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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_French_interventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 First French interventions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_French_interventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-French_conquest_of_Cochinchina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_conquest_of_Cochinchina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 French conquest of Cochinchina </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_conquest_of_Cochinchina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_and_early_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_and_early_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Establishment and early administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_and_early_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Vietnamese_rebellions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Vietnamese_rebellions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Early Vietnamese rebellions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Vietnamese_rebellions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Franco-Siamese_crisis_(1893)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franco-Siamese_crisis_(1893)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4 Franco-Siamese crisis (1893) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franco-Siamese_crisis_(1893)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Further_encroachments_on_Siam_(1904–1907)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_encroachments_on_Siam_(1904–1907)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1 Further encroachments on Siam (1904–1907) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_encroachments_on_Siam_(1904–1907)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-French_revolts_in_the_early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-French_revolts_in_the_early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.2 Anti-French revolts in the early 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-French_revolts_in_the_early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Introducing_French_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Introducing_French_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.3 Introducing French education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introducing_French_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.4 World War I </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_Japan_during_World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_Japan_during_World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.5 Relations with Japan during World War I </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_Japan_during_World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_of_the_security_apparatus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_of_the_security_apparatus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.6 Expansion of the security apparatus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_of_the_security_apparatus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1920s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1920s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.7 1920s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1920s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yên_Bái_mutiny_(1930)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yên_Bái_mutiny_(1930)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.8 Yên Bái mutiny (1930) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yên_Bái_mutiny_(1930)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Left_opposition_and_the_1940_uprising_in_Cochinchina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Left_opposition_and_the_1940_uprising_in_Cochinchina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.9 Left opposition and the 1940 uprising in Cochinchina </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Left_opposition_and_the_1940_uprising_in_Cochinchina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.10 World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_of_the_French_and_initial_conflicts_with_the_Việt_Minh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_of_the_French_and_initial_conflicts_with_the_Việt_Minh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.11 Return of the French and initial conflicts with the Việt Minh </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_of_the_French_and_initial_conflicts_with_the_Việt_Minh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Indochina_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Indochina_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.12 First Indochina War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Indochina_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geneva_Agreements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geneva_Agreements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.13 Geneva Agreements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geneva_Agreements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.13.1 United States involvement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_settlements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_settlements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 French settlements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_settlements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infrastructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrastructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Infrastructure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infrastructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architectural_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architectural_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Architectural legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architectural_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">French Indochina</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" > 74 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الهند الصينية الفرنسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الهند الصينية الفرنسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_francesa" title="Indochina francesa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Indochina francesa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransa_Hind-%C3%87ini" title="Fransa Hind-Çini – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fransa Hind-Çini" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="فرانسه چین هیندی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فرانسه چین هیندی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8" title="ফরাসি ইন্দোচীন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফরাসি ইন্দোচীন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoat-kok_l%C3%A9ng_Indochina" title="Hoat-kok léng Indochina – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoat-kok léng Indochina" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7_%D2%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4-%D2%A0%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B" title="Француз Һинд-Ҡытайы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Француз Һинд-Ҡытайы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Французскі Індакітай – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Французскі Індакітай" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indotsinang_Pranses" title="Indotsinang Pranses – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Indotsinang Pranses" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Френски Индокитай – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Френски Индокитай" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indez-Sina_c%27hall" title="Indez-Sina c'hall – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Indez-Sina c'hall" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoxina_francesa" title="Indoxina francesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Indoxina francesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Франци Индокитайĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Франци Индокитайĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francouzsk%C3%A1_Indo%C4%8D%C3%ADna" title="Francouzská Indočína – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Francouzská Indočína" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Tsieina_Ffrengig" title="Indo-Tsieina Ffrengig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Indo-Tsieina Ffrengig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransk_Indokina" title="Fransk Indokina – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fransk Indokina" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%C3%B6sisch-Indochina" title="Französisch-Indochina – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Französisch-Indochina" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prantsuse_Indohiina" title="Prantsuse Indohiina – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Prantsuse Indohiina" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="Γαλλική Ινδοκίνα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαλλική Ινδοκίνα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_francesa" title="Indochina francesa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Indochina francesa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franca_Hindo%C4%89inio" title="Franca Hindoĉinio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Franca Hindoĉinio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frantziar_Indotxina" title="Frantziar Indotxina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Frantziar Indotxina" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87" title="هندوچین فرانسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هندوچین فرانسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochine_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Indochine française – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Indochine française" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_Francesa" title="Indochina Francesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Indochina Francesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fap-koet_li%C3%A2ng_Indochina" title="Fap-koet liâng Indochina – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Fap-koet liâng Indochina" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4%EB%A0%B9_%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%B0%A8%EC%9D%B4%EB%82%98" title="프랑스령 인도차이나 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프랑스령 인도차이나" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B9%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Ֆրանսիական Հնդկաչին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆրանսիական Հնդկաչին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8" title="हिंदचीन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हिंदचीन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francuska_Indokina" title="Francuska Indokina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Francuska Indokina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_Prancis" title="Indochina Prancis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Indochina Prancis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franska_Ind%C3%B3k%C3%ADna" title="Franska Indókína – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Franska Indókína" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indocina_francese" title="Indocina francese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Indocina francese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95-%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הודו-סין הצרפתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הודו-סין הצרפתית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prancis_Indocina" title="Prancis Indocina – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Prancis Indocina" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ფრანგული ინდოჩინეთი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფრანგული ინდოჩინეთი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%B9%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%9D%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%B1%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%87" title="ອິນດູຈີນຝຣັ່ງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ອິນດູຈີນຝຣັ່ງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indosina_Francica" title="Indosina Francica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Indosina Francica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C4%8Du_Indo%C4%B7%C4%ABna" title="Franču Indoķīna – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Franču Indoķīna" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%C3%A9isch_Indochina" title="Franséisch Indochina – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Franséisch Indochina" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pranc%C5%ABzijos_Indokinija" title="Prancūzijos Indokinija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Prancūzijos Indokinija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8" title="फ्रेंच इंडोचीन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फ्रेंच इंडोचीन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_Perancis" title="Indochina Perancis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Indochina Perancis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%92%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%81%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ပြင်သစ်ပိုင် အင်ဒိုချိုင်းနား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပြင်သစ်ပိုင် အင်ဒိုချိုင်းနား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unie_van_Indochina" title="Unie van Indochina – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Unie van Indochina" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E9%A0%98%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%82%B7%E3%83%8A" title="フランス領インドシナ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フランス領インドシナ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Французийн ХӀиндоций – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Французийн ХӀиндоций" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransk_Indokina" title="Fransk Indokina – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fransk Indokina" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransk_Indokina" title="Fransk Indokina – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fransk Indokina" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_francesa" title="Indochina francesa – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Indochina francesa" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="فرانسیسی ہند چینی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فرانسیسی ہند چینی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%8A_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%88_%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86" title="فرانسوي هند او چين – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فرانسوي هند او چين" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%A5%E1%9E%8E%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8C%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%93" title="សហភាពឥណ្ឌូចិន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សហភាពឥណ្ឌូចិន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochiny_Francuskie" title="Indochiny Francuskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Indochiny Francuskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_Francesa" title="Indochina Francesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Indochina Francesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_Francez%C4%83" title="Indochina Franceză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Indochina Franceză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Французский Индокитай – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Французский Индокитай" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="French Indochina" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%BAzska_Indo%C4%8D%C3%ADna" title="Francúzska Indočína – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Francúzska Indočína" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francoska_Indokina" title="Francoska Indokina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Francoska Indokina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Француска Индокина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Француска Индокина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francuska_Indokina" title="Francuska Indokina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Francuska Indokina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_Prancis" title="Indochina Prancis – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Indochina Prancis" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranskan_Indokiina" title="Ranskan Indokiina – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ranskan Indokiina" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franska_Indokina" title="Franska Indokina – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Franska Indokina" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indotsinang_Pranses" title="Indotsinang Pranses – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Indotsinang Pranses" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country 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.ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Indochinese Union</div><div class="ib-country-names">Union Indochinoise (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>) Liên bang Đông Dương (<a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>) 聯邦東洋 (<a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a>) ສະຫະພາບອິນດູຈີນ (<a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a>) សហភាពឥណ្ឌូចិន (<a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>) 印度支那聯邦 (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1887–1954</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of French Indochina"><img alt="Flag of French Indochina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/250px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_French_Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Flag of French Indochina">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Indo-Chinese_version_of_the_Great_Seal_of_the_French_Republic_(Jean_Auguste_Barre).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Seal[a] of French Indochina"><img alt="Great Seal[a] of French Indochina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/French_Indo-Chinese_version_of_the_Great_Seal_of_the_French_Republic_%28Jean_Auguste_Barre%29.svg/120px-French_Indo-Chinese_version_of_the_Great_Seal_of_the_French_Republic_%28Jean_Auguste_Barre%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/French_Indo-Chinese_version_of_the_Great_Seal_of_the_French_Republic_%28Jean_Auguste_Barre%29.svg/250px-French_Indo-Chinese_version_of_the_Great_Seal_of_the_French_Republic_%28Jean_Auguste_Barre%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="1020" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_France" title="Great Seal of France"> Great Seal</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: "<a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a>"<div>"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a> ("The Marseillaise") <div class="center"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="191" data-mwtitle="Chaliapine_-_Rouget_de_Lisle_-_La_Marseillaise.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Chaliapine_-_Rouget_de_Lisle_-_La_Marseillaise.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/68/Chaliapine_-_Rouget_de_Lisle_-_La_Marseillaise.ogg/Chaliapine_-_Rouget_de_Lisle_-_La_Marseillaise.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Seal_(East_Asia)#Government_authorities" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (East Asia)">Vietnamese-style seal</a> of the Governor-General of French Indochina<a href="#cite_note-3">[b]</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-style_seal_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indochina.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Vietnamese-style_seal_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indochina.svg/85px-Vietnamese-style_seal_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indochina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Vietnamese-style_seal_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indochina.svg/128px-Vietnamese-style_seal_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indochina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Vietnamese-style_seal_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indochina.svg/170px-Vietnamese-style_seal_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indochina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="188" data-file-height="281" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Indochina_in_1937_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="French Indochina in 1937 (includes Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Guangzhouwan (Now Zhanjiang)[image reference needed]"><img alt="French Indochina in 1937 (includes Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Guangzhouwan (Now Zhanjiang)[image reference needed]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/French_Indochina_in_1937_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-French_Indochina_in_1937_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/French_Indochina_in_1937_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-French_Indochina_in_1937_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="2476" data-file-height="2476" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">French Indochina in 1937 (includes <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a> (Now <a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang" title="Zhanjiang">Zhanjiang</a>)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federation</a> of <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonies</a> (1887–1949) Confederation of French <a href="/wiki/Associated_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Associated states">associated states</a> (1949–1954)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a> (1887–1902, 1945–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> (1902–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> (official) <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_B%E1%BB%93i_Pidgin_French" title="Tây Bồi Pidgin French">Tây Bồi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arem_language" title="Arem language">Arem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_language" title="Cham language">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Lan_language" title="Cao Lan language">Cao Lan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brao_language" title="Brao language">Brao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahnar_language" title="Bahnar language">Bahnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bru_language" title="Bru language">Bru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rade_language" title="Rade language">Rade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarai_language" title="Jarai language">Jarai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stieng_language" title="Stieng language">Stieng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnong_language" title="Mnong language">Mnong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koho_language" title="Koho language">Koho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_language" title="Tai Dam language">Tai Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Cantonese" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Siamese</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[c]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Thai_language" title="Northern Thai language">Kam Mueang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic groups</a> <div class="ib-country-ethnic"> (1936)<a href="#cite_note-5">[2]</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>72% <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Vietnamese</a></li><li>13% <a href="/wiki/Khmer_people" title="Khmer people">Khmer</a></li><li>6% <a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Thai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thai_people" title="Thai people">Thai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lao_people" title="Lao people">Lao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tay_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tay people">Tay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A1i_people_(Vietnam)" title="Thái people (Vietnam)">Thái</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nung_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nung people">Nung</a>, etc)</li><li>1.4% <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a> and other Asiatics (<a href="/wiki/Bahnar_people" title="Bahnar people">Bahnar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cham_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cham people">Cham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khmu_people" title="Khmu people">Khmu</a>, etc...)</li><li>0.2% Europeans (<a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish people">Jews</a>)</li><li>7.3% others (<a href="/wiki/Negrito" title="Negrito">Negrito</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rade_people" title="Rade people">Rade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jarai_people" title="Jarai people">Jarai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mnong_people" title="Mnong people">Mnong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stieng_people" title="Stieng people">Stieng</a>, <a href="/wiki/H%27re_people" title="H're people">Hre</a>, etc...), <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africans</a>, etc...)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hòa Hảo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Tai folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Indochinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochinese">Indochinese</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Membership</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Colonial_Annam.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Colonial_Annam.svg/40px-Flag_of_Colonial_Annam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Colonial_Annam.svg/60px-Flag_of_Colonial_Annam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a> (1887–1949)<a href="#cite_note-mjp.univ-perp.fr-6">[3]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/File:Long_tinh_flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Long_tinh_flag.svg/40px-Long_tinh_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Long_tinh_flag.svg/60px-Long_tinh_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a> (1887–1949)<a href="#cite_note-mjp.univ-perp.fr-6">[3]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Republic_of_Cochinchina_(variant).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Republic_of_Cochinchina_%28variant%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Republic_of_Cochinchina_%28variant%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Republic_of_Cochinchina_%28variant%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Republic_of_Cochinchina_%28variant%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a> (1887–1949)</li><li><a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam"><img alt="South Vietnam" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (from 1949)<a href="#cite_note-mjp.univ-perp.fr-6">[3]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Cambodia_(1863%E2%80%931948).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Cambodia_%281863%E2%80%931948%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cambodia_%281863%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Cambodia_%281863%E2%80%931948%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Cambodia_%281863%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="640" /></a> <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Laos_(1893%E2%80%931952).