universal patterns shaping historical changes and the limits of historical truth.<a href="#cite_note-162">[146]</a> With the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Tang_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tang Dynasty">Tang Dynasty</a> (618–907 CE) in China, historical writing became increasingly institutionalized as a bureau for the writing of history was established in 629 CE. This approach followed a strict distinction between historical events and the historical texts describing them. The bureau also oversaw the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records" title="Veritable Records">Veritable Records</a>, a comprehensive compilation serving as the basis of the standard national history.<a href="#cite_note-163">[147]</a> Historical writing in the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279 CE) happened in a variety of historical genres, including encyclopedias, biographies, and historical novels, while history became a standard subject in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">Chinese educational system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[148]</a> Influenced by the Chinese model, a <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">tradition of historical writing emerged in Japan</a> in the 8th century CE. It was also closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_House_of_Japan" title="Imperial House of Japan">imperial household</a>, but Japanese historians placed less importance on a critical evaluation of sources than their Chinese counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-165">[149]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, the different historical traditions came increasingly into contact with each other.<a href="#cite_note-166">[150]</a> Starting in 14th-century Europe, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanists</a> used sophisticated text criticism to scrutinize earlier religious historical works, which contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a> of historical writing. During the 15th to 17th centuries, historians regarded history as a <a href="/wiki/Didactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Didactic">didactic</a> tool. They began to target the general public while the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> made written documents more accessible and affordable. At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Empiricist" class="mw-redirect" title="Empiricist">empiricist</a> thought associated with the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> questioned the possibility of arriving at universal historical truths.<a href="#cite_note-167">[151]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> in the 18th century, historical writing was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scepticism">scepticism</a>. Historians tried to uncover deeper patterns and meaning in the past while the scope of historical inquiry expanded to include societal and economic topics as well as <a href="/wiki/Comparative_history" title="Comparative history">comparisons between different cultures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[152]</a> In China during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644), public interest in historical writings and their availability also increased. In addition to the continuation of the Veritable Records by official governmental historians, non-official works by private scholars flourished. These scholars tended to use a more creative style and sometimes challenged orthodox accounts.<a href="#cite_note-169">[153]</a> In the Islamic world, new traditions of historical writings emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman empires</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[154]</a> Meanwhile in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, European explorers recorded and interpreted indigenous narratives, which had been passed down through oral and <a href="/wiki/Pictographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictographic">pictographic</a> practices. These views sometimes contested traditional European perspectives.<a href="#cite_note-171">[155]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jebens,_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_(detail)_-_1875.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Painting of an older man with white hair dressed in a formal black garment with an ornate badge on his chest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg/220px-Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="733"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 305px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg/220px-Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg" data-alt="Painting of an older man with white hair dressed in a formal black garment with an ornate badge on his chest" data-width="220" data-height="305" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg/330px-Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg/440px-Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Leopold von Ranke</a> revolutionized the standards of historical scholarship by introducing a thorough evaluation of primary sources.<a href="#cite_note-172">[156]</a></figcaption></figure> Historical writing was transformed in the 19th century as it became more <a href="/wiki/Professionalization" title="Professionalization">professional</a> and scientific. Following the work of <a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Leopold von Ranke</a> (1795–1886), a systematic method of source criticism was widely accepted while <a href="/wiki/Academic_institution" title="Academic institution">academic institutions</a> dedicated to history were established in the form of university departments, professional associations, and journals.<a href="#cite_note-173">[157]</a> In tune with this scientific outlook, <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> (1798–1857) formulated the school of <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> and aimed to discover general laws of history, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">laws of nature</a> studied by physicists.<a href="#cite_note-174">[158]</a> Building on the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> (1770–1831), <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> (1818–1883) described one such general law, arguing that economic forces and <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggles</a> are the fundamental drivers of historical change.<a href="#cite_note-175">[159]</a> Another influential development was the spread of European historiographical methods, which became the dominant approach to the academic study of the past worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-176">[160]</a> In the 20th century, traditional historical assumptions and practices were challenged while the scope of historical research broadened.<a href="#cite_note-177">[161]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> used insights from <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> to study long-term developments.<a href="#cite_note-178">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian regime">Authoritarian regimes</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, manipulated historical narratives for <a href="/wiki/Ideological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideological">ideological</a> purposes.<a href="#cite_note-179">[163]</a> Various historians covered unconventional perspectives, focusing on the experiences of <a href="/wiki/Marginalized_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginalized groups">marginalized groups</a> through approaches such as <a href="/wiki/History_from_below" class="mw-redirect" title="History from below">history from below</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">microhistory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">feminist history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a> aimed to undermine the hegemony of the Western approach and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> rejected the claim to a single universal truth in history.<a href="#cite_note-181">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual historians</a> examined the historical development of ideas.<a href="#cite_note-182">[166]</a> In the second half of the century, attempts to write <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">histories of the world</a> as a whole gained momentum, while technological advances fostered the growth of <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">quantitative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_history" title="Digital history">digital history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[167]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Related_fields">Related fields</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_(Casbah_of_Bejaia,_Algeria).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Bust of a man with a turban and a beard" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg/180px-Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="276" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2720" data-file-height="4168"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 276px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg/180px-Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg" data-alt="Bust of a man with a turban and a beard" data-width="180" data-height="276" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg/270px-Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg/360px-Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_%28Casbah_of_Bejaia%2C_Algeria%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> was an influential figure in Islamic historiography.<a href="#cite_note-184">[168]</a></figcaption></figure> Historiography is the study of the methods and development of historical research. Historiographers examine what historians do, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Metatheory" title="Metatheory">metatheory</a> in the form of a history of history. Some theorists use the term historiography in a different sense to refer to written accounts of the past.<a href="#cite_note-185">[169]</a> A central topic in historiography as a metatheory focuses on the standards of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> and reasoning in historical inquiry. Historiographers examine and codify how historians use sources to construct narratives about the past, including the analysis of the interpretative assumptions from which they proceed. Closely related issues include the <a href="/wiki/Writing_style" title="Writing style">style</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhetorical" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhetorical">rhetorical</a> presentation of works of history.<a href="#cite_note-186">[170]</a> By comparing the works of different historians, historiographers identify schools of thought based on shared research methods, assumptions, and styles.<a href="#cite_note-187">[171]</a> For example, they examine the characteristics of the <a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a>, like its use of quantitative data from various disciplines and its interest in economic and social developments taking place over extended periods.<a href="#cite_note-188">[172]</a> Comparisons also extend to whole eras from ancient to modern times. This way, historiography traces the development of history as an academic discipline, highlighting how the dominant methods, themes, and research goals have changed over time.<a href="#cite_note-189">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_history">Philosophy of history</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></div> The philosophy of history<a href="#cite_note-191">[q]</a> investigates the theoretical foundations of history. It is interested both in the past itself as a series of interconnected events and in the academic field studying this process. Insights and approaches from various branches of philosophy are relevant to this endeavour, such as <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[175]</a> In examining history as a process, philosophers explore the basic entities that make up historical phenomena. Some approaches rely primarily on the beliefs and actions of individual humans, while others include <a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">collective</a> and other general entities, such as <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ideologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideologies">ideologies</a>, and social forces.<a href="#cite_note-193">[176]</a> A related topic concerns the nature of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal mechanisms</a> connecting historic events with their causes and consequences.<a href="#cite_note-194">[177]</a> One view holds that there are general laws of history that determine the course of events, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">laws of nature</a> studied in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>. According to another perspective, causal relations between historic events are unique and shaped by contingent factors.<a href="#cite_note-195">[178]</a> Some philosophers suggest that the general direction of the course of history follows large patterns. According to one proposal, history is cyclic, meaning that on a sufficiently large scale, individual events or general trends <a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">repeat</a>. Another theory asserts that history is a linear, <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a> process moving towards a predetermined goal.