CINXE.COM
History of structural engineering - Wikipedia
<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of structural engineering - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a6f32d71-1ec5-45b1-a304-87e86e3d5de1","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_structural_engineering","wgTitle":"History of structural engineering","wgCurRevisionId":1245675875,"wgRevisionId":1245675875,"wgArticleId":17326228,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from August 2024","Articles with permanently dead external links","History of structural engineering","3rd-millennium BC introductions","History of construction"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel": "wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_structural_engineering","wgRelevantArticleId":17326228,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q17163332","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model", "platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap", "ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.17"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1067"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG/640px-Imhotep-Louvre.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="853"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of structural engineering - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_structural_engineering rootpage-History_of_structural_engineering skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+structural+engineering" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+structural+engineering" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+structural+engineering" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+structural+engineering" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Early_structural_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_structural_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Early structural engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_structural_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_developments_in_structural_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_developments_in_structural_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Modern developments in structural engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_developments_in_structural_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of structural engineering</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 4 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-4" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">4 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ الهندسة الإنشائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الهندسة الإنشائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="অবকাঠামো প্রকৌশলের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অবকাঠামো প্রকৌশলের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%87" title="تاریخ مهندسی سازه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ مهندسی سازه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0%EA%B3%B5%ED%95%99%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="구조공학의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="구조공학의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q17163332#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_structural_engineering" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_structural_engineering" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_structural_engineering" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&oldid=1245675875" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_structural_engineering&id=1245675875&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_structural_engineering"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_structural_engineering"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_structural_engineering&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q17163332" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imhotep-Louvre.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG/200px-Imhotep-Louvre.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG/300px-Imhotep-Louvre.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG/400px-Imhotep-Louvre.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Statuette of <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>, Paris, France</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structural engineering</a></b> dates back to at least 2700 BC when the <a href="/wiki/Step_pyramid" title="Step pyramid">step pyramid</a> for <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a> <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> was built by <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>, the first architect in history known by name. <a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramids</a> were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because it is a structural form which is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).<sup id="cite_ref-Saouma_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saouma-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another notable engineering feat from antiquity still in use today is the qanat <a href="/wiki/Water_resource_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water resource management">water management</a> system. <a href="/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat">Qanat</a> technology developed in the time of the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, the predecessors of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has the oldest and longest Qanat (older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that also spread to other cultures having had contact with the Persian. </p><p>Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">artisans</a>, such as stone <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carpenter" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpenter">carpenters</a>, rising to the role of <a href="/wiki/Master_Builder_(occupation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Master Builder (occupation)">master builder</a>. No theory of structures existed and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before'. Knowledge was retained by <a href="/wiki/Guilds" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilds">guilds</a> and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.