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Laos_%281893%E2%80%931952%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Laos_%281893%E2%80%931952%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Laos_%281893%E2%80%931952%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Laos_%281893%E2%80%931952%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/60px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang" title="Zhanjiang">Zhanjiang</a>; 1898–1945)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors-General_of_French_Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors-General of French Indochina">Governor-General</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1887–1888 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Antoine_Ernest_Constans" title="Jean Antoine Ernest Constans">Ernest Constans</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1955–1956 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Hoppenot" title="Henri Hoppenot">Henri Hoppenot</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[d]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Vietnam" title="French conquest of Vietnam">French conquest of Vietnam</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1858–1885</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">French Cochinchina</a> established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">17 October 1862</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/1893_Franco-Siamese_crisis" title="1893 Franco-Siamese crisis">Addition of</a> <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">19 April 1899</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Addition of <a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">5 January 1900</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese occupation</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">22 September 1940</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Oct. 1940 – May 1941</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">First disestablishment</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9 March 1945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_independence_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam" title="Declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam">DRV proclaimed</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2 September 1945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Reestablishment</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23 September 1945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">Indochina War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">19 December 1946</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">Second disestablishment</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">21 July 1954</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">737,000 km2 (285,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1900 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">15,164,500</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1937 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23,300,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_Indochinese_piastre" title="French Indochinese piastre">French Indochinese piastre</a> <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnamese_%C4%91%E1%BB%93ng" title="South Vietnamese đồng">South Vietnamese đồng</a> (from 1953)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">1887: Protectorate of Annam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Protectorate of Tonkin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">French Cochinchina</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">French protectorate of Cambodia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sip_Song_Chau_Tai" title="Sip Song Chau Tai">1889: Twelve Tai Cantons</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">1898: Qing dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">1899: French protectorate of Laos</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">1900: Kouang-Tchéou-Wan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Champasak" title="Kingdom of Champasak">1904: Kingdom of Champasak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rattanakosin_Kingdom_(1782%E2%80%931932)" title="Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)">Kingdom of Siam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kampuchea_(1945)" title="Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)">1945: Kingdom of Kampuchea</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lao_Issara" title="Lao Issara">1946: Lao Issara</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">1941: Thailand</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">1945: Empire of Vietnam</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kampuchea_(1945)" title="Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)">Kingdom of Cambodia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luang_Prabang_(Japanese_puppet_state)" title="Kingdom of Luang Prabang (Japanese puppet state)">Kingdom of Luang Phrabang</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Kouang-Tchéou-Wan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">1954: State of Vietnam</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cambodia_(1953%E2%80%931970)" title="Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970)">First Kingdom of Cambodia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Laos" title="Kingdom of Laos">Kingdom of Laos</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">1946: French Union</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>  ∟<a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang" title="Zhanjiang">Zhanjiang</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Localised version of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_France" title="Great Seal of France">Great Seal of France</a> removing a number of French nationalistic symbols related to <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a>, science, and the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_cock" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic cock">Gallic cock</a> while adding an anchor and rice wheat.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Used on <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> language documents, its inscription reads Đại Pháp Quốc Khâm mệnh Tổng thống Đông Dương Toàn quyền đại thần quan nho (大法國欽命總統東洋全權大臣關伩) written in <a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">seal script</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Changed the name to "Thai" since 1939 </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> As Commissioner-General </li> </ol></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China),<a href="#cite_note-8">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[b]</a> officially known as the Indochinese Union<a href="#cite_note-10">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[d]</a> and after 1941 as the Indochinese Federation,<a href="#cite_note-12">[e]</a> was a group of French dependent territories in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> from 1887 to 1954. It was initially a <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federation</a> of <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonies</a> (1887-1949), later a <a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a> of French <a href="/wiki/Associated_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Associated states">associated states</a> (1949–1954).<a href="#cite_note-13">[4]</a> It comprised <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Laos">Laos</a> (from 1899), <a href="/wiki/Guangzhouwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a> (1898–1945), <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Vietnamese</a> regions of <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a>. It was established in 1887 and was dissolved in 1954. In 1949, Vietnam was reunited and it regained Cochinchina. Its capitals were <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> (1902–1945) and <a href="/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a> (1887–1902, 1945–1954). The <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">colonized Cochinchina</a> in 1862 and established a <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">protectorate in Cambodia</a> in 1863. After the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> took over northern Vietnam through the <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_campaign" title="Tonkin campaign">Tonkin campaign</a>, the various protectorates were consolidated into one union in 1887. Two more entities were incorporated into the union: the Laotian protectorate and the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan. The French exploited the resources in the region during their rule, while also contributing to improvements of the health and education system in the region. Deep divides remained between the native population and the colonists, leading to sporadic rebellions by the former. After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of France">Fall of France</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the colony was administered by the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy government</a> and was under <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">Japanese occupation</a> until 9 March 1945, when the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Japanese army overthrew the colonial regime</a>. They established <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet states</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japanese surrender</a>, the communist <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a> led by <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_Ch%C3%AD_Minh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hồ Chí Minh">Hồ Chí Minh</a> <a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">declared Vietnamese independence</a>. France sought to restore control with the help of the British in the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">1945–1946 war</a>, which led to all-out Vietnamese resistance in the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bradley2009-14">[5]</a> In 1945, France returned Guangzhouwan to China. To counter the Viet Minh and as part of <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a>, France formed the anti-communist <a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">State of Vietnam</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Associated_state" title="Associated state">associated state</a> within the <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a> in March 1949. This led to Cochinchina returning to Vietnam in June.<a href="#cite_note-15">[6]</a> Laos and Cambodia also became French associated states the same year. French efforts to retake Indochina were unsuccessful, culminating in defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_Bi%C3%AAn_Ph%E1%BB%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Điện Biên Phủ">Battle of Điện Biên Phủ</a>. On 22 October and 9 November 1953, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Laos" title="Kingdom of Laos">Laos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cambodia_(1953%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–70)">Cambodia</a> gained independence, as did Vietnam<a href="#cite_note-16">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[f]</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conference_(1954)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Conference (1954)">Geneva Accords of 21 July 1954</a>, ending French Indochina. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_French_interventions">First French interventions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First French interventions">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Vietnam_relations" title="France–Vietnam relations">France–Vietnam relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_assistance_to_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_%C3%81nh" title="French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh">French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Vietnam" title="French conquest of Vietnam">French conquest of Vietnam</a></div> French–Vietnamese relations started during the early 17th century with the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> missionary <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a>. Around this time, Vietnam had only just begun its "Southward"—"<a href="/wiki/Nam_Ti%E1%BA%BFn" class="mw-redirect" title="Nam Tiến">Nam Tiến</a>", the occupation of the <a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Delta</a>, a territory being part of the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a> and to a lesser extent, the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a> which they had defeated in 1471.<a href="#cite_note-USvietAnalysis-19">[9]</a> European involvement in Vietnam was confined to trade during the 18th century, as the remarkably successful work of the Jesuit missionaries continued. In 1787, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pigneau_de_Behaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Pigneau de Behaine">Pierre Pigneau de Behaine</a>, a French Catholic priest, petitioned the French government and organised French military volunteers to aid <a href="/wiki/Gia_Long" title="Gia Long">Nguyễn Ánh</a> in retaking lands his family lost to the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tây Sơn</a>. Pigneau died in Vietnam but his troops fought on until 1802 in the <a href="/wiki/French_assistance_to_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_%C3%81nh" title="French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh">French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French_conquest_of_Cochinchina">French conquest of Cochinchina</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: French conquest of Cochinchina">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">Cochinchina Campaign</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">French Cochinchina</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">French protectorate of Cambodia</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_French_Indochina_expansion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Map_of_French_Indochina_expansion.svg/200px-Map_of_French_Indochina_expansion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Map_of_French_Indochina_expansion.svg/300px-Map_of_French_Indochina_expansion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Map_of_French_Indochina_expansion.svg/400px-Map_of_French_Indochina_expansion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="970" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of French Indochina (violet)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a> was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th century; often French intervention was undertaken in order to protect the work of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Foreign_Missions_Society" title="Paris Foreign Missions Society">Paris Foreign Missions Society</a> in the country. For its part, the <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Nguyễn dynasty</a> increasingly saw Catholic missionaries as a political threat; <a href="/wiki/Courtesan" title="Courtesan">courtesans</a>, for example, an influential faction in the dynastic system, feared for their status in a society influenced by an insistence on monogamy.<a href="#cite_note-20">[10]</a> A brief period of unification under the Nguyễn dynasty ended in 1858 with French military intervention. Under the pretext of protesting the persecution and expulsion of Catholic missionaries, and following <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Montigny" title="Charles de Montigny">Charles de Montigny's</a> failure to secure concessions, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> ordered Admiral <a href="/wiki/Charles_Rigault_de_Genouilly" title="Charles Rigault de Genouilly">Charles Rigault de Genouilly</a> to attack Tourane (present day <a href="/wiki/Da_Nang" title="Da Nang">Da Nang</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tucker29-21">[11]</a> Fourteen French gunships, 3,300 men including 300 Filipino soldiers provided by the Spanish<a href="#cite_note-22">[12]</a> attacked the port of causing significant damage and occupying the city. After fighting the Vietnamese for three months and finding himself unable to progress further in land, de Genouilly sought and received approval of an alternative attack on Saigon.<a href="#cite_note-tucker29-21">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chapuis248-23">[13]</a> Sailing to southern Vietnam, de Genouilly captured the poorly defended city of Saigon on 17 February 1859. Once again, however, de Genouilly and his forces were unable to seize territory outside of the defensive perimeter of the city. De Genouilly was criticised for his actions and was replaced by Admiral Page in November 1859 with instructions to obtain a treaty protecting the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic faith</a> in Vietnam while refraining from making territorial gains.<a href="#cite_note-tucker29-21">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chapuis248-23">[13]</a> Peace negotiations proved unsuccessful and the fighting in Saigon continued. Ultimately in 1861, the French brought additional forces to bear in the Saigon campaign, advanced out of the city and began to capture cities in the Mekong Delta. On 5 June 1862, the Vietnamese conceded and signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saigon_(1862)" title="Treaty of Saigon (1862)">Treaty of Saigon</a> whereby they agreed to legalize the free practice of the Catholic religion; to open trade in the Mekong Delta and at three ports at the mouth of the Red River in northern Vietnam; to cede the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Bi%C3%AAn_H%C3%B2a_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Biên Hòa Province">Biên Hòa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gia_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gia Định Province">Gia Định</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_T%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Định Tường Province">Định Tường</a> along with the islands of Poulo Condore to France; and to pay reparations equivalent to one million dollars.<a href="#cite_note-24">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llewellyn-25">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[16]</a> In 1864 the aforementioned three provinces ceded to France were formally constituted as the French colony of Cochinchina. Then in 1867, French Admiral Pierre de la Grandière forced the Vietnamese to surrender three additional provinces, <a href="/wiki/An_Giang_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="An Giang Province">Châu Đốc</a>, <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A0_Ti%C3%AAn_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hà Tiên Province">Hà Tiên</a> and <a href="/wiki/V%C4%A9nh_Long_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Vĩnh Long Province">Vĩnh Long</a>. With these three additions all of southern Vietnam and the Mekong Delta fell under French control.<a href="#cite_note-Llewellyn-25">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Establishment_and_early_administration">Establishment and early administration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Establishment and early administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_campaign" title="Tonkin campaign">Tonkin campaign</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam (French protectorate)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin (French protectorate)</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">French protectorate of Laos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guangzhouwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a></div> In 1863, the Cambodian king <a href="/wiki/Norodom_of_Cambodia" title="Norodom of Cambodia">Norodom</a> had requested the establishment of a French protectorate over his country. In 1867, <a href="/wiki/Rattanakosin_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rattanakosin Kingdom">Siam</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>) renounced <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> over Cambodia and officially recognised the 1863 French protectorate on Cambodia, in exchange for the control of <a href="/wiki/Battambang" title="Battambang">Battambang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siem_Reap" title="Siem Reap">Siem Reap</a> provinces which officially became part of Thailand. (These provinces would be ceded back to Cambodia by a border treaty between France and Siam in 1906).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siamese_Army_in_Laos_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Siamese_Army_in_Laos_1893.jpg/250px-Siamese_Army_in_Laos_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Siamese_Army_in_Laos_1893.jpg/330px-Siamese_Army_in_Laos_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Siamese_Army_in_Laos_1893.jpg/500px-Siamese_Army_in_Laos_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="671" /></a><figcaption>Siamese Army troops in the disputed territory of <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> in 1893</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg/250px-Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg/330px-Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg/500px-Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Hanoi" title="Presidential Palace, Hanoi">Presidential Palace</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>, built between 1900 and 1906 to house the governor-general of Indochina</figcaption></figure> France obtained control over northern Vietnam following its victory over China in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a> (1884–85). French Indochina was formed on 17 October 1887 from <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a> (which together form modern <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Cambodia">Kingdom of Cambodia</a>; <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Laos">Laos</a> was added after the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Siamese_crisis_of_1893" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893">Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The federation lasted until 21 July 1954. In the four protectorates, the French formally left the local rulers in power, who were the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Vietnamese monarchs">emperors of Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Cambodia">kings of Cambodia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Laos" title="List of monarchs of Laos">kings of Luang Prabang</a>, but in fact gathered all powers in their hands, the local rulers acting only as figureheads.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Japanese women called <a href="/wiki/Karayuki-san" title="Karayuki-san">Karayuki-san</a> migrated or were trafficked to cities like Hanoi, Haiphong and Saigon in colonial French Indochina in the late 19th century to work as prostitutes and provide sexual services to French soldiers who were occupying Vietnam. Since the French viewed Japanese women as clean, they were highly popular.<a href="#cite_note-27">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[18]</a> Images of the Japanese prostitutes in Vietnam were put on <a href="/wiki/French_postcard" title="French postcard">French postcards</a> by French photographers.<a href="#cite_note-29">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[23]</a> The Japanese government tried to hide the existences of these Japanese prostitutes who went abroad and did not mention them in books on history.<a href="#cite_note-34">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[25]</a> Beginning in the 1880s there was a rise of an explicitly anti-Catholic French administration in French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Religion-in-French-Indochina-36">[26]</a> The administration would try to reduce Catholic missionary influence in French Indochinese society, as opposed to the earlier decades where missionaries played an important role in both administration and society in French Cochinchina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Religion-in-French-Indochina-36">[26]</a> From 1 January 1898, the French directly took over the right to collect all taxes in the protectorate of Annam and to allocate salaries to the Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty and its mandarins.<a href="#cite_note-Bảo-tàng-Lịch-sử-Quốc-gia-tháng-7-biến-động-37">[27]</a> In a notice dated 24 August 1898, the Resident-Superior of Annam wrote: "From now on, in the Kingdom of Annam there are no longer two governments, but only one" (meaning that the French government completely took over the administration).<a href="#cite_note-Bảo-tàng-Lịch-sử-Quốc-gia-tháng-7-biến-động-37">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Vietnamese_rebellions">Early Vietnamese rebellions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early Vietnamese rebellions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/C%E1%BA%A7n_V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_movement" title="Cần Vương movement">Cần Vương movement</a></div> While the French were trying to establish control over Cambodia, a large scale Vietnamese insurgency – the <a href="/wiki/C%E1%BA%A7n_V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_movement" title="Cần Vương movement">Cần Vương movement</a> – started to take shape, aiming to expel the French and install the boy emperor <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A0m_Nghi" title="Hàm Nghi">Hàm Nghi</a> as the leader of an independent Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-38">[28]</a> Between 1885 and 1889, insurgents, led by <a href="/wiki/Phan_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Ph%C3%B9ng" title="Phan Đình Phùng">Phan Đình Phùng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phan_Chu_Trinh" class="mw-redirect" title="Phan Chu Trinh">Phan Chu Trinh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_Qu%C3%BD_C%C3%A1p" title="Trần Quý Cáp">Trần Quý Cáp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_Th%C3%BAc_Kh%C3%A1ng" title="Huỳnh Thúc Kháng">Huỳnh Thúc Kháng</a>, targeted Vietnamese Christians as there were very few French soldiers to overcome, which led to a massacre of around 40,000 Christians.<a href="#cite_note-39">[29]</a> The rebellion was eventually brought down by a French military intervention, in addition to its lack of unity in the movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrocheuxHémery200457–68-40">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[32]</a> Nationalist sentiments intensified in Vietnam, especially during and after <a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam_during_World_War_I" title="History of Vietnam during World War I">World War I</a>, but all the uprisings and tentative efforts failed to obtain sufficient concessions from the French. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Franco-Siamese_crisis_(1893)">Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1893_Franco-Siamese_crisis" title="1893 Franco-Siamese crisis">1893 Franco-Siamese crisis</a></div> Territorial conflict in the Indochinese peninsula for the expansion of French Indochina led to the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Siamese_crisis_of_1893" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893">Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893</a>. In 1893 the French authorities in Indochina used border disputes, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Paknam_incident" title="Paknam incident">Paknam naval incident</a>, to provoke a crisis. French gunboats appeared at Bangkok, and demanded the cession of Lao territories east of the <a href="/wiki/Mekong" title="Mekong">Mekong River</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] King <a href="/wiki/Chulalongkorn" title="Chulalongkorn">Chulalongkorn</a> appealed to the British, but the British minister told the king to settle on whatever terms he could get, and he had no choice but to comply. Britain's only gesture was an agreement with France guaranteeing the integrity of the rest of Siam. In exchange, Siam had to give up its claim to the Thai-speaking <a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan region</a> of north-eastern Burma to the British, and cede Laos to France[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Further_encroachments_on_Siam_(1904–1907)">Further encroachments on Siam (1904–1907)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further encroachments on Siam (1904–1907)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg/250px-OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg/330px-OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg/440px-OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption>Occupation of <a href="/wiki/Trat" title="Trat">Trat</a> by French troops in 1904.