<a href="#cite_note-196">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[r]</a> The topics of philosophy of history and historiography overlap as both are interested in the standards of <a href="/wiki/Historical_thinking" title="Historical thinking">historical reasoning</a>. Historiographers typically focus more on describing specific methods and developments encountered in the study of history. Philosophers of history, by contrast, tend to explore more general patterns, including evaluative questions about which methods and assumptions are correct.<a href="#cite_note-199">[181]</a> Historical reasoning is sometimes used in philosophy and other disciplines as a method to explain phenomena. This approach, known as <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>, argues that understanding something requires knowledge of its unique history or how it evolved. For instance, historicism about <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> states that truth depends on historical circumstances, meaning that there are no transhistorical truths. Historicism contrasts with approaches that seek understanding based on timeless and universal principles.<a href="#cite_note-200">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historical_objectivity">Historical objectivity</h4></div> A philosophical topic regarding historical research is the possibility of an <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objective</a> account of history. Various theorists argue that this ideal is not achievable, pointing to the <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">subjective</a> nature of <a href="/wiki/Interpretation_(philosophy)" title="Interpretation (philosophy)">interpretation</a>, the narrative aspect of history, and the influence of personal values on the perspective and actions of both historic individuals and historians. According to one view, some particular facts are objective, for example, facts about when a drought occurred or which army was defeated. However, this view does not ensure general objectivity since historians have to interpret and synthesize facts to arrive at an overall narrative describing large trends and developments.<a href="#cite_note-201">[183]</a> Some outlooks associated with realism, <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, and reconstructionism,<a href="#cite_note-202">[184]</a> conceptualise history as the search for truth or knowledge, which they see as recoverable through rigorous evaluation and careful interpretation of evidence.<a href="#cite_note-203">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[s]</a> Other scholars critique this view, emphasising the subjective and partial nature of historical knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-210">[t]</a> <a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivists</a> claim that historical perspectives are inherently subjective, as they require selecting particular sources and inquiries, and ascertaining what information can be thought as historical fact. They argue that statements can only be objective within or relative to one of several competing historical perspectives.<a href="#cite_note-211">[191]</a> A stronger <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">scepticist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativist</a> outlook states that no historical knowledge can be proven objective.<a href="#cite_note-212">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[u]</a> This emphasis on subjectivities has been extended by <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a> theories that suggest that it is impossible to know the past objectively, adding that meaning is created through human-made texts, the language of which "constitute our world as we perceive it".<a href="#cite_note-215">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[v]</a> Neo-realists have responded to this trend by reemphasising the centrality of empiricist methodologies to historical analysis, while recognising that there are benefits gained from engaging with subjectivities.<a href="#cite_note-DonnellyNorton104-106-218">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[w]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> History is part of the school <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a> in most countries.<a href="#cite_note-220">[197]</a> Early history education aims to make students interested in the past and familiarize them with fundamental concepts of historical thought. By fostering a basic historical awareness, it seeks to instil a <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">sense of identity</a> by helping them understand their cultural roots.<a href="#cite_note-221">[198]</a> It often takes a narrative form by presenting children with simple stories, which may focus on historic individuals or the origins of local holidays, festivals, and food.<a href="#cite_note-222">[199]</a> More advanced history education encountered in <a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary school</a> covers a broader spectrum of topics, ranging from ancient to modern history, at both local and global levels. It further aims to acquaint students with historical research methodologies, including the abilities to interpret and critically evaluate historical claims.<a href="#cite_note-223">[200]</a> History teachers employ a variety of <a href="/wiki/Teaching_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching methods">teaching methods</a>. They include narrative presentations of historical developments, questions to engage students and prompt <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical thinking</a>, and discussions on historical topics. Students work with historical sources directly to learn how to analyse and interpret evidence, both individually and in group activities. They engage in historical writing to develop the skills of articulating their thoughts clearly and persuasively. <a href="/wiki/Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">Assessments</a> through oral or written tests aim to ensure that learning goals are reached.<a href="#cite_note-224">[201]</a> Traditional methodologies in history education often present numerous facts, like dates of significant events and names of historical figures, which students are expected to memorize. Alternative approaches seek to foster a more active engagement and a deeper understanding of general patterns, focusing not only on what happened but also on why it happened and its lasting historical significance.<a href="#cite_note-225">[202]</a> History education in <a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">state schools</a> serves a variety of purposes. A key skill is historical literacy, the ability to understand, critically analyse, and respond to historical claims. By making students aware of significant developments in the past, they become familiar with various contexts of human life, helping them understand the present and its diverse cultures. At the same time, it fosters a sense of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">cultural identity</a> and prepares students for active <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[203]</a> Knowledge of a shared past and cultural heritage contributes to the formation of a <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national identity</a>. This political aspect of history education may spark disputes about which topics school <a href="/wiki/Textbook" title="Textbook">textbooks</a> should cover. In various regions, it has resulted in so-called history wars over the curriculum.<a href="#cite_note-227">[204]</a> It can lead to a biased treatment of controversial topics in an attempt to present the national heritage in a favourable light.<a href="#cite_note-228">[205]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Photo of a museum gallery showcasing a collection of historic artefacts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg/220px-Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4607" data-file-height="3455"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg/220px-Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg" data-alt="Photo of a museum gallery showcasing a collection of historic artefacts" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg/330px-Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg/440px-Tokyo_National_Museum_Toyokan_P1145505.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Informal_education" title="Informal education">Informal education</a> provided by exhibitions of historic artefacts in museums is part of <a href="/wiki/Public_history" title="Public history">public history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-229">[206]</a></figcaption></figure> In addition to the <a href="/wiki/Formal_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal education">formal education</a> provided in public schools, history is also taught in <a href="/wiki/Informal_education" title="Informal education">informal settings</a> outside the classroom. <a href="/wiki/Public_history" title="Public history">Public history</a> takes place in locations like <a href="/wiki/Museum" title="Museum">museums</a> and memorial sites, where selected artefacts are often used to tell specific stories.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-229">[206]</a> It includes <a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">popular history</a>, which aims to make the past accessible and appealing to a wide audience of non-specialists in media such as books, television programmes, and online content.<a href="#cite_note-230">[207]</a> Informal history education also happens in <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral traditions</a> as narratives about the past are transmitted across generations.<a href="#cite_note-231">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_fields">Other fields</h3></div> History employs an interdisciplinary <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a>, drawing on findings from fields such as <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[209]</a> Archaeologists study man-made historical artefacts and other forms of material evidence. Their findings provide crucial insights into past human activities and cultural developments.<a href="#cite_note-233">[210]</a> The interpretation of archaeological evidence presents unique challenges that differ from the standard historical work with written documents. At the same time, it offers new possibilities by presenting information that was not recorded, allowing historians to access the past of non-literate societies and marginalized groups within literate societies by studying the remains of their <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>. Before the advent of modern archaeology in the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Antiquarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiquarianism">antiquarianism</a> laid the groundwork for this discipline and played a vital role in preserving historical artefacts.<a href="#cite_note-234">[211]</a> Geology and other <a href="/wiki/Earth_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth sciences">earth sciences</a> help historians understand the environmental contexts and physical processes that affected past societies, including <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> conditions, landscapes, and natural events.<a href="#cite_note-235">[212]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a> provides key information about the evolutionary origins of humans as a species, <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">human migration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestry">ancestry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Demographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographic">demographic</a> changes.<a href="#cite_note-236">[213]</a> Anthropologists investigate <a href="/wiki/Human_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Human culture">human culture</a> and behaviour, such as <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belief_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Belief system">belief systems</a>, and ritual practices. This knowledge offers contexts for the interpretation of historical events.<a href="#cite_note-237">[214]</a> <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a> studies the development of languages over time, which can be crucial for the interpretation of ancient documents and can also provide information about migration patterns and cultural exchanges.<a href="#cite_note-238">[215]</a> Historians further rely on evidence from various other fields belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Physical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical sciences">physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological sciences">biological</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[216]</a> In virtue of its relation to <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> and national identity, history is closely connected to <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> and historical theories can directly impact political decisions. For example, <a href="/wiki/Irredentist" class="mw-redirect" title="Irredentist">irredentist</a> attempts by one state to annex territory of another state often rely on historical theories claiming that the disputed territory belonged to the first state in the past.<a href="#cite_note-240">[217]</a> History also plays a central role in so-called historical religions, which base some of their core doctrines on historical events. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> is often categorized as a historical religion because it is centred around historical events surrounding <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-241">[218]</a> History is relevant to many fields by studying their past, including the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[219]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 31px;height: 28px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="31" data-height="28" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_history" title="Glossary of history">Glossary of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_history" title="Outline of history">Outline of history</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Some authors restrict the term history to the factual series of past events and use the term <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> for the study of those events. Others use the term history for the study and representation of the past. They characterize historiography as a <a href="/wiki/Metatheory" title="Metatheory">metatheory</a> studying the methods and historical development of this academic discipline.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Some theorists identify <a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">protohistory</a> as a distinct period after prehistory that spans from the invention of writing to the first attempts to record history.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Big History, formulated by the historian David Christian in the late 1980s, reaches back even further to the Big Bang, incorporating elements of cosmology.<a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Historical revisionism</a>, a related outlook, seeks to overturn established perspectives on history. This can take a variety of forms, from the introduction of new evidence and methods which counter current thinking, to criticising the value or significance of historical events or actors. Some theorists use the term revisionism in a neutral sense for any rejection or reinterpretation of mainstream views. Others associate it with practices that disregard genuine evidence and incorporate intensely skeptical and <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativist</a> views to justify pseudohistorical perspectives, attempting to discredit established knowledge of historical events through epistemic criticism.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Understood in a narrow sense, the historical method is sometimes limited to the evaluation or criticism of sources.<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> The exact definitions of primary source and secondary source are disputed and there is not always consensus on how a particular source should be categorized. For example, if a person was not present at a riot but reports on it shortly after it happened, some historians consider this report a primary source while others see it as a secondary source.<a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Leopold von Ranke</a>'s emphasis on source evaluation significantly influenced the practice of historical research.<a href="#cite_note-42">[36]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Historians consider the context and time of the document to understand the meanings of the terms it uses. For example, if a document uses the word awful, they have to decide whether it expresses the modern meaning 'terrible' or the historical meaning 'worthy of awe'.<a href="#cite_note-45">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> This becomes particularly challenging if different sources provide seemingly contradictory information.<a href="#cite_note-48">[40]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> The creativity and imagination needed for this step is one of the reasons why some theorists understand history as an <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">art</a> rather than a <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[41]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Martha_Washington" title="Martha Washington">Martha Washington</a> burned all private letters between her and her husband <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, leaving decades worth of silences on their relationship.<a href="#cite_note-58">[48]</a> Another cause of silences, the existence of a <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboo</a>, such as a taboo against <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuality</a>, can have the effect that little information on the topic is recorded.<a href="#cite_note-auto-57">[47]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> There are disagreements about when exactly each period starts and ends. Alternative subdivisions may use overlapping or radically different time frames.<a href="#cite_note-70">[59]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> New diseases and European military aggression and exploitation had severe consequences in the form of a drastic loss of life and cultural disruption among Indigenous communities in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-80">[68]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Emphasizing the central relation between geography and history, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Jules Michelet</a> (1798–1874) wrote in his 1833 book Histoire de France, "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".<a href="#cite_note-86">[73]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Herodotus is traditionally considered the "father of history" but has also been called the "father of lies" because not all of his accounts were reliable.<a href="#cite_note-148">[134]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> This aspect is also found to some degree in works of Greek historians, such as <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200–118 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-152">[137]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Historical theory is a closely related term sometimes used as a synonym.<a href="#cite_note-190">[174]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Some philosophers have followed <a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Francis Fukuyama</a> (1952–present) in arguing that the "<a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">end of history</a>" has already arrived based on the claim that the ideological evolution of humanity has reached its endpoint.<a href="#cite_note-197">[180]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> The German historian <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Ranke" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold Ranke">Leopold Ranke</a> was among the most important proponents of this scientific approach in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-204">[186]</a> Key modern scholars taking this view include Sir <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Elton" title="Geoffrey Elton">Geoffrey Elton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Marwick" title="Arthur Marwick">Arthur Marwick</a> and <a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[187]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> These critiques rest on arguments including that: it is impossible to recover the totality of the past; as events have already passed, accounts cannot be verified against events but against other accounts; historical writing is mediated and constructed by the historian and the process of narrative construction involves interpretation and selective readings;<a href="#cite_note-207">[188]</a> and evidence itself is necessarily subjective as its content is mediated through its maker and its survival through processes of selection.<a href="#cite_note-208">[189]</a> From this viewpoint, hindsight and modern theorising also allow historians to piece together evidence and put forward interpretations that "can only be seen in retrospect" and do so from a biased perspective, meaning that the "the known past (history) is an artefact of ours".<a href="#cite_note-209">[190]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Among the proponnents of the more relativist viewpoint was <a href="/wiki/E._H._Carr" title="E. H. Carr">E. H. Carr</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/What_Is_History%3F" title="What Is History?">What Is History?</a> (1961) was noted for articulating the "influence of the historical and social environment on the selection and interpretation of facts by the historian".<a href="#cite_note-213">[193]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> For some scholars, recognising the subjective nature of historical sources has the benefit of opening up new areas of research and new ways of engaging with historical subjects; it also provides new approaches for analysing sources, critiquing dominant narratives, and allowing historians to engage with different concepts.<a href="#cite_note-216">[195]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Scholars advocating for this view include <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DonnellyNorton104-106-218">[196]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKragh1987">Kragh 1987</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OX7d7u_2rF4C&pg=PA41">41</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLittle2020">Little 2020</a>, § 1. History and its representation</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCollingwood2017">Collingwood 2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MWDxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT133">§ 4. History and the Philosophy of History</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRitter1986">Ritter 1986</a>, pp. 193–194</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLittle2020">Little 2020</a>, § 1. 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAllchin2004">Allchin 2004</a>, pp. 179–180</li><li><a href="#CITEREFV%C3%A4lim%C3%A4kiAali2020">Välimäki & Aali 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3kmHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57">57</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSouthgate2005">Southgate 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PR11">xi–xii, 1, 57</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. 50–52</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFArnold2000">Arnold 2000</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120">120–121</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSouthgate2005">Southgate 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA11">11–12, 57–58</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. 26, 50–52</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFArnold2000">Arnold 2000</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120">121–122</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. 50–52</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFArnold2000">Arnold 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121">121</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSouthgate2005">Southgate 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA38">38–39, 175–176</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. 50–51</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFJenkins1995">Jenkins 1995</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mW_rXrXGXa8C&pg=PA53">53</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHaviland1997">Haviland 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=khYVsKMvQZIC&pg=PA6">6</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evans2002p2-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Evans2002p2_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evans2002p2_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2002">Evans 2002</a>, p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthgate2005">Southgate 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PR11">xi–xii 49–51, 175–176</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKampLeg%C3%AAneRossumR%C3%BCmke2020">Kamp et al. 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78">78</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFChristian2008">Christian 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA97">97–99</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJordanova2000">Jordanova 2000</a>, p. 34</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFVan_Nieuwenhuyse2020">Van Nieuwenhuyse 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bhLbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375">375</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFChristian2008">Christian 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA98">98–99</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2001">Stearns 2001</a>, Table of Contents</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChristian2015">Christian 2015</a>, p. 7</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFChristian2015">Christian 2015</a>, pp. 5–7</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNorthrup2015">Northrup 2015</a>, pp. 110–111</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFChristian2015">Christian 2015</a>, pp. 5–6</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNorthrup2015">Northrup 2015</a>, pp. 110–111</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCameron1946">Cameron 1946</a>, p. 171</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArcodiaBasciano2021">Arcodia & Basciano 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h4NSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15">xv</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorthrup2015">Northrup 2015</a>, p. 111 </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016">Tuniz & Vipraio 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1, 10</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 17–20</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAldenderfer2011">Aldenderfer 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA4">4</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFChristian2015">Christian 2015</a>, p. 2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 17–20</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWragg-Sykes2016">Wragg-Sykes 2016</a>, pp. 195, 199, 211, 221</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAldenderfer2011">Aldenderfer 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1">1</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016">Tuniz & Vipraio 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5">v</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 19–32</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 1–2, 89–90</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAckermannSchroederTerryUpshur2008">Ackermann et al. 2008</a>, pp. xxix–xxxix</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 33–36</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 193–194, 291–292</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, p. 36</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, p. 401</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 36–39</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 401–402</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 39–46</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 537–538, 677–678, 817–818</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. 