<sup id="cite_ref-Saouma_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saouma-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behaviour of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> and the re-invention of <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Concrete#History" title="Concrete">History of concrete</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Physical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical sciences">physical sciences</a> underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and have been developing ever since. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_structural_engineering">Early structural engineering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early structural engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archimedes_lever_(Small).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Archimedes_lever_%28Small%29.jpg/250px-Archimedes_lever_%28Small%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Archimedes_lever_%28Small%29.jpg/375px-Archimedes_lever_%28Small%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Archimedes_lever_%28Small%29.jpg/500px-Archimedes_lever_%28Small%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Archimedes is said to have remarked about the lever: "Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth."</figcaption></figure> <p>The recorded history of structural engineering starts with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a>. In the 27th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a> was the first structural engineer known by name and constructed the first known <a href="/wiki/Step_pyramid" title="Step pyramid">step pyramid</a> in Egypt. In the 26th century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a> was constructed in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. It remained the largest man-made structure for millennia and was considered an unsurpassed feat in <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a> until the 19th century AD.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The understanding of the physical laws that underpin structural engineering in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> dates back to the 3rd century BC, when <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> published his work <i>On the Equilibrium of Planes</i> in two volumes, in which he sets out the <i>Law of the Lever</i>, stating: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Equal weights at equal distances are in equilibrium, and equal weights at unequal distances are not in equilibrium but incline towards the weight which is at the greater distance.</p></blockquote> <p>Archimedes used the principles derived to calculate the areas and <a href="/wiki/Center_of_mass" title="Center of mass">centers of gravity</a> of various geometric figures including <a href="/wiki/Triangles" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangles">triangles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paraboloid" title="Paraboloid">paraboloids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sphere" title="Sphere">hemispheres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-works_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-works-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archimedes's work on this and his work on calculus and geometry, together with <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_geometry" title="Euclidean geometry">Euclidean geometry</a>, underpin much of the mathematics and understanding of structures in modern structural engineering. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/250px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/375px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/500px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12648" data-file-height="4882" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a>, France, a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> era aqueduct circa 19 BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Romans</a> made great bounds in structural engineering, pioneering large structures in <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>, many of which are still standing today. They include <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columns" class="mw-redirect" title="Columns">columns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">lighthouses</a>, defensive walls and <a href="/wiki/Harbours" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbours">harbours</a>. Their methods are recorded by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> in his <a href="/wiki/De_Architectura" class="mw-redirect" title="De Architectura">De Architectura</a> written in 25 BC, a manual of civil and structural engineering with extensive sections on materials and <a href="/wiki/Machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Machines">machines</a> used in construction. One reason for their success is their accurate <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a> techniques based on the <a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">dioptra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groma_surveying" class="mw-redirect" title="Groma surveying">groma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chorobates" title="Chorobates">chorobates</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gothic_architecture_of_Notre_Dame_de_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gothic_architecture_of_Notre_Dame_de_Paris.jpg/200px-Gothic_architecture_of_Notre_Dame_de_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gothic_architecture_of_Notre_Dame_de_Paris.jpg/300px-Gothic_architecture_of_Notre_Dame_de_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gothic_architecture_of_Notre_Dame_de_Paris.jpg/400px-Gothic_architecture_of_Notre_Dame_de_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Flying buttress at <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Notre Dame Cathedral">Notre Dame Cathedral</a> (1163–1345)</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> (11th to 14th centuries) builders were able to balance the side thrust of vaults with that of <a href="/wiki/Flying_buttress" title="Flying buttress">flying buttresses</a> and side vaults, to build tall spacious structures, some of which were built entirely of stone (with iron pins only securing the ends of stones) and have lasted for centuries. </p><p>In the 15th and 16th centuries and despite lacking beam theory and <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> produced many engineering designs based on scientific observations and rigour, including a design for a bridge to span the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horn" title="Golden Horn">Golden Horn</a>. Though dismissed at the time, the design has since been judged to be both feasible and structurally valid<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Galileo_Galilei_by_Ottavio_Leoni_Marucelliana_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni</figcaption></figure> <p>The foundations of modern structural engineering were laid in the 17th century by <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> with the publication of three great scientific works. In 1638 <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> outlining the sciences of the strength of materials and the motion of objects (essentially defining <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> giving rise to a constant <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a>). It was the first establishment of a scientific approach to structural engineering, including the first attempts to develop a theory for beams. This is also regarded as the beginning of structural analysis, the mathematical representation and design of building structures. </p><p>This was followed in 1676 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke's</a> first statement of <a href="/wiki/Hooke%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Hooke's Law">Hooke's Law</a>, providing a scientific understanding of elasticity of materials and their behaviour under load.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eleven years later, in 1687, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i>, setting out his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Laws of Motion</a>, providing for the first time an understanding of the fundamental laws governing structures.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also in the 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> both independently developed the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus" title="Fundamental theorem of calculus">Fundamental theorem of calculus</a>, providing one of the most important mathematical tools in engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg/200px-Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg/300px-Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg/400px-Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> portrait by Johann Georg Brucker</figcaption></figure> <p>Further advances in the mathematics needed to allow structural engineers to apply the understanding of structures gained through the work of Galileo, Hooke and Newton during the 17th century came in the 18th century when <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> pioneered much of the mathematics and many of the methods which allow structural engineers to model and analyse structures. Specifically, he developed the <a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_theory" title="Euler–Bernoulli beam theory">Euler–Bernoulli beam equation</a> with <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Daniel Bernoulli</a> (1700–1782) circa 1750 - the fundamental theory underlying most structural engineering design.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Euler_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Daniel Bernoulli</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Jean_Bernoulli" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Bernoulli">Johann (Jean) Bernoulli</a> (1667–1748), is also credited with formulating the theory of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_work" title="Virtual work">virtual work</a>, providing a tool using equilibrium of forces and compatibility of geometry to solve structural problems. In 1717 Jean Bernoulli wrote to <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Varignon" title="Pierre Varignon">Pierre Varignon</a> explaining the principle of virtual work, while in 1726 Daniel Bernoulli wrote of the "composition of forces".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1757 <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> went on to derive the <a href="/wiki/Buckling" title="Buckling">Euler buckling</a> formula, greatly advancing the ability of engineers to design compression elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_developments_in_structural_engineering">Modern developments in structural engineering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modern developments in structural engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg/200px-Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>Bessemer converter, Kelham Island Museum, Sheffield, England (2002)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belper_mill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Belper_mill.jpg/200px-Belper_mill.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Belper_mill.jpg/300px-Belper_mill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Belper_mill.jpg/400px-Belper_mill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>Belper North Mill</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ForthRailwayBridge_27-06-2005_2150_TakenByEuchiasmus.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/ForthRailwayBridge_27-06-2005_2150_TakenByEuchiasmus.JPG/200px-ForthRailwayBridge_27-06-2005_2150_TakenByEuchiasmus.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/ForthRailwayBridge_27-06-2005_2150_TakenByEuchiasmus.JPG/300px-ForthRailwayBridge_27-06-2005_2150_TakenByEuchiasmus.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/ForthRailwayBridge_27-06-2005_2150_TakenByEuchiasmus.JPG/400px-ForthRailwayBridge_27-06-2005_2150_TakenByEuchiasmus.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Forth_Railway_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Forth Railway Bridge">Forth Bridge</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tour_Eiffel,_July_1888.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Tour_Eiffel%2C_July_1888.jpg/200px-Tour_Eiffel%2C_July_1888.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Tour_Eiffel%2C_July_1888.jpg/300px-Tour_Eiffel%2C_July_1888.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Tour_Eiffel%2C_July_1888.jpg/400px-Tour_Eiffel%2C_July_1888.