</figcaption></figure> The French continued to pressure Siam, and in 1902 they manufactured another crisis.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] This time Siam had to concede French control of territory on the west bank of the Mekong opposite <a href="/wiki/Luang_Prabang" title="Luang Prabang">Luang Prabang</a> and around <a href="/wiki/Champasak_(town)" title="Champasak (town)">Champasak</a> in southern Laos, as well as western Cambodia. France also occupied the western part of <a href="/wiki/Chanthaburi_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanthaburi Province">Chantaburi</a>. In 1904, to get back Chantaburi, Siam had to give <a href="/wiki/Trat" title="Trat">Trat</a> and Koh Kong to French Indochina. Trat became part of Thailand again <a href="/wiki/Franco-Siamese_treaty_of_1907" title="Franco-Siamese treaty of 1907">on 23 March 1907</a> in exchange for many areas east of the Mekong like <a href="/wiki/Battambang_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Battambang Province">Battambang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siem_Reap_province" title="Siem Reap province">Siem Reap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Banteay_Meanchey_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Banteay Meanchey Province">Sisophon</a>. In the 1930s, Siam engaged France in a series of talks concerning the repatriation of Siamese provinces held by the French. In 1938, under the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Front Populaire</a> administration in Paris, France had agreed to repatriate <a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angkor_Thom" title="Angkor Thom">Angkor Thom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siem_Reap" title="Siem Reap">Siem Reap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siem_Pang" class="mw-redirect" title="Siem Pang">Siem Pang</a>, and the associated provinces (approximately 13) to Siam.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Meanwhile, Siam took over control of those areas, in anticipation of the upcoming treaty. Signatories from each country were dispatched to Tokyo to sign the treaty repatriating the lost provinces.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">non sequitur</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-French_revolts_in_the_early_20th_century">Anti-French revolts in the early 20th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Anti-French revolts in the early 20th century">edit</a>]</div> Although during the early 20th century calm was supposed to reign as the French had "pacified" the region, constant uprisings contesting French rule characterised French Indochina this period.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> "There is ample evidence of the rural populations' involvement in revolts against authority during the first 50 years of the French colonial presence in Cambodia."<a href="#cite_note-44">[34]</a> The French Sûreté was worried about the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a> victory during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> and its lasting impression on the East as it was considered to be the first victory of "a <a href="/wiki/Mongoloid" title="Mongoloid">yellow people</a> over the <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white</a>", as well as the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> which established the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> These events all had significant influence on nationalist sentiments in the territories of French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The early 20th century saw a number of <a href="/wiki/Secret_society" title="Secret society">secret societies</a> launch rebellions in Cochinchina, the Peace and Duty Society (Nghia Hoa Doan Hoi) was introduced to the region by the <a href="/wiki/Minh_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Minh Hương">Minh Hương</a> refugees following the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_conquest_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu conquest of China">Manchu conquest of China</a> and the Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Tiandihui" title="Tiandihui">Heaven and Earth Society</a> (天地會, Thiên Địa Hội).<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The Peace and Duty Society was also active supporting anti-Qing insurgents in China.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The majority of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)" title="Mandarin (bureaucrat)">mandarin</a> elites would continue to operate under the French protectorate being loyal to their new rulers, but as early period of the Pháp thuộc saw an influx of French enterprises significant changes to the social order of the day inspired new forms of resistance against French rule that differed from the earlier Cần Vương Movement.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The new social circumstances in French Indochina were brought about by the establishment of industrial companies by the French such as the Union commerciale indochinoise, the Est Asiatique français shipping company, the Chemin de fer français de l'Indochine et du Yunan railway company, as well as the various coal exploitation companies operating in Tonkin, these modern companies were accompanied by an influx of French tea, coffee, and rubber plantation magnates.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Following the defeat of the Nguyễn loyalist Cần Vương Movement a new generation of anti-French resistance emerged, rather than being rooted in the traditional mandarin elites the new anti-French resistance leaders of the early 20th century were more influenced by international events and revolutions abroad to inspire their resistance and the issue of modernisation.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Some Vietnamese revolutionaries like <a href="/wiki/Phan_Ch%C3%A2u_Trinh" title="Phan Châu Trinh">Phan Châu Trinh</a> traveled to the Western World (Đi Tây) to obtain the "keys" to modernity and hope to bring these back to Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> While others like the revolutionary leader <a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a> made the "Journey to the East" (<a href="/wiki/%C4%90%C3%B4ng_Du" title="Đông Du">Đông Du</a>) to the Japanese Empire which they saw as the other role-model of modernisation for Vietnam to follow.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The Đông Du school of revoluties was supported by Prince <a href="/wiki/C%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%90%E1%BB%83" title="Cường Để">Cường Để</a>, a direct descendant of the Gia Long Emperor.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Prince Cường Để hoped that by financing hundreds of young ambitious Vietnamese people to go get educated in Japan that this would contribute to the liberation of his country from French domination.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Duy_T%C3%A2n_H%E1%BB%99i" title="Duy Tân Hội">Duy Tân Hội</a> was founded in 1904 by Phan Bội Châu and Prince Cường Để.<a href="#cite_note-46">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The group in a broader sense was also considered a Modernisation Movement.<a href="#cite_note-48">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[40]</a> This new group of people consisted only of a few hundred people, with most of its members being either students or nationalists.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Notable members of the society included <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_Ch%C3%A1nh_Chi%C3%AAu" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert Trần Chánh Chiêu">Gilbert Trần Chánh Chiêu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[41]</a> The members of the Duy Tân Hội would establish a network of commercial enterprises to both gain capital to finance their activities and to hide their true intentions.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> A number of other anti-French organisations would support the Duy Tân Hội such as the Peace and Duty Society and the Heaven and Earth Society.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Free_School" title="Tonkin Free School">Tonkin Free School</a> (Đông Kinh Nghĩa Thục), which was created in Hanoi in 1907 by the supporters of both Phan Châu Trinh and Phan Bội Châu was closed in the year of its founding by the French authorities because it was perceived as being anti-French.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The Tonkin Free School stemmed from the movement of the same name, which aimed to modernise Vietnamese society by abandoning <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and adopting new ideas from both the Western world and Japan. In particular, it promoted the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese version of the Latin script</a> for writing <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> in place of classical Chinese by publishing educational materials and newspapers using this script, as a new vehicle of instruction. The schools offered free courses to anyone who wanted to learn about the modern spirit. The teachers at the school at 59 Hàng Đàn included <a href="/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A1m_Duy_T%E1%BB%91n" title="Phạm Duy Tốn">Phạm Duy Tốn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[42]</a> in the years prior to World War I the French arrested thousands of people with some being <a href="/wiki/Death_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Death sentence">sentenced to death</a> and others being imprisoned at the Poulo Condore jail island (<a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4n_S%C6%A1n_Island" title="Côn Sơn Island">Côn Sơn Island</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Because of this Côn Sơn Island would become the best school for political prisoners, nationalists, and communists, as they were gathered together in large, common cells which allowed them to exchange their ideas.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In March 1908, mass demonstrations took place in Annam and Tonkin demanding a reduction of the high taxes.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thucaphathanhdaudoc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Thucaphathanhdaudoc.jpg/220px-Thucaphathanhdaudoc.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Thucaphathanhdaudoc.jpg/330px-Thucaphathanhdaudoc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Thucaphathanhdaudoc.jpg/440px-Thucaphathanhdaudoc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>The heads of Duong Be, Tu Binh and Doi Nhan decapitated by the French on 8 July 1908 in the Hanoi Poison Plot</figcaption></figure> In June 1908, the <a href="/wiki/Hanoi_Poison_Plot" title="Hanoi Poison Plot">Hanoi Poison Plot</a> took place where a group of Tonkinese indigenous tirailleurs attempted to poison the entire French colonial army's garrison in the <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Hanoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Citadel of Hanoi">Citadel of Hanoi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The aim of the plot was to neutralise the French garrison and make way for Commander <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%81_Th%C3%A1m" class="mw-redirect" title="Đề Thám">Đề Thám</a>'s rebel army to capture the city of Hanoi. The plot was disclosed, and then was suppressed by the French.<a href="#cite_note-53">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In response the French proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>. The French accused Phan Châu Trinh and Phan Bội Châu of the plot, Phan Châu Trinh was sent to Poulo Condor, and Phan Bội Châu fled to Japan and thence, in the year 1910, he went to China.<a href="#cite_note-54">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In the years 1912 and 1913 Vietnamese nationalists organised attacks in Tonkin and Cochinchina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Using diplomatic pressure the French persuaded the Japanese to banish the Duy Tân Hội in 1909 from its shores causing them to seek refuge in Qing China, here they would join the ranks of <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-Sen" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun Yat-Sen">Sun Yat-Sen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> While places like <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, and Yunnan were earlier in the French sphere of influence in China, these places would now become hosts of anti-French revolutionary activities due to their borders with Tonkin and Laos, being the primary places of operation for both Chinese and Vietnamese revolutionaries.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> This allowed for members of the Duy Tân Hội to perform border raids on both Tonkin and Laos from their bases in China.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> In March 1913 the mystic millenarist cult leader <a href="/wiki/Phan_X%C3%ADch_Long" title="Phan Xích Long">Phan Xích Long</a> organised an independence demonstration in <a href="/wiki/Cholon,_Ho_Chi_Minh_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City">Cholon</a> which was attended by 600 peasants dressed in white robes.<a href="#cite_note-56">[46]</a> Phan Xích Long claimed descent of the deposed Hàm Nghi Emperor and the Ming dynasty's emperor and declared himself to be the "Emperor of the Ming Dynasty".<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The year 1913 also saw the Duy Tân Hội's second insurrection campaign, this campaign resulted in the society's members murdering two French Hanoi police officers, attacks on both militia and the military, and the execution of a number of Nguyễn dynasty mandarins that were accused of working together with the French government.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Another revolt also broke out in Cochinchina in 1913 where prisons and administrative hubs were attacked by crowds of hundreds of peasants using sticks and swords to fight the French, as the French were armed with firearms a large number of protesters ended up dying by gunshot wounds causing the protests to break up ending the revolt.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> During the early 20th century the French protectorate over Cambodia was challenged by rebels, just before it saw three separate revolts during the early reign of King <a href="/wiki/Norodom_of_Cambodia" title="Norodom of Cambodia">Norodom</a>, who had little authority outside <a href="/wiki/Phnom_Penh" title="Phnom Penh">Phnom Penh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> During the early 20th century Laos was considered to be the most "docile" territory as it saw relatively few uprisings.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The French attributed this to them being more stable rulers than the Siamese who had ruled over them for a century before the establishment of the French protectorate.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Both the traditional elite and the Laotian peasantry seemed largely content with French rule during this period.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Despite this, sporadic revolts occurred in Laos during the late 19th century and early 20th century. During the late 19th century Southern Laos saw upland minority communities rising up in revolt, these were led by Bac My and Ong Ma on the <a href="/wiki/Bolaven_Plateau" title="Bolaven Plateau">Bolaven Plateau</a>, who demanded the restoration of the "old order" and led an armed insurrection against the French until as late as 1936.<a href="#cite_note-57">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ong_Keo" title="Ong Keo">Phu Mi Bun Revolt</a> revolt erupted in 1901 and was not suppressed until 1907. It was a "major rebellion by local <a href="/wiki/Lao_Theung" title="Lao Theung">Lao Theung</a> tribes (the <a href="/wiki/Alak_people" title="Alak people">Alak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nyaw_people" title="Nyaw people">Nyaheun</a>, and Laven) against French domination".<a href="#cite_note-58">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stuart-Fox-2nd-59">[49]</a> Though there is not extensive literature on these particular revolutionary revolts in the Bolaven Plateau, one can see that the native communities desired to rid the region of the extensive and overpowering influence of their colonisers.<a href="#cite_note-JSS_062_1e_Murdoch-60">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Introducing_French_education">Introducing French education</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Introducing French education">edit</a>]</div> On 16 May 1906 the governor-general of French Indochina Jean Baptiste Paul Beau issued a decree establishing the Councils for the Improvement of Indigenous Education.<a href="#cite_note-BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục-61">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn-62">[52]</a> These organisations would oversee the French policies surrounding the education of the <a href="/wiki/Indig%C3%A9nat" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigénat">indigenous population</a> of French Indochina to "study educational issues related to each place separately".<a href="#cite_note-BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục-61">[51]</a> According to researcher Nguyễn Đắc Xuân, in 1907, the imperial court of the Nguyễn dynasty sent <a href="/wiki/Cao_Xu%C3%A2n_D%E1%BB%A5c" title="Cao Xuân Dục">Cao Xuân Dục</a> and Huỳnh Côn, the Thượng thư of the Hộ Bộ, to French Cochinchina to "hold a conference on education" (bàn nghị học chính) with the French authorities on the future of the Annamese education system.<a href="#cite_note-VnExpress-Triều-đại-phong-kiến-duy-nhất-có-Bộ-Học-63">[53]</a> This meeting was also recorded in the work Hoàng Việt Giáp Tý niên biểu written by Nguyễn Bá Trác.<a href="#cite_note-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn-62">[52]</a> The creation of a <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty)" title="Ministry of Education (Nguyễn dynasty)">ministry of education</a> was orchestrated by the French to reform the Nguyễn dynasty's educational system to match French ambitions in the region more.<a href="#cite_note-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn-62">[52]</a> As explained by the <a href="/wiki/Resident-Superior_of_Annam" class="mw-redirect" title="Resident-Superior of Annam">Resident-Superior of Annam</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Fernand_L%C3%A9vecque" title="Ernest Fernand Lévecque">Ernest Fernand Lévecque</a> "Its creation is to better suit the times as more opportunities to study" opened up in the South to which this new ministry was best suited to help this transition.<a href="#cite_note-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn-62">[52]</a> While the Nguyễn dynasty's Ministry of Education was nominally a part of the Nguyễn dynasty's administrative apparatus, actual control was in the hands of the French Council for the Improvement of Indigenous Education in Annam, which dictated its policies.<a href="#cite_note-BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục-61">[51]</a> All work done by the ministry was according to the plans and the command of the French Director of Education of Annam.<a href="#cite_note-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn-62">[52]</a> The French administration in Annam continuously revised the curriculum to be taught in order to fit the French system.<a href="#cite_note-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn-62">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_I">World War I</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: World War I">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam_during_World_War_I" title="History of Vietnam during World War I">History of Vietnam during World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B%E1%BA%A3n_t%E1%BA%A5u_c%E1%BB%A7a_Vi%E1%BB%87n_C%C6%A1_m%E1%BA%ADt_v%E1%BB%81_vi%E1%BB%87c_gi%C3%BAp_%C4%91%E1%BB%A1_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_Ph%C3%A1p_v%E1%BB%81_t%C3%A0i_ch%C3%ADnh_n%C4%83m_Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_th%E1%BB%A9_2_(1917)_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/B%E1%BA%A3n_t%E1%BA%A5u_c%E1%BB%A7a_Vi%E1%BB%87n_C%C6%A1_m%E1%BA%ADt_v%E1%BB%81_vi%E1%BB%87c_gi%C3%BAp_%C4%91%E1%BB%A1_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_Ph%C3%A1p_v%E1%BB%81_t%C3%A0i_ch%C3%ADnh_n%C4%83m_Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_th%E1%BB%A9_2_%281917%29_02.jpg/220px-B%E1%BA%A3n_t%E1%BA%A5u_c%E1%BB%A7a_Vi%E1%BB%87n_C%C6%A1_m%E1%BA%ADt_v%E1%BB%81_vi%E1%BB%87c_gi%C3%BAp_%C4%91%E1%BB%A1_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_Ph%C3%A1p_v%E1%BB%81_t%C3%A0i_ch%C3%ADnh_n%C4%83m_Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_th%E1%BB%A9_2_%281917%29_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/B%E1%BA%A3n_t%E1%BA%A5u_c%E1%BB%A7a_Vi%E1%BB%87n_C%C6%A1_m%E1%BA%ADt_v%E1%BB%81_vi%E1%BB%87c_gi%C3%BAp_%C4%91%E1%BB%A1_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_Ph%C3%A1p_v%E1%BB%81_t%C3%A0i_ch%C3%ADnh_n%C4%83m_Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_th%E1%BB%A9_2_%281917%29_02.jpg/330px-B%E1%BA%A3n_t%E1%BA%A5u_c%E1%BB%A7a_Vi%E1%BB%87n_C%C6%A1_m%E1%BA%ADt_v%E1%BB%81_vi%E1%BB%87c_gi%C3%BAp_%C4%91%E1%BB%A1_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_Ph%C3%A1p_v%E1%BB%81_t%C3%A0i_ch%C3%ADnh_n%C4%83m_Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_th%E1%BB%A9_2_%281917%29_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/B%E1%BA%A3n_t%E1%BA%A5u_c%E1%BB%A7a_Vi%E1%BB%87n_C%C6%A1_m%E1%BA%ADt_v%E1%BB%81_vi%E1%BB%87c_gi%C3%BAp_%C4%91%E1%BB%A1_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_Ph%C3%A1p_v%E1%BB%81_t%C3%A0i_ch%C3%ADnh_n%C4%83m_Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_th%E1%BB%A9_2_%281917%29_02.jpg/440px-B%E1%BA%A3n_t%E1%BA%A5u_c%E1%BB%A7a_Vi%E1%BB%87n_C%C6%A1_m%E1%BA%ADt_v%E1%BB%81_vi%E1%BB%87c_gi%C3%BAp_%C4%91%E1%BB%A1_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_Ph%C3%A1p_v%E1%BB%81_t%C3%A0i_ch%C3%ADnh_n%C4%83m_Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_th%E1%BB%A9_2_%281917%29_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1109" data-file-height="1029" /></a><figcaption>A report by the <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87n_c%C6%A1_m%E1%BA%ADt" title="Viện cơ mật">Viện cơ mật</a> on the financial and military aid given by the <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Nguyễn dynasty</a> to Great <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> in the year <a href="/wiki/Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh" title="Khải Định">Khải Định</a> 2 (1917). Note how the document ends with the phrases Đại Pháp <a href="/wiki/Ten_thousand_years" title="Ten thousand years">vạn tuế</a>, Đông Dương vạn tuế (大法萬歲, 東洋萬歲).</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I" title="French entry into World War I">French entry into World War I</a> saw thousands of volunteers, primarily from the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin, enlist for service in Europe, around <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>7⁄8 of all French Indochinese serving in Europe were Annamese and Tonkinese volunteers.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[55]</a> This period also saw a number of uprisings in <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[56]</a> French Indochina contributed significantly to the French war effort in terms of funds, products and human resources.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Prior to World War I the population of French Indochina stood at around 16,395,000 in 1913 with 14,165,000 being Vietnamese (Tonkinese, Annamese and Cochinchinese), 1,600,000 Cambodians, and 630,000 Laotians.<a href="#cite_note-67">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> These 16.4 million subjects were ruled over by only around 18,000 French civilians, militaries, and civil servants.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> During this period governor-general of French Indochina <a href="/wiki/Albert_Sarraut" title="Albert Sarraut">Albert Sarraut</a> promised a new policy of association and a "Franco-Annamese Collaboration" (French: Collaboration franco-annamite; Vietnamese: Pháp-Việt Đề huề) for the wartime contribution by the French Indochinese to their colonial masters.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> However, beside some liberal reforms, the French administration actually increased economic exploitation and ruthless repression of nationalist movements which rapidly resulted in a disappointment of the promises made by Sarraut.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> During the early days of the war around 6 million Frenchmen were drafted causing a severe labour shortage in France.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France-68">[58]</a> In response, the Undersecretary of State for Artillery and Munitions proposed to hire women, European immigrants, and French colonial subjects, these people were later followed with Chinese immigrants.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France-68">[58]</a> From 1915 onwards, the French war effort's manpower needs started to rise significantly.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Initially the French maintained a racial hierarchy where they believed in "martial races" making the early recruitment fall onus primarily on <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a>, but soon the need for additional manpower forced the French to recruit men from the Far East and <a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">Madagascar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Almost 100,000 Vietnamese were conscripts and went to Europe to fight and serve on the French battlefront, or work as labourers.<a href="#cite_note-69">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[56]</a> Vietnamese troops also <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_front" title="Macedonian front">served in the Balkans</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[60]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern front</a>. This exceptional human mobility offered the French Indochinese, mostly Vietnamese, the unique opportunity of directly access to social life and political debates that were occurring in contemporary France and this resulted in their aspirations to become "masters of their own destiny" to increase.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Exposed to new political ideals and returning to a colonial occupation of their own country (by a ruler that many of them had fought and died for), resulted in some sour attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Many of these troops sought out and joined the Vietnamese nationalist movement focused on overthrowing the French.<a href="#cite_note-Drake-how-71">[61]</a> In 1925, communist and anti-French activist Nguyễn Ái Quốc (later known as Hồ Chí Minh) wrote "taken in chains, confined in a school compound... Most of them will never again see the sun of their country" and a number of historians like <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Buttinger" title="Joseph Buttinger">Joseph Buttinger</a> and Martin Murray, treated his statement by Nguyễn Ái Quốc as an article of faith and believed that the Vietnamese men who participated in World War I were "forcibly recruited" by means of "terrorism", later historians would claim that the recruitment enterprise employed during this period was only "ostensibly voluntary".<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a> While there is some truth to these claims, the vast majority of the men who volunteered for service in Europe were indeed volunteers.