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id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Causatives_and_applicatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causatives_and_applicatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Causatives and applicatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causatives_and_applicatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Causatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instrumental_applicative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Instrumental applicative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instrumental_applicative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Body-part_prefixation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Body-part_prefixation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Body-part prefixation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Body-part_prefixation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessive_constructions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_constructions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Possessive constructions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_constructions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_symbolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_symbolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Sound symbolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_symbolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Totonacan_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Totonacan_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Totonacan vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Totonacan_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Totonacan languages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_totonaco-tepehues" title="Llingües totonaco-tepehues – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües totonaco-tepehues" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_totonakek" title="Yezhoù totonakek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù totonakek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_totonaques" title="Llengües totonaques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües totonaques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totonac-Tepehua-Sprachen" title="Totonac-Tepehua-Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Totonac-Tepehua-Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_totonaco-tepehuas" title="Lenguas totonaco-tepehuas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas totonaco-tepehuas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_totonaques" title="Langues totonaques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues totonaques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%ED%86%A0%EB%82%99%EC%96%B4%EC%A1%B1" title="토토낙어족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토토낙어족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totona%C4%8Dki_jezici" title="Totonački jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Totonački jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_totonacan" title="Lingue totonacan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue totonacan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totonak%C5%B3_kalbos" title="Totonakų kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Totonakų kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_totonacan" title="Linguas totonacan – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguas totonacan" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totonakiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Totonakiske språk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Totonakiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totonakiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Totonakiske språk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Totonakiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_totonacas" title="Lengas totonacas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengas totonacas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_totonacan" title="Lenghe totonacan – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenghe totonacan" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_totonacanas" title="Línguas totonacanas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas totonacanas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutunaka_simi" title="Tutunaka simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Tutunaka simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Тотонакские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тотонакские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Language family of eastern Mexico</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media 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style="background-color: #c0dde6;">Totonacan</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c0dde6;">Totonac–Tepehua</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Totozoquean_languages" title="Totozoquean languages">Totozoquean</a> ?<ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li><b>Totonacan</b></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Totonacan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Totonacan">Proto-Totonacan</a></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepehua_languages" title="Tepehua languages">Tepehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonac_languages" title="Totonac languages">Totonac</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c0dde6;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/toto1251">toto1251</a></code></samp></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Totonacan languages</b> (also known as <b>Totonac–Tepehua languages</b>) are a <a href="/wiki/Language_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Language families">family</a> of closely related languages spoken by approximately 290,000 <a href="/wiki/Totonac" title="Totonac">Totonac</a> (approx. 280,000) and <a href="/wiki/Tepehua_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepehua people">Tepehua</a> (approx. 10,000) people in the states of <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puebla" title="Puebla">Puebla</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hidalgo_(Mexico)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidalgo (Mexico)">Hidalgo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. At the time of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of Mexico">Spanish conquest</a> Totonacan languages were spoken all along the gulf coast of Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReidBishop1974_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReidBishop1974-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the colonial period, Totonacan languages were occasionally written and at least one grammar was produced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnonymous1990_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnonymous1990-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century the number of speakers of most varieties have dwindled as indigenous identity increasingly became stigmatized encouraging speakers to adopt Spanish as their main language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELam2009_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELam2009-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Totonacan languages have only recently been compared to other families on the basis of historical-comparative linguistics, though they share numerous <a href="/wiki/Areal_feature" title="Areal feature">areal features</a> with other languages of the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Linguistic_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoamerican Linguistic Area">Mesoamerican Linguistic Area</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>. Recent work suggests a possible genetic link to the <a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixe–Zoque">Mixe–Zoque</a> language family,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this has yet to be firmly established. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_classification">Internal classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Internal classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The family is divided into two branches, <a href="/wiki/Totonac_languages" title="Totonac languages">Totonac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tepehua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepehua language">Tepehua</a>. Of the two, <a href="/wiki/Tepehua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepehua language">Tepehua</a> is generally considered to consist of three languages—Pisaflores, Huehuetla, and Tlachichilco—while the Totonac branch is considerably more diverse. MacKay (1999) divides Totonac into four divisions, based on García Rojas (1978):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKay1999_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKay1999-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarcía_Rojas1978_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarcía_Rojas1978-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Papantla Totonac</b>: spoken in El Escolín, <a href="/wiki/Papantla" title="Papantla">Papantla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cazones" class="mw-redirect" title="Cazones">Cazones</a>, Tajín, <a href="/wiki/Espinal,_Veracruz" title="Espinal, Veracruz">Espinal</a>, and other towns along the Gulf Coast of Veracruz.</li> <li><b>North-Central Totonac</b>: spoken roughly between <a href="/wiki/Poza_Rica" title="Poza Rica">Poza Rica</a> in Veracruz and Mecapalapa, <a href="/wiki/Pantepec,_Puebla" title="Pantepec, Puebla">Pantepec</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xicotepec_(municipality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Xicotepec (municipality)">Xicotepec de Juárez</a> in Puebla.</li> <li><b>South-Central Totonac</b>: spoken mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Norte_de_Puebla" title="Sierra Norte de Puebla">Sierra Norte de Puebla</a>, including the towns of <a href="/wiki/Zapotitl%C3%A1n_de_M%C3%A9ndez" title="Zapotitlán de Méndez">Zapotitlán de Méndez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coatepec,_Puebla" title="Coatepec, Puebla">Coatepec</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Huehuetla,_Puebla" title="Huehuetla, Puebla">Huehuetla</a> in Puebla.</li> <li><b>Misantla Totonac</b>: spoken in <a href="/wiki/Yecuatla" title="Yecuatla">Yecuatla</a> and other communities outside the city of <a href="/wiki/Misantla" title="Misantla">Misantla</a>.</li></ul> <p>As of 2023<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> recognizes 12 languages in the Totonacan family, three Tepehua languages and nine Totonac.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This classification is the basis of the latest version of the ISO language codes for Totonacan, although some of these classifications are disputed. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language </th> <th>ISO code </th> <th>Locations </th> <th>Number of speakers </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Huehuetla_Tepehua" title="Huehuetla Tepehua">Huehuetla Tepehua</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tee">tee</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Huehuetla,_Hidalgo" title="Huehuetla, Hidalgo">Huehuetla</a>, northeast Hidalgo; Mecapalapa, Puebla </td> <td>3,000 (1982 SIL) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pisaflores_Tepehua" title="Pisaflores Tepehua">Pisaflores Tepehua</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tpp">tpp</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pisaflores" title="Pisaflores">Pisaflores</a>, Hidalgo; <a href="/wiki/Ixhuatl%C3%A1n_de_Madero" title="Ixhuatlán de Madero">Ixhuatlán de Madero</a>, Veracruz </td> <td>4,000 (1990 census) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tlachichilco_Tepehua" title="Tlachichilco Tepehua">Tlachichilco Tepehua</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tpt">tpt</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tlachichilco" title="Tlachichilco">Tlachichilco</a>, Veracruz </td> <td>3,000 (1990 SIL) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Papantla_Totonac" title="Papantla Totonac">Papantla Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/top">top</a> </td> <td>Around <a href="/wiki/Papantla" title="Papantla">Papantla</a>, central lowland <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> </td> <td>80,000 (1982 SIL) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coyutla_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Coyutla Totonac">Coyutla Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/toc">toc</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coyutla" title="Coyutla">Coyutla</a>, Veracruz </td> <td>48,000 (2000 WCD) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Highland_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Highland Totonac">Highland Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tos">tos</a> </td> <td>Around <a href="/wiki/Zacatl%C3%A1n,_Puebla" class="mw-redirect" title="Zacatlán, Puebla">Zacatlán, Puebla</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> </td> <td>120,000 (1982 SIL) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Filomeno_Mata_Totonac" title="Filomeno Mata Totonac">Filomeno Mata Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tlp">tlp</a> </td> <td>The town of <a href="/wiki/Filomeno_Mata" title="Filomeno Mata">Filomeno Mata</a>, highland <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, adjacent to Highland Totonac </td> <td>15,000 (2000 WCD) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xicotepec_Totonac" title="Xicotepec Totonac">Xicotepec Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/too">too</a> </td> <td>In 30 villages around <a href="/wiki/Xicotepec" title="Xicotepec">Xicotepec de Juárez</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Norte_de_Puebla" title="Sierra Norte de Puebla">Sierra Norte de Puebla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> </td> <td>3,000 (2000 SIL) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ozumatl%C3%A1n_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Ozumatlán Totonac">Ozumatlán Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tqt">tqt</a> </td> <td>Ozumatlán, <a href="/wiki/Tepetzintla,_Puebla" title="Tepetzintla, Puebla">Tepetzintla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tlapehuala" title="Tlapehuala">Tlapehuala</a> and San Agustín in northern Puebla </td> <td>1,800 (1990 census) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Misantla_Totonac" title="Misantla Totonac">Misantla Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tlc">tlc</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yecuatla" title="Yecuatla">Yecuatla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misantla" title="Misantla">Misantla</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> </td> <td>500 (1994 SIL) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tku">tku</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patla,_Puebla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patla, Puebla (page does not exist)">Patla</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chicontla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chicontla (page does not exist)">Chicontla</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cacahuatl%C3%A1n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cacahuatlán (page does not exist)">Cacahuatlán</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=San_Pedro_Tlaloantongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="San Pedro Tlaloantongo (page does not exist)">San Pedro Tlaloantongo</a> in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Puebla" title="Puebla">Puebla</a> </td> <td>3,400 (2000 INEGI) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tecpatl%C3%A1n_Totonac" title="Tecpatlán Totonac">Tecpatlán Totonac</a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tcw">tcw</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tecpatl%C3%A1n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tecpatlán (page does not exist)">Tecpatlán</a>, northeastern <a href="/wiki/Puebla" title="Puebla">Puebla</a> </td> <td>540 (2000 INEGI) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Mexican <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Lenguas_Ind%C3%ADgenas" title="Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas">Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas</a> (INALI) recognizes 10 distinct languages or "linguistic variants" in the family, 3 Tepehua and 7 Totonac <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEINALI2008_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEINALI2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>population (2005 census) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Western Tepehua (also known as Tlachichiloco)</td> <td>9,200 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Northern Tepehua (also known as Pisaflores)</td> <td>2,800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Southern Tepehua (also known as Huehuetla)</td> <td>1,800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Southeastern Totonac (also known as Misantla)</td> <td>490 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Coastal (also known as Papantla)</td> <td>58,200 </td></tr> <tr> <td>North Central (also known as Xicotepec)</td> <td>15,100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>South Central (also known as Highland)</td> <td>114,900 </td></tr> <tr> <td>High Central (also known as Filomeno Mata)</td> <td>8,700 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cerro del Xinolatépetl (also known as Ozumatlán)</td> <td>1,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Upper Necaxa</td> <td>3,300 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Coyutla Totonac is grouped with South Central Totonac by INALI while Tecpatlán Totonac is included in the North Central Totonac group. Other recent attempts at classification have suggested that some of these divisions, particularly North Central, Costal, and South Central, and are far too broad and include varieties that might also be classified as separate languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2011_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A further drawback of the Ethnologue and INALI classifications is the lack of lower-level subgroups beyond the two-way division into Totonac and Tepehua. In the Totonac branch of the family, <a href="/wiki/Misantla_Totonac" title="Misantla Totonac">Misantla</a> is the most distinctive, and the remaining languages form a more closely related group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Divisions amongst the latter group, which might be referred to as "Central Totonac," are unclear, though most researchers agree that there is at least a three-way division between Northern, Southern/Sierra, and Lowland/Coastal varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchon1969_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchon1969-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent efforts at reconstruction and evidence from lexical similarity further suggest that Southern/Sierra and Lowland group together against Northern,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this is still uncertain, pending more exhaustive investigation. The most recent proposal for the family is as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Tepehua <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pisaflores_Tepehua" title="Pisaflores Tepehua">Pisaflores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huehuetla_Tepehua" title="Huehuetla Tepehua">Huehuetla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlachichilco_Tepehua" title="Tlachichilco Tepehua">Tlachichilco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Totonac <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misantla_Totonac" title="Misantla Totonac">Misantla</a></li> <li>Central Totonac <ul><li>Northern Totonac <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tecpatl%C3%A1n_Totonac" title="Tecpatlán Totonac">Tecpatlán Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zihuateutla_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Zihuateutla Totonac">Zihuateutla Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerro_Xinolat%C3%A9petl_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerro Xinolatépetl Totonac">Cerro Xinolatépetl Totonac</a> (also known as Ozumatlán)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apapantilla_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Apapantilla Totonac">Apapantilla Totonac</a> (also known as Xicotepec)</li></ul></li> <li>Lowland–Sierra <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filomeno_Mata_Totonac" title="Filomeno Mata Totonac">Filomeno Mata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowland Totonac">Lowland Totonac</a> (many varieties, incl. Papantla)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Totonac">Sierra Totonac</a> (also known as Highland Totonac) <ul><li>Coatepec</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coyutla_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Coyutla Totonac">Coyutla</a></li> <li>Huehuetla Totonac</li> <li>Ozelonacaxtla</li> <li>Olintla</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotitl%C3%A1n_de_M%C3%A9ndez_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Zapotitlán de Méndez Totonac">Zapotitlán de Méndez</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Lexical comparison also suggests that, for Tepehua, Pisaflores and Huehuetla may be more closely related to each other than either is to Tlalchichilco.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>MacKay and Trechsel (2018) provide the following internal classification:<sup id="cite_ref-Mackay-Trechsel_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackay-Trechsel-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Totonac-Tepehua</dt></dl> <ul><li><i><b>Totonac</b></i> <ul><li><b>Sierra Totonac</b>: <a href="/wiki/Zapotitl%C3%A1n_de_M%C3%A9ndez" title="Zapotitlán de Méndez">Zapotitlán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coatepec,_Puebla" title="Coatepec, Puebla">Coatepec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huehuetla,_Puebla" title="Huehuetla, Puebla">Huehuetla</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chilocoyo_del_Carmen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chilocoyo del Carmen (page does not exist)">Chilocoyo del Carmen</a>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Caxhu%C3%A1can&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caxhuácan (page does not exist)">Caxhuácan</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ozelonacaxtla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ozelonacaxtla (page does not exist)">Ozelonacaxtla</a></li> <li><b>Papantla Totonac</b>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Escol%C3%ADn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="El Escolín (page does not exist)">El Escolín</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Taj%C3%ADn" title="El Tajín">El Tajín</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Carb%C3%B3n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="El Carbón (page does not exist)">El Carbón</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papantla" title="Papantla">Papantla</a></li> <li><b>Northern Totonac</b>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Apapantilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Apapantilla (page does not exist)">Apapantilla</a>, Patla, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chicontla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chicontla (page does not exist)">Chicontla</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cacahuatl%C3%A1n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cacahuatlán (page does not exist)">Cacahuatlán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filomeno_Mata" title="Filomeno Mata">Filomeno Mata</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=San_Pedro_Tlaolantongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="San Pedro Tlaolantongo (page does not exist)">San Pedro Tlaolantongo</a></li> <li><b>Misantla Totonac</b>: <a href="/wiki/Yecuatla" title="Yecuatla">Yecuatla</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=San_Marcos_Atexquilapan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="San Marcos Atexquilapan (page does not exist)">San Marcos Atexquilapan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jilotepec,_Veracruz" title="Jilotepec, Veracruz">Jilotepec</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><b>Tepehua</b></i> <ul><li><b>Tlachichileo Tepehua</b>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tlachichileo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tlachichileo (page does not exist)">Tlachichileo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tierra_Colorada" title="Tierra Colorada">Tierra Colorada</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chintip%C3%A1n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chintipán (page does not exist)">Chintipán</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tecomajapa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tecomajapa (page does not exist)">Tecomajapa</a></li> <li><b>Pisaflores Tepehua</b>: <a href="/wiki/Pisaflores" title="Pisaflores">Pisaflores</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Tepetate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="El Tepetate (page does not exist)">El Tepetate</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=San_Pedro_Tziltzacuapan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="San Pedro Tziltzacuapan (page does not exist)">San Pedro Tziltzacuapan</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=San_Jos%C3%A9_el_Salto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="San José el Salto (page does not exist)">San José el Salto</a></li> <li><b>Huehuetla Tepehua</b>: <a href="/wiki/Huehuetla,_Hidalgo" title="Huehuetla, Hidalgo">Huehuetla</a> (Hidalgo), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barrio_Atzl%C3%A1n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barrio Atzlán (page does not exist)">Barrio Atzlán</a>, Linda Vista (Mirasol), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mecapalapa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mecapalapa (page does not exist)">Mecapalapa</a> (Puebla)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is some variation in the sound systems of the different varieties of Totonac and Tepehua, but the following phoneme inventory can be considered a typical Totonacan inventory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAschman1946_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAschman1946-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">tɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This consonant inventory is essentially equivalent to that reconstructed for proto-Totonacan by Arana Osnaya (1953,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the exception of the two back fricatives, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>. Most modern languages phonemically have only one of these, but show some allomorphic variation between the two, with one or the other being considered basic. However, Coatepec Totonac is reported to have both phonemes,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcQuown1990_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcQuown1990-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more recent reconstructions of the proto-Totonacan consonant inventory have proposed that both were present in that language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavletshin2008_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavletshin2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The glottal stop is a marginal phoneme in most of the languages and is posited primarily for morphological reasons. The phonological system is fairly typical of Mesoamerica. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most Totonacan languages have a three-vowel system with each quality making distinctions of length and <a href="/wiki/Laryngealization" class="mw-redirect" title="Laryngealization">laryngealization</a>. The following is the "typical" Totonacan vocalic inventory. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Totonacan vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center" class="small"> <th> </th> <th>creaky</th> <th>plain</th> <th>creaky</th> <th>plain</th> <th>creaky</th> <th>plain </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">ḭ</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">ḭː</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">ṵ</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">ṵː</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">a̰</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">a̰ː</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a></span></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Tepehua has lost the phonemic laryngealization of vowels and has ejective stops where Totonac has creaky vowels preceded by stops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Totonac languages have five-vowel systems, having developed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> phonemes, whereas in others <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span> are clearly allomorphs of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>, respectively, conditioned by proximity to uvular stops or fricatives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From a typological perspective, the Totonac–Tepehua family presents a fairly consistent profile, and exhibits many features of the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Linguistic_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoamerican Linguistic Area">Mesoamerican areal type</a>, such as a preference for verb-initial order, <a href="/wiki/Head-marking" class="mw-redirect" title="Head-marking">head-marking</a>, and extensive use of body part morphemes in metaphorical and locative constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Totonacan languages are highly <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative">agglutinative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysynthetic">polysynthetic</a> with nominative/accusative alignment and a flexible constituent order governed by information structure. Syntactic relations between the verb and its arguments are marked by agreement with the subject and one or sometimes two objects. There is no morphological case on nouns and many languages in the family lack prepositions, making use instead of a rich system of <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causatives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applicative_voice" title="Applicative voice">applicatives</a>, and prefixes for body parts and parts of objects. <a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">Possession</a> is marked on the possessed noun, the head of the NP. Otherwise, nouns are uninflected, number being an optional category and grammatical gender being absent from the languages. Numerals quantifying nouns bear <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classificatory</a> prefixes, something that is unusual cross-linguistically as affixal classifiers tend heavily to be suffixes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Totonacan languages are also known for their use of <a href="/wiki/Sound_symbolism" title="Sound symbolism">sound symbolism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causatives_and_applicatives">Causatives and applicatives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Causatives and applicatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Totonacan languages have a wide assortment of <a href="/wiki/Morphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphemes">morphemes</a> for increasing the <a href="/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">valency</a> of a verb. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Causatives">Causatives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Causatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All Totonacan languages have at least one <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a> <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a>, a prefix <i>ma:-</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Filomeno_Mata_Totonac" title="Filomeno Mata Totonac">Filomeno Mata Totonac</a></dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>tiːnoː štamaːʔaqstoqmáːna ʔaqšáːq</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tiː=nuː</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="relative(izer)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REL</abbr>:<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="H: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">H</abbr>=ahora</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">š-ta-maː-aq-stuq-maː-na</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr>-head-gathered-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="progressive aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aqšáːq</p><p style="margin: 0px;">head</p></div><p style="display: none;">tiː=nuː š-ta-maː-aq-stuq-maː-na aqšáːq</p><p style="display: none;">REL:H=ahora PAST-3PL.SUB-CAUS-head-gathered-PROG-3PL head</p><p style="clear: left;">‘those who were gathering heads’ <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFarland2012278_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFarland2012278-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Pisaflores_Tepehua" title="Pisaflores Tepehua">Pisaflores Tepehua</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>čáʔa̰ɬ máalákȼḭ́n líitamáaɬkúulátača</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tpp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">čaʔan-ɬi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arrive.there-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tpp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">maa-lakȼ’in</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="EVI: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">EVI</abbr>-see</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tpp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lii-ta-maa-ɬkuula-taa(ɬ)=ča</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="comparative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COMP</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr>-burn-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="PF: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">PF</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">čaʔan-ɬi maa-lakȼ’in lii-ta-maa-ɬkuula-taa(ɬ)=ča</p><p style="display: none;">arrive.there-PFV EVI-see COMP-3PL.SUB-CAUS-burn-PF=CL</p><p style="clear: left;">‘He got there and saw that they had made a fire.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKayTrechsel2012a112_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKayTrechsel2012a112-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In many of the languages, the causative prefix is regularly or obligatorily associated with a suffix: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>tsa̰x kmaːka̰tsiːniːyáːn mat wan</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tsa̰x</p><p style="margin: 0px;">just</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ḭk-maː-ka̰tsíː-niː-yaː-n</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr>-know-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="IMPF: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">IMPF</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="2OBJ: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">2OBJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mat</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="QTV: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">QTV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">say</p></div><p style="display: none;">tsa̰x ḭk-maː-ka̰tsíː-niː-yaː-n mat wan</p><p style="display: none;">just 1SG.SUB-CAUS-know-CAUS-IMPF-2OBJ QTV say</p><p style="clear: left;">‘ “I'm just letting you know”, he says.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2012202_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2012202-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In some languages like Upper Necaxa, the suffix is analyzed as part of the causative morpheme,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2012_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2012-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in others it is treated as a separate transitivizer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dative/benefactive_applicative"><span id="Dative.2Fbenefactive_applicative"></span>Dative/benefactive applicative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dative/benefactive applicative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most frequently used valency-increasing affixes in the Totonacan languages is the <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Benefactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Benefactive">benefactive</a> suffix:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Ozelonacaxtla_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Ozelonacaxtla Totonac">Ozelonacaxtla Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>na.lḭːn.ˈka̰ ni.tʃu ʃtʃuh</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tos" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">na-lḭːn-ni-ka̰n</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr>-take-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="benefactive case ('for')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">BEN</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="indefinite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INDEF</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tos" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="JNCT: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">JNCT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tos" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tʃu</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="particle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PTCL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tos" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʃ-tʃuh</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="3PO: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">3PO</abbr>-tortilla</p></div><p style="display: none;">na-lḭːn-ni-ka̰n i tʃu ʃ-tʃuh</p><p style="display: none;">FUT-take-BEN-INDEF.SUB JNCT PTCL 3PO-tortilla</p><p style="clear: left;">‘They will take him his food.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoman_Lobato2012338_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoman_Lobato2012338-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Cerro_Xinolat%C3%A9petl_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerro Xinolatépetl Totonac">Cerro Xinolatépetl Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>tɐmɑqɑ̰n ḭɬ čúčutʰ nɐkʰšušúm</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tqt" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ta-maqá̰n-ni-lḭ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr>-throw-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="benefactive case ('for')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">BEN</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tqt" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">čúčut</p><p style="margin: 0px;">water</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tqt" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nak=šušúm</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr>=piedra</p></div><p style="display: none;">ta-maqá̰n-ni-lḭ čúčut nak=šušúm</p><p style="display: none;">3PL.SUB-throw-BEN-PFV water LOC=piedra</p><p style="clear: left;">‘They threw water for her on the hot stones.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersen2012186_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersen2012186-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comitative_applicative">Comitative applicative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Comitative applicative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All the languages of the family have a <a href="/wiki/Comitative" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitative">comitative</a> construction in which both an actor and a co-actor of a verb are specified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Huehuetla_Tepehua" title="Huehuetla Tepehua">Huehuetla Tepehua</a> a verb such as <i>tamakahuːn</i> 'stay, be in a place' is intransitive but can take a comitative prefix to form a verb <i>ta̰ːtamakahuːn</i> meaning 'stay with someone', someone being the co-actor: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Huehuetla_Tepehua" title="Huehuetla Tepehua">Huehuetla Tepehua</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>haː laːy k’alakt’aːtamakahuː</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tee" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">haː</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="intensifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tee" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">laː-y</p><p style="margin: 0px;">poder-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="IMPF: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">IMPF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tee" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">k-ʔa-lak-t’aː-tamakahuːn</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="1SUB: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">1SUB</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object(ive)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="comitative case ('together with')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COM</abbr>-quedar:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">haː laː-y k-ʔa-lak-t’aː-tamakahuːn</p><p style="display: none;">INT poder-IMPF 1SUB-PL-3PL.OBJ-COM-quedar:PFV</p><p style="clear: left;">‘Can I stay with you guys?’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung201278_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung201278-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Papantla_Totonac" title="Papantla Totonac">Papantla Totonac</a> verb <span title="Papantla Totonac-language text"><i lang="top">muxuː</i></span> ‘bury something’ is <a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammar)" title="Transitivity (grammar)">transitive</a> but becomes <a href="/wiki/Ditransitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ditransitive">ditransitive</a> when it takes the comitative prefix: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Papantla_Totonac" title="Papantla Totonac">Papantla Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>nakta̰ːmuxuːyáːn</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">na-k-ta̰ː-muxuː-yaː-n</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="1SUB: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">1SUB</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="comitative case ('together with')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COM</abbr>-meterlo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="IMPF: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">IMPF</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="2OBJ: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">2OBJ</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">na-k-ta̰ː-muxuː-yaː-n</p><p style="display: none;">FUT-1SUB-COM-meterlo-IMPF-2OBJ</p><p style="clear: left;">‘I will bury her with you’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy2012375_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy2012375-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Instrumental_applicative">Instrumental applicative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Instrumental applicative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The third applicative prefix that is shared across the family is analyzed in most of the languages as an instrumental applicative and is used to add an object used as an instrument or a means to a clause: </p> <dl><dd>Olintla Totonac</dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>pues liːˈlɑqpɑqɬe ˈntʃiwiʃ] [tɘlɑqˈpitsiɬ]</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tos" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">INTJ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="INTJ: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">INTJ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tos" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">liː-láq-paqɬ-ɬi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="DST: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">DST</abbr>-break-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tos" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tʃíwiʃ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">stone</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tos" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ta-laq-pítsi-ɬi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inchoative aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INCH</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="DST: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">DST</abbr>-split-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">INTJ liː-láq-paqɬ-ɬi tʃíwiʃ ta-laq-pítsi-ɬi</p><p style="display: none;">INTJ INST-DST-break-PFV stone INCH-DST-split-PFV</p><p style="clear: left;">‘So he broke the rock with it, it was split.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETino2012297_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETino2012297-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Misantla_Totonac" title="Misantla Totonac">Misantla Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>kít čáaču ʔút̰ ʔí k̰ líiteríkuɬ wí ɬ̰ kák̰ máawán</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlc" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kit</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlc" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">čaa=ču</p><p style="margin: 0px;">just=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlc" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ut</p><p style="margin: 0px;">that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlc" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ik-lii-ta-riku-la(ɬ)</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="1SUB: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">1SUB</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inchoative aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INCH</abbr>-rich-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlc" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wḭn-ɬkak̰</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this-ash</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tlc" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">maa-wan</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="EVI: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">EVI</abbr>-say</p></div><p style="display: none;">kit čaa=ču ut ik-lii-ta-riku-la(ɬ) wḭn-ɬkak̰ maa-wan</p><p style="display: none;">I just=CL that 1SUB-INST-INCH-rich-PFV this-ash EVI-say</p><p style="clear: left;">‘ “I just got rich with (i.e. selling) those ashes”, he says.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKayTrechsel2012b135_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKayTrechsel2012b135-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In some of the languages, the instrumental can also be used for the expression of motives: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>ʔeː čuːnúː paɬ tsḭ́n ʔsa̰ liːta̰sáya̰ pus</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʔeː</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">čuːnúː</p><p style="margin: 0px;">so</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">paɬ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">if</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tsḭnʔs-ya̰</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be.hungry-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="IMPF: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">IMPF</abbr>:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">liː-ta̰sá-ya̰</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr>-vocalize-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="IMPF: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">IMPF</abbr>:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pus</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="INTJ: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">INTJ</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ʔeː čuːnúː paɬ tsḭnʔs-ya̰ liː-ta̰sá-ya̰ pus</p><p style="display: none;">and so if be.hungry-IMPF:2SG.SUB INST-vocalize-IMPF:2SG.SUB INTJ</p><p style="clear: left;">‘ “And if you're hungry, that's why you cry out, then.