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption>Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shukhov_tower_shabolovka_moscow_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Shukhov_tower_shabolovka_moscow_02.jpg/200px-Shukhov_tower_shabolovka_moscow_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Shukhov_tower_shabolovka_moscow_02.jpg/300px-Shukhov_tower_shabolovka_moscow_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Shukhov_tower_shabolovka_moscow_02.jpg/400px-Shukhov_tower_shabolovka_moscow_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="603" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gridshell" title="Gridshell">Lattice shell structure</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Shukhov_Tower" title="Shukhov Tower">Shukhov Tower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, materials science and structural analysis underwent development at a tremendous pace. </p><p>Though elasticity was understood in theory well before the 19th century, it was not until 1821 that <a href="/wiki/Claude-Louis_Navier" title="Claude-Louis Navier">Claude-Louis Navier</a> formulated the general theory of elasticity in a mathematically usable form. In his <i>leçons</i> of 1826 he explored a great range of different structural theory, and was the first to highlight that the role of a structural engineer is not to understand the final, failed state of a structure, but to prevent that failure in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1826 he also established the <a href="/wiki/Elastic_modulus" title="Elastic modulus">elastic modulus</a> as a property of materials independent of the <a href="/wiki/Second_moment_of_area" title="Second moment of area">second moment of area</a>, allowing engineers for the first time to both understand structural behaviour and structural materials.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Towards the end of the 19th century, in 1873, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Alberto_Castigliano" title="Carlo Alberto Castigliano">Carlo Alberto Castigliano</a> presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which contains his theorem for computing displacement as partial derivative of the strain energy.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1824, <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> was patented by the engineer <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Aspdin" title="Joseph Aspdin">Joseph Aspdin</a> as <i>"a superior cement resembling Portland Stone"</i>, British Patent no. 5022. Although different forms of cement already existed (Pozzolanic cement was used by the Romans as early as 100 B.C. and even earlier by the ancient Greek and Chinese civilizations) and were in common usage in Europe from the 1750s, the discovery made by Aspdin used commonly available, cheap materials, making concrete construction an economical possibility.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Developments in concrete continued with the construction in 1848 of a rowing boat built of <a href="/wiki/Ferrocement" title="Ferrocement">ferrocement</a> - the forerunner of modern <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a> - by <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Lambot" title="Joseph-Louis Lambot">Joseph-Louis Lambot</a>. He patented his system of mesh reinforcement and concrete in 1855, one year after W.B. Wilkinson also patented a similar system.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed in 1867 when a reinforced concrete planting tub was patented by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Monier" title="Joseph Monier">Joseph Monier</a> in Paris, using steel mesh reinforcement similar to that used by Lambot and Wilkinson. Monier took the idea forward, filing several patents for tubs, slabs and beams, leading eventually to the Monier system of reinforced structures, the first use of steel reinforcement bars located in areas of tension in the structure.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steel construction was first made possible in the 1850s when <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>. He gained patents for the process in 1855 and 1856 and successfully completed the conversion of cast iron into cast steel in 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually <a href="/wiki/Mild_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mild steel">mild steel</a> would replace both <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> as the preferred metal for construction. </p><p>During the late 19th century, great advancements were made in the use of cast iron, gradually replacing wrought iron as a material of choice. <a href="/wiki/Ditherington_Flax_Mill" title="Ditherington Flax Mill">Ditherington Flax Mill</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shrewsbury" title="Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bage" title="Charles Bage">Charles Bage</a>, was the first building in the world with an interior iron frame. It was built in 1797. In 1792 <a href="/wiki/William_Strutt_(inventor)" title="William Strutt (inventor)">William Strutt</a> had attempted to build a fireproof mill at Belper in <a href="/wiki/Derby" title="Derby">Derby</a> (Belper West Mill), using cast iron columns and timber beams within the depths of brick arches that formed the floors. The exposed beam soffits were protected against fire by plaster. This mill at Belper was the world's first attempt to construct fireproof buildings, and is the first example of <a href="/wiki/Fire_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire engineering">fire engineering</a>. This was later improved upon with the construction of <a href="/wiki/Belper_North_Mill" title="Belper North Mill">Belper North Mill</a>, a collaboration between Strutt and Bage, which by using a full cast iron frame represented the world's first "fire proofed" building.