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a> Among the motivations of volunteering were both personal and economic ambitions, some French Indochinese volunteers wished to see what the world looked like "beyond the bamboo hedges in their villages" while others preferred the money and the opportunity to see what France actually looks like.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a> Their service would expose them to the brutality of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">modern warfare</a> and many would change their perception about many social norms and beliefs at home because of their experiences abroad.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a> Of the 93,000 French Indochinese soldiers and workers who came to Europe, most were from the poorest parts of Annam and Tonkin, which had been badly hit by famine and <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, a smaller number (1,150) of French Indochinese soldiers and workers came from Cambodia.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In Northeast France around 44,000 Vietnamese troops served in direct combat functions at both the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frontiers#Alsace" title="Battle of the Frontiers">Battle of the Vosges</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> French Indochinese battalions were also used in various <a href="/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">logistics</a> functions such as serving as drivers to transport soldiers to the front lines, <a href="/wiki/Stretcher_bearer" title="Stretcher bearer">stretcher bearers</a> (brancardiers), or road crews.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Vietnamese soldiers were also used to "sanitise" battle fields at the end of the war, where they would perform these duties in the middle of the cold European winters without being provided with warm clothes, in order to let the (White) French soldiers return to their homes earlier.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The financial expenses of the 93,000 French Indochinese labourers and soldiers sent to France during the war – salaries, pensions, family allocations, the levy in kind (mostly rice), and even the functioning of the Indochinese hospital – were entirely financed from the budget of French Indochina itself and not from France.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> One of the effects of World War I on French Indochinese society was the introduction of a vibrant political press both in French and in the indigenous languages that led to the political radicalisation of a new generation of nationalists.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Because most of the indigenous people that served in France and the rest of Europe during the War were Vietnamese these social and political developments affected the Vietnamese more.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Because French Cochinchina was a direct French colony it enjoyed favourable legislation concerning the press which fostered a public sphere of oppositional political activism.<a href="#cite_note-73">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Although these developments occurred throughout French Indochina they were more strongly felt in Cochinchina due to its more open society.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The French Indochinese in Europe experienced much more <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> social relations which were strongly contrasted with the racial hierarchy they experienced at home.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In France the French Indochinese serving often engaged in comradery with the French and many had <a href="/wiki/Romantic_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic relationship">romantic relationships</a> with <a href="/wiki/Women_in_France" title="Women in France">French women</a>, the latter being unthinkable in their home countries.<a href="#cite_note-74">[64]</a> During this period, the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin were initially ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Duy_T%C3%A2n" title="Duy Tân">Duy Tân</a> Emperor.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> However, in 1916, the Duy Tân Emperor was accused by the French of calling for his subjects to resist French rule and after his deposition he and his father were exiled to the island of <a href="/wiki/La_R%C3%A9union" class="mw-redirect" title="La Réunion">La Réunion</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Thereafter, the <a href="/wiki/Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh" title="Khải Định">Khải Định</a> Emperor became the new monarch of Annam and Tonkin and he closely collaborated with the French administration.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> At the same time Cambodia was ruled by King <a href="/wiki/Sisowath_of_Cambodia" title="Sisowath of Cambodia">Sisowath</a> who was crowned in 1904 and cooperated closely with the French administration in his territory.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> King Sisowath attended the colonial exhibition in <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> in 1906 and was the King at the time of the retrocession of the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Battambang_province" title="Battambang province">Battambang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siem_Reap_province" title="Siem Reap province">Siem Reap</a> to Cambodia by the Siamese in April 1907.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> During the reign of King Sisowath there was "an inexorable increase in French control" and the French residents gained executive authority to issue royal decrees, appoint officials, and collect taxes.<a href="#cite_note-75">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The French protectorate of Laos at the time was ruled by King <a href="/wiki/Sisavang_Vong" title="Sisavang Vong">Sisavang Vong</a>, who was crowned king in 1904.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> King Sisavang Vong was trained at the Lycée Chasseloup-Laubat in Saigon and at the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_School,_Paris" title="Colonial School, Paris">Colonial School</a> in Paris.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In 1914, the French built a new palace in <a href="/wiki/Luang_Prabang" title="Luang Prabang">Luang Prabang</a> for him, and a new agreement with the French administration signed in 1917 allowed him only formal signs of royal power with actual power over Laos being in the hands of the French.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The Great War presented a number of opportunities for the indigenous French Indochinese people serving in the West that didn't exist before, notably for some individuals to obtain levels of education that were simply unattainable at home by acquiring more advanced technical and professional skills.<a href="#cite_note-Trân-Claire-Thi-Liên-Nguyễn-Xuân-Mai-2016-76">[66]</a> For example Dr. Nguyễn Xuân Mai, who in 1910 became one of the first indigenous auxiliaries to graduate the Hanoi medical school, hoped to gain his PhD in France so he enlisted to fight in the war.<a href="#cite_note-Trân-Claire-Thi-Liên-Nguyễn-Xuân-Mai-2016-76">[66]</a> In 1921 he would acquire his doctorate and he became one of the first Vietnamese doctors to enjoy the same rights as his French colleagues.<a href="#cite_note-Trân-Claire-Thi-Liên-Nguyễn-Xuân-Mai-2016-76">[66]</a> While World War I saw a number of new economic sectors develop in French Indochina, namely <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> plantations, mines, and other forms of agriculture, these were all French owned and the local trade to the great export-import houses was in the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">Overseas Chinese</a> communities.<a href="#cite_note-77">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Only a handful of Vietnamese landlords, moneylenders, and middlemen benefitted from the new economic opportunities that arose during this period as the colonial economy of exportation was designed to enrich the French at the expense of the indigenous population.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> During this same period the average livelihood of the indigenous peasantry was drastically decreased due to both direct taxation and indirect taxes the French used to finance ambitious public works programmes constructed using the <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvée</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Prior to the year 1914, the mise en valeur (development and improvement) of French Indochina was primarily financed by European French public loans, French private capital, and higher taxes on the local populations.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> But during the war French Indochina became completely responsible both for financing itself and the people they sent to Europe to fight in the war as <a href="/wiki/Investment_fund" title="Investment fund">investment funds</a> from Metropolitan France completely stopped.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> This meant that taxation increased, more rice was being exported, and the locals purchased <a href="/wiki/War_bond" title="War bond">war bonds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> French Indochina provided a Metropolitan France with large financial aid; between the years 1915 and 1920 of the 600,000,000 <a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">francs</a> that France received from <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">its colonial empire</a> 367,000,000 francs were sent by French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Though historian Patrice Morlat places the initial financial contribution of French Indochina at 381,000,000 gold francs (valued at 997,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euros</a> in 2017), roughly 60% of all financial contributions Metropolitan France received from its colonial empire (excluding <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Morlat further noted that French Indochina supplied 340,000 tonnes of raw materials to France during the course of the war, which amounted to 34% of all raw supplies that Metropolitan France received from its colonies.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The shipping of these materials was threatened by the presence of German <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> World War I also saw the colonial government of Cochinchina authorising the creation of Vietnamese-language newspapers in 1916, this was done to secure popular support for the war effort, the colonial authorities hoped that this would create a loyal indigenous group of politically active people.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The Cochinchinese colonial government offered financial support to these loyalist newspapers, but kept close control on the contents written in them to ensure a prevailing pro-French narrative.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The editors of these newspapers were often retours de France (people back from France) and were kept under close surveillance as they often had connections to anti-French dissidents and activists. Among these newspapers was La Tribune indigène (The Indigenous Forum) launched in 1917 by the agronomist Bùi Quang Chiêu working together with the lawyer Dương Văn Giáo and journalist <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Phan_Long" title="Nguyễn Phan Long">Nguyễn Phan Long</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Afterwards they created La Tribune indochinoise (The Indochinese Forum) and in 1919 these three men would found the Indochinese Constitutionalist Party in Saigon.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Because of these activities the French Surêté regarded <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_nationalism" title="Vietnamese nationalism">their nationalism</a> as dangerous.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The French invoked a supposed "German connection" between the Vietnamese revolutionaries and the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, alleging that <a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> were the sight of German agents hoping to help the Vietnamese revolutionaries as they shared the same goal, namely to defeat the French.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> World War I also saw a number of rebellions throughout French Indochina, in 1914 3 major uprisings happened throughout Vietnam, followed by a number of revolts in Cochinchina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> From 1914 to 1917 members of the <a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_people" title="Tai Lue people">Tai Lue people</a> led by Prince Phra Ong Kham (Chao Fa) of <a href="/wiki/Muang_Sing" title="Muang Sing">Muang Sing</a> organised a long anti-French campaign, <a href="/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong</a> independence movements in Laos also challenged French rule in the country.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> 1914 also saw bands of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnanese</a> revolutionaries invade French Indochina, who crossed the border and started attacking French military posts parading <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Flag of the Republic of China">Chinese Republican flags</a>, these rebels were later joined by various Laotian ethnic minorities (Lao, Kha and Black Tai).<a href="#cite_note-Gunn-1989-61-66-78">[68]</a> The joint Yunnanese and Laotian ethnic minority rebels spread misinformation claiming that "Paris has been crushed by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Army" title="Imperial German Army">German Army</a>" to make the French seem weaker.<a href="#cite_note-Gunn-1989-61-66-78">[68]</a> The motivations of this revolt are disputed as contemporary French colonial officials attributed it to Chinese opium smugglers, while the Canadian historian Geoffrey C. Gunn thinks that it was a political revolt.<a href="#cite_note-Gunn-1989-61-66-78">[68]</a> In February 1916 in Cochinchina supporters of <a href="/wiki/Phan_X%C3%ADch_Long" title="Phan Xích Long">Phan Xích Long</a> marched on the Saigonese penitentiary where he was held demanding his release, this coincided with other uprisings in the <a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Delta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The mandarin Trần Cao Văn engaged with he Duy Tân Emperor to try and stage a large rebellion in Annam in 1916, but their conspiracy was discovered and foiled by the French.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In 1916 the Kingdom of Cambodia saw a 3 month uprising organised by between 30,000 and 100,000 peasants against both the mandatory corvée and the increased taxes, Australian historian <a href="/wiki/Milton_Osborne" title="Milton Osborne">Milton Osborne</a> refers to this uprising as "The 1916 Affair", the circumstances leading up to this large revolt were directly caused by the war.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> 30 August 1917 saw the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A1i_Nguy%C3%AAn_uprising" title="Thái Nguyên uprising">Thái Nguyên uprising</a>, which lasted until 1918.<a href="#cite_note-79">[69]</a> The large amount of uprisings and rebellions that occurred during the war would inspire the creation of a political security apparatus that was used to find and arrest political dissidents in the post-war period.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_Japan_during_World_War_I">Relations with Japan during World War I</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Relations with Japan during World War I">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="France–Japan relations">France–Japan relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Vietnam_relations" title="Japan–Vietnam relations">Japan–Vietnam relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Cambodia–Japan relations">Cambodia–Japan relations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Laos_relations" title="Japan–Laos relations">Japan–Laos relations</a></div> On 27 August 1914, Japan officially entered the war on the side of <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">the allies</a> (also known as the Entente Powers), Japan <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">invaded and took</a> the <a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German colony</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qingdao" title="Qingdao">Tsingtao</a> and the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Kiautschou_Bay_Leased_Territory" title="Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory">Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In November 1914 Japan supplanted the German sphere of influence in southern China with its own political and economic influence, putting it in direct competition with French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Even though the Japanese openly supported a number of anti-French secessionist movements, such as Prince Cường Để's <a href="/wiki/Duy_T%C3%A2n_H%E1%BB%99i" title="Duy Tân Hội">Duy Tân Hội</a>, the French situation in Europe was bad enough for prime minister <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> to ask the Japanese for their help.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">war situation in Europe</a> was so bad that in 1914, the French considered exchanging French Indochina with Japan for both financial and military support, but this idea was quickly abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Clemenceau asked the Empire of Japan to aid them with the transportation of the travailleurs et tirailleurs indochinois to Europe and by sending <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">its own forces</a> to help fight in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Clemenceau also wanted Japan to help by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_intervention_in_Siberia" title="Japanese intervention in Siberia">intervening in Siberia</a> to fight the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolshevik</a> forces during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> to prevent the loss of the many French-Russian loans, which were important for the French post-war economy.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In 1918, the idea of selling French Indochina to Japan was raised again and, like the first time that it was proposed, it was abandoned again.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Both during and after the war the economic relations between France and Japan strengthened as Japan became a creditor of France following the latter's financial difficulties which came as a result of the war.<a href="#cite_note-80">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expansion_of_the_security_apparatus">Expansion of the security apparatus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Expansion of the security apparatus">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nguy%E1%BB%85n_T%E1%BA%A5t_Th%C3%A0nh_(%E9%98%AE%E5%BF%85%E8%AA%A0)_security_report_by_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China_(n%C4%83m_1920).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_T%E1%BA%A5t_Th%C3%A0nh_%28%E9%98%AE%E5%BF%85%E8%AA%A0%29_security_report_by_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China_%28n%C4%83m_1920%29.jpg/220px-Nguy%E1%BB%85n_T%E1%BA%A5t_Th%C3%A0nh_%28%E9%98%AE%E5%BF%85%E8%AA%A0%29_security_report_by_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China_%28n%C4%83m_1920%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_T%E1%BA%A5t_Th%C3%A0nh_%28%E9%98%AE%E5%BF%85%E8%AA%A0%29_security_report_by_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China_%28n%C4%83m_1920%29.jpg/330px-Nguy%E1%BB%85n_T%E1%BA%A5t_Th%C3%A0nh_%28%E9%98%AE%E5%BF%85%E8%AA%A0%29_security_report_by_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China_%28n%C4%83m_1920%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_T%E1%BA%A5t_Th%C3%A0nh_%28%E9%98%AE%E5%BF%85%E8%AA%A0%29_security_report_by_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China_%28n%C4%83m_1920%29.jpg/440px-Nguy%E1%BB%85n_T%E1%BA%A5t_Th%C3%A0nh_%28%E9%98%AE%E5%BF%85%E8%AA%A0%29_security_report_by_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China_%28n%C4%83m_1920%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="916" data-file-height="1292" /></a><figcaption>A 1920 report by the Sûreté générale indochinoise on <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_T%E1%BA%A5t_Th%C3%A0nh" class="mw-redirect" title="Nguyễn Tất Thành">Nguyễn Tất Thành</a> (阮必誠), who would later be known as Hồ Chí Minh (胡志明).</figcaption></figure> As Sarraut was determined to secure French rule over the country he created a strong political surveillance apparatus that functioned throughout French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> He centralised all local police forces and developed an intelligence service, these policies would lead to the creation of the Sûreté générale indochinoise, which sought to monitor and police anti-French activities both inside and outside of French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-81">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> French security was expanded because of fears of German involvement with their enemies in the Far East, <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Ernest_Li%C3%A9bert" title="Gaston Ernest Liébert">Gaston Ernest Liébert</a>, the French consul in Hong Kong and a major player for the intelligence services coordinated by the political affairs bureau of French Indochina, noted that Vietnamese revolutionaries and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> both shared the same interest (the defeat of the French).<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[72]</a> Liébert argued that French Indochinese who rebelled should be treated according or as traitors to France.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Another reason for the expansion of the security state was that the French feared that such a large expulsion of French soldiers to fight against the Germans would inspire a general uprising similar to what the British experienced in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Colonial-Society-French-Indochina-83">[73]</a> In April 1916 the administrator of civil services at the Political Affairs Bureau in Hanoi launched two voluminous reports that went into great detail about the parallel histories of what he referred to as the "Annamese Revolutionary Party" (how he called the Duy Tân Hội) and of the secret societies of French Cochinchina. These two reports proved to be very important to the Political Affairs Bureau as they would trigger a full-scale reform of the organisation making it into an <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella organisation">umbrella organisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The reform policies were enacted to help control the narrative around French rule through policing and surveillance.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The colonial police forces were connected with "the general control of Indochinese workers and riflemen" (Contrôle général des travailleurs et tirailleurs indochinois), a political police force, as the military presence was reduced to allocate more soldiers to the home front.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In Metropolitan France these nascent surveillance organisations were put in charge of policing the 100,000 French Indochinese present to help fight the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Both domestically and internationally, the French Indochinese police maintained a sizeable network of informants, countries where they operated included not only Metropolitan France, but also neighbouring countries like China and Siam as well as Japan, which was a common refuge for Vietnamese nationalists.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The French Indochinese police often got foreign authorities to arrest anti-French activists, e.g. Phan Bội Châu who was hiding in China since 1909 was arrested there in 1917.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Phan Bội Châu admitted to being in contact with German and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a> ministers, noting that the Germans and Austro-Hungarians promised his revolutionary activities financial support in the form of 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Thai_Baht" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai Baht">Siamese ticals</a> (approximately 55,000 <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euros</a> in 2017).<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Phan would later be arrested abroad again in 1925, when he arrived in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> on what he thought was a short trip on behalf of his movement. He was to meet with Hồ Chí Minh, who at that time used the name Lý Thụy, one of Hồ's many aliases. Hồ had invited Phan to come to Canton to discuss matters of common interest. Hồ was in Canton at the Soviet Embassy, purportedly as a Soviet citizen working as a secretary, translator, and interpreter. In exchange for money, Hồ allegedly informed the French police of Phan's imminent arrival. Phan was arrested by French agents and transported back to <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Honey-84">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-US_Dept._of_Defense_Pentagon-85">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cromley-87">[77]</a> Following the communist victory in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> the security apparatus of French Indochina was strengthened to fight the "Bolshevik danger" in the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> While the Sûreté générale was created during World War I, in 1922 it was expanded to become a better instrument to surveil and repress any potential Bolshevik elements, first in Metropolitan France and later in French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The activities of the Sûreté générale indochinoise were managed by the newly created Department of Political Affairs.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The Sûreté générale indochinoise would be used as the paramount tool to gather intelligence of subversive elements within French Indochinese society and to conduct large-scale union-wide registration by the colonial police forces of suspects and convicts.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The increase in surveillance and repression was accompanied with a propaganda campaign aimed to convince the indigenous populations of the "enlightenment" of French colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> Both the indigenous peasantry and the elites had to be won over by being told of the many "advantages of colonialism".<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> The Political Affairs Bureau assembled a umber of Vietnamese elites belonging to the indigenous intelligentsia through the <a href="/wiki/French_School_of_the_Far_East" title="French School of the Far East">French School of the Far East</a> to aid in the pro-French propaganda effort.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">[35]</a> While the French hoped to isolate political dissidents by locking them up in prisons, these prisons would ironically turn into "schools" for nationalism and Communism as concentrating a large number of political enemies together would allow them to communicate with each other, which contributed to the growth of Communism within French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-88">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1920s">1920s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 1920s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Du-h%E1%BB%8Dc-b%C3%A1o_(%E9%81%8A%E5%AD%B8%E5%A0%B1)_-_Annam_nh%C6%B0_T%C3%A2y_du_h%E1%BB%8Dc_b%E1%BA%A3o_tr%E1%BB%A3_h%E1%BB%99i_(%E5%AE%89%E5%8D%97%E5%A6%82%E8%A5%BF%E9%81%8A%E5%AD%B8%E4%BF%9D%E5%8A%A9%E6%9C%83_-_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_d%E2%80%99encouragement_aux_%C3%A9tudes_occidentales)_-_1er_P%C3%A9vrier_1928_(Traditional_Chinese_script).