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2012236_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2012236-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Tlachichilco_Tepehua" title="Tlachichilco Tepehua">Tlachichilco Tepehua</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>porke laqɬuw tumin ɬiːk’uč’ukaɬ</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">porke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">because</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">laq-ɬuw</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr>-much</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tumin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">money</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɬiː-k’uč’u-kan-ɬ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="DIR: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">DIR</abbr>-cure-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="passive voice" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PASS</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">porke laq-ɬuw tumin ɬiː-k’uč’u-kan-ɬ</p><p style="display: none;">because CLF-much money DIR-cure-PASS-PFV</p><p style="clear: left;">‘Because they cured him for a lot of money.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatters201256_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatters201256-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>As seen in the last example, this prefix is <i>ɬi-</i> in Tepehua languages rather than <i>liː-</i> as it is in Totonac, and in Tlachichilco <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatters2012_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatters2012-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Huehuetla<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung2012_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung2012-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is analyzed as a directional ("DIR") rather than an instrumental. The prefix seems to be less frequent in Tepehua than in Totonac. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Body-part_prefixation">Body-part prefixation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Body-part prefixation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Totonacan languages exhibit a phenomenon similar to <a href="/wiki/Noun_incorporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun incorporation">noun incorporation</a> whereby special prefixing combining forms of body-parts may be added to verbs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy1999_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy1999-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy1992_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy1992-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When these prefixes are added, they generally serve to delimit the verb's locus of affect; that is, they indicate which part of the subject or object is affected by the action. </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Huehuetla_Tepehua" title="Huehuetla Tepehua">Huehuetla Tepehua</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>waː naː maː laʔapuːtanuːy šlaʔapuːtanuːti</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tee" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">waː</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="focus" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FOC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tee" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">naː</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="ENF: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">ENF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tee" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">maː</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="RPT: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">RPT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tee" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>laʔapuː</b>-tanuː-y</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>face</b>-put.in-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="IMPF: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">IMPF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tee" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">š-laʔapuːtanuːti</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="3PO: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">3PO</abbr>-mask</p></div><p style="display: none;">waː naː maː <b>laʔapuː</b>-tanuː-y š-laʔapuːtanuːti</p><p style="display: none;">FOC ENF RPT <b>face</b>-put.in-IMPF 3PO-mask</p><p style="clear: left;">‘He put the mask on his face.’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung201281_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung201281-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The prefixes can also be used to specify the shape of an affected object: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Papantla_Totonac" title="Papantla Totonac">Papantla Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>aɬ túku wanikán čaː̰káː̰ tasun</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="top" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">an-li</p><p style="margin: 0px;">go-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="top" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tuku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">what</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="top" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wan-ni-kan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">say-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="benefactive case ('for')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">BEN</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="indefinite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INDEF</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="top" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ča̰ː-ka̰ː</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>shin</b>-cut</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="top" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tasun</p><p style="margin: 0px;">birch</p></div><p style="display: none;">an-li tuku wan-ni-kan ča̰ː-ka̰ː tasun</p><p style="display: none;">go-PFV what say-BEN-INDEF.SUB <b>shin</b>-cut birch</p><p style="clear: left;">‘He went to, what do you call it?, cut a birch tree,’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy2012353_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy2012353-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>It is worthwhile to note that the prefixation does not decrease the valency of the verb, differentiating this process from true noun incorporation as the term is usually understood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMithun1984_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMithun1984-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important role that bodypart prefixes play in Totonacan languages is in the formulation of expressions of the spatial location of objects, which combine a part-prefix with one of four posture verbs (words for ’sit’, ‘stand’, ‘lie’, and ‘be high’): </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>taa̰kpuːwilanáɬ čiwíš spuːníːn</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ta-a̰kpuː-wila-nan-ɬ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUB</abbr>-crown-sit-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">čiwíš</p><p style="margin: 0px;">stone</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">spuːn-niːn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bird-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ta-a̰kpuː-wila-nan-ɬ čiwíš spuːn-niːn</p><p style="display: none;">3PL.SUB-crown-sit-PL-PFV stone bird-PL</p><p style="clear: left;">‘the birds are sitting on the rock’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck201194_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck201194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>These constructions alternate with expressions using the independent (full) form of the part as a preposition-like element: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>líbɾu ša̰kpúːn mesa wiːɬ</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">líbɾu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">book</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ḭš-a̰kpúː-n</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="3PO: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">3PO</abbr>-crown-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mesa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">table</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wiːɬ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sit</p></div><p style="display: none;">líbɾu ḭš-a̰kpúː-n mesa wiːɬ</p><p style="display: none;">book 3PO-crown-NM table sit</p><p style="clear: left;">‘the book is on the table’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck200412_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200412-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In the last sentence, the independent form of <span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">a̰kpuː-</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">crown</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> is formed by combining this prefix with a base <span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">-n</i></span> which is sometimes (as here) analyzed as a nominalizing suffix. Because words for body parts are inflected for <a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">possession</a>, <span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">a̰kpuːn</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">crown</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> has a third-person singular possessive prefix, linking it to <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">mesa</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">table</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, the object on whose crown the book is located (see the section below on <a href="#Possessive_constructions">Possessive constructions</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possessive_constructions">Possessive constructions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Possessive constructions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">Possessive</a> constructions in Totonacan languages are marked on the possessed noun rather than on the possessor noun: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa Totonac</a></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>ḭškṵ́šḭ Juan</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ḭš-kṵ́šḭ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="3PO: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">3PO</abbr>-corn</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tku" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Juan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Juan</p></div><p style="display: none;">ḭš-kṵ́šḭ Juan</p><p style="display: none;">3PO-corn Juan</p><p style="clear: left;">‘Juan’s corn’<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck201147_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck201147-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The person of the possessor is indicated by a prefix and the number of the possessor by a suffix, as shown by the follow <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> from Upper Necaxa:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck201147_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck201147-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa Totonac</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">kin–kṵ́šḭ</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">my corn</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span></td> <td><span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">kin–kṵ́šḭ–ka̰n</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">our corn</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">min–kṵ́šḭ</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">your.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr> corn</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span></td> <td><span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">min–kṵ́šḭ–ka̰n</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">your.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> corn</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">ḭš–kṵ́šḭ</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">his/her corn</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span></td> <td><span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">ḭš–kṵ́šḭ–ka̰n</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">their corn</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In several of the languages, kinship terms and words referring to parts of the body and objects are inherently possessed—that is, they are obligatorily marked for a possessor. When an inherently possessed noun is used in a generic expression, a special indefinite possessor prefix (<i>ša-</i> in most of the languages that have it) is used—e.g. Upper Necaxa <span title="Upper Necaxa Totonac-language text"><i lang="tku">šapúškṵ</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">an elder brother/elders brothers in general</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck200419_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200419-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerals">Numerals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerals in Totonacan languages are bound roots that require a <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classificatory</a> prefix which changes based on the type, shape or measure of object being counted. This is illustrated for one of the languages <a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa Totonac</a> in the table below:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2011_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>maktin čoʍ <br />‘one tortilla’</td> <td></td> <td>pḛʔtin pa̰ʔɬma̰ <br />‘one leaf’</td> <td></td> <td>ʔentin kḭwḭ <br />‘one stick’</td> <td></td> <td>paːtin ɬa̰mam <br /> ‘one pot’</td> <td></td> <td>puːlaktin sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘one banana tree’</td> <td></td> <td>mustin sḛ́ːʔna' <br />‘one full bunch of bananas’</td> <td></td> <td>kilhmaktin sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘one small bunch of bananas’</td> <td></td> <td>heːtin sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘one banana’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>maktṵ́ čoʍ <br />‘two tortillas’</td> <td></td> <td>pḛʔtṵ pa̰ʔɬma̰ <br />‘two leaves’</td> <td></td> <td>ʔentṵ kḭwḭ <br />‘two sticks’</td> <td></td> <td>paːtṵ ɬa̰mam <br /> ‘two pots’</td> <td></td> <td>puːlaktuː sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘two banana trees’</td> <td></td> <td>mustṵ sḛ́ːʔna' <br />‘two full bunches of bananas’</td> <td></td> <td>kilhmaktṵ sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘two small bunches of bananas’</td> <td></td> <td>heːtṵ sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘two bananas’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>maktṵtun čoʍ <br />‘three tortillas’</td> <td></td> <td>pḛʔtṵtun pa̰ʔɬma̰ <br />‘three leaves’</td> <td></td> <td>ʔentṵtun kḭwḭ <br />‘three sticks’</td> <td></td> <td>paːtṵtun ɬa̰mam <br /> ‘three pots’</td> <td></td> <td>puːlaktṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘three banana trees’</td> <td></td> <td>mustṵtun sḛ́ːʔna' <br />‘three full bunches of bananas’</td> <td></td> <td>kilhmaktṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘three small bunches of bananas’</td> <td></td> <td>heːtṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘four bananas’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>makta̰ːtḭ čoʍ <br />‘four tortillas’</td> <td></td> <td>pḛʔta̰ːtḭ pa̰ʔɬma̰ <br />‘four leaves’</td> <td></td> <td>ʔenta̰ːtḭ kḭwḭ <br />‘four sticks’</td> <td></td> <td>paːta̰ːtḭ ɬa̰mam <br /> ‘four pots’</td> <td></td> <td>puːtṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘four banana trees’</td> <td></td> <td>mustṵtun sḛ́ːʔna' <br />‘four full bunches of bananas’</td> <td></td> <td>kilhmaktṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘four small bunches of bananas’</td> <td></td> <td>heːtṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ <br /> ‘four bananas’ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In total, Upper Necaxa has around 30 classificatory prefixes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2011_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following table compares the numeral bases of six Totonacan languages. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3">Tepehua<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th colspan="3">Totonac<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKay1999_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKay1999-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2011_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy1990_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy1990-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Huehuetla</th> <th>Pisaflores</th> <th>Tlachichilco </th> <th>Upper<br /> Necaxa</th> <th>Papantla</th> <th>Misantla </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>-tam</td> <td>-tam</td> <td>-tawm </td> <td>-tin</td> <td>-tum</td> <td>-tun </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>-t’ui</td> <td>-t’ui</td> <td>-t’ui </td> <td>-tṵ</td> <td>-tṵy</td> <td>-tṵʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>-t’utu</td> <td>-t’utu</td> <td>-t’útu </td> <td>-tṵtún</td> <td>-tṵ́:tu</td> <td>-atún </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>-t’at’ɪ</td> <td>-t’aːt’i</td> <td>-t’áːt’i </td> <td>-táːtḭ</td> <td>-táːtḭ</td> <td>-ta̰ːt </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td>-kis</td> <td>-kiːs</td> <td>-kiːs </td> <td>-kitsís</td> <td>-kitsís</td> <td>-kítsis </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td>-čašan</td> <td>-čášan</td> <td>-čášan </td> <td>-čašán</td> <td>-čašán</td> <td>-čaːšán </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td>-tuhun</td> <td>-tuhún</td> <td>-tuhún </td> <td>-toxón</td> <td>-tuxún</td> <td>-tuhún </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td>-ts’ahin</td> <td>-tsahín</td> <td>-tsahín </td> <td>-tsayán</td> <td>-tsayán</td> <td>-tsiyán </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td>-nahats</td> <td>-naháːtsi</td> <td>-naháːtsi </td> <td>-naxáːtsa</td> <td>-naxáːtsa</td> <td>-naháːtsa </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td>-kau</td> <td>-kaw</td> <td>-kaw </td> <td>-kaux</td> <td>-kaw</td> <td>-kaːwi </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound_symbolism">Sound symbolism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sound symbolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A prominent feature of Totonacan languages is the presence of sound symbolism.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common (but by no means only) sound-symbolic pattern in Totonacan involves fricative alterations, typically /s/ ~ /š/ ~ /ɬ/ and occasionally /ts/ ~ /č/ ~ /š/ correlated either with increasingly more energetic or forceful action or with the size of an event participant,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck20088_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck20088-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as in the following examples from Upper Necaxa Totonac:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2008_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2008-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>laŋs</i> ‘hand striking hard’<br /><i>laŋš</i> ‘blow striking with force’<br /><i>laŋɬ</i> ‘blow striking with great force’</td> <td>   </td> <td><i>spipispipi</i> ‘small person or animal trembling’<br /><i>špipišpipi</i> ‘person or animal shivering or shaking slightly’<br /><i>ɬpipiɬpipi</i> ‘person or animal shaking or having convulsions’ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Comparative as well as language-internal evidence suggests that the pattern of consonantal alternations may have their origins in affixes indicating grade—<i>s-</i> ‘diminutive‘, <i>š-</i> ‘medium’, <i>ɬ-</i> ‘augmentative’).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the productivity of the sound-symbolic alternations is highly variable within and across languages of the family, and many languages preserve for a given stem only one of a set of two or three alternates that can be reconstructed for proto-Totonacan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Totonacan_vocabulary">Totonacan vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Totonacan vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following selection of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Totonacan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Totonacan">Proto-Totonacan</a> reconstructions and descendants is taken from MacKay and Trechsel (2018),<sup id="cite_ref-Mackay-Trechsel_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackay-Trechsel-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using data from several other studies. The reconstructions and descendants are written in <a href="/wiki/Americanist_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Americanist notation">Americanist notation</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="8">Totonac </th> <th colspan="3">Tepehua </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Proto-Totonacan </th> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Misantla_Totonac" title="Misantla Totonac">Misantla</a></span> </th> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Apapantilla_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Apapantilla Totonac">Apapantilla</a></span> </th> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Upper_Necaxa_Totonac" title="Upper Necaxa Totonac">Upper Necaxa</a></span> </th> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Filomeno_Mata_Totonac" title="Filomeno Mata Totonac">Filomeno Mata</a></span> </th> <th colspan="3"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Highland_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Highland Totonac">Highland</a></span> </th> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Papantla_Totonac" title="Papantla Totonac">Papantla</a></span> </th> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Pisaflores_Tepehua" title="Pisaflores Tepehua">Pisaflores</a></span> </th> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Huehuetla_Tepehua" title="Huehuetla Tepehua">Huehuetla</a></span> </th> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Tlachichilco_Tepehua" title="Tlachichilco Tepehua">Tlachichilco</a></span> </th></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">reconstruction</span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">gloss</span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Zapotitl%C3%A1n_de_M%C3%A9ndez_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Zapotitlán de Méndez Totonac">Zapotitlán</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Coatepec_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Coatepec Totonac">Coatepec</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ozelonacaxtla_Totonac" class="mw-redirect" title="Ozelonacaxtla Totonac">Ozelonacaxtla</a></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>*ɬk’ak’a </td> <td>'ash(es)' </td> <td>ɬká̰k </td> <td>ɬka̰ka̰n </td> <td>ɬka̰kán </td> <td>ɬká̰ka̰ </td> <td>ɬka̰ka̰ </td> <td>ɬkakáʔ </td> <td>ɬká̰ka̰ </td> <td>ɬká̰ka̰ </td> <td>ɬk’ák’a </td> <td>ɬk’ak’a </td> <td>ɬk’ák’a </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ƛaha-ya </td> <td>'wins; earns' </td> <td>ɬáahá </td> <td>ƛahá </td> <td>ɬaxá </td> <td>ƛahá </td> <td>ƛahay </td> <td>ƛaha- </td> <td>ƛaháy </td> <td>ƛahá </td> <td>ɬaháay </td> <td>ɬaháy </td> <td>ɬaháay </td></tr> <tr> <td>*q’aaši </td> <td>'gourd' </td> <td>qá̰a̰š </td> <td>qa̰a̰š </td> <td>ʔa̰a̰š </td> <td>qá̰a̰ši </td> <td>qa̰a̰šḭ </td> <td>qa:šíʔ </td> <td>qá̰a̰šḭ </td> <td>qá̰a̰šḭ </td> <td>ʔá̰a̰ši </td> <td>ʔaaš </td> <td>ʔaš </td></tr> <tr> <td>*¢’uq’-ya </td> <td>'writes' </td> <td>¢ɔ̰́χ </td> <td>¢o̰qa </td> <td>¢ó̰ʔa </td> <td>¢ɔ́qḁ </td> <td>¢o̰qa </td> <td>¢uqa </td> <td>¢ɔ̰qnán </td> <td>¢ó̰qa </td> <td>¢’ɔ́ʔa </td> <td>¢’oqa </td> <td>¢’oʔa </td></tr> <tr> <td>*p’ašni </td> <td>'pig' </td> <td>pá̰šnḭ </td> <td>pa̰šnḭ </td> <td>pá̰šnḭ </td> <td>pá̰šn̥i̥ </td> <td>pa̰šnḭ </td> <td>pašniʔ </td> <td>pá̰šnḭ </td> <td>pa̰šni </td> <td>ɓá̰šn̥i̥ </td> <td>p’aš </td> <td>p’ašni </td></tr> <tr> <td>*kiɬni </td> <td>'mouth' </td> <td>kíɬnḭ </td> <td>kiɬnḭ </td> <td>kíɬnḭ </td> <td>kíɬni̥̰ </td> <td>kiɬnḭ </td> <td>kiɬniʔ </td> <td>kíɬnḭ </td> <td>kiɬni </td> <td>kíɬn̥i̥ </td> <td>kiɬ </td> <td>kiɬna </td></tr> <tr> <td>*čiwiš </td> <td>'stone' </td> <td>čɪ́wɪš </td> <td>čiwiš </td> <td>čiwíš </td> <td>číwiš </td> <td>číwiš </td> <td>čɪ́wiš </td> <td>číwiš </td> <td>číwiš </td> <td>číʔṵši̥ </td> <td>čiiuš </td> <td>číyuš </td></tr> <tr> <td>*maa-ɬi </td> <td>'is lying down' </td> <td>má̰a̰ɬ </td> <td>ma̰a̰ </td> <td>maaɬ </td> <td>máa̰h </td> <td>ma̰h </td> <td>má </td> <td>máh </td> <td>má </td> <td>máaɬ </td> <td>maaɬ </td> <td>maa </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media">Media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Totonacan-language programming is carried by the <a href="/wiki/National_Commission_for_the_Development_of_Indigenous_Peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples">CDI</a>'s radio station <a href="/wiki/XECTZ-AM" title="XECTZ-AM">XECTZ-AM</a>, broadcasting from <a href="/wiki/Cuetzalan,_Puebla" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuetzalan, Puebla">Cuetzalan, Puebla</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arte_y_vocab_totonaco.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Arte_y_vocab_totonaco.pdf/page1-220px-Arte_y_vocab_totonaco.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Arte_y_vocab_totonaco.pdf/page1-330px-Arte_y_vocab_totonaco.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Arte_y_vocab_totonaco.pdf/page1-440px-Arte_y_vocab_totonaco.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1241" data-file-height="1754" /></a><figcaption>Manuscript about the language dated 1891</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Totonacan_languages" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Totonacan languages">Totonacan languages</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a> has a list of reconstructed forms at <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Proto-Totonacan_reconstructions" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Totonacan reconstructions">Appendix:Proto-Totonacan reconstructions</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReidBishop1974-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReidBishop1974_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReidBishop1974">Reid & Bishop 1974</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnonymous1990-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnonymous1990_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnonymous1990">Anonymous 1990</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELam2009-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELam2009_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLam2009">Lam 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011">Brown et al. 2011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKay1999-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKay1999_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKay1999_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacKay1999">MacKay 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarcía_Rojas1978-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarcía_Rojas1978_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarcía_Rojas1978">García Rojas 1978</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEberhardSimonsFennig2023" class="citation book cs1">Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com"><i>Ethnologue: Languages of the World</i></a> (26th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnologue%3A+Languages+of+the+World&rft.place=Dallas%2C+Texas&rft.edition=26th&rft.pub=SIL+International&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEINALI2008-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEINALI2008_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFINALI2008">INALI 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://site.inali.gob.mx/pdf/estadistica/VARIANTE/VARIANTE_C1_sexo.pdf">Población de 5 años y más hablante de alguna lengua indígena y número de localidades por variante lingüística según sexo</a> [Linguistic Variants of Mexico by Gender, 2000] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Poblaci%C3%B3n+de+5+a%C3%B1os+y+m%C3%A1s+hablante+de+alguna+lengua+ind%C3%ADgena+y+n%C3%BAmero+de+localidades+por+variante+ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica+seg%C3%BAn+sexo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsite.inali.gob.mx%2Fpdf%2Festadistica%2FVARIANTE%2FVARIANTE_C1_sexo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2011-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2011_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2011_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2011_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2011_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2011">Beck 2011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyBeck2012_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevyBeck2012">Levy & Beck 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArana_Osnaya1953_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArana_Osnaya1953">Arana Osnaya 1953</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchon1969-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchon1969_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIchon1969">Ichon 1969</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mackay-Trechsel-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mackay-Trechsel_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mackay-Trechsel_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKayTrechsel2018" class="citation journal cs1">MacKay, Carolyn J.; Trechsel, Frank R. (January 2018). "An alternative reconstruction of Proto-Totonac-Tepehua". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_American_Linguistics" title="International Journal of American Linguistics">International Journal of American Linguistics</a></i>. <b>84</b>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">The University of Chicago</a>: 51–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F694609">10.1086/694609</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148972240">148972240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=An+alternative+reconstruction+of+Proto-Totonac-Tepehua&rft.volume=84&rft.pages=51-92&rft.date=2018-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F694609&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148972240%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=MacKay&rft.aufirst=Carolyn+J.&rft.au=Trechsel%2C+Frank+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAschman1946-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAschman1946_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAschman1946">Aschman 1946</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFAschman1946 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcQuown1990-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcQuown1990_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcQuown1990">McQuown 1990</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavletshin2008-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavletshin2008_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavletshin2008">Davletshin 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2003">Aikhenvald 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFarland2012278-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFarland2012278_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcFarland2012">McFarland 2012</a>, p. 278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKayTrechsel2012a112-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKayTrechsel2012a112_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacKayTrechsel2012a">MacKay & Trechsel 2012a</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2012202-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2012202_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2012">Beck 2012</a>, p. 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2012-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2012_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2012">Beck 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoman_Lobato2012338-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoman_Lobato2012338_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoman_Lobato2012">Roman Lobato 2012</a>, p. 