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Forth_Railway_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Forth Railway Bridge">Forth Bridge</a> was built by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Baker_(engineer)" title="Benjamin Baker (engineer)">Benjamin Baker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Fowler,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir John Fowler, 1st Baronet">Sir John Fowler</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Arrol" title="William Arrol">William Arrol</a> in 1889, using <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, after the original design for the bridge by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bouch" title="Thomas Bouch">Thomas Bouch</a> was rejected following the collapse of his <a href="/wiki/Tay_Rail_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Tay Rail Bridge">Tay Rail Bridge</a>. The Forth Bridge was one of the first major uses of steel, and a landmark in bridge design. Also in 1889, the wrought-iron <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a> was built by Gustave Eiffel and Maurice Koechlin, demonstrating the potential of construction using iron, despite the fact that steel construction was already being used elsewhere. </p><p>During the late 19th century, Russian structural engineer <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Shukhov" title="Vladimir Shukhov">Vladimir Shukhov</a> developed analysis methods for <a href="/wiki/Tensile_structure" title="Tensile structure">tensile structures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thin-shell_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-shell structure">thin-shell structures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gridshell" title="Gridshell">lattice shell structures</a> and new structural geometries such as <a href="/wiki/Hyperboloid_structure" title="Hyperboloid structure">hyperboloid structures</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">Pipeline transport</a> was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Shukhov" title="Vladimir Shukhov">Vladimir Shukhov</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Branobel" title="Branobel">Branobel</a> company in the late 19th century. </p><p>Again taking reinforced concrete design forwards, from 1892 onwards <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hennebique" title="François Hennebique">François Hennebique</a>'s firm used his patented reinforced concrete system to build thousands of structures throughout Europe. <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Hyatt" title="Thaddeus Hyatt">Thaddeus Hyatt</a> in the US and Wayss & Freitag in Germany also patented systems. The firm <i>AG für Monierbauten</i> constructed 200 reinforced concrete bridges in Germany between 1890 and 1897 <sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The great pioneering uses of reinforced concrete however came during the first third of the 20th century, with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Maillart" title="Robert Maillart">Robert Maillart</a> and others furthering of the understanding of its behaviour. Maillart noticed that many concrete bridge structures were significantly cracked, and as a result left the cracked areas out of his next bridge design - correctly believing that if the concrete was cracked, it was not contributing to the strength. This resulted in the revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Salginatobel_Bridge" title="Salginatobel Bridge">Salginatobel Bridge</a> design. Wilhelm Ritter formulated the truss theory for the shear design of reinforced concrete beams in 1899, and Emil Mörsch improved this in 1902. He went on to demonstrate that treating concrete in compression as a linear-elastic material was a conservative approximation of its behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concrete design and analysis has been progressing ever since, with the development of analysis methods such as yield line theory, based on plastic analysis of concrete (as opposed to linear-elastic), and many different variations on the model for stress distributions in concrete in compression<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Prestressed concrete</a>, pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Freyssinet" title="Eugène Freyssinet">Eugène Freyssinet</a> with a patent in 1928, gave a novel approach in overcoming the weakness of concrete structures in tension. Freyssinet constructed an experimental prestressed arch in 1908 and later used the technology in a limited form in the <a href="/wiki/Plougastel_Bridge" title="Plougastel Bridge">Plougastel Bridge</a> in France in 1930. He went on to build six prestressed concrete bridges across the <a href="/wiki/Marne_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Marne River">Marne River</a>, firmly establishing the technology.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Structural engineering theory was again advanced in 1930 when Professor <a href="/wiki/Hardy_Cross" title="Hardy Cross">Hardy Cross</a> developed his <a href="/wiki/Moment_distribution_method" title="Moment distribution method">Moment distribution method</a>, allowing the real stresses of many complex structures to be approximated quickly and accurately.<sup id="cite_ref-Heyman1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heyman1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid 20th century <a href="/wiki/John_Fleetwood_Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="John Fleetwood Baker">John Fleetwood Baker</a> went on to develop the plasticity theory of structures, providing a powerful tool for the safe design of steel structures. The possibility of creating structures with complex geometries, beyond analysis by hand calculation methods, first arose in 1941 when <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hrennikoff" title="Alexander Hrennikoff">Alexander Hrennikoff</a> submitted his D.Sc thesis at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a> on the topic of discretization of plane elasticity problems using a lattice framework. This was the forerunner to the development of <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite element analysis">finite element analysis</a>. In 1942, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Courant" title="Richard Courant">Richard Courant</a> developed a mathematical basis for finite element analysis. This led in 1956 to the publication by J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's of a paper on the "Stiffness and Deflection of Complex Structures". This paper introduced the name "finite-element method" and is widely recognised as the first comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High-rise construction, though possible from the late 19th century onwards, was greatly advanced during the second half of the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Fazlur_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Fazlur Khan">Fazlur Khan</a> designed structural systems that remain fundamental to many modern <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">high rise constructions</a> and which