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Du-h%E1%BB%8Dc-b%C3%A1o_%28%E9%81%8A%E5%AD%B8%E5%A0%B1%29_-_Annam_nh%C6%B0_T%C3%A2y_du_h%E1%BB%8Dc_b%E1%BA%A3o_tr%E1%BB%A3_h%E1%BB%99i_%28%E5%AE%89%E5%8D%97%E5%A6%82%E8%A5%BF%E9%81%8A%E5%AD%B8%E4%BF%9D%E5%8A%A9%E6%9C%83_-_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_d%E2%80%99encouragement_aux_%C3%A9tudes_occidentales%29_-_1er_P%C3%A9vrier_1928_%28Traditional_Chinese_script%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Du-h%E1%BB%8Dc-b%C3%A1o_%28%E9%81%8A%E5%AD%B8%E5%A0%B1%29_-_Annam_nh%C6%B0_T%C3%A2y_du_h%E1%BB%8Dc_b%E1%BA%A3o_tr%E1%BB%A3_h%E1%BB%99i_%28%E5%AE%89%E5%8D%97%E5%A6%82%E8%A5%BF%E9%81%8A%E5%AD%B8%E4%BF%9D%E5%8A%A9%E6%9C%83_-_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_d%E2%80%99encouragement_aux_%C3%A9tudes_occidentales%29_-_1er_P%C3%A9vrier_1928_%28Traditional_Chinese_script%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Du-h%E1%BB%8Dc-b%C3%A1o_%28%E9%81%8A%E5%AD%B8%E5%A0%B1%29_-_Annam_nh%C6%B0_T%C3%A2y_du_h%E1%BB%8Dc_b%E1%BA%A3o_tr%E1%BB%A3_h%E1%BB%99i_%28%E5%AE%89%E5%8D%97%E5%A6%82%E8%A5%BF%E9%81%8A%E5%AD%B8%E4%BF%9D%E5%8A%A9%E6%9C%83_-_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_d%E2%80%99encouragement_aux_%C3%A9tudes_occidentales%29_-_1er_P%C3%A9vrier_1928_%28Traditional_Chinese_script%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="855" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i" title="Bảo Đại">Bảo Đại</a> 3 (1928) issue of the bimonthly Du-học-báo (遊學報) magazine issued by the Société d'encouragement aux études occidentales (Vietnamese: Annam như Tây du học bảo trợ hội; Hán-Nôm: 安南如西遊學保助會), an organisation set up by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Government of the Nguyễn dynasty">Southern Court</a> to bring Annamese students to France to study the latest <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">scientific literature</a>.</figcaption></figure> As French Indochina was supposed to be a self-financed colonie d'exploitation économique (colony of economic exploitation) most of its budget during this period was financed through revenue collection, taxes on the local populations, and consumption quotas for monopolised goods such as <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In 1920 44% of the French Indochinese government budget came from opium, salt, and alcohol alone.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> During the 1920s France allowed more Vietnamese to enter Metropolitan France for both studying and work purposes.<a href="#cite_note-90">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France-68">[58]</a> Both legal and <a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal immigrant">illegal immigrants</a> entered France from French Indochina working various types of jobs, such as sailors, photographers, cooks, restaurant and shop owners and manual labourers.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France-68">[58]</a> In France many Vietnamese immigrants and their organisations aligned themselves with the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a> (PCF) who promised to represent them both in legal and political matters.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France-68">[58]</a> As returnees from France were more skilled and spoke fluent French the French colonists in Indochina would hire them to perform better paying jobs and often brought ideas of the successful Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France-68">[58]</a> In provinces like Thanh Hoá, Nghệ An, and Hà Tĩnh where around twenty thousand returnees lived pro-Bolshevik activities would increase during this decade and this region saw the creation of many pro-Bolshevik parties.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-workers-in-France-68">[58]</a> A number of Vietnamese men would serve in occupied parts of <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar era Germany</a> after the war.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a> Seeing how the French treated the German inhabitants of the occupied regions, some Vietnamese soldiers would empathise with the <a href="/wiki/German_people" class="mw-redirect" title="German people">German people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a> Official reports on the French <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Occupation of the Rhineland">Occupation of the Rhineland</a> summarised the contents of the letters written by the soldiers during that period this way: "The French oppress the Germans in the same way they have the Annamites [sic]."<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a> After the Great War former governor-general Albert Sarraut became the <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Overseas_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of the Overseas (France)">French minister of the colonies</a>, Sarraut was the architect of the collaboration Franco-annamite which characterised French colonial policy during the interwar period.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Regarding the internal security of the French apparatus in the Far East Sarraut stated "I have always estimated that Indochina must be protected against the effects of a revolutionary propaganda that I have never underestimated, by carrying out a double action, one political, the other repressive."<a href="#cite_note-91">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> indicating that he saw repressing subversive elements as paramount to the continued French domination of the region.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> His policies benefited collaborators while they were instrumental in repressing dissidents.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Sarraut boasted the image of himself as a liberal indigenophile who benefited the indigenous people of French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Albert Sarraut presented the collaboration Franco-annamite as a necessity of the French protectorate over their countries, the collaboration Franco-annamite was attractive to the Westernised indigenous elites of French Indochina as it would build a framework of mutually beneficial partnership between France and the Vietnamese before full sovereignty for the latter could be restored.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In the colony of Cochinchina a handful of indigenous people were involved in the decision-making processes through political bodies that were established to serve as representative assemblies (Cochinchina's Colonial Council, Saigon Municipal Council, among other local bodies).<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In 1920, the French established provincial advisory councils in the Kingdom of Laos.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In 1923 this was followed by an indigenous consultative assembly, which served an advisory role.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Despite the Laotian indigenous consultative assembly not having any real political power, it served as an organisation that brought people from all over Laos together and contributed to the later formation of a modern Laotian <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national consciousness</a> where prior they associated themselves more with their region.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> In 1923, Cochinchina saw the creation of the Parti Constitutionnaliste Indochinois led by Bui Quang Chiêu, which was founded to obtain the right of political participation for the indigenous people in Cochinchina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> As a member of this party Nguyễn Phan Long was elected a member of Cochinchina's colonial council.<a href="#cite_note-92">[82]</a> In Kopong Chang, Cambodia the French resident Félix Bardez was assassinated in the year 1925 by disgruntled indigenous people.<a href="#cite_note-David-P-Chandler-2007-pages-191-193-93">[83]</a> Félix Bardez visited the village at a time when its inhabitants were frustrated with the colonial policies of the French in Cambodia as the French raised the taxes to finance the Bokor mountain resort, when Bardez visited he refused to free prisoners who were arrested for being unable to pay their debts, this agitated a crowd of around 700 angry peasants who then killed him, his interpreter, and the militiamen present during his visit.<a href="#cite_note-David-P-Chandler-2007-pages-191-193-93">[83]</a> This assassination was a sign of the wider political unrest that characterised Cambodia during this decade.<a href="#cite_note-David-P-Chandler-2007-pages-191-193-93">[83]</a> In March 1925 the French built a <a href="/wiki/War_monument" class="mw-redirect" title="War monument">war monument</a> resting on two sculpted <a href="/wiki/Asian_elephant" title="Asian elephant">Asian elephants</a> to commemorate those that died fighting in World War I in the Cambodian capital city of Phnom Penh, the opening ceremony brought together a crowd which contained "people of all races and all religions".<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-World-War-I-Commemoration-94">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[85]</a> On 6 November 1925 a "Convention" (Quy ước) was established after <a href="/wiki/Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh" title="Khải Định">Khải Định</a>'s death that stated that while the sovereign is abroad a council (Hội đồng phụ chính) had the power to run all affairs of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Government of the Nguyễn dynasty">Southern court</a>, with the signing of the convention only regulations related to custom, favours, amnesty, conferring titles, dignitaries, among others are given by the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-BTLSQGVN-Bảo-Đại-Vị-Hoàng-đế-cuối-cùng-trong-lịch-sử-phong-kiến-Việt-Nam-96">[86]</a> Everything else is up to the French protectorate government.<a href="#cite_note-BTLSQGVN-Bảo-Đại-Vị-Hoàng-đế-cuối-cùng-trong-lịch-sử-phong-kiến-Việt-Nam-96">[86]</a> This document also merges the budget of the Southern court with the budget of the French protectorate of Annam and that all the meetings of the Council of Ministers (Hội đồng thượng thư) must be chaired by the <a href="/wiki/Resident-superior_of_Annam" class="mw-redirect" title="Resident-superior of Annam">resident-superior of Annam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BTLSQGVN-Bảo-Đại-Vị-Hoàng-đế-cuối-cùng-trong-lịch-sử-phong-kiến-Việt-Nam-96">[86]</a> Thus, in this document, the French colonialists completely took over all the power of the government of the Southern dynasty, even in Trung Kỳ.<a href="#cite_note-BTLSQGVN-Bảo-Đại-Vị-Hoàng-đế-cuối-cùng-trong-lịch-sử-phong-kiến-Việt-Nam-96">[86]</a> In 1927 Vietnamese World War I veterans staged an unsuccessful rebellion in <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%AFc_Ninh_province" title="Bắc Ninh province">Bắc Ninh province</a> using vintage World War I era weapons and tactics.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochinese-attitudes-towards-War-64">[54]</a> According to American historian <a href="/wiki/David_G._Marr" title="David G. Marr">David G. Marr</a> the 1920s marked the transition of what he termed the "traditional" to the "modern" nation-consciousness among the Vietnamese people, indicating a shift among both the elites and the peasants.<a href="#cite_note-97">[87]</a> Marr argues that the Vietnamese retours de France "urbanised" and "politicised" Vietnamese nationalism during the 1920s and 1930s, inspiring more "modern" movements to take up the struggle against French domination.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> This decade saw the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng</a> (VNQDĐ) and the <a href="/wiki/Indochinese_Communist_Party" title="Indochinese Communist Party">Indochinese Communist Party</a> (ICP) which were often <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> in nature and proved to be more successful in transcending class and geographical divisions to mobilise against the French than earlier movements, relying on better and more organized communication structures than their predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> During the 1920s the contestation of French colonial power in Cambodia and Laos was mostly aimed at the corvée and tax policies, continuing from the war period.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> The early years of this decade were characterised by widespread violence and a lack of order and security in rural Cambodia, as recorded by French residents in the provinces.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> Contemporarily Upper Laos was referred to as being "violently agitated" by the French administrator Paul Le Boulanger between the years 1914 and 1921.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> While the nature of Vietnamese resistance changed radically during the 1920s and the 1930s due to various major socio-cultural changes that were occurring at the time by a small, but growing, urbanised Vietnamese middle class, the rebellions in Cambodia and Laos remained to be "traditional" in their style and execution in contrast to the more "modern" <a href="/wiki/Political_activism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political activism">political activism</a> and radicalism that characterised what is now Vietnam during this period.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yên_Bái_mutiny_(1930)">Yên Bái mutiny (1930)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Yên Bái mutiny (1930)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_mutiny" title="Yên Bái mutiny">Yên Bái mutiny</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_de_l%27Indochine_Routes_chemins_(...)Indochine_fran%C3%A7aise_btv1b530574891_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Carte_de_l%27Indochine_Routes_chemins_%28...%29Indochine_fran%C3%A7aise_btv1b530574891_1.jpg/170px-Carte_de_l%27Indochine_Routes_chemins_%28...%29Indochine_fran%C3%A7aise_btv1b530574891_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Carte_de_l%27Indochine_Routes_chemins_%28...%29Indochine_fran%C3%A7aise_btv1b530574891_1.jpg/255px-Carte_de_l%27Indochine_Routes_chemins_%28...%29Indochine_fran%C3%A7aise_btv1b530574891_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Carte_de_l%27Indochine_Routes_chemins_%28...%29Indochine_fran%C3%A7aise_btv1b530574891_1.jpg/340px-Carte_de_l%27Indochine_Routes_chemins_%28...%29Indochine_fran%C3%A7aise_btv1b530574891_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1327" /></a><figcaption>French Indochina around 1933.</figcaption></figure> On 10 February 1930, there was an uprising by Vietnamese soldiers in the French colonial army's <a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i" title="Yên Bái">Yên Bái</a> garrison. The <a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_mutiny" title="Yên Bái mutiny">Yên Bái mutiny</a> was sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng</a> (VNQDĐ).<a href="#cite_note-98">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[89]</a> The VNQDĐ was the Vietnamese Nationalist Party.<a href="#cite_note-100">[90]</a> The attack was the largest disturbance brewed up by the <a href="/wiki/C%E1%BA%A7n_V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_movement" title="Cần Vương movement">Cần Vương</a> monarchist restoration movement of the late 19th century. The aim of the revolt was to inspire a wider uprising among the general populace in an attempt to overthrow the colonial authority. The VNQDĐ had previously attempted to engage in clandestine activities to undermine French rule, but increasing French scrutiny of their activities led to their leadership group taking the risk of staging a large scale military attack in the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Delta" title="Red River Delta">Red River Delta</a> in northern Vietnam. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Left_opposition_and_the_1940_uprising_in_Cochinchina">Left opposition and the 1940 uprising in Cochinchina</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Left opposition and the 1940 uprising in Cochinchina">edit</a>]</div> In Cochinchina where French rule had the distinction of being direct and therefore more sensitive to political shifts in Paris, it was punctuated by periods of relative liberalisation. The most significant was during the 1936–1938 <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Popular Front</a> government led by <a href="/wiki/Leon_Blum" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Blum">Leon Blum</a> which appointed as governor-general of Indochina <a href="/wiki/Jules_Br%C3%A9vi%C3%A9" title="Jules Brévié">Jules Brévié</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhartDuiker201048-101">[91]</a> Liberal-minded, in Cochinchina Brévié tried to defuse an extremely tense political situation by amnestying political prisoners, and by easing restrictions on the press, political parties,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhartDuiker201048-101">[91]</a> and trade unions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunn2014119-102">[92]</a> Saigon witnessed growing labour unrest culminating in the summer of 1937 in general dock and transport strikes.<a href="#cite_note-103">[93]</a> In April of that year the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Communist Party of Vietnam">Vietnamese Communists</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism_in_Vietnam" title="Trotskyism in Vietnam">Trotskyist left opposition</a> ran a common slate for the municipal elections with both their respective leaders Nguyễn Văn Tạo and <a href="/wiki/T%E1%BA%A1_Thu_Th%C3%A2u" title="Tạ Thu Thâu">Tạ Thu Thâu</a> winning seats. The exceptional unity of the left, however, was split by the lengthening shadow of the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Moscow Trials</a> and by growing protest over the failure of the Communist-supported Popular Front to deliver constitutional reform.<a href="#cite_note-104">[94]</a> Colonial Minister <a href="/wiki/Marius_Moutet" title="Marius Moutet">Marius Moutet</a>, a Socialist commented that he had sought "a wide consultation with all elements of the popular [will]," but with "Trotskyist-Communists intervening in the villages to menace and intimidate the peasant part of the population, taking all authority from the public officials," the necessary "formula" had not been found.<a href="#cite_note-105">[95]</a> In April 1939 Cochinchina Council elections Tạ Thu Thâu led a "Workers' and Peasants' Slate" into victory over both the "bourgeois" Constitutionalists and the Communists' Democratic Front. Key to their success was popular opposition to the war taxes ("national defence levy") that the Communist Party, in the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Franco-Soviet_Treaty_of_Mutual_Assistance" title="Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance">Franco-Soviet accord</a>, had felt obliged to support.<a href="#cite_note-106">[96]</a> Brévié set the election results aside and wrote to Colonial Minister <a href="/wiki/Georges_Mandel" title="Georges Mandel">Georges Mandel</a>: "the Trotskyists under the leadership of Ta Thu Thau, want to take advantage of a possible war in order to win total liberation." The Stalinists, on the other hand, are "following the position of the Communist Party in France" and "will thus be loyal if war breaks out".<a href="#cite_note-107">[97]</a> With the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> of 23 August 1939, the local communists were ordered by Moscow to return to direct confrontation with the French. Under the slogan "Land to the Tillers, Freedom for the workers and independence for Vietnam",<a href="#cite_note-108">[98]</a> in November 1940 the Party in Cochinchina obliged, triggering a widespread <a href="/wiki/1940_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1940 Cochinchina uprising">insurrection</a>. The revolt did not penetrate Saigon (an attempted uprising in the city was quelled in a day). In the Mekong Delta fighting continued until the end of the year.<a href="#cite_note-109">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_II">World War II</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: World War II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina in World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/1940%E2%80%931946_in_French_Indochina" title="1940–1946 in French Indochina">1940–1946 in French Indochina</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Th%E1%BB%91ng-Ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%C3%A3_n%C3%B3i_-_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i-Ph%C3%A1p_kh%E1%BA%AFng_kh%C3%ADt_v%E1%BB%9Bi_th%C3%A1i_b%C3%ACnh,_nh%C6%B0_d%C3%A2n_qu%C3%AA_v%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t_ru%E1%BB%99ng.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Thống-Chế đã nói – Đại-Pháp khắng khít với thái bình, như dân quê với đất ruộng [Thống-Chế said: Dai-France clings to peace, like peasants with lands]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Th%E1%BB%91ng-Ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%C3%A3_n%C3%B3i_-_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i-Ph%C3%A1p_kh%E1%BA%AFng_kh%C3%ADt_v%E1%BB%9Bi_th%C3%A1i_b%C3%ACnh%2C_nh%C6%B0_d%C3%A2n_qu%C3%AA_v%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t_ru%E1%BB%99ng.jpg/170px-Th%E1%BB%91ng-Ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%C3%A3_n%C3%B3i_-_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i-Ph%C3%A1p_kh%E1%BA%AFng_kh%C3%ADt_v%E1%BB%9Bi_th%C3%A1i_b%C3%ACnh%2C_nh%C6%B0_d%C3%A2n_qu%C3%AA_v%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t_ru%E1%BB%99ng.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Th%E1%BB%91ng-Ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%C3%A3_n%C3%B3i_-_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i-Ph%C3%A1p_kh%E1%BA%AFng_kh%C3%ADt_v%E1%BB%9Bi_th%C3%A1i_b%C3%ACnh%2C_nh%C6%B0_d%C3%A2n_qu%C3%AA_v%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t_ru%E1%BB%99ng.jpg/255px-Th%E1%BB%91ng-Ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%C3%A3_n%C3%B3i_-_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i-Ph%C3%A1p_kh%E1%BA%AFng_kh%C3%ADt_v%E1%BB%9Bi_th%C3%A1i_b%C3%ACnh%2C_nh%C6%B0_d%C3%A2n_qu%C3%AA_v%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t_ru%E1%BB%99ng.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Th%E1%BB%91ng-Ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%C3%A3_n%C3%B3i_-_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i-Ph%C3%A1p_kh%E1%BA%AFng_kh%C3%ADt_v%E1%BB%9Bi_th%C3%A1i_b%C3%ACnh%2C_nh%C6%B0_d%C3%A2n_qu%C3%AA_v%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t_ru%E1%BB%99ng.jpg/340px-Th%E1%BB%91ng-Ch%E1%BA%BF_%C4%91%C3%A3_n%C3%B3i_-_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i-Ph%C3%A1p_kh%E1%BA%AFng_kh%C3%ADt_v%E1%BB%9Bi_th%C3%A1i_b%C3%ACnh%2C_nh%C6%B0_d%C3%A2n_qu%C3%AA_v%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t_ru%E1%BB%99ng.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10240" data-file-height="14072" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> painting in <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>, 1942</figcaption></figure> In September 1940, during <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">World War II</a>, the newly created regime of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> granted Japan's demands for military access to Tonkin following the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese occupation of French Indochina</a>, which lasted until the end of the Pacific War. This allowed Japan better access to China in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> against the forces of <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, but it was also part of Japan's strategy for dominion over Southeast Asia and later on, the <a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a>. Thailand took this opportunity of weakness to reclaim previously lost territories, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a> between October 1940 and 9 May 1941. The Thai forces generally did well on the ground, but Thai objectives in the war were limited. In January, <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy French</a> naval forces decisively defeated Thai naval forces in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ko_Chang" title="Battle of Ko Chang">Battle of Ko Chang</a>. The war ended in May at the instigation of the Japanese, with the French forced to concede territorial gains for Thailand. The general disorganization of French Indochina, coupled with several natural disasters, caused a <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese famine of 1945">dreadful famine in Northern and Central Vietnam</a>. Several hundred thousand people – possibly over one million – are believed to have starved to death in 1944–1945. Approximately 1 million Vietnamese were estimated to have died of food supply disruption caused by the Japanese invasion of Burma.<a href="#cite_note-111">[101]</a> On 9 March 1945, with <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">France liberated</a>, Germany in retreat, and the United States ascendant in the Pacific, Japan launched a <a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">coup d'etat against the French Indochina colonial administration</a> to prevent a potential uprising by the colonial forces. <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kampuchea_(1945)" title="Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos#Japanese_puppet_state" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a> were established as independent states, members of Japan's <a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a>. The Japanese kept power in Indochina until the news of their government's surrender came through in August. In Hanoi, on 15–20 April 1945, the Tonkin Revolutionary Military Conference of the Viet Minh issued a resolution that was reprinted on pp. 1–4 on 25 August 1970 in the Nhan Dan journal. It called for a general uprising, resistance and guerilla warfare against the Japanese by establishing 7 war zones across Vietnam named after past heroes of Vietnam, calling for propaganda to explain to the people that their only way forward was violent resistance against the Japanese and exposing the Vietnamese puppet government that served them. The conference also called for training propagandists and having women spread military propaganda and target Japanese soldiers with Chinese language leaflets and Japanese language propaganda. The Viet Minh's Vietnamese Liberation Army published the "Resistance against Japan" (Khang Nhat) newspaper. They also called for the creation of a group called "Chinese and Vietnamese Allied against Japan" by sending leaflets to recruit overseas Chinese in Vietnam to their cause. The resolution called on forcing French in Vietnam to recognize Vietnamese independence and for the DeGaulle France (Allied French) to recognize their independent and cooperate with them against Japan.