108–109</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJordanova2000">Jordanova 2000</a>, pp. 34, 46–47</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDiamond1999">Diamond 1999</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PWnWRFEGoeUC&pg=PA22">22, 25–32</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDarby2002">Darby 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PA14">14</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBaker2003">Baker 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PA23">23</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJordanova2000">Jordanova 2000</a>, pp. 34, 46–47</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDarby2002">Darby 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PA14">14</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. 108–109</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJordanova2000">Jordanova 2000</a>, pp. 46–47</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFisher2014">Fisher 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127">127</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016">Tuniz & Vipraio 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">12</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 17–20</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIliffe2007">Iliffe 2007</a>, p. 5</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 24–25</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAsante2024">Asante 2024</a>, p. 92 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFShillington2018">Shillington 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93">93–94</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFIliffe2007">Iliffe 2007</a>, pp. 2, 42–45</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFShillington2018">Shillington 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103">103</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFIliffe2007">Iliffe 2007</a>, pp. 131–132</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIliffe2007">Iliffe 2007</a>, pp. 193–195 </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFShillington2018">Shillington 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA417">417</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFIliffe2007">Iliffe 2007</a>, pp. 242, 253, 260, 267–268</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016">Tuniz & Vipraio 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15">15</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeadrick2009">Headrick 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qG2tPzkN6HUC&pg=PA6">6</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWragg-Sykes2016">Wragg-Sykes 2016</a>, p. 199</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2005">Mason 2005</a>, pp. 17–18</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMurpheyStapleton2019">Murphey & Stapleton 2019</a>, pp. 10–13</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCotterell2011">Cotterell 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR13">xiii, 3–4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAASA2011">AASA 2011</a>, pp. 3–4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 24–25</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCotterell2011">Cotterell 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR13">xiii–xiv</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAASA2011">AASA 2011</a>, pp. 3–4</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCotterell2011">Cotterell 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PA256">256–257</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2005">Mason 2005</a>, pp. 77–78</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2005">Mason 2005</a>, pp. 111–112, 167–168</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMurpheyStapleton2019">Murphey & Stapleton 2019</a>, pp. 282–283</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCotterell2011">Cotterell 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR17">xvii–xviii</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRana2012">Rana 2012</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ67CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">13–14</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMurpheyStapleton2019">Murphey & Stapleton 2019</a>, p. 445</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2005">Mason 2005</a>, p. 1</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRana2012">Rana 2012</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ67CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">13–14</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016">Tuniz & Vipraio 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">12</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts1997">Roberts 1997</a>, § The Importance of the Classical Past, § The Greeks, § An Attempt to Summarize </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1997">Roberts 1997</a>, § The Importance of the Classical Past, § The Rise of Roman Power, § Empire</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlack2021">Black 2021</a>, § What is Europe?</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1997">Roberts 1997</a>, § Decline and Fall in the West, § Christiandom</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlack2021">Black 2021</a>, § What is Europe?</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1997">Roberts 1997</a>, § Launching Modern History 1500–1800</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 36–39</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 401–402</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1997">Roberts 1997</a>, § The European Age</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 39–42</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 677–678</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1997">Roberts 1997</a>, § Europe's Twentieth Century: The Era of European Civil War</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, p. 44</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 677–678</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1997">Roberts 1997</a>, § Europe in the Cold War and After, § European Integration</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlcock2002">Alcock 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5FmHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA266">266–268</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 39–46</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 677–678, 817–818</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAndr%C3%A9n2022">Andrén 2022</a>, pp. 298, 304</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFisher2014">Fisher 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127">127</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016">Tuniz & Vipraio 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">12</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAckermannSchroederTerryUpshur2008">Ackermann et al. 2008</a>, pp. xvii–xix</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFern%C3%A1ndez-Armesto2003">Fernández-Armesto 2003</a>, § Between Colonizations: The Americas' First 'Normalcy'</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDorling_Kindersley2018">Dorling Kindersley 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94">94–95</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFern%C3%A1ndez-Armesto2003">Fernández-Armesto 2003</a>, § Between Colonizations: The Americas' First 'Normalcy'</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDorling_Kindersley2018">Dorling Kindersley 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94">94–95</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFern%C3%A1ndez-Armesto2003">Fernández-Armesto 2003</a>, § The American Century</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015">Bulliet et al. 2015</a>, pp. 817–818</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016">Tuniz & Vipraio 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">12</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLawson2024">Lawson 2024</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57">57</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFd'Arcy2012">d'Arcy 2012</a>, § Indigenous Exploration and Colonization of the Region</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFd'Arcy2012">d'Arcy 2012</a>, § Times of Anxiety: World Wars, Pandemic, and Economic Depression, § Post-War Themes: The Nuclear Pacific, Decolonization, and the Search for Identity</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLawson2024">Lawson 2024</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR12">xii, 2, 96</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFJordanova2000">Jordanova 2000</a>, pp. 34–35</li><li><a href="#CITEREFYurdusev2003">Yurdusev 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mb6DDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">24</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, p. 109</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGardiner1988">Gardiner 1988</a>, pp. 1–3</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFChristian2015">Christian 2015</a>, p. 3</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStearns2010">Stearns 2010</a>, pp. 11–13, 17–20</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBod2013">Bod 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260">260</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFO'Hara2019">O'Hara 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=We7QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176">176</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. 113–115</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDe_Armond2023">De Armond 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r0nCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">75</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGlassberg1996">Glassberg 1996</a>, pp. 7–8</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. xiv–xv</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStanton2017">Stanton 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tV41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA224">224</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFaganDurrani2019">Fagan & Durrani 2019</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dB24DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54">§ Written Records, Oral History, and Archaeology</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTosh2002">Tosh 2002</a>, pp. 1–3, 295</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20">20–21</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLefkowitz2008">Lefkowitz 2008</a>, pp. 353–354</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22">22–23</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21">21–23</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJensen">Jensen</a>, § 1. Ancient through Medieval</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLefkowitz2008">Lefkowitz 2008</a>, pp. 354–355</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">23–24</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJensen">Jensen</a>, § 1. Ancient through Medieval</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLefkowitz2008">Lefkowitz 2008</a>, p. 356</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26">26</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFComber2006">Comber 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWmIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39">39</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28">28–30</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFComber2006">Comber 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWmIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38">38–40</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40">40–41</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLo1998">Lo 1998</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35">35–39, 41–42</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMorgan2006">Morgan 