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersen2012186-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersen2012186_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersen2012">Andersen 2012</a>, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung201278-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung201278_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmythe_Kung2012">Smythe Kung 2012</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy2012375-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy2012375_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevy2012">Levy 2012</a>, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETino2012297-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETino2012297_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTino2012">Tino 2012</a>, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKayTrechsel2012b135-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKayTrechsel2012b135_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacKayTrechsel2012b">MacKay & Trechsel 2012b</a>, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2012236-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2012236_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2012">Beck 2012</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatters201256-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatters201256_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatters2012">Watters 2012</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatters2012-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatters2012_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatters2012">Watters 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung2012-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung2012_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmythe_Kung2012">Smythe Kung 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy1999-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy1999_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevy1999">Levy 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy1992-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy1992_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevy1992">Levy 1992</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung201281-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmythe_Kung201281_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmythe_Kung2012">Smythe Kung 2012</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy2012353-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy2012353_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevy2012">Levy 2012</a>, p. 353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMithun1984-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMithun1984_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMithun1984">Mithun 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck201194-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck201194_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2011">Beck 2011</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200412-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck200412_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2004">Beck 2004</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck201147-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck201147_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck201147_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2011">Beck 2011</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200419-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck200419_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2004">Beck 2004</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChan">Chan</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy1990-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy1990_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevy1990">Levy 1990</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(See <a href="#CITEREFMacKay1999">MacKay 1999</a>, <a href="#CITEREFMcQuown1990">McQuown 1990</a>, <a href="#CITEREFLevy1987">Levy 1987</a>, <a href="#CITEREFBishop1984">Bishop 1984</a>, <a href="#CITEREFSmythe_Kung2006">Smythe Kung 2006</a>, <a href="#CITEREFMcFarland2012">McFarland 2012</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFBeck2008">Beck 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck20088-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck20088_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2008">Beck 2008</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2008-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2008_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck2008">Beck 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(see <a href="#CITEREFMcQuown1990">McQuown 1990</a>, <a href="#CITEREFBeck2008">Beck 2008</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011">Brown et al. 2011</a>).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~totonaco/">Upper Necaxa Totonac Project</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soclas.wordpress.com/2012/07/25/clas-postgrad-researcher-lucia-brandi-in-publishing-first-for-mexican-indigenous-language/">"CLAS postgrad researcher Lucia Brandi in publishing first for Mexican indigenous language, Kgoyom Totonaco"</a>. <i>SOCLAS Blog</i>. 2012-07-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SOCLAS+Blog&rft.atitle=CLAS+postgrad+researcher+Lucia+Brandi+in+publishing+first+for+Mexican+indigenous+language%2C+Kgoyom+Totonaco&rft.date=2012-07-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsoclas.wordpress.com%2F2012%2F07%2F25%2Fclas-postgrad-researcher-lucia-brandi-in-publishing-first-for-mexican-indigenous-language%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Totonacan_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikhenvald2003" class="citation book cs1">Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (2003). <i>Classifiers: A typology of noun categorization devices</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926466-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926466-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926466-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classifiers%3A+A+typology+of+noun+categorization+devices&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926466-7&rft.aulast=Aikhenvald&rft.aufirst=Alexandra+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersen2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Andersen, G. P. (2012). "Totonaco del Cerro Xinolatéṕetl". In Levy, Paulette; Beck, David (eds.). <i>Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios</i> (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 181–193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Totonaco+del+Cerro+Xinolat%C3%A9%E1%B9%95etl&rft.btitle=Las+lenguas+totonacas+y+tepehuas%3A+Textos+y+otros+materiales+para+sus+estudios&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico%2C+D.F.&rft.pages=181-193&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Andersen&rft.aufirst=G.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous1990" class="citation cs2">Anonymous (1990), Norman McQuown (ed.), <i>Arte Totonaca</i>, México, D.F.: México, D.F.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arte+Totonaca&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico%2C+D.F.&rft.pub=M%C3%A9xico%2C+D.F.&rft.date=1990&rft.au=Anonymous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span> (Facsimile). <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArana_Osnaya1953" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Arana Osnaya, Evangelina (1953). "Reconstruccion del protototonaco". <i>Revista Mexicana de estudios Antropologicos</i> (in Spanish). <b>13</b> (2, 3): 1–10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Mexicana+de+estudios+Antropologicos&rft.atitle=Reconstruccion+del+protototonaco&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2%2C+3&rft.pages=1-10&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Arana+Osnaya&rft.aufirst=Evangelina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAschmann1946" class="citation journal cs1">Aschmann, H.P. (1946). "Totonaco phonemes". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 34–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F463885">10.1086/463885</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224808130">224808130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Totonaco+phonemes&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=34-43&rft.date=1946&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F463885&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224808130%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Aschmann&rft.aufirst=H.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2004" class="citation book cs1">Beck, David (2004). <i>Upper Necaxa Totonac</i>. Languages of the World/Materials 429. Munich: Lincom. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89586-821-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-89586-821-3"><bdi>3-89586-821-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Upper+Necaxa+Totonac&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=Languages+of+the+World%2FMaterials+429&rft.pub=Lincom&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=3-89586-821-3&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2008" class="citation journal cs1">Beck, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1134838">"Ideophones, adverbs, and predicate qualification in Upper Necaxa Totonac"</a>. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>74</b> (1): 1–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F529462">10.1086/529462</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143943030">143943030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Ideophones%2C+adverbs%2C+and+predicate+qualification+in+Upper+Necaxa+Totonac&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-46&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F529462&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143943030%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1134838&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2011" class="citation book cs1">Beck, David (2011). <i>Upper Necaxa Totonac Dictionary</i>. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110238235">10.1515/9783110238235</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-023822-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-023822-8"><bdi>978-3-11-023822-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Upper+Necaxa+Totonac+Dictionary&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110238235&rft.isbn=978-3-11-023822-8&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Beck, David (2012). "Totonaco de Río Necaxa". In Levy, Paulette; Beck, David (eds.). <i>Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios</i> (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 195–267.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Totonaco+de+R%C3%ADo+Necaxa&rft.btitle=Las+lenguas+totonacas+y+tepehuas%3A+Textos+y+otros+materiales+para+sus+estudios&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico%2C+D.F.&rft.pages=195-267&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBishop1984" class="citation journal cs1">Bishop, Ruth G. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/10877">"Consonant play in lexical sets in Northern Totonac"</a>. <i>Summer Institute of Linguistics Mexico Workpapers</i>. <b>5</b>: 24–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics+Mexico+Workpapers&rft.atitle=Consonant+play+in+lexical+sets+in+Northern+Totonac&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=24-31&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=Ruth+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.org%2Fresources%2Farchives%2F10877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownBeckKondrakWatters2011" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Cecil H.; Beck, David; Kondrak, Grzegorz; Watters, James K.; Wichmann, Søren (2011). "Totozoquean". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>77</b> (3): 323–372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F660972">10.1086/660972</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224807468">224807468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Totozoquean&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=323-372&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F660972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224807468%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Cecil+H.&rft.au=Beck%2C+David&rft.au=Kondrak%2C+Grzegorz&rft.au=Watters%2C+James+K.&rft.au=Wichmann%2C+S%C3%B8ren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Chan_(linguist)" title="Eugene Chan (linguist)">Chan, Eugene</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511201424/http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/numeral/Totonacan.htm">"Totonacan Numerals"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/numeral/Totonacan.htm">the original</a> on 2011-05-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Totonacan+Numerals&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flingweb.eva.mpg.de%2Fnumeral%2FTotonacan.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavletshin2008" class="citation conference cs1">Davletshin, Albert (2008). <i>Classification of the Totonacan languages</i>. Paper read at the conference “Problemy izuchenija dal’nego rodstva jazykov (k 55 -leti C. A. Starostina),”. Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow, March 25–28, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Classification+of+the+Totonacan+languages&rft.place=Russian+State+University+for+the+Humanities%2C+Moscow%2C+March+25%E2%80%9328%2C+2008&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Davletshin&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_conference" title="Template:Cite conference">cite conference</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_LéonLevinson1992" class="citation journal cs1">de Léon, Lourdes; Levinson, Stephen C. (1992). "Spatial Description in Mesoamerican Languages (Introduction)". <i>Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung</i>. <b>45</b> (6): 527–29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Phonetik%2C+Sprachwissenschaft+und+Kommunikationsforschung&rft.atitle=Spatial+Description+in+Mesoamerican+Languages+%28Introduction%29&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=527-29&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=de+L%C3%A9on&rft.aufirst=Lourdes&rft.au=Levinson%2C+Stephen+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcía_Rojas1978" class="citation thesis cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">García Rojas, Blanca (1978). <i>Dialectología de la zona totonaco-tepehua</i> (Master’s Thesis) (in Spanish). México D. 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Hermosillo: Editorial UniSon. pp. 331–354.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Simbolismo+sonoro+y+lenguaje+expresivo+en+el+tepehua+de+Huehuetla+%5BSound+symbolism+and+expressive+language+in+Huehuetla+Tepehua%5D&rft.btitle=Memorias+del+VIII+Encuentro+Internacional+de+Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica+en+el+Noroeste%2C+tomo+3&rft.place=Hermosillo&rft.pages=331-354&rft.pub=Editorial+UniSon&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Smythe+Kung&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmythe_Kung2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Smythe Kung, Susan (2012). "Tepehua de Huehuetla". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). <i>Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios</i> (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 65–106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tepehua+de+Huehuetla&rft.btitle=Las+lenguas+totonacas+y+tepehuas%3A+Textos+y+otros+materiales+para+sus+estudios&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico%2C+D.F.&rft.pages=65-106&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Smythe+Kung&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTino2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tino, Jorge (2012). "Totonaco de Olintla". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). <i>Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios</i> (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 293–319.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Totonaco+de+Olintla&rft.btitle=Las+lenguas+totonacas+y+tepehuas%3A+Textos+y+otros+materiales+para+sus+estudios&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico%2C+D.F.&rft.pages=293-319&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Tino&rft.aufirst=Jorge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatters2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Watters, James K. (2012). "Tepehua de Tlachichilco". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). <i>Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios</i> (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 43–64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tepehua+de+Tlachichilco&rft.btitle=Las+lenguas+totonacas+y+tepehuas%3A+Textos+y+otros+materiales+para+sus+estudios&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico%2C+D.F.&rft.pages=43-64&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Watters&rft.aufirst=James+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATotonacan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Totonacan</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Purépecha</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Alag%C3%BCilac_language" title="Alagüilac language">Alagüilac</a>?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed macrofamilies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Mayan_languages" title="Macro-Mayan languages">Macro-Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Chibchan_languages" title="Macro-Chibchan languages">Macro-Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penutian_languages" title="Penutian languages">Penutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolatecan_languages" title="Tolatecan languages">Tolatecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totozoquean_languages" title="Totozoquean languages">Totozoquean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistic areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_language_area" title="Mesoamerican language area">Mesoamerican language area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Primary_language_families" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_families" title="Template:Language families"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_families" title="Template talk:Language families"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_families" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language families"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Primary_language_families" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">Primary language families</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kx'a</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a></b>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia<br />(<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shompen_language" title="Shompen language">Shompen</a>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">New Guinea</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">the Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arai%E2%80%93Samaia_languages" title="Arai–Samaia languages">Arai–Samaia</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binanderean%E2%80%93Goilalan_languages" title="Binanderean–Goilalan languages">Binanderean–Goilalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_languages_(New_Guinea)" title="Border languages (New Guinea)">Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulaka_River_languages" title="Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Solomon_languages" title="Central Solomon languages">Central Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimbu%E2%80%93Wahgi_languages" title="Chimbu–Wahgi languages">Chimbu–Wahgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demta%E2%80%93Sentani_languages" title="Demta–Sentani languages">Demta–Sentani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages" title="Doso–Turumsa languages">Doso–Turumsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Geelvink_Bay_languages" title="East Geelvink Bay languages">East Geelvink Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_New_Britain_languages" title="East New Britain languages">East New Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Strickland_languages" title="East Strickland languages">East Strickland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleman_languages" title="Eleman languages">Eleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engan_languages" title="Engan languages">Engan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fas_languages" title="Fas languages">Fas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foja_Range_languages" title="Foja Range languages">Foja Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaure%E2%80%93Kosare_languages" title="Kaure–Kosare languages">Kaure–Kosare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwaian_languages" title="Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutubuan_languages" title="Kutubuan languages">Kutubuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" title="Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mamberamo_languages" title="Lower Mamberamo languages">Lower Mamberamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sepik_languages" title="Lower Sepik languages">Lower Sepik</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Madang_languages" title="Madang languages">Madang</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mairasi_languages" title="Mairasi languages">Mairasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bougainville_languages" title="North Bougainville languages">North Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauwasi_languages" title="Pauwasi languages">Pauwasi</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ramu_languages" title="Ramu languages">Ramu</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senagi_languages" title="Senagi languages">Senagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senu_River_languages" title="Senu River languages">Senu River</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sepik_languages" title="Sepik languages">Sepik</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skou_languages" title="Skou languages">Skou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bougainville_languages" title="South Bougainville languages">South Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teberan_languages" title="Teberan languages">Teberan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Torricelli_languages" title="Torricelli languages">Torricelli</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages" title="Turama–Kikorian languages">Turama–Kikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yuat_languages" title="Upper Yuat languages">Upper Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Papuan_languages" title="West Papuan languages">West Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_languages" title="Yam languages">Yam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yawa_languages" title="Yawa languages">Yawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuat_languages" title="Yuat languages">Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Papuan_languages" title="Northwest Papuan languages">Northwest Papuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_Gulf_languages" title="Papuan Gulf languages">Papuan Gulf</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abinomn_language" title="Abinomn language">Abinomn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abun_language" title="Abun language">Abun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C3%AAm_language" title="Anêm language">Anêm</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ata_language" title="Ata language">Ata</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Kol language (Papua New Guinea)">Kol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuot_language" title="Kuot language">Kuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maybrat_language" title="Maybrat language">Maybrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpur_language" title="Mpur language">Mpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawaia_language" title="Pawaia language">Pawaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porome_language" title="Porome language">Porome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulka_language" title="Sulka language">Sulka</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayap_language" title="Tayap language">Taiap</a>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiru_language" title="Wiru language">Wiru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunuban_languages" title="Bunuban languages">Bunuban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" title="Darwin Region languages">Darwin Region</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" title="Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" title="Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" title="Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages" title="Marrku–Wurrugu languages">Marrku–Wurrugu</a></i>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirndi_languages" title="Mirndi languages">Mirndi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" title="Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" title="Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" title="Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" title="Western Daly languages">Western Daly</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" title="Western Tasmanian languages">Western Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worrorran_languages" title="Worrorran languages">Worrorran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Yangmanic</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a>)?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Giimbiyu_language" title="Giimbiyu language">Giimbiyu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak</a> (Northern Daly?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_language" title="Tiwi language">Tiwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">North<br />America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alsea_language" title="Alsea language">Alsea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" title="Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comecrudan_languages" title="Comecrudan languages">Comecrudan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coosan_languages" title="Coosan languages">Coosan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" title="Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keres_language" title="Keres language">Keres</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" title="Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" title="Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau Penutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomoan_languages" title="Pomoan languages">Pomoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utian_languages" title="Utian languages">Utian</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" title="Yuki–Wappo languages">Yukian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuman%E2%80%93Cochim%C3%AD_languages" title="Yuman–Cochimí languages">Yuman–Cochimí</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_language" title="Chimariko language">Chimariko</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Esselen_language" title="Esselen language">Esselen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siuslaw_language" title="Siuslaw language">Siuslaw</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timucua_language" title="Timucua language">Timucua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts_language" title="Yokuts language">Yokuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Totonacan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Tarascan/Purépecha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">South<br />America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" title="Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araucanian_languages" title="Araucanian languages">Araucanian</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catacaoan_languages" title="Catacaoan languages">Catacaoan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choco_languages" title="Choco languages">Choco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicham_languages" title="Chicham languages">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" title="Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascoian_languages" title="Mascoian languages">Mascoian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Otomákoan languages">Otomákoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" title="Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yaguan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages">Piaroa–Saliban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora-Witoto</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda%E2%80%93Yaruroan_languages" title="Esmeralda–Yaruroan languages">Esmeralda–Yaruro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholón</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilela_languages" title="Lule–Vilela languages">Lule–Vilela</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates <br />(extant in 2000)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" title="Alacalufan languages">Alacalufan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Camsá language">Camsá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Chimane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" title="Fulniô language">Fulniô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï/Joti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maku_language_of_Auari" title="Maku language of Auari">Maku</a> (Maku-Auari/Jukude)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mura_language" title="Mura language">Mura-Pirahã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukak_language" title="Nukak language">Nukak</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1ez_language" title="Páez language">Páez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Huaorani/Waorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahgan_language" title="Yahgan language">Yamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BANZSL" title="BANZSL">BANZSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">Francosign</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">Germanosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_Sign_Language" title="Indo-Pakistani Sign Language">Indo-Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language_family" title="Japanese Sign Language family">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chiangmai%E2%80%93Bangkok_Sign_Language_family" title="Old Chiangmai–Bangkok Sign Language family">Original Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Sign_Language_family" title="Swedish Sign Language family">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_sign_languages" title="Tanzanian sign languages">Tanzanian</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>See <a href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages" title="List of sign languages">list of sign languages</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.</li><li>Families in <i>italics</i> have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in <b>bold</b>.