<a href="#cite_note-112">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[103]</a> On 17 August 1970, the North Vietnamese National Assembly Chairman Truong Chinh reprinted an article in Vietnamese in Nhan Dan, published in Hanoi titled "Policy of the Japanese Pirates Towards Our People" which was a reprint of his original article written in August 1945 in No 3 of the "Communist Magazine" (Tap Chi Cong San) with the same title, describing Japanese atrocities like looting, slaughter and rape against the people of north Vietnam in 1945. He denounced the Japanese claims to have liberated Vietnam from France with the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere announced by Tojo and mentioned how the Japanese looted shrines, temples, eggs, vegetables, straw, rice, chickens, hogs and cattle for their horses and soldiers and built military stations and airstrips after stealing land and taking boats, vehicles, homes and destroying cotton fields and vegetable fields for peanut and jute cultivation in Annam and Tonkin. Japan replaced the French government on 9 March 1945 and started openly looting the Vietnamese even more in addition to taking French owned properties and stole watches, pencils, bicycles, money and clothing in Bac Giang and Bac Can. The Japanese tried to play the Vietnamese against the French, and played the Laotians against the Vietnamese by inciting Lao people to kill Vietnamese as Laotians murdered 7 Vietnamese officials in Luang Prabang and Lao youths were recruited to an anti-Vietnam organization by the Japanese when they took over Luang Prabang. The Japanese spread false rumours that the French were massacring Vietnamese at the time to distract the Vietnamese from Japanese atrocities. The Japanese created groups to counter the Viet Minh Communists like Vietnam Pao ve doan (Vietnam protection group) and Vietnam Ai quoc doan (Vietnam Patriotic Group to force Vietnamese into coolie labour, take taxes and rice and arrested ant-Japanese Vietnamese with their puppet government run by Tran Trong Kim. The Viet Minh rejected the Japanese demands to cease fighting and support Japan, so the Japanese implemented the Three Alls policy (San Kuang) against the Vietnamese, pillaging, burning, killing, looting, and raping Vietnamese women. The Vietnamese called the Japanese "dwarfed monsters" (<a href="/wiki/Wa_(name_of_Japan)" title="Wa (name of Japan)">Wa</a>) and the Japanese committed these atrocities in Thai Nguyen province at Dinh Hoa, Vo Nhai and Hung Son. The Japanese attacked the Vietnamese while masquerading as Viet Minh and used terror and deception. The Japanese created the puppet Vietnam Phuc quoc quan (Vietnam restoration army). and tried to disrupt the Viet Minh's redistribution and confiscation of property of pro-Japanese Vietnamese traitors by disguising themselves as Viet Minh and then attacking people who took letters from them and organizing anti-French rallies and Trung sisters celebrations. Japanese soldiers tried to infiltrate Viet Minh bases with Viet Minh flags and brown trousers during their fighting. The Japanese murdered, plundered and raped Vietnamese and beheaded Vietnamese who stole bread and corn while they were starving according to their martial law. They shot a Vietnamese pharmacy student to death outside of his own house when he was coming home from guard duty at a hospital after midnight in Hanoi and also shot a defendant for a political case in the same city. In Thai Nguyen province, Vo Nhai, a Vietnamese boat builder was thrown in a river and had his stomach stabbed by the Japanese under suspicion of helping Viet Minh guerillas. The Japanese slit the abdomen and hung the Dai Tu mayor upside down in Thai Nguyen as well. The Japanese also beat thousands of people in Hanoi for not cooperating. Japanese officers ordered their soldiers to behead and burn Vietnamese. Some claimed that Taiwanese and Manchurian soldiers in the Japanese army were participating in the atrocities against the Vietnamese but Truong Chinh said that even if it was true Taiwanese and Manchurian soldiers were committing the rapes and killing, their Japanese officers were the ones giving the orders and participating along with them. Truong Chinh said that the Japanese wanted to plunder Asians for their own market and take it from the United States and Great Britain and were imperialists with no intent on liberating Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-114">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[105]</a> Truong Chinh wrote another article on 12 September 1945, No 16 in Liberation Banner (Co Giai Phong) which was also reprinted on 16 August 1970 in Nhan Dan. He commemorated the August revolution against the Japanese, after the Japanese surrendered on 15 August 1945 then the Viet Minh started attacking and slaughtering Japanese and disarming them in a nationwide rebellion on 19 August 1945. The Japanese had already disarmed the French and the Japanese themselves lost morale so the Viet Minh managed to seize control after attacking the Japanese. Viet Minh had begun fighting in 1944, when the French were attacked on Dinh Ca in October 1944 and in Cao Bang and Bac Can French were attacked by Viet Cong in November 1944 and the French and Japanese fought each other on 9 March 1945, so in Tonkin the Viet Cong began disarming French soldiers and attacking the Japanese. In Quang Ngai, Ba To, Yen Bai and Nghia Lo political prisoners escaped Japanese were attacked din Son La by Meo (Hmong) tribesmen and in Hoa Binh and Lang Son by Muong tribesmen. The Viet Minh took control of 6 provinces in Tonkin after 9 March 1945 within 2 weeks. The Viet Minh led a brutal campaign against the Japanese where many died from 9 March 1945 to 19 August 1945. Truong Chinh ended the article with a quote from Sun Yatsen, "The revolution is not yet won, All comrades must continue their al out efforts!"<a href="#cite_note-116">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[107]</a> On 26 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh wrote a letter calling for struggle against the French mentioning they were returning after they sold out the Vietnamese to the Japanese twice in 4 years.<a href="#cite_note-118">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[111]</a> The Japanese forced Vietnamese women to become <a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a> and with Burmese, Indonesia, Thai and Filipino women they made up a notable portion of Asian comfort women in general.<a href="#cite_note-122">[112]</a> Japanese use of Malaysian and Vietnamese women as comfort women was corroborated by testimonies.<a href="#cite_note-123">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[119]</a> There were comfort women stations in Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, North Korea and South Korea.<a href="#cite_note-130">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[121]</a> A Korean comfort woman named Kim Ch'un-hui stayed behind in Vietnam and died there when she was 44 in 1963, owning a dairy farm, cafe, US cash and diamonds worth 200,000 US dollars.<a href="#cite_note-132">[122]</a> 2 billion US dollars worth (1945 values) of damage, 148 million dollars of them due to destruction of industrial plants was incurred by Vietnam. 90% of heavy vehicles and motorcycles, cars and 16 tons of junks as well as railways, port installations were destroyed as well as one third of bridges.<a href="#cite_note-133">[123]</a> Some Japanese soldiers married Vietnamese women like Nguyen Thi Xuan and<a href="#cite_note-134">[124]</a> Nguyen Thi Thu and fathered multiple children with the Vietnamese women who remained behind in Vietnam while the Japanese soldiers themselves returned to Japan in 1955. The official Vietnamese historical narrative view them as children of rape and prostitution.<a href="#cite_note-135">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[126]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Famine_of_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese Famine of 1945">Vietnamese Famine of 1945</a> 1 to 2 million Vietnamese starved to death in the Red river delta of northern Vietnam due to the Japanese, as the Japanese seized Vietnamese rice and didn't pay. In Phat Diem the Vietnamese farmer Di Ho was one of the few survivors who saw the Japanese steal grain.<a href="#cite_note-137">[127]</a> The North Vietnamese government accused both France and Japan of the famine and said 1–2 million Vietnamese died.<a href="#cite_note-138">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[129]</a> Võ An Ninh took photographs of dead and dying Vietnamese during the great famine, which were introduced in some foreign books, say, a Japanese book by <a href="/wiki/Katsumoto_Saotome" title="Katsumoto Saotome">Katsumoto Saotome</a> published in 1993.<a href="#cite_note-140">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[133]</a> Starving Vietnamese were dying throughout northern Vietnam in 1945 due to the Japanese seizure of their crops by the time the Chinese came to disarm the Japanese and Vietnamese corpses were all throughout the streets of Hanoi and had to be cleaned up by students.<a href="#cite_note-Bui_1999_39,_40-144">[134]</a> Although the death toll of 1945 famine is generally said 1 million to 2 million, the estimated value ranges effectively from 2 hundred thousand to 2 million.<a href="#cite_note-145">[135]</a> Especially 2 million is often cited, which is insisted by the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Communist Party of Vietnam">Communist Party of Vietnam</a>, but is not based on academic research since Ho Chin Minh's assertion in the Declaration of Independence of Vietnam on 2 September 1945 is just repeated.<a href="#cite_note-Furuta_Rec_97-146">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Furuta-10-152-147">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[139]</a> Speaking precisely, Ho Chi Minh mentioned over 2 million in the Declaration but 2 million is the official perspective of Communist Party of Vietnam for decades.<a href="#cite_note-150">[140]</a> On the other hand there are Vietnamese considering other numbers, for instance, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a> in Hanoi <a href="/w/index.php?title=Phan_K%E1%BA%BF_To%E1%BA%A1i&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phan Kế Toại (page does not exist)">Phan Kế Toại</a> [<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phan_K%E1%BA%BF_To%E1%BA%A1i" class="extiw" title="vi:Phan Kế Toại">vi</a>], who later joined <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a>, insisted four hundred thousand.<a href="#cite_note-151">[141]</a> Based on his research of the joint field works conducted in the northern Vietnam in early 1990s, of which official report was published in the title Nạn Dói Năm 1945 ớ Việt Nam: Những Chững Tích Lịch Sự, (edited by Văn Tạo and Furuta Motoo), Japanese professor Furuta Motoo concluded that the death toll would be likely larger than 1 million but seems skeptical of 2 million.<a href="#cite_note-Furuta_Rec_97-146">[136]</a> On 25 March 2000, the Vietnamese journalist Trần Khuê wrote an article "Dân chủ: Vấn đề của dân tộc và thời đại" where he harshly criticized ethnographers and historians in Ho Chin Minh city's Institute of Social Sciences like Dr. Đinh Văn Liên and Professor Mạc Đường who tried to whitewash Japan's atrocities against the Vietnamese by portraying Japan's aid to the South Vietnamese regime against North Vietnam as humanitarian aid, portraying the Vietnam war against America as a civil war. changing the death toll of 2 million Vietnamese dead at the hands of the Japanese famine to 1 million and calling the Japanese invasion as a presence and calling Japanese fascists at simply Japanese at the Vietnam–Japan international conference. He accused them of changing history in exchange for only a few tens of thousands of dollars, and the Presidium of international Vietnamese studies in Hanoi did not include any Vietnamese women. Trần Khuê insisted that the Vietnamese professor Văn Tạo and Furuta admitted that Japan killed 2 million Vietnamese by starvation.<a href="#cite_note-152">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Return_of_the_French_and_initial_conflicts_with_the_Việt_Minh">Return of the French and initial conflicts with the Việt Minh</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Return of the French and initial conflicts with the Việt Minh">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">War in Vietnam (1945–1946)</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">After the second World War</a>, France petitioned for the nullification of the 1938 Franco-Siamese Treaty and reasserted itself in the region, but came into conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Minh" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Minh">Việt Minh</a>, a coalition of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communist</a> and Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalists</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Hồ Chí Minh</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Indochinese_Communist_Party" title="Indochinese Communist Party">Indochinese Communist Party</a>. During World War II, the United States had supported the Việt Minh in resistance against the Japanese; the group had been in control of the countryside since the French gave way in March 1945. American President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> and General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stilwell" title="Joseph Stilwell">Stilwell</a> privately made it adamantly clear that the French were not to reacquire French Indochina after the war was over. He told Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a> the Indochinese were worse off under the French rule of nearly 100 years than they were at the beginning. Roosevelt asked <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> if he wanted Indochina, to which Chiang Kai-shek replied: "Under no circumstances!"<a href="#cite_note-153">[143]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1er_CEPML.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/1er_CEPML.jpg/220px-1er_CEPML.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/1er_CEPML.jpg/330px-1er_CEPML.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/1er_CEPML.jpg/440px-1er_CEPML.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2918" data-file-height="1701" /></a><figcaption>Members of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Foreign_Parachute_Heavy_Mortar_Company" title="1st Foreign Parachute Heavy Mortar Company">1st Foreign Parachute Heavy Mortar Company</a> during the Indochina War</figcaption></figure> After the close of hostilities in WWII, 200,000 Chinese troops under General <a href="/wiki/Lu_Han_(general)" title="Lu Han (general)">Lu Han</a> sent by Chiang Kai-shek entered French Indochina north of the 16th parallel to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces, and remained there until 1946.<a href="#cite_note-154">[144]</a> This was in accordance with the instructions made by General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> in <a href="/wiki/General_Order_No._1" title="General Order No. 1">General Order No. 1</a>, of 2 September 1945. Working with the <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">VNQDĐ</a> (broadly the Vietnamese equivalent of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>), to increase their influence in Indochina and put pressure on their opponents.<a href="#cite_note-155">[145]</a> Chiang Kai-shek threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946 he forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region starting in March 1946.<a href="#cite_note-156">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[149]</a> General Lu Han's 200,000 Chinese soldiers occupied north Vietnam starting August 1945. 90,000 arrived by October, the 62nd army came on 26 September to Nam Dinh and Haiphong. Lang Son and Cao Bang were occupied by the Guangxi 62nd army corps and the Red River region and Lai Cai were occupied by a column from Yunnan. Vietnamese VNQDD fighters accompanied the Chinese soldiers. Ho Chi Minh ordered his DRV administration to set quotas for rice to give to the Chinese soldiers and rice was sold in Chinese currency in the Red River delta. Lu Han occupied the French governor general's palace after ejecting the French staff under Sainteny.<a href="#cite_note-160">[150]</a> Chinese soldiers occupied French Indochina north of the 16th parallel while the British under the South-East Asia Command of Lord Mountbatten occupied the south.<a href="#cite_note-161">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[152]</a> Vietnamese civilians were robbed, raped and killed by French soldiers in Saigon when they came back in August 1945.<a href="#cite_note-163">[153]</a> Chiang Kai-shek deliberately withheld his crack and well trained soldiers from occupying Vietnam since he was going to use them to fight the Communists inside China and instead sent undisciplined warlord troops from Yunnan under Lu Han to occupy French Indochina north of the 16th parallel for the purpose of disarming the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-164">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[155]</a> Ho Chi Minh confiscated gold taels, jewelry and coins in September 1945 during "Gold Week" to give to Chinese forces occupying northern Vietnam. Rice to Cochinchina by the French in October 1945 were divided by Ho Chi Minh, and the northern Vietnamese only received one third while the Chinese soldiers were given two thirds by Ho Chi Minh. For 15 days elections were postponed by Ho Chi Minh in response to a demand by Chinese general Chen Xiuhe on 18 December 1945 so that the Chinese could get the Dong Minh Hoi and VNQDD to prepare. The Chinese left only in April–June 1946.<a href="#cite_note-166">[156]</a> Ho Chi Minh gave golden smoking paraphernalia and a golden opium pipe to the Chinese general Lu Han after gold week and purchased weapons with what was left of the proceeds. Starving Vietnamese were dying throughout northern Vietnam in 1945 due to the Japanese seizure of their crops by the time the Chinese came to disarm the Japanese and Vietnamese corpses were all throughout the streets of Hanoi and had to be cleaned up by students.<a href="#cite_note-Bui_1999_39,_40-144">[134]</a> While Chiang Kai-shek, Xiao Wen (Hsiao Wen) and the Kuomintang central government of China was disinterested in occupying Vietnam beyond the allotted time period and involving itself in the war between the Việt Minh and the French, the Yunnan warlord Lu Han held the opposite view and wanted to occupy Vietnam to prevent the French returning and establish a Chinese trusteeship of Vietnam under the principles of the Atlantic Charter with the aim of eventually preparing Vietnam for independence and blocking the French from returning.<a href="#cite_note-167">[157]</a> Ho Chi Minh sent a cable on 17 October 1945 to American President Harry S. Truman calling on him, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Premier Stalin and Premier Attlee to go to the United Nations against France and demand France not be allowed to return to occupy Vietnam, accusing France of having sold out and cheated the Allies by surrendering Indochina to Japan and that France had no right to return.<a href="#cite_note-168">[158]</a> Ho Chi Minh dumped the blame on Dong Minh Hoi and VNDQQ for signing the agreement with France for returning its soldiers to Vietnam after he had to do it himself.<a href="#cite_note-169">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[160]</a> Ho Chi Minh's Việt Minh tried to organize welcome parades for Chinese soldiers in northern Vietnam and covered for instances of bad behavior by warlord soldiers, trying to reassure Vietnamese that the warlord troops of Lu Han were only there temporarily and that China supported Vietnam's independence. Việt Minh newspapers said that the same ancestors (huyết thống) and culture were shared by Vietnamese and Chinese and that the Chinese heroically fought Japan and changed in the 1911 revolution and was attacked by western imperialists so it was "not the same as feudal China". Ho Chi Minh forbade his soldiers like Trần Huy Liệu in Phú Thọ from attacking Chinese soldiers and Ho Chi Minh even surrendered Vietnamese who attacked Chinese soldiers to be executed as punishment in the Ro-Nha incident in Kiến An district on 6 March 1946 after Hồ Đức Thành and Đào Văn Biểu, special commissioners sent from Hanoi by Ho's DRV examined the case.<a href="#cite_note-171">[161]</a> Ho Chi Minh appeased and granted numerous concessions to the Chinese soldiers to avoid the possibility of them clashing with the Việt Minh, with him ordering Vietnamese not to carry out anything against Chinese soldiers and pledging his life on his promise, hoping the Chinese would disarm the Japanese soldiers and finish their mission as fast as possible.<a href="#cite_note-172">[162]</a> Chinese communist guerilla leader Chu Chia-pi came into northern Vietnam multiple times in 1945 and 1948 and helped the Việt Minh fight against the French from Yunnan. Other Chinese Communists also did the same.<a href="#cite_note-173">[163]</a> After persuading <a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Vietnamese monarchs">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i" title="Bảo Đại">Bảo Đại</a> to abdicate in his favour, on 2 September 1945 President Ho Chi Minh declared independence for the <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a>. But before September's end, a force of British and <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free French</a> soldiers, along with captured Japanese troops, restored French control. Ho Chi Minh agreed to negotiate with the French in order to gain autonomy, but the <a href="/wiki/Fontainebleau_Agreements" title="Fontainebleau Agreements">Fontainebleau Agreements</a> of 1946 failed to produce a satisfactory solution. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Indochina_War">First Indochina War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: First Indochina War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> and <a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931950_in_French_Indochina" title="1947–1950 in French Indochina">1947–1950 in French Indochina</a></div> Bitter fighting ensued in the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> as Ho and his government took to the forests and mountains. In 1948, France recognized nominal independence of Vietnam with the Hạ Long Bay Preliminary Agreement.<a href="#cite_note-mjp.univ-perp.fr-6">[3]</a> In 1949, in order to provide a political alternative to Ho Chi Minh, the French favoured the creation of a unified <a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">State of Vietnam</a>, and former Emperor Bảo Đại was put back in power. Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia became <a href="/wiki/Associated_state" title="Associated state">associated states</a> of the <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a> and were granted more autonomy. The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against the French. In 1949 the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States, China and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-174">[164]</a> French Union forces included colonial troops from their colonial empire – Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian Arabs/Berbers; Laotian, Cambodian and <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Vietnam" title="List of ethnic groups in Vietnam">Vietnamese ethnic minorities</a>; Black Africans – and French professional troops, European volunteers, and units of the <a href="/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion" title="French Foreign Legion">Foreign Legion</a>. The use of <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan</a> recruits was forbidden by the government to prevent the war from becoming even more unpopular at home. It was called the "dirty war" (la sale guerre) by leftists in France.<a href="#cite_note-175">[165]</a> Vietnamese women were also raped in north Vietnam by the French like in Bảo Hà, <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_Y%C3%AAn_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Bảo Yên District">Bảo Yên District</a>, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A0o_Cai_province" title="Lào Cai province">Lào Cai province</a> and Phu Lu, which caused 400 Vietnamese who were trained by the French to defect on 20 June 1948. Buddhist statues were looted and Vietnamese were robbed, raped and tortured by the French after the French crushed the Việt Minh in northern Vietnam in 1947–1948 forcing the Việt Minh to flee into Yunnan, China for sanctuary and aid from the Chinese Communists. A French reporter was told by Vietnamese village notables "We know what war always is, We understand your soldiers taking our animals, our jewelry, our Buddhas; it is normal. We are resigned to their raping our wives and our daughters; war has always been like that. But we object to being treated in the same way, not only our sons, but ourselves, old men and dignitaries that we are."<a href="#cite_note-176">[166]</a> The strategy of pushing the Việt Minh into attacking well-defended bases in remote parts of the country at the end of their logistical trails was validated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%A0_S%E1%BA%A3n" title="Battle of Nà Sản">Battle of Nà Sản</a> even though the base was relatively weak because of a lack of concrete and steel. French efforts were made more difficult due to the limited usefulness of armoured tanks in a forested and mountainous environment, lack of strong air forces for air cover and <a href="/wiki/Carpet_bombing" title="Carpet bombing">carpet bombing</a>, and use of foreign recruits from other French colonies (mainly from Algeria, Morocco and even Vietnam). <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B5_Nguy%C3%AAn_Gi%C3%A1p" title="Võ Nguyên Giáp">Võ Nguyên Giáp</a>, however, used efficient and novel tactics of direct fire artillery, convoy ambushes and massed anti-aircraft guns to impede land and air supply deliveries together with a strategy based on recruiting a sizable regular army facilitated by wide popular support, a guerrilla warfare doctrine and instruction developed in China, and the use of simple and reliable war material provided by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[167]</a> However, 1950 was the turning point of the war. Ho's government was recognised by the fellow Communist governments of China and the Soviet Union, and <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a>'s government subsequently gave a fallback position to Ho's forces, as well as abundant supplies of weapons. In October 1950, the French army suffered its first major defeat with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Route_Coloniale_4" title="Battle of Route Coloniale 4">Battle of Route Coloniale 4</a>. Subsequent efforts by the French military managed to improve their situation only in the short term. Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam proved a weak and unstable government, and <a href="/wiki/Norodom_Sihanouk" title="Norodom Sihanouk">Norodom Sihanouk</a>'s Cambodia proclaimed its independence in November 1953. Laos became independent in October 1953 and the State of Vietnam became independent on 4 June 1954 (although they were still members of the <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a>).<a href="#cite_note-178">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-indo-179">[169]</a> Fighting lasted until May 1954, when the Việt Minh won the decisive victory against French forces at the gruelling <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Battle of Dien Bien Phu</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geneva_Agreements">Geneva Agreements</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Geneva Agreements">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indochina_1954.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indochina_1954.jpg/250px-Indochina_1954.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indochina_1954.jpg/330px-Indochina_1954.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indochina_1954.jpg/500px-Indochina_1954.jpg 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="845" /></a><figcaption>Indochina in 1954</figcaption></figure> On 21 July 1954, the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conference_(1954)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Conference (1954)">Geneva Conference</a> produced the Geneva Agreements between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and France. Provisions included supporting the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Indochina, re-recognising its independence from France, declaring the cessation of hostilities and foreign involvement in internal Indochina affairs, and delineating northern and southern zones into which opposing troops were to withdraw. The Agreements mandated unification on the basis of internationally supervised free elections to be held in July 1956.