he employed in his structural designs for the <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock_Center" title="John Hancock Center">John Hancock Center</a> in 1969 and <a href="/wiki/Sears_Tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sears Tower">Sears Tower</a> in 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khan's central innovation in <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper_design_and_construction" title="Skyscraper design and construction">skyscraper design and construction</a> was the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Tube_(structure)" title="Tube (structure)">"tube" and "bundled tube"</a> structural systems for tall buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He defined the framed tube structure as "a three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads, for example wind, are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the exterior surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. The first building to apply the tube-frame construction was in the <a href="/wiki/DeWitt-Chestnut_Apartment_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building">DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building</a> which Khan designed in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>. This laid the foundations for the tube structures used in most later skyscraper constructions, including the <a href="/wiki/Construction_of_the_World_Trade_Center" title="Construction of the World Trade Center">construction of the World Trade Center</a>. </p><p>Another innovation that Fazlur Khan developed was the concept of X-bracing, which reduced the lateral load on the building by transferring the load into the exterior columns. This allowed for a reduced need for interior columns thus creating more floor space, and can be seen in the John Hancock Center. The first <a href="/wiki/Sky_lobby" title="Sky lobby">sky lobby</a> was also designed by Khan for the John Hancock Center in 1969. Later buildings with sky lobbies include the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(1973%E2%80%932001)" title="World Trade Center (1973–2001)">World Trade Center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petronas_Twin_Towers" class="mw-redirect" title="Petronas Twin Towers">Petronas Twin Towers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taipei_101" title="Taipei 101">Taipei 101</a>. </p><p>In 1987 <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Schlaich" title="Jörg Schlaich">Jörg Schlaich</a> and Kurt Schafer published the culmination of almost ten years of work on the strut and tie method for concrete analysis - a tool to design structures with discontinuities such as corners and joints, providing another powerful tool for the analysis of complex concrete geometries.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 20th and early 21st centuries the development of powerful <a href="/wiki/Computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computers">computers</a> has allowed <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite element analysis">finite element analysis</a> to become a significant tool for structural analysis and design. The development of finite element programs has led to the ability to accurately predict the stresses in complex structures, and allowed great advances in structural engineering design and architecture. In the 1960s and 70s computational analysis was used in a significant way for the first time on the design of the <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House" title="Sydney Opera House">Sydney Opera House</a> roof. Many modern structures could not be understood and designed without the use of computational analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Developments in the understanding of materials and structural behaviour in the latter part of the 20th century have been significant, with detailed understanding being developed of topics such as <a href="/wiki/Fracture_mechanics" title="Fracture mechanics">fracture mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">earthquake engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Composite_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite materials">composite materials</a>, temperature effects on materials, dynamics and <a href="/wiki/Vibration_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibration control">vibration control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a> and others. The depth and breadth of knowledge now available in <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structural engineering</a>, and the increasing range of different structures and the increasing complexity of those structures has led to increasing specialisation of structural engineers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">Base isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_construction" title="History of construction">History of construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">History of architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sanitation_and_water_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="History of sanitation and water supply">History of sanitation and water supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat">Qanat</a> water management system</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Saouma-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saouma_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saouma_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVictor_E._Saouma" class="citation web cs1">Victor E. Saouma. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180413110017/http://ceae.colorado.edu/~saouma/Lecture-Notes/se.pdf">"Lecture Notes in Structural Engineering"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Colorado. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ceae.colorado.edu/~saouma/Lecture-Notes/se.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2018-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lecture+Notes+in+Structural+Engineering&rft.pub=University+of+Colorado&rft.au=Victor+E.+Saouma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fceae.colorado.edu%2F~saouma%2FLecture-Notes%2Fse.