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Mexico" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Mexico" title="Template:Languages of Mexico"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Mexico" title="Template talk:Languages of Mexico"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Mexico" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Mexico"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Mexico" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Mexico" title="Languages of Mexico">Languages of Mexico</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official/<br />Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">100,000+<br />speakers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Spanish" title="Mexican Spanish">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yucatec_Maya_language" title="Yucatec Maya language">Yucatec Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzeltal_language" title="Tzeltal language">Tzeltal Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzotzil_language" title="Tzotzil language">Tzotzil Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtecan_languages" title="Mixtecan languages">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_languages" title="Zapotec languages">Zapotec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_language" title="Otomi language">Otomí</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazatecan_languages" title="Mazatecan languages">Mazatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%CA%BCol_language" title="Chʼol language">Chʼol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_language" title="Huastec language">Huastec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinantecan_languages" title="Chinantecan languages">Chinantec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixe_languages" title="Mixe languages">Mixe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazahua_language" title="Mazahua language">Mazahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlapanec_language" title="Tlapanec language">Tlapanec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Purépecha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10,000-100,000<br />speakers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tarahumara_language" title="Tarahumara language">Tarahumara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tojolab%CA%BCal_language" title="Tojolabʼal language">Tojol-abʼal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chontal_Maya_language" title="Chontal Maya language">Chontal de Tabasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amuzgo_language" title="Amuzgo language">Amuzgo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichol_language" title="Huichol language">Huichol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatino_language" title="Chatino language">Chatino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Popoluca" title="Sierra Popoluca">Sierra Popoluca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayo_language" title="Mayo language">Mayo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepehu%C3%A1n_language" title="Tepehuán language">Tepehuán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trique_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Trique language">Triqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_language" title="Cora language">Cora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popolocan_languages" title="Popolocan languages">Popolocan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuicatec_language" title="Cuicatec language">Cuicatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mam_language" title="Mam language">Mam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_language" title="Yaqui language">Yaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pame_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pame language">Pame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCanjob%CA%BCal_language" title="Qʼanjobʼal language">Qʼanjobʼal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepehua_languages" title="Tepehua languages">Tepehua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Under 10,000<br />speakers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Chontal of Oaxaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuj_language" title="Chuj language">Chuj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akatek_language" title="Akatek language">Akatek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiricahua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiricahua language">Chiricahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zacatepec_Mixtec" title="Zacatepec Mixtec">Tacuate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichimeca_Jonaz_language" title="Chichimeca Jonaz language">Chichimeca Jonaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huarijio_language" title="Huarijio language">Huarijío</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chocho_language" title="Chocho language">Chocholtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pima_Bajo_language" title="Pima Bajo language">Pima Bajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCeqchi%CA%BC_language" title="Qʼeqchiʼ language">Qʼeqchí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacandon_language" title="Lacandon language">Lacandón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Apache_language" title="Western Apache language">Western Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakaltek_language" title="Jakaltek language">Jakaltek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matlatzinca_language" title="Matlatzinca language">Matlatzinca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Mezcalero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixcatec_language" title="Ixcatec language">Ixcatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCiche%CA%BC_language" title="Kʼicheʼ language">Kʼicheʼ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipan_language" title="Lipan language">Lipan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaqchikel_language" title="Kaqchikel language">Kaqchikel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texistepec_language" title="Texistepec language">Texistepec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paipai_language" title="Paipai language">Paipai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Kikapú</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_whistled_speech" title="Kickapoo whistled speech">whistled speech</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tektitek_language" title="Tektitek language">Teko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocopah_language" title="Cocopah language">Cucapá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mocho%CA%BC_language" title="Mochoʼ language">Qatoʼk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay_language" title="Kumeyaay language">Kumiai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%CA%BCodham_language" title="Oʼodham language">Pápago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixil_language" title="Ixil language">Ixil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oluta_Popoluca" title="Oluta Popoluca">Olutec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochim%C3%AD_language" title="Cochimí language">Cochimí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiliwa_language" title="Kiliwa language">Kiliwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayapa_Zoque" title="Ayapa Zoque">Ayapanec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakatek_language" title="Awakatek language">Awakatek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Plautdietsch language">Plautdietsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipilo_Venetian_dialect" title="Chipilo Venetian dialect">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Sign_Language" title="Mexican Sign Language">Mexican Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albarradas_Sign_Language" title="Albarradas Sign Language">Albarradas Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_Sign_Language" title="Mayan Sign Language">Mayan Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Indian Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatino_Sign_Language" title="Chatino Sign Language">Chatino Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b>Note: The list of official languages is ordered by decreasing size of population.</b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indigenous_language_families_and_isolates_of_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_American_languages" title="Template:North American languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_American_languages" title="Template talk:North American languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_American_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North American languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indigenous_language_families_and_isolates_of_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous language families and isolates</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous languages of North America">North America</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language families <br />and isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Haida_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Haida languages">Haida</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" title="Yuki–Wappo languages">Yuki–Wappo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adai_language" title="Adai language">Adai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beothuk_language" title="Beothuk language">Beothuk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bidai_language" title="Bidai language">Bidai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_language" title="Cayuse language">Cayuse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timucua_language" title="Timucua language">Timucua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peric%C3%BA_language" title="Pericú language">Pericú</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aleut_language" title="Aleut language">Aleut</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eskimoan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Eskimoan languages">Eskimoan</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tlingit_language" title="Tlingit language">Tlingit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyak_language" title="Eyak language">Eyak</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wiyot_language" title="Wiyot language">Wiyot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yurok_language" title="Yurok language">Yurok</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mosan_languages" title="Mosan languages">Mosan</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" title="Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Macro-Siouan_languages" title="Macro-Siouan languages">Macro-Siouan</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Penutian_languages" title="Penutian languages">Penutian</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yok-Utian_languages" title="Yok-Utian languages">Yok-Utian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Yokuts_language" title="Yokuts language">Yokuts</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utian_languages" title="Utian languages">Utian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" title="Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Klamath_language" title="Klamath language">Klamath</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Molala_language" title="Molala language">Molala</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahaptian_languages" title="Sahaptian languages">Sahaptian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coast_Oregon_Penutian_languages" title="Coast Oregon Penutian languages">Coast Oregon</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsea_language" title="Alsea language">Alsean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coosan_languages" title="Coosan languages">Coosan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siuslaw_language" title="Siuslaw language">Siuslaw</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Takelma%E2%80%93Kalapuyan_languages" title="Takelma–Kalapuyan languages">Takelma–Kalapuyan</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" title="Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" title="Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomoan_languages" title="Pomoan languages">Pomoan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yuman_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuman languages">Yuman</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_language" title="Chimariko language">Chimariko</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Esselen_language" title="Esselen language">Esselen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salinan_language" title="Salinan language">Salinan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_linguistic_area" title="Pueblo linguistic area">Pueblo <br />linguistic area</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keres_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Keres languages">Keres</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coahuiltecan_languages" title="Coahuiltecan languages">Coahuiltecan</a> <br />linguistic area</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aranama_language" title="Aranama language">Aranama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Karankawa_language" title="Karankawa language">Karankawa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maratino_language" title="Maratino language">Maratino</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naolan_language" title="Naolan language">Naolan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quinigua_language" title="Quinigua language">Quinigua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solano_language" title="Solano language">Solano</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Pakawan_?" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pakawan_languages" title="Pakawan languages">Pakawan</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coahuilteco_language" title="Coahuilteco language">Coahuilteco</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cotoname_language" title="Cotoname language">Cotoname</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comecrudo_language" title="Comecrudo language">Comecrudo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garza_language" title="Garza language">Garza</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mamulique_language" title="Mamulique language">Mamulique</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gulf_languages" title="Gulf languages">Gulf</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natchez_language" title="Natchez language">Natchez</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atakapa_language" title="Atakapa language">Atakapa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chitimacha_language" title="Chitimacha language">Chitimacha</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Calusa–Tunica_?" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Calusa%E2%80%93Tunica_languages" title="Calusa–Tunica languages">Calusa–Tunica</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tunica_language" title="Tunica language">Tunica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Calusa_language" title="Calusa language">Calusa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerican</a> <br />linguistic area</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totozoquean_languages" title="Totozoquean languages">Totozoquean</a> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Totonacan</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a></b></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Purépecha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alag%C3%BCilac_language" title="Alagüilac language">Alagüilac</a></i> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <br />linguistic area</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Pre-Arawakan" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Arawakan_languages_of_the_Greater_Antilles" title="Pre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles">Pre-Arawakan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Guanahatabey_language" title="Guanahatabey language">Guanahatabey</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macorix_language" title="Macorix language">Macorix</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ciguayo_language" title="Ciguayo language">Ciguayo</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Amerind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algonquian%E2%80%93Wakashan_languages" title="Algonquian–Wakashan languages">Algonquian–Wakashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec%E2%80%93Tanoan_languages" title="Aztec–Tanoan languages">Aztec–Tanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Mayan_languages" title="Macro-Mayan languages">Macro-Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Chibchan_languages" title="Macro-Chibchan languages">Macro-Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolatecan_languages" title="Tolatecan languages">Tolatecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waroid_languages" title="Waroid languages">Waroid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas#North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_languages_of_North_America" title="List of extinct languages of North America">Extinct languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unclassified_languages_of_North_America" title="List of unclassified languages of North America">Unclassified languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_areas_of_the_Americas" title="Linguistic areas of the Americas">Linguistic areas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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