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWmIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">14–15</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39">39–43</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBreisach2005">Breisach 2005</a>, § Indian Traditional Historiography</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBayly2006">Bayly 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWmIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA664">664–665</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49">49–50</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBreisach2005">Breisach 2005</a>, § Christian Traditional Historiography</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49">49–52, 55</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBreisach2005">Breisach 2005</a>, § Christian Traditional Historiography</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56">56–57</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBreisach2005">Breisach 2005</a>, § Islamic Traditional Historiography</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMorgan2006">Morgan 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWmIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9">9–10</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57">57, 60</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBreisach2005">Breisach 2005</a>, § Islamic Traditional Historiography</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMorgan2006">Morgan 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWmIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">11, 14</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64">64–65</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBreisach2005">Breisach 2005</a>, § Chinese Traditional Historiography</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68">68–69, 84</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">67–68</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBreisach2005">Breisach 2005</a>, § Japanese Traditional Historiography</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84">84</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89">89, 124</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBreisach2005">Breisach 2005</a>, § The Age of Anthropocentric Historiography</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJensen">Jensen</a>, § 2. Humanism through Renaissance</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129">129–130, 134, 166–167</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99">99–100</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMittag2012">Mittag 2012</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">27–28</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFNg2012">Ng 2012</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60">60–62</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101">101–106</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFQuinn2020">Quinn 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GhIMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1–4, 8–10</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5, 106–114</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176">176–177</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174">174–177</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJensen">Jensen</a>, § 5. 19th Century Scientific Historiography</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJensen">Jensen</a>, § 5. 19th Century Scientific Historiography</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184">184–185</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187">187–189</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJensen">Jensen</a>, § 4. 19th Century Teleological Systems</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5–6, 196–197, 215–216</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216">216–217, 279–280</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229">229–230</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA239">239–240, 242–243</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWright2006">Wright 2006</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232">232, 247–249, 255–256</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoolf2019">Woolf 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA262">262–264, 268–269</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; 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Australasian Journal of American Studies. 36 (2): 115–128. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1838-9554">1838-9554</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26532936">26532936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australasian+Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=Indigenous+History%3A+A+Conversation&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E128&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26532936%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1838-9554&rft.aulast=Antonellos&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Rantall%2C+Jayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26532936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcodiaBasciano2021" class="citation book cs1">Arcodia, Giorgio Francesco; Basciano, Bianca (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h4NSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15">"Periodization of Chinese History"</a>. 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Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78327-691-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78327-691-2"><bdi>978-1-78327-691-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgeries+and+Historical+Writing+in+England%2C+France%2C+and+Flanders%2C+900%E2%80%931200&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-78327-691-2&rft.aulast=Berkhofer&rft.aufirst=Robert+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbNnpEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirkeButterKöppe2011" class="citation book cs1">Birke, Dorothee; Butter, Michael; Köppe, Tilmann (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VcgLgAedZ-IC&pg=PA7">"Introduction"</a>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966521-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966521-1"><bdi>978-0-19-966521-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+the+Humanities%3A+The+Search+for+Principles+and+Patterns+from+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966521-1&rft.aulast=Bod&rft.aufirst=Rens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKaOcAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreisach2005" class="citation book cs1">Breisach, Ernst (2005). "Historiography: An Overview". 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University of London - Institute of Historical Research.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+in+Focus&rft.atitle=The+Two+Faces+of+E.+H.+Carr&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchives.history.ac.uk%2Fhistory-in-focus%2FWhatishistory%2Fevans10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2002" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Richard J. (2002). "Prologue: What Is History? – Now". In Cannadine, D. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">What Is History Now?</a>. 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The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. 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Amsterdam University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-485-3762-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-485-3762-4"><bdi>978-90-485-3762-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+History%21%3A+A+Companion+for+Historians&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-90-485-3762-4&rft.aulast=Kamp&rft.aufirst=Jeannette&rft.au=Leg%C3%AAne%2C+Susan&rft.au=Rossum%2C+Matthias+van&rft.au=R%C3%BCmke%2C+Sebas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvt_IDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKipfer2000" class="citation book cs1">Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XneTstDbcC0C&pg=PA457">Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology</a>. 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George; Millett, Bruce (2019). Kobayashi, Audrey (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Elsevier. pp. 419–426. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-102296-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-102296-2"><bdi>978-0-08-102296-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+Human+Geography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E419-%3C%2Fspan%3E426&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-08-102296-2&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=W.+George&rft.au=Millett%2C+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiles1978" class="citation journal cs1">Wiles, Maurice (1978). "In What Sense is Christianity a 'Historical' Religion?". Theology. 81 (679): 4–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0040571X7808100102">10.1177/0040571X7808100102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theology&rft.atitle=In+What+Sense+is+Christianity+a+%27Historical%27+Religion%3F&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=679&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0040571X7808100102&rft.aulast=Wiles&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2024" class="citation web cs1">Williams, L. Pearce (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-science">"History of Science"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 24 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=History+of+Science&rft.date=2024&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=L.+Pearce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fhistory-of-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2005" class="citation book cs1">Wong, R. Bin (2005). "Comparative History". Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9743091-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9743091-0-1"><bdi>978-0-9743091-0-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Comparative+History&rft.btitle=Berkshire+Encyclopedia+of+World+History&rft.pub=Berkshire+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=R.+Bin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolf2019" class="citation book cs1">Woolf, Daniel (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42619-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42619-0"><bdi>978-1-108-42619-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+History%3A+Global+Historiography+from+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-108-42619-0&rft.aulast=Woolf&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1lN-DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWragg-Sykes2016" class="citation book cs1">Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ">"Threshold 6"</a>. Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now. Dorling Kindersley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-22590-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-22590-5"><bdi>978-0-241-22590-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Threshold+6&rft.btitle=Big+History%3A+Our+Incredible+Journey%2C+from+Big+Bang+to+Now&rft.pub=Dorling+Kindersley&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-241-22590-5&rft.aulast=Wragg-Sykes&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtbbjDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2006" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853">A Dictionary of World History</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280700-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280700-7"><bdi>978-0-19-280700-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historiography&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+World+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280700-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803095938853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYappBaylyClarence-SmithAbel1988" class="citation book cs1">Yapp, M. E.; Bayly, C. A.; Clarence-Smith, Gervase; Abel, Christopher; Johnson, Gordon; Fyfe, Christopher (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_14">"What Is Third World History … ?"</a>. What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_14">10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1"><bdi>978-1-349-19161-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Third+World+History+%E2%80%A6+%3F&rft.btitle=What+Is+History+Today+%E2%80%A6+%3F&rft.pub=Macmillan+Education+UK&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_14&rft.isbn=978-1-349-19161-1&rft.aulast=Yapp&rft.aufirst=M.+E.&rft.au=Bayly%2C+C.+A.&rft.au=Clarence-Smith%2C+Gervase&rft.au=Abel%2C+Christopher&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Gordon&rft.au=Fyfe%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYurdusev2003" class="citation book cs1">Yurdusev, A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mb6DDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">International Relations and the Philosophy of History: A Civilizational Approach</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3840-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3840-4"><bdi>978-1-4039-3840-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Relations+and+the+Philosophy+of+History%3A+A+Civilizational+Approach&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-3840-4&rft.aulast=Yurdusev&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMb6DDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaagsma2023" class="citation journal cs1">Zaagsma, Gerben (2023). "Digital History and the Politics of Digitization". Digital Scholarship in the Humanities. 38 (2): 830–851. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fllc%2Ffqac050">10.1093/llc/fqac050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Digital+Scholarship+in+the+Humanities&rft.atitle=Digital+History+and+the+Politics+of+Digitization&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E830-%3C%2Fspan%3E851&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fllc%2Ffqac050&rft.aulast=Zaagsma&rft.aufirst=Gerben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZajda2015" class="citation book cs1">Zajda, Joseph (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9729-0_1">"Globalisation and the Politics of Education Reforms: History Education"</a>. Nation-Building and History Education in a Global Culture. Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-9729-0_1">10.1007/978-94-017-9729-0_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-9729-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-017-9729-0"><bdi>978-94-017-9729-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Globalisation+and+the+Politics+of+Education+Reforms%3A+History+Education&rft.btitle=Nation-Building+and+History+Education+in+a+Global+Culture&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-017-9729-0_1&rft.isbn=978-94-017-9729-0&rft.aulast=Zajda&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-94-017-9729-0_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2023" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Helen (2023). "Counterfactual History: Three Worries and Replies". Journal of the Philosophy of History. 17 (1): 9–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18722636-12341487">10.1163/18722636-12341487</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Philosophy+of+History&rft.atitle=Counterfactual+History%3A+Three+Worries+and+Replies&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F18722636-12341487&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/">Internet History Sourcebooks Project</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project" title="Internet History Sourcebooks Project">Internet History Sourcebooks Project</a> (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">History at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/History" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/History">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 14px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="14" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History" class="extiw" title="c:Category:History">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 11px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="11" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:History" class="extiw" title="n:Category:History">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="16" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/History" class="extiw" title="q:History">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 18px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="18" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:History" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:History">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category:History" class="extiw" title="b:Category:History">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 17px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="17" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:History" class="extiw" title="v:Portal:History">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 12px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="12" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309" class="extiw" title="d:Q309">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History&oldid=1277381979">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History&oldid=1277381979</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=History&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 24 February 2025, at 09:34 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8A" title="Тарихъ – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Тарихъ" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_(vakgebied)" title="Geskiedenis (vakgebied) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis (vakgebied)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte" title="Geschichte – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Geschichte" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%B3%E1%88%AA%E1%8A%AD" title="ታሪክ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ታሪክ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C7%A3r" title="Stǣr – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Stǣr" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="تاريخ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorie" title="Istorie – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Istorie" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histou%C3%A8re" title="Histouère – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Histouère" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ইতিহাস – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marandeko" title="Marandeko – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Marandeko" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Тарих – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Тарих" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayra_sarnaqawi" title="Nayra sarnaqawi – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Nayra sarnaqawi" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarix" title="Tarix – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tarix" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="تاریخ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تاریخ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariku" title="Tariku – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Tariku" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%CC%8Dk-s%C3%BA" title="Le̍k-sú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Le̍k-sú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah" title="Sejarah – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Sejarah" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Тарих – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тарих" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Гісторыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Гісторыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гісторыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इतिहास – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इतिहास" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uusipon" title="Uusipon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Uusipon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gschicht" title="Gschicht – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Gschicht" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ལོ་རྒྱུས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ལོ་རྒྱུས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija" title="Historija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istor" title="Istor – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Istor" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85%D1%8D" title="Түүхэ – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Түүхэ" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria" title="Història – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Истори – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Истори" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan" title="Kasaysayan – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kasaysayan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny" title="Dějiny – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nhoroondo" title="Nhoroondo – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Nhoroondo" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia" title="Storia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Storia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes" title="Hanes – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie" title="Historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="تاريخ – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تاريخ" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gschicht" title="Gschicht – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Gschicht" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte" title="Geschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dz mw-list-item"><a href="https://dz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6" title="བྱུང་རབས – Dzongkha" lang="dz" hreflang="dz" data-title="བྱུང་རབས" data-language-autonym="ཇོང་ཁ" data-language-local-name="Dzongkha" class="interlanguage-link-target">ཇོང་ཁ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajalugu" title="Ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ιστορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B2ria" title="Stòria – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Stòria" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio" title="Historio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoria" title="Estoria – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Estoria" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="تاریخ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itihaas" title="Itihaas – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Itihaas" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ga" title="Søga – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Søga" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire" title="Histoire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiednis" title="Skiednis – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skiednis" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storie" title="Storie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Storie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stair" title="Stair – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stair" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shennaghys" title="Shennaghys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Shennaghys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eachdraidh" title="Eachdraidh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eachdraidh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Тархьар – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Тархьар" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="歷史 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="歷史" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B9%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8" title="ઇતિહાસ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઇતિહાસ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itihas" title="Itihas – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="Itihas" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%CC%8Dt-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%81" title="Li̍t-sṳ́ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Li̍t-sṳ́" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarihi" title="Tarihi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarihi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest" title="Povijest – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio" title="Historio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81k%C3%ADk%C3%B3_mbu" title="Ákíkó mbu – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ákíkó mbu" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakasaritaan" title="Pakasaritaan – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pakasaritaan" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah" title="Sejarah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie" title="Historie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Historie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%96%83%E1%90%85%E1%94%A8%E1%93%B4%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85_%E1%91%8E%E1%91%8E%E1%96%85%E1%91%B2%E1%91%8E%E1%92%8D%E1%91%A6_%E1%96%83%E1%93%84%E1%90%83%E1%93%95%E1%90%85%E1%96%85%E1%91%95%E1%90%85%E1%96%83%E1%91%A6%E1%91%95%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%91%AF%E1%93%82%E1%92%83" title="ᖃᐅᔨᓴᕐᓂᖅ ᑎᑎᖅᑲᑎᒍᑦ ᖃᓄᐃᓕᐅᖅᑕᐅᖃᑦᑕᕐᓂᑯᓂᒃ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᖃᐅᔨᓴᕐᓂᖅ ᑎᑎᖅᑲᑎᒍᑦ ᖃᓄᐃᓕᐅᖅᑕᐅᖃᑦᑕᕐᓂᑯᓂᒃ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Истори – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Истори" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbali" title="Imbali – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Imbali" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saga" title="Saga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Saga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia" title="Storia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="היסטוריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajarah" title="Sajarah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sajarah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oqaluttuarisaaneq" title="Oqaluttuarisaaneq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Oqaluttuarisaaneq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ಇತಿಹಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇತಿಹಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amlat" title="Amlat – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Amlat" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Тарих – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Тарих" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%8E%D9%88%D9%B2%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%96%D8%AE" title="تَوٲریٖخ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="تَوٲریٖخ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Тарих – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тарих" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istori" title="Istori – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Istori" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BB%D3%A7%D0%BC" title="Важвылӧм – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важвылӧм" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izvopa" title="Izvopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Izvopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istwa" title="Istwa – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Istwa" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listw%C3%A8" title="Listwè – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Listwè" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AErok" title="Dîrok – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dîrok" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%85" title="Тарых – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тарых" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia" title="Storia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Storia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria" title="Istoria – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Istoria" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Тарих – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Тарих" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ປະຫວັດສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປະຫວັດສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viesture" title="Viesture – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Viesture" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%93sture" title="Vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschicht" title="Geschicht – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geschicht" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Тарих – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Тарих" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija" title="Istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hikaya" title="Hikaya – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Hikaya" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B6ia" title="Stöia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Stöia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie" title="Historie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Historie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisol%C3%B3" title="Lisoló – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Lisoló" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria" title="Istoria – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Istoria" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histourii" title="Histourii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Histourii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/citri" title="citri – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="citri" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B2ria" title="Stòria – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Stòria" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelem" title="Történelem – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Történelem" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajh%C3%A2r%C3%A2" title="Sajhârâ – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Sajhârâ" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Историја – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantara" title="Tantara – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tantara" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storja" title="Storja – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Storja" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इतिहास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ისტორია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ისტორია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="تاريخ – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تاريخ" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9D%E1%81%9A%E1%80%BA" title="ဝၚ် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဝၚ်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="بگذشتی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="بگذشتی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah" title="Sejarah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%8B%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4" title="ꯄꯨꯋꯥꯂꯤ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯄꯨꯋꯥꯂꯤ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%ADk-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Lĭk-sṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Lĭk-sṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria" title="Stória – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Stória" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Историясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Историясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85" title="Түүх – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Түүх" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="သမိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သမိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis" title="Geschiedenis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis" title="Geschiedenis – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Geschiedenis" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इतिहास – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इतिहास – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia" title="Storia – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Storia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Истори – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Истори" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoori" title="Histoori – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Histoori" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histrei" title="Histrei – Pitcairn-Norfolk" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Histrei" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Pitcairn-Norfolk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie" title="Historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie" title="Historie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histou%C3%A8re" title="Histouère – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Histouère" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie" title="Historie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Historie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria" title="Istòria – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Эртыш – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Эртыш" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B9%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B8" title="ଇତିହାସ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଇତିହାସ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seenaa" title="Seenaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Seenaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarix" title="Tarix – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tarix" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte" title="Geschichte – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Geschichte" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%B2%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%EA%A9%BB" title="သမဲင်ꩻ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သမဲင်ꩻ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%A9_(%DA%A9%DA%93%DA%A9%DB%90%DA%9A)" title="پېښليک (کړکېښ) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پېښليک (کړکېښ)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischri" title="Ischri – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ischri" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histo%C3%A8re" title="Histoère – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Histoère" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pwn mw-list-item"><a href="https://pwn.wikipedia.org/wiki/likisi" title="likisi – Paiwan" lang="pwn" hreflang="pwn" data-title="likisi" data-language-autonym="Pinayuanan" data-language-local-name="Paiwan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pinayuanan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histori" title="Histori – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Histori" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie" title="Historie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Historie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ιστορία – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Ιστορία" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria" title="História – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarih" title="Tarih – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Tarih" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorie" title="Istorie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istorie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorgia" title="Istorgia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Istorgia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi%C3%B1ay_kawsay" title="Wiñay kawsay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Wiñay kawsay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Історія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Історія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="История" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/likisi" title="likisi – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="likisi" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%83" title="इतिहासः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="इतिहासः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria" title="Istòria – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Istòria" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/History" title="History – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="History" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskichte" title="Geskichte – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Geskichte" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditiragalo" title="Ditiragalo – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Ditiragalo" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia" title="Storia – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Storia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History" title="History – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="تاريخ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="تاريخ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny" title="Dejiny – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina" title="Zgodovina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%87%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%97%EA%99%97" title="Їсторїꙗ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Їсторїꙗ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyszichta" title="Gyszichta – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Gyszichta" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taariikh" title="Taariikh – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Taariikh" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88" title="مێژوو – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژوو" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Историја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija" title="Historija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajarah" title="Sajarah – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Sajarah" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia" title="Historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan" title="Kasaysayan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kasaysayan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amzruy" title="Amzruy – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Amzruy" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amezruy" title="Amezruy – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Amezruy" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storie" title="Storie – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Storie" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tarandíne</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Тарих – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Тарих" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0" title="చరిత్ర – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="చరిత్ర" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B3ria" title="Istória – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Istória" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ประวัติศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%B3%E1%88%AA%E1%8A%BD" title="ታሪኽ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ታሪኽ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Таърих – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Таърих" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarih" title="Tarih – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tarih" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taryh" title="Taryh – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Taryh" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abak%C9%94s%C9%9Bm" title="Abakɔsɛm – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Abakɔsɛm" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Історія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%89%D8%AE" title="تارىخ – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="تارىخ" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizsij" title="Lizsij – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Lizsij" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria" title="Istoria – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Istoria" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorii" title="Istorii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Istorii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD" title="Lịch sử – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenav" title="Jenav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Jenav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aolugu" title="Aolugu – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Aolugu" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istwere" title="Istwere – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Istwere" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2" title="史 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="史" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan" title="Kasaysayan – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kasaysayan" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taariix" title="Taariix – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Taariix" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="歷史 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="歷史" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="היסטאריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="היסטאריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ct%C3%A0n" title="Ìtàn – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìtàn" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="歷史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="歷史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarix" title="Tarix – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Tarix" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenisse" title="Geschiedenisse – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Geschiedenisse" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istuor%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Istuorėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Istuorėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="历史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah" title="Sejarah – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Sejarah" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah" title="Sejarah – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Sejarah" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taryx" title="Taryx – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Taryx" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%A3%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%A2" title="ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-698c79758b-p96jc","wgBackendResponseTime":567,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.020","walltime":"3.426","ppvisitednodes":{"value":33054,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1772364,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":306282,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":24,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":57,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":702390,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2750.722 1 -total"," 26.59% 731.372 2 Template:Reflist"," 25.84% 710.687 149 Template:Cite_book"," 21.55% 592.736 169 Template:Multiref"," 20.95% 576.412 43 Template:Navbox"," 17.23% 473.999 1 Template:Navboxes"," 16.18% 445.016 509 Template:Harvnb"," 12.96% 356.381 2 Template:Historiography"," 12.84% 353.198 2 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 7.01% 192.963 84 Template:Ill"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.758","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24136279,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAASA2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbrams2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAckermannSchroederTerryUpshur2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhlskog2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlcock2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAldenderfer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllchin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrén2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAntonellosRantall2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArcodiaBasciano2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsante2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayly2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBentley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerkhofer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerkhofer2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirkeButterKöppe2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBod2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreisach2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuchanan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuchanan2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurke2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarr1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarr2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheng2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristian2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristian2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkGrever2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColemanFloudBarkerDaunton1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollingwood2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColliniSkinnerHollingerPocock1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollinsonBrookeNormanLake1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFComber2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotterell2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCresswell2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarby2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Armond2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamond1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonnellyNorton2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorling_Kindersley2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaganDurrani2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaganDurrani2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFazal2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernández-Armesto2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFronza2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardiner1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarraghan1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaskellCarter2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilMarsen2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirardHarris2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlassberg1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarperCollins2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarperCollins2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaviland1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeadrick2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeller2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHesketh2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoad1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowardBondStaggChandler1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughesCoxGodard2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIliffe2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacksonXidias2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJensen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordanova2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJosephJanda2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKipfer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKortePaletschek2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKragh1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawson2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeavy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLefkowitz2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemon1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemon2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevstikThornton2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittle2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLo1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManning2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetzgerHarris2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittag2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorillo2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunslow2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurpheyStapleton2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNg2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorbergDeutsch2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthrup2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Hara2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOED_Staff2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOberg2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParrottHake1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorterShapinSchafferYoung1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPottsHouseHopeGretton1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuinn2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaabRinke2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamsay2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRana2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRelethford2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenfrew2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRitter1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuelBreuillyClarkHopkins1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSantinelloPiaia2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharpDallimoreBedfordKerby2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShillington2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSittonMehaffyDavis2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthgate2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanford1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanton2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearns2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearns2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearns2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevenson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoddard2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStorey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSummerfield2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTopolski2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTosh2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTunizVipraio2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Nieuwenhuyse2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerene2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeysey1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVision2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVälimäkiAali2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWattAdamsBullenBrauer1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhiteMillett2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiles1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWong2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolf2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWragg-Sykes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYappBaylyClarence-SmithAbel1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYurdusev2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZaagsma2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZajda2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFd\u0026#039;Arcy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_HoverHicks2018\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Chronology\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 149,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 7,\n [\"Efn\"] = 23,\n [\"Em dash\"] = 1,\n [\"Gloss\"] = 4,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 509,\n [\"Historiography\"] = 1,\n [\"Humanities\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 7,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Multiref\"] = 169,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Social philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"Social sciences\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Theories of History\"] = 1,\n [\"Time topics\"] = 1,\n [\"TopicTOC-History\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 2,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","500","24.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","260","12.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","8.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","7.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","2.0"],["(for generator)","40","2.0"],["date","40","2.0"],["chunk \u003CModule:Citation/CS1\u003E","40","2.0"],["[others]","580","28.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-698c79758b-j9xst","timestamp":"20250225123651","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q309","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q309","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-18T00:42:42Z","dateModified":"2025-02-24T09:34:50Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/6e\/Gerard_Dou_-_Hourglass_and_Inkpot_on_a_Shelf_-_1647.jpg","headline":"past events and their tracks or records"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var 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