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Y Hassan">Ahmad Y Hassan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm">Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part Ii: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171021/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm">Archived</a> 2008-02-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Qanat, Kariz and Khattara: Traditional Water Systems in the Middle East - By Peter Beaumont, Michael E. Bonine, Keith Stanley</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Traditional Crafts of Persia: Their Development and Technology by Hans E. Wulff</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">p. 4 of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMays2010" class="citation book cs1">Mays, L. (2010-08-30). <i>Ancient Water Technologies</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8631-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8631-0"><bdi>978-90-481-8631-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Water+Technologies&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010-08-30&rft.isbn=978-90-481-8631-0&rft.aulast=Mays&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-works-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-works_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeath,_T.L.1897" class="citation web cs1">Heath, T.L. (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofarchimede029517mbp">"<i>The Works of Archimedes</i> (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB)"</a>. Cambridge University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-10-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Archimedes+%281897%29.+The+unabridged+work+in+PDF+form+%2819+MB%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press.&rft.date=1897&rft.au=Heath%2C+T.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworksofarchimede029517mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19970606074441/http://www.mos.org/leonardo/inventor.html">"Renaissance Man"</a>. Museum of Science, Boston. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mos.org/leonardo/inventor.html">the original</a> on 1997-06-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Renaissance+Man&rft.pub=Museum+of+Science%2C+Boston&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mos.org%2Fleonardo%2Finventor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galileo, G. (Crew, H & de Salvio, A. (1954))</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chapman, Allan. (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newton, Isaac;Leseur, Thomas; Jacquier, François. (1822)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stillwel, J. (2002). p.159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeyman,_Jacques1999" class="citation book cs1">Heyman, Jacques (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Au34lwRovHIC&q=Leonhard+Euler+Daniel+Bernoulli+Beam+equation"><i>The Science of Structural Engineering</i></a>. Imperial College Press. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86094-189-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-86094-189-3"><bdi>1-86094-189-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Structural+Engineering&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-86094-189-3&rft.au=Heyman%2C+Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAu34lwRovHIC%26q%3DLeonhard%2BEuler%2BDaniel%2BBernoulli%2BBeam%2Bequation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Euler-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley,_Robert_E.Sandifer,_Charles_Edward2007" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Robert E.; Sandifer, Charles Edward (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=75vJL_Y-PvsC&q=leonhard+euler+buckling+formula"><i>Leonhard Euler: Life, Work and Legacy</i></a>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52728-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52728-8"><bdi>978-0-444-52728-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leonhard+Euler%3A+Life%2C+Work+and+Legacy&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-444-52728-8&rft.au=Bradley%2C+Robert+E.&rft.au=Sandifer%2C+Charles+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D75vJL_Y-PvsC%26q%3Dleonhard%2Beuler%2Bbuckling%2Bformula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dugas, René (1988). p.231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeyman,_Jacques1999" class="citation book cs1">Heyman, Jacques (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Au34lwRovHIC&q=Leonhard+Euler+Daniel+Bernoulli+Beam+equation"><i>The Science of Structural Engineering</i></a>. Imperial College Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86094-189-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-86094-189-3"><bdi>1-86094-189-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Structural+Engineering&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-86094-189-3&rft.au=Heyman%2C+Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAu34lwRovHIC%26q%3DLeonhard%2BEuler%2BDaniel%2BBernoulli%2BBeam%2Bequation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hosford, W.F. (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Castigliano, C.A. (Andrews, E.S.) (1966)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prentice, J.E. (1990) p.171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nedwell, P.J.; Swamy, R.N.(ed). (1994) p.27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kirby, R.S. (1990) p.476</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swank, J.M. (1965) p.395</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blank, A.; McEvoy, M.; Plank, R. (1993) p.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Labrum, E.A. (1994) p.23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leonhardt. p.41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mörsch, E. p.83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hognestad, E.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoogenboom P.C.J., "Discrete Elements and Nonlinearity in Design of Structural Concrete Walls", Section 1.3 Historical Overview of Structural Concrete Modelling, August 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-901184-3-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-901184-3-8">90-901184-3-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hewson, N.R. (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heyman1-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heyman1_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heyman, J. (1998) p.101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turner, J.; Clough, R.W.; Martin, H.C.; Topp, L.J. (1956) p.803-23, 854</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mir, A. (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChris_H._Luebkeman1996" class="citation web cs1">Chris H. Luebkeman (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080417060923/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~struct/resources/pencil/systems/sys13.htm">"Tube-in-Tube"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~struct/resources/pencil/systems/sys13.htm">the original</a> on 2008-04-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tube-in-Tube&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Chris+H.+Luebkeman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarkwing.uoregon.edu%2F~struct%2Fresources%2Fpencil%2Fsystems%2Fsys13.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChris_H._Luebkeman1996" class="citation web cs1">Chris H. Luebkeman (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080420065252/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~struct/resources/pencil/systems/sys14.htm">"Bundled Tube"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~struct/resources/pencil/systems/sys14.htm">the original</a> on 2008-04-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bundled+Tube&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Chris+H.+Luebkeman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarkwing.uoregon.edu%2F~struct%2Fresources%2Fpencil%2Fsystems%2Fsys14.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070605133019/http://www.civenv.unimelb.edu.au/ejse/Archives/Fulltext/200101/01/20010101.htm">"Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civenv.unimelb.edu.au/ejse/Archives/Fulltext/200101/01/20010101.htm">the original</a> on 2007-06-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-05-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+Concrete+Skyscrapers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.civenv.unimelb.edu.au%2Fejse%2FArchives%2FFulltext%2F200101%2F01%2F20010101.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+structural+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schlaich, J., K. Schäfer, M. Jennewein</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacNeal, R.H. (1994)</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issuu.com/udc3/docs/world_expos._a_history_of_structure">"World Expos. A history of structures". Isaac López César. A history of architectural structures over the last 150 years.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li></ul> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.eqiad.main‐85fdcf9895‐n4kls Cached time: 20250131144837 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.230 seconds Real time usage: 0.351 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 1644/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 23712/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 2054/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 16/100 Expensive parser function count: 3/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 47728/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 0.104/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 5040081/52428800 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 0/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 260.087 1 -total 67.09% 174.486 1 Template:Reflist 36.10% 93.895 6 Template:Cite_web 21.58% 56.134 1 Template:Citation_needed 19.37% 50.381 2 Template:Fix 12.64% 32.879 1 Template:ISBN 11.03% 28.699 4 Template:Category_handler 7.34% 19.086 1 Template:Catalog_lookup_link 5.59% 14.538 4 Template:Cite_book 4.89% 12.727 1 Template:Dead_link --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:17326228:|#|:idhash:canonical and timestamp 20250131144837 and revision id 1245675875. Rendering was triggered because: page-view --> </div><!--esi <esi:include src="/esitest-fa8a495983347898/content" /> --><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&oldid=1245675875">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&oldid=1245675875</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_structural_engineering" title="Category:History of structural engineering">History of structural engineering</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:3rd-millennium_BC_introductions" title="Category:3rd-millennium BC introductions">3rd-millennium BC introductions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_construction" title="Category:History of construction">History of construction</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2010" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2024">Articles with dead external links from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 September 2024, at 12:59<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_structural_engineering&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of structural engineering</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>4 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-55f85cbc4-wq68j","wgBackendResponseTime":125,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.230","walltime":"0.351","ppvisitednodes":{"value":1644,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":23712,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2054,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":3,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":47728,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 260.087 1 -total"," 67.09% 174.486 1 Template:Reflist"," 36.10% 93.895 6 Template:Cite_web"," 21.58% 56.134 1 Template:Citation_needed"," 19.37% 50.381 2 Template:Fix"," 12.64% 32.879 1 Template:ISBN"," 11.03% 28.699 4 Template:Category_handler"," 7.34% 19.086 1 Template:Catalog_lookup_link"," 5.59% 14.538 4 Template:Cite_book"," 4.89% 12.727 1 Template:Dead_link"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.104","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":5040081,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-85fdcf9895-n4kls","timestamp":"20250131144837","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of structural engineering","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_structural_engineering","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q17163332","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q17163332","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2008-05-08T18:30:24Z","dateModified":"2024-09-14T12:59:53Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/95\/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG"}</script> </body> </html>