<a href="#cite_note-USvietAnalysis-19">[9]</a> At this conference France recognized the independence of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Vietnam">Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a> led by the communist <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Minh" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Minh">Việt Minh</a>, leading to the division of Vietnam into two de facto countries. The United States and South Vietnam rejected the Geneva Accords and never signed. South Vietnamese Prime Minister Diệm rejected the idea of nationwide election as proposed in the agreement, saying that a free election was impossible in the communist North and that his government was not bound by the Geneva Accords. France did withdraw, turning the north over to the Communists while the <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i" title="Bảo Đại">Bảo Đại</a> regime, with American support, kept control of the South. Diệm would overthrow Bảo Đại and established a republic led by him in 1955. The events of 1954 marked the beginnings of serious United States involvement in Vietnam and the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. Laos and Cambodia also became independent in 1954, but were both drawn into the Vietnam War. The remnants of the Indochinese Federation were abolished on 30 December 1954. The Geneva Agreement did not state that the <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a> had to withdraw its troops from South Vietnam. However, Diệm's government and the US asked the French Union to withdraw its troops. The French withdrew on 28 April 1954. And on 9 December 1955, South Vietnam withdrew from the French Union.<a href="#cite_note-Logevall-180">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="United_States_involvement">United States involvement</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: United States involvement">edit</a>]</div> In 1954 the French defeat at Điện Biên Phủ renewed the United States interest in intervening, including some senators who called out for large scale bombing campaigns, potentially even nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-181">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">President Dwight Eisenhower</a>, even though he did not believe a military victory, believed in the <a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">domino theory</a>, where if Vietnam were to fall to communism then there would be multiple other countries that would fall to the ideology in Southeast Asia, from Vietnam to India there would be a dramatic shift in global power. Eisenhower chose to not put boots on the ground, but his decision to start to get involved likely is more important to the countries eventual step into the country than Johnson's decision to take that last step. Eisenhower had a further impact in that he would continue to provide support for future presidents policy in the country, Lyndon B. Johnson and Gerald Ford both used him to large extents, Kennedy did have several meetings with him in the White House, and Nixon was mostly on his own, but considering their familial ties there was inevitably some ideas that were considered that otherwise would not have been. As he was so involved the United States policy in French Indochina his influence is hard to underestimate.<a href="#cite_note-182">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administration">Administration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ededed">Government-General of French Indochina</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Gouvernement général de l'Indochine française</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Gouvernement_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_de_l%27Indochine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Emblem_of_the_Gouvernement_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_de_l%27Indochine.svg/250px-Emblem_of_the_Gouvernement_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_de_l%27Indochine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Emblem_of_the_Gouvernement_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_de_l%27Indochine.svg/330px-Emblem_of_the_Gouvernement_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_de_l%27Indochine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="664" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_Cabinet_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Seal_of_the_Cabinet_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_Cabinet_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Seal_of_the_Cabinet_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China.svg/225px-Seal_of_the_Cabinet_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Seal_of_the_Cabinet_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China.svg/300px-Seal_of_the_Cabinet_of_the_Government-General_of_French_Indo-China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The emblem and seal of the Government-General.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container center" style="width: 250px; height: 200px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="250" data-height="200" data-zoom="13" data-overlays="["_19daeb8e3808f1aa85ad490f39d7ec9a34f2eec3"]"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,13,a,a,250x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=French_Indochina&revid=1283065967&groups=_19daeb8e3808f1aa85ad490f39d7ec9a34f2eec3" width="250" height="200" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,13,a,a,250x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=French_Indochina&revid=1283065967&groups=_19daeb8e3808f1aa85ad490f39d7ec9a34f2eec3 2x" alt="Map" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Overview</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Established</th><td class="infobox-data">17 October 1887</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissolved</th><td class="infobox-data">21 July 1954</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">State</th><td class="infobox-data">French Indochina</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Leader</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors-general_of_French_Indochina" title="List of governors-general of French Indochina">Governor-General of French Indochina</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Appointed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/President_of_France" title="President of France">President of France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Overseas_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of the Overseas (France)">Ministry of the Colonies</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Main organ</th><td class="infobox-data">Cabinet of the Government-General</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Saigon_Governor%27s_Palace" title="Saigon Governor's Palace">Norodom Palace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a> (1887–1902), <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Hanoi" title="Presidential Palace, Hanoi">Residence of the Governor-General of French Indochina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> (1902–1945)</td></tr></tbody></table> The government of French Indochina was headed by a <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors-general_of_French_Indochina" title="List of governors-general of French Indochina">governor-general</a> and a number of French residents.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> The governor-general was assisted by a system of different government agencies; however, these agencies functioned only to be consultants to help the governor-general perform his role and exercise his powers.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> The protectorates of Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos all had residents-superior while the colony of Cochinchina had a <a href="/wiki/List_of_administrators_of_the_French_colony_of_Cochinchina" title="List of administrators of the French colony of Cochinchina">governor</a>. In the protectorates the indigenous administrations were nominally combined with the French administration, but in the colony of Cochinchina as well as "colonial cities", such as <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%C3%A0_N%E1%BA%B5ng" class="mw-redirect" title="Đà Nẵng">Đà Nẵng</a> in Annam, the French maintained direct rule.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> All constituent countries of French Indochina had their own legal systems.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> In Annam and Tonkin the laws of the Nguyễn dynasty, such as Sắc (敕, "Imperial Order"), Chí (誌, "Ordinance"), and Dụ (諭, "Decree"), remained in effect but were subordinate to the laws of the French administration.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> The government-general of French Indochina as well as its powers were established and amended through presidential decrees.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> The governor-general held supreme power in French Indochina over the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the government and had the power to appoint the residents below him.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> The governor-general was also in charge of all the military affairs of the country, among their responsibilities were the ability to set up an army corps, deploy the French Indochinese military forces, and issue conscription orders.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> However, the governor-general was not in charge of actually commanding the military forces during actual military campaigns and battles.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> The governor-general was also the chairman of the Indochinese Supreme Council (later renamed to the Indochinese Government Council) which was the highest government agency in charge of general affairs.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enfants_annamites,_Gabriel_Veyre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Enfants_annamites%2C_Gabriel_Veyre.jpg/306px-Enfants_annamites%2C_Gabriel_Veyre.jpg" decoding="async" width="306" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Enfants_annamites%2C_Gabriel_Veyre.jpg/459px-Enfants_annamites%2C_Gabriel_Veyre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Enfants_annamites%2C_Gabriel_Veyre.jpg/612px-Enfants_annamites%2C_Gabriel_Veyre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1851" data-file-height="1403" /></a><figcaption>Two French women (wife and daughter of Governor-General Paul Doumer) throwing <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_cash" title="Vietnamese cash">small cash coins</a> in front of <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Annamite</a> children (by Gabriel Veyre).</figcaption></figure> Other government agencies of the Government-General of French Indochina include the Indochinese Defense Council, Mine Consultancy Committee, the Indochinese Education Consultancy Council, the Supreme Council for Exploitation of Colonies, the Indochinese Economic and Financial Interests Assembly, etc.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> In the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Government of the Nguyễn dynasty">government of the Nguyễn dynasty</a> shared its power with the French administration <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> but were <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> directly ruled by the French colonial apparatus.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">[173]</a> The residents-superior and governor of Cochinchina did not have legislative powers only executive.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> While the Emperors of the Nguyễn dynasty did maintain their legislative powers, all imperial decrees had to be approved by either the Resident-Superior of Annam or by the governor-general of French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> Until the early 20th century the <a href="/wiki/Gia_Long" title="Gia Long">Gia Long</a> era Hoàng Việt luật lệ (皇越律例), sometimes known as the "Gia Long Code", remained the main civil code of the Nguyễn dynasty until the Emperor issued the nearly identical Civil Code of Annam and Civil Code of Tonkin.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M._Guillard,_inspecteur_des_colonies,_sur_un_des_%C3%A9l%C3%A9phants_de_la_R%C3%A9sidence_sup%C3%A9rieure,_Phnom-Penh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/M._Guillard%2C_inspecteur_des_colonies%2C_sur_un_des_%C3%A9l%C3%A9phants_de_la_R%C3%A9sidence_sup%C3%A9rieure%2C_Phnom-Penh.jpg/250px-M._Guillard%2C_inspecteur_des_colonies%2C_sur_un_des_%C3%A9l%C3%A9phants_de_la_R%C3%A9sidence_sup%C3%A9rieure%2C_Phnom-Penh.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/M._Guillard%2C_inspecteur_des_colonies%2C_sur_un_des_%C3%A9l%C3%A9phants_de_la_R%C3%A9sidence_sup%C3%A9rieure%2C_Phnom-Penh.jpg/330px-M._Guillard%2C_inspecteur_des_colonies%2C_sur_un_des_%C3%A9l%C3%A9phants_de_la_R%C3%A9sidence_sup%C3%A9rieure%2C_Phnom-Penh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/M._Guillard%2C_inspecteur_des_colonies%2C_sur_un_des_%C3%A9l%C3%A9phants_de_la_R%C3%A9sidence_sup%C3%A9rieure%2C_Phnom-Penh.jpg/500px-M._Guillard%2C_inspecteur_des_colonies%2C_sur_un_des_%C3%A9l%C3%A9phants_de_la_R%C3%A9sidence_sup%C3%A9rieure%2C_Phnom-Penh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4348" data-file-height="5692" /></a><figcaption>French colonial inspector and local on top of an <a href="/wiki/Asian_elephant" title="Asian elephant">elephant</a> in <a href="/wiki/Phnom_Penh" title="Phnom Penh">Phnom Penh</a> in 1896.</figcaption></figure> A number of the legal documents in effect in the French Republic were also applied to French Indochina, these included the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Code Napoléon</a> of 1804, the Code de commerce of 1807, the Code d'instruction criminelle, and the French penal code of 1810.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> These laws took effect in French Indochina on the date that the governor-general issued decrees that they would also apply to the federation.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> The legislative decrees of the governor-general had to be sent to the minister of colonies for consideration; the minister would then approve or disapprove the decrees.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> However, the minister of colonies was not entitled to make any amendments to the decrees, and if they wished to alter it they would have to draft it and then send the draft to the president of France.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> Only French presidential decrees could overturn the decrees of the governor-general.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> Executive decrees did not have to be sent to <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">Metropolitan France</a> for review and immediately came into effect.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> Throughout Vietnam thousands of villages had their own independent legal codes that governed the social relations within the village community, thousands of written regulations existed and the central administration often recognised them.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> These legal codes were known as the <a href="/wiki/Hyangyak" title="Hyangyak">Hương ước</a> (鄉約), Hương lệ (鄉例) and Lệ làng (例廊), which could be translated as "rural covenants", and also existed in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hương-ước-Radio-Free-Asia-185">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[176]</a> The Hương ước contained rules about various legal practices like land management, marriage, labour relations, arbitration of disputes, as well as local customs such as family relations, village relations, ghosts, <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestor worship</a>, sacrifice, mourning, and longing.<a href="#cite_note-Hương-ước-Radio-Free-Asia-185">[175]</a> Both the government-general of French Indochina and the government of the Nguyễn dynasty attempted reform these rules and regulations in their favour.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> To expand their power into Vietnamese hamlets and villages the French administration issued models for the villages to follow, but many Vietnamese villages still functioned independent of the French and Nguyễn administrations.<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Demographics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population">Population</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Population">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg/250px-Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg/330px-Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg/500px-Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="2258" /></a><figcaption>Indochina in 1891 (from <a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_illustr%C3%A9" title="Le Monde illustré">Le Monde illustré</a>) <div><ol><li>Panorama of Lac-Kaï</li><li>Yun-nan, in the quay of <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a></li><li>Flooded street of Hanoi</li><li>Landing stage of Hanoi</li></ol></div></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Vietnamese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lao_people" title="Lao people">Lao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khmer_people" title="Khmer people">Khmer</a> ethnic groups formed the majority of their respective colony's populations. Minority groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Muong_people" title="Muong people">Muong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tay_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tay people">Tay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chams" title="Chams">Chams</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jarai_people" title="Jarai people">Jarai</a>, were collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Degar" class="mw-redirect" title="Degar">Montagnards</a> and resided principally in the mountain regions of Indochina. <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">Ethnic Han Chinese</a> were largely concentrated in major cities, especially the <a href="/wiki/Hoa_people" title="Hoa people">Hoa</a> in Cochinchina and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Cambodians" title="Chinese Cambodians">Chen</a> in Cambodia, where they became heavily involved in trade and commerce. In addition, there was also a tiny <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French minority</a> which accounted for 0.2% of the population (or 39,000 people) by 1940.<a href="#cite_note-187">[177]</a> Around 95% of French Indochina's population was rural in a 1913 estimate, although urbanisation did slowly grow over the course of French rule.<a href="#cite_note-188">[g]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St._Joseph%27s_Cathedral_-_Hanoi,_Vietnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/St._Joseph%27s_Cathedral_-_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg/250px-St._Joseph%27s_Cathedral_-_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/St._Joseph%27s_Cathedral_-_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg/330px-St._Joseph%27s_Cathedral_-_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/St._Joseph%27s_Cathedral_-_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg/500px-St._Joseph%27s_Cathedral_-_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Joseph_de_Hano%C3%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathédrale Saint-Joseph de Hanoï">Cathédrale Saint-Joseph de Hanoï</a>, inspired by <a href="/wiki/Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris">Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris</a>.</figcaption></figure> The principal religion in French Indochina was <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana Buddhism</a> influenced by <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> more dominant in Vietnam, while <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda Buddhism</a> was more widespread in Laos and Cambodia. In addition, active <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Roman Catholic</a> missionaries were widespread throughout Indochina and roughly 10% of Tonkin's population identified as Catholic by the end of French rule. <a href="/wiki/Cao_%C4%90%C3%A0i" class="mw-redirect" title="Cao Đài">Cao Đài</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hòa Hảo</a>'s origins began during this period as well.<a href="#cite_note-189">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_settlements">French settlements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: French settlements">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Indochina_1937.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/French_Indochina_1937.png/250px-French_Indochina_1937.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/French_Indochina_1937.png/330px-French_Indochina_1937.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/French_Indochina_1937.png/500px-French_Indochina_1937.png 2x" data-file-width="1292" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Subdivisions of French Indochina</figcaption></figure> Unlike <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a>, French settlement in Indochina did not occur at a grand scale. By 1940, only about 34,000 <a href="/wiki/French_diaspora" title="French diaspora">French civilians</a> lived in French Indochina, along with a smaller number of French military personnel and government workers (6,000). Of these almost half, 16,550, lived in Cochinchina, the vast majority living in Saigon.<a href="#cite_note-191">[180]</a> The principal reasons why French settlement did not grow in a manner similar to that in French North Africa (which had a population of over 1 million French civilians) were because French Indochina was seen as a colonie d'exploitation économique (colony for economic exploitation) rather than a colonie de peuplement (settlement colony helping <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">Metropolitan France</a> from being overpopulated), and because Indochina was distant from France itself. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Language">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">French language in Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Cambodia" title="French language in Cambodia">French language in Cambodia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Laos" title="French language in Laos">French language in Laos</a></div> During French colonial rule, the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French language</a> was the principal language of education, government, trade, and media and French was widely introduced to the general population. French became widespread among urban and semi-urban populations and became the principal language of the elite and educated. This was most notable in the colonies of Tonkin and Cochinchina (Northern and Southern Vietnam respectively), where French influence was most heavy, while Annam, Laos and Cambodia were less influenced by French education.<a href="#cite_note-192">[181]</a> Despite the dominance of French in official and educational settings, local populations still largely spoke their native languages. After French rule ended, the French language was still largely used among the new governments (with the exception of North Vietnam). Today, French continues to be taught as a second language in the former colonies and used in some administrative affairs.<a href="#cite_note-193">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> French Indochina was designated as a colonie d'exploitation (colony of <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">economic exploitation</a>) by the French government. Funding for the colonial government came by means of taxes on locals and the French government established a near <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> on the trade of <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, salt and <a href="/wiki/Rice_wine" title="Rice wine">rice alcohol</a>. The French administration established quotas of consumption for each Vietnamese village, thereby compelling villagers to purchase and consume set amounts of these monopolised goods.<a href="#cite_note-195">[184]</a> The trade of those three products formed about 44% of the colonial government's budget in 1920 but declined to 20% by 1930 as the colony began to economically diversify. The colony's principal bank was the <a href="/wiki/Banque_de_l%27Indochine" title="Banque de l'Indochine">Banque de l'Indochine</a>, established in 1875 and was responsible for minting the colony's currency, the <a href="/wiki/French_Indochinese_piastre" title="French Indochinese piastre">Indochinese piastre</a>. Indochina was the second most invested-in French colony by 1940 after Algeria, with investments totalling up to 6.7 million <a href="/wiki/Franc" title="Franc">francs</a>. During the first six months of World War I, the government-general would expel all German and Austro-Hungarian people living in French Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> The two pre-war import/export houses, Speidel & Co. and F. Engler & Co., were officially re-organised as French companies; however, in reality they continued to operate under both German control and using German capital.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> During the 1910s, Speidel & Co. was the largest importer of European goods into the country with Engler being one of its major competitors.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> After the German owners were expelled from the company lower level employees tried to continue running these companies despite increasing push back from the French colonial authorities by means of arbitrary customs enforcement, freight interference, and regulatory aggravations.<a href="#cite_note-197">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> Later the French would seize all of the German Speidel Company's warehouses and would sell the seized goods at low prices both to Vietnamese consumers and Chinese exporters to try to increase revenue.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> These goods included rice, wine, and canned goods.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> During World War I, export regulations kept changing which the Chinese export businesses took advantage of by purchasing rice for minimal prices from the Vietnamese farmers who grew it and then deliberately passing along the risks of the export trade to those small Vietnamese farmers who were the least able to bear the losses involved.<a href="#cite_note-198">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> As the war made both imports and exports from and to Europe more difficult, French Indochina would increase trade with other Pacific countries.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> During the war period, import businesses would import flour from the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and dairy products from <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, though at lower levels than during the pre-war period.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> Prior to World War I, French Indochina had an annual flour import worth $950,000 and an annual condensed milk import worth $135,000, but during the war they would import only half this amount from the United States and about one fifth the amount of condensed milk from Australia.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">[185]</a> In this context, the French colonizers opened the country's first business school in Hanoi for colonized students.<a href="#cite_note-199">[188]</a> Beginning in the 1930s, France began to exploit the region for its natural resources and to economically diversify the colony. Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin (encompassing modern-day Vietnam) became a source of <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, while Cambodia became a centre for rice and pepper crops. Only Laos was seen initially as an economically unviable colony, although <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">timber</a> was harvested at a small scale from there. At the turn of the 20th century, the growing automobile industry in France resulted in the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a> industry in French Indochina, and plantations were built throughout the colony, especially in Annam and Cochinchina. France soon became a leading producer of rubber through its Indochina colony and Indochinese rubber became prized in the industrialised world. The success of rubber plantations in French Indochina resulted in an increase in investment in the colony by various firms, such as <a href="/wiki/Michelin" title="Michelin">Michelin</a>. With the growing number of investments in the colony's mines and rubber, tea and coffee plantations, French Indochina began to industrialise as factories opened in the colony. These new factories produced textiles, cigarettes, beer and cement which were then exported throughout the French Empire. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Infrastructure">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Long_bien_bridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Long_bien_bridge.jpg/220px-Long_bien_bridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Long_bien_bridge.jpg/330px-Long_bien_bridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Long_bien_bridge.jpg/440px-Long_bien_bridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Paul_Doumer" title="Paul Doumer">Paul Doumer</a> Bridge, now <a href="/wiki/Long_Bi%C3%AAn_Bridge" title="Long Biên Bridge">Long Biên Bridge</a>, in Hanoi.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnam_National_Museum_of_History,_Hanoi,_Vietnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Vietnam_National_Museum_of_History%2C_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg/250px-Vietnam_National_Museum_of_History%2C_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Vietnam_National_Museum_of_History%2C_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg/330px-Vietnam_National_Museum_of_History%2C_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Vietnam_National_Museum_of_History%2C_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg/500px-Vietnam_National_Museum_of_History%2C_Hanoi%2C_Vietnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Musée Louis Finot in <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_H%C3%A9brard" title="Ernest Hébrard">Ernest Hébrard</a> in 1932, now the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of Vietnamese History">National Museum of Vietnamese History</a>.</figcaption></figure> When French Indochina was viewed as an economically important colony for France, the French government set a goal to improve the transport and communications networks in the colony. <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Saigon</a> became a principal port in Southeast Asia and rivalled the <a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_the_Straits_Settlements" title="Singapore in the Straits Settlements">British port of Singapore</a> as the region's busiest commercial centre. By 1937 Saigon was the sixth busiest port in the entire French Empire.<a href="#cite_note-200">[189]</a> In the 19th century, the French colonial administration worked to develop regular trading networks and an efficient transport infrastructure between Indochina and <a href="/wiki/Southwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest China">southwest China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-chfer-persee2-201">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-vr-haiphong-202">[191]</a> The primary motivation for such an effort was to facilitate export of European goods to China.<a href="#cite_note-Rousseau-203">[192]</a> A railway would also give France access to Yunnan's natural resources, mineral resources and opium, and open up the Chinese market for Indochinese products, such as rice, dry fish, wood and coal.<a href="#cite_note-Rousseau-203">[192]</a> Thus in the early 20th century, they completed the <a href="/wiki/Kunming%E2%80%93Haiphong_railway" title="Kunming–Haiphong railway">Kunming–Haiphong railway</a> connecting the important port city of <a href="/wiki/Haiphong" title="Haiphong">Haiphong</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnanese</a> capital city of <a href="/wiki/Kunming" title="Kunming">Kunming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rousseau-203">[192]</a> In 1936, the <a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_Railway_(Vietnam)" class="mw-redirect" title="North–South Railway (Vietnam)">Trans-Indochinois railway</a> linking Hanoi and Saigon opened. Further improvements in the colony's transport infrastructures led to easier travel between France and Indochina. By 1939, it took no more than a month by ship to travel from <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> to Saigon and around five days by aeroplane from Paris to Saigon. Underwater telegraph cables were installed in 1921. As elsewhere in the world, the railways in French Indochina were the sites of active <a href="/wiki/Labour_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour union">union</a> and labour organisation.<a href="#cite_note-204">[193]</a> French settlers further added their influence on the colony by constructing buildings in the form of <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts</a> and added French-influenced landmarks, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hanoi_Opera_House" title="Hanoi Opera House">Hanoi Opera House</a> (modeled on the <a href="/wiki/Palais_Garnier" title="Palais Garnier">Palais Garnier</a>), the <a href="/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_Cathedral,_Hanoi" title="St. Joseph's Cathedral, Hanoi">Hanoi St. Joseph's Cathedral</a> (resembling the <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Notre Dame de Paris">Notre Dame de Paris</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Saigon_Notre-Dame_Basilica" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon Notre-Dame Basilica">Saigon Notre-Dame Basilica</a>. The French colonists also built a number of cities and towns in Indochina which served various purposes from trading outposts to resort towns. The most notable examples include <a href="/wiki/Sa_Pa" title="Sa Pa">Sa Pa</a> in northern Vietnam, <a href="/wiki/Da_Lat" title="Da Lat">Đà Lạt</a> in central Vietnam and <a href="/wiki/Pakse" title="Pakse">Pakse</a> in Laos. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architectural_legacy">Architectural legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Architectural legacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_colonial" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonial">French colonial</a></div> The governments of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia have previously been reluctant to promote their colonial architecture as an asset for tourism; however, in recent times, the new generation of local authorities has somewhat "embraced" the architecture and advertise it.<a href="#cite_note-205">[194]</a> The heaviest concentration of French-era buildings are in <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Da_Lat" title="Da Lat">Đà Lạt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haiphong" title="Haiphong">Haiphong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Ho Chi Minh City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF" title="Huế">Huế</a>, and various places in Cambodia and Laos such as <a href="/wiki/Luang_Prabang" title="Luang Prabang">Luang Prabang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vientiane" title="Vientiane">Vientiane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phnom_Penh" title="Phnom Penh">Phnom Penh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battambang" title="Battambang">Battambang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kampot_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kampot (city)">Kampot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kep_(town)" title="Kep (town)">Kep</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>In the <a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney_Pictures" title="Walt Disney Pictures">Walt Disney</a> and Intermondia Films' film, Niok l'éléphant, a young Khmer boy from the <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">French protectorate of Cambodia</a> in French Indochina, 'adopts' a baby elephant and raises it as a pet. His father later sells it to a Chinese merchant. The boy recaptures the pachyderm, however, and frees it back into the jungle.</li> <li>The 1992 film <a href="/wiki/Indochine_(film)" title="Indochine (film)">Indochine</a> tells the story of Éliane Devries, a French plantation owner, and of her adopted Vietnamese daughter, Camille, set against the backdrop of the rising Vietnamese nationalist movement.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer" title="Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer">MGM</a>'s 1939 <a href="/wiki/Lady_of_the_Tropics" title="Lady of the Tropics">Lady of the Tropics</a>, a freeloading American playboy falls in love with a local woman while visiting French Indochina with his girlfriend and her family on her father's yacht.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors-general_of_French_Indochina" title="List of governors-general of French Indochina">List of governors-general of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_administration_of_French_Indochina" title="Political administration of French Indochina">Political administration of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies" title="List of French possessions and colonies">List of French possessions and colonies</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> While both "Indo-China" and "Indochina" can be found in contemporary English-language sources, "Indo-China" is the most commonly used spelling (even though <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochine</a>, instead of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Chine" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Chine">Indo-Chine</a>, was commonly used in French); contemporary official publications also adopt the spelling of "Indo-China". </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Indochine française; <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>: Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, 東洋屬法, lit. 'East Ocean under France; <a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>: ឥណ្ឌូចិនបារាំង, Ĕnduchĕn Bareăng; <a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a>: ອິນດູຈີນຝຣັ່ງ, Indouchin Frang </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Decree of 17 October 1887. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Union indochinoise; <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>: Liên bang Đông Dương, 聯邦東洋, lit. 'East Ocean Federation'; <a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>: សហភាពឥណ្ឌូចិន; <a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a>: ສະຫະພາບອິນໂດຈີນ </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Fédération indochinoise </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> The treaty was never ratified by the two heads of state; but according to its Article 4, it came into effect on the day of signing.<a href="#cite_note-17">[8]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Vietnam alone has fifty-four ethnic groups, presented at the Ethnographic Museum of Hanoi. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Lecompte, Jean. Monnaies et jetons de l'Indochine Française. (<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Monaco">Principality of Monaco</a>, 2013) Quote: "Les légendes sont bien sûr modifiées. A gauche, les attributs de l'agriculture et des beaux-arts sont remplacés par des épis de riz et à droite figure une ancre symbolisant le ministère de la Marine et des Colonies. Hélas, <a href="/wiki/Albert_D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Barre" title="Albert Désiré Barre">Albert-Désiré Barre</a> décède le 29 décembre 1878 et c'est alors son frère aîné <a href="/wiki/Jean-Auguste_Barre" title="Jean-Auguste Barre">Auguste-Jean Barre</a> qui lui succède et mène à terme le projet. Les premières frappes sortent en 1879." (in French)) </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2730333">"French Indo-China: Demographic Imbalance and Colonial Policy"</a>. Population Index. 2 (11): 68–81. 1945. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2730333">10.2307/2730333</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2730333">2730333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+Index&rft.atitle=French+Indo-China%3A+Demographic+Imbalance+and+Colonial+Policy&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E68-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.date=1945&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2730333&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2730333%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2730333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mjp.univ-perp.fr-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mjp.univ-perp.fr_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mjp.univ-perp.fr_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mjp.univ-perp.fr_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mjp.univ-perp.fr_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/vn1946.htm">"Cochinchine, Vietnam, 1945, Digithèque MJP"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cochinchine%2C+Vietnam%2C+1945%2C+Digith%C3%A8que+MJP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Fconstit%2Fvn1946.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pesd.princeton.edu/node/431#:~:text=A%20federation%20is%20a%20state,which%20full%20sovereignty%20is%20retained">"Federalism and Federation | the Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250209194710/https://pesd.princeton.edu/node/431#:~:text=A%20federation%20is%20a%20state,which%20full%20sovereignty%20is%20retained">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2025. Retrieved 22 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Federalism+and+Federation+%26%23124%3B+the+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Self-Determination&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpesd.princeton.edu%2Fnode%2F431%23%3A~%3Atext%3DA%2520federation%2520is%2520a%2520state%2Cwhich%2520full%2520sovereignty%2520is%2520retained&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradley2009-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Bradley2009_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBradley2009" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Mark Philip (2009). Vietnam at war. Oxford University Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280349-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280349-8"><bdi>978-0-19-280349-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam+at+war&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280349-8&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Mark+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jo_pdf.do?id=JORFTEXT000000692906">Fac-similé JO du 5 juin 1949</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Indochina</a> Legifrance.gouv.fr. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent13.htm">The Pentagon Papers Gravel Edition Volume 1, Chapter 5, "Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960" (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170623032152/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent13.htm">Archived</a> 23 June 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Trích: "France, as the third party in Vietnam, then became pivotal to any political settlement, its executor for the West. But France had agreed to full independence for the GVN on ngày 4 tháng 6 năm 1954, nearly six weeks before the end of the Geneva Conference. By the terms of that June agreement, the GVN assumed responsibility for international contracts previously made on its behalf by France; but, there having been no reference to subsequent contracts, it was technically free of the Geneva Agreements. It has been argued to the contrary that the GVN was bound by Geneva because it possessed at the time few of the attributes of full sovereignty, and especially because it was dependent on France for defense. But such debates turn on tenuous points of international law regarding the prerogatives of newly independent or partitioned states. France speedily divested itself of responsibilities for "civil administration" in South Vietnam" </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/vn1954.htm">"Vietnam, indépendance, Digithèque MJP"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250119175639/https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/vn1954.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2025. Retrieved 14 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vietnam%2C+ind%C3%A9pendance%2C+Digith%C3%A8que+MJP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Fconstit%2Fvn1954.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USvietAnalysis-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USvietAnalysis_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USvietAnalysis_19-1">b</a> Kahin. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Owen, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-tucker29-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tucker29_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tucker29_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tucker29_21-2">c</a> Tucker, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Chapuis (1995), p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapuis248-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chapuis248_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chapuis248_23-1">b</a> Chapuis (2000), p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Chapuis, pp. 49–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-Llewellyn-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Llewellyn_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Llewellyn_25-1">b</a> Llewellyn. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Thomazi, pp. 69–71. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoustan2012" class="citation journal cs1">Roustan, Frédéric (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52">"Mousmés and French Colonial Culture: Making Japanese Women's Bodies Available in Indochina"</a>. Journal of Vietnamese Studies. 7 (1): 52–105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fvs.2012.7.1.52">10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52">10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220621023718/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/vs.2012.7.1.52">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vietnamese+Studies&rft.atitle=Mousm%C3%A9s+and+French+Colonial+Culture%3A+Making+Japanese+Women%27s+Bodies+Available+in+Indochina&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E105&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fvs.2012.7.1.52&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1525%2Fvs.2012.7.1.52%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roustan&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1525%2Fvs.2012.7.1.52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarney2020" class="citation web cs1">Carney, Joey (27 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://simipress.com/a-brief-primer-on-vice-and-sex-in-colonial-vietnam/">"A Brief Primer on Vice and Sex in Colonial Vietnam"</a>. Simi Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230529092603/https://simipress.com/a-brief-primer-on-vice-and-sex-in-colonial-vietnam/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Simi+Press&rft.atitle=A+Brief+Primer+on+Vice+and+Sex+in+Colonial+Vietnam&rft.date=2020-04-27&rft.aulast=Carney&rft.aufirst=Joey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsimipress.com%2Fa-brief-primer-on-vice-and-sex-in-colonial-vietnam%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoskins2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hoskins, Janet (Summer 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/28649479">"Postcards from the Edge of Empire: Images and Messages from French Indochina"</a>. Asia's Colonial Photographies (44). IIAS Newsletter: 16, 17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220621024303/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janet-Hoskins-2/publication/28649479_Postcards_from_the_Edge_of_Empire_Images_and_Messages_from_French_Indochina/links/5a8354450f7e9bda86a45675/Postcards-from-the-Edge-of-Empire-Images-and-Messages-from-French-Indochina.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia%27s+Colonial+Photographies&rft.atitle=Postcards+from+the+Edge+of+Empire%3A+Images+and+Messages+from+French+Indochina&rft.ssn=summer&rft.issue=44&rft.pages=16%2C+17&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Hoskins&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F28649479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoskins2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hoskins, Janet (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/911418">"Postcards from the Edge of Empire: Images and Messages from French Indochina"</a>. IIAS Newsletter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406163301/https://www.academia.edu/911418">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IIAS+Newsletter&rft.atitle=Postcards+from+the+Edge+of+Empire%3A+Images+and+Messages+from+French+Indochina&rft.date=2007-01&rft.aulast=Hoskins&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F911418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYee2004" class="citation journal cs1">Yee, Jennifer (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6604559">"Recycling the 'Colonial Harem'? Women in Postcards from French Indochina"</a>. French Cultural Studies. 15 (5): 5–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0957155804040405">10.1177/0957155804040405</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162718081">162718081</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407195803/https://www.academia.edu/6604559">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Cultural+Studies&rft.atitle=Recycling+the+%27Colonial+Harem%27%3F+Women+in+Postcards+from+French+Indochina&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0957155804040405&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162718081%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Yee&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6604559&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150717104138/https://saigoneer.com/saigon-people/4827-photos-the-japanese-prostitutes-of-colonial-vietnam">"[Photos] The Japanese Prostitutes Of Colonial Vietnam"</a>. Saigoneer. 15 July 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://saigoneer.com/saigon-people/4827-photos-the-japanese-prostitutes-of-colonial-vietnam">the original</a> on 17 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Saigoneer&rft.atitle=%5BPhotos%5D+The+Japanese+Prostitutes+Of+Colonial+Vietnam&rft.date=2015-07-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsaigoneer.com%2Fsaigon-people%2F4827-photos-the-japanese-prostitutes-of-colonial-vietnam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> *陳碧純，「山打根的八番娼館」之讀後心得，亞太研究論壇卷期:28 2005.06，頁309-315。<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N28/2806.pdf">http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N28/2806.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220811005721/https://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N28/2806.pdf">Archived</a> 11 August 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <ul><li>佐藤トゥイウェン，「第 4 章「孝」に殉じた天草の「からゆきさん」」，『周縁の文化交渉学シリーズ 8天草諸島の歴史と現在』，関西大学文化交渉学教育研究拠点，2012年。</li> <li>柏木卓司，『戦前期フランス領インドシナにおける邦人進出の形態-「職業別人口表」を中心として-』， (アジア経済) 31(3) 1990 3: p. 78-98。</li> <li>柏木卓司，「ベトナムのからゆきさん」，『歴史と人物』10月号，中央公論，1979，208頁。</li> <li>神坂次郎，『おれは伊平次』，講談社文庫，2002/8。</li> <li>平田豊弘，「松下光廣と大南公司」，『周縁の文化交渉学シリーズ 4 陶磁器流通と西海地域』，関西大学，荒武賢一朗編，2011年。</li> <li>Ch. Lemire,　Les cinq Pays de l'Indo-Chine française, l'établissement de Kouang-Tchéou, le Siam，Juillet 1899．</li> <li>Dean Meyers and My-Van Tran, The Cao Dai, Prince Cuong De and the Japanese in 1937–1939, THE CRISIS OF THE EIGHTH LUNAR MONTH, University of South Australia, IJAPS Vol. 2 (May) 2006.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSartore2019" class="citation web cs1">Sartore, Melissa (7 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ranker.com/list/what-are-japanese-karayuki-san/melissa-sartore">"Facts About Karayuki-San, The Japanese Sex Workers Trafficked To The Rest Of The World"</a>. Ranker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408023627/https://www.ranker.com/list/what-are-japanese-karayuki-san/melissa-sartore">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ranker&rft.atitle=Facts+About+Karayuki-San%2C+The+Japanese+Sex+Workers+Trafficked+To+The+Rest+Of+The+World&rft.date=2019-06-07&rft.aulast=Sartore&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ranker.com%2Flist%2Fwhat-are-japanese-karayuki-san%2Fmelissa-sartore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJolivet2005" class="citation book cs1">Jolivet, Muriel (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sAD3a6WaLgEC&dq=karayuki-san+erased+from+japanese+history&pg=PA124">Japan: The Childless Society?: The Crisis of Motherhood</a>. Routledge. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134757166" title="Special:BookSources/1134757166"><bdi>1134757166</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%3A+The+Childless+Society%3F%3A+The+Crisis+of+Motherhood&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1134757166&rft.aulast=Jolivet&rft.aufirst=Muriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsAD3a6WaLgEC%26dq%3Dkarayuki-san%2Berased%2Bfrom%2Bjapanese%2Bhistory%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Religion-in-French-Indochina-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Religion-in-French-Indochina_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Religion-in-French-Indochina_36-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Keith2015" class="citation web cs1">Charles Keith (20 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/religious_missionaries_and_the_colonial_state_indochina">"Religious Missionaries and the Colonial State (Indochina)"</a>. 1914–1918-online - International Encyclopedie of the First World War (<a href="/wiki/Free_University_of_Berlin" title="Free University of Berlin">Free University of Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_State_Library" title="Bavarian State Library">Bavarian State Library</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische_Gymnasium" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium">Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium</a>, among others). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220819050955/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/religious_missionaries_and_the_colonial_state_indochina">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religious+Missionaries+and+the+Colonial+State+%28Indochina%29&rft.pub=1914%E2%80%931918-online+-+International+Encyclopedie+of+the+First+World+War+%28Free+University+of+Berlin%2C+Bavarian+State+Library%2C+and+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische+Gymnasium%2C+among+others%29&rft.date=2015-02-20&rft.au=Charles+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Freligious_missionaries_and_the_colonial_state_indochina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> – Keith, Charles: Religious Missionaries and the Colonial State (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> (20 February 2015). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15463%2Fie1418.10559">10.15463/ie1418.10559</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bảo-tàng-Lịch-sử-Quốc-gia-tháng-7-biến-động-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bảo-tàng-Lịch-sử-Quốc-gia-tháng-7-biến-động_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bảo-tàng-Lịch-sử-Quốc-gia-tháng-7-biến-động_37-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNhuần_(tổng_hợp)2016" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nhuần (tổng hợp) (28 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/2001/66916/nha-nguyen-va-nhung-thang-7-bien-djong.html">"Nhà Nguyễn và những tháng 7 biến động. – Phải chăng tháng 7 với triều Nguyễn là một sự trùng hợp, khi Pháp mở đầu cuộc tấn công 1/9/1885 (nhằm vào 24/7/1858 âm lịch) và trận chiến đấu cuối cùng dưới sự lãnh đạo của triều đình nhà Nguyễn cũng diễn ra vào 5/7/1885"</a> (in Vietnamese). <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of Vietnamese History">Bảo tàng Lịch sử Quốc gia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210807171649/http://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/2001/66916/nha-nguyen-va-nhung-thang-7-bien-djong.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2021. <q>Trong một thông tri ngày 24/8/1898, Khâm sứ Trung kỳ đã viết "Từ nay, trên vương quốc An Nam không còn tồn tại hai chính quyền nữa mà chỉ tồn tại một chính quyền thôi" (tức chính quyền Pháp).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nh%C3%A0+Nguy%E1%BB%85n+v%C3%A0+nh%E1%BB%AFng+th%C3%A1ng+7+bi%E1%BA%BFn+%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng.+%E2%80%93+Ph%E1%BA%A3i+ch%C4%83ng+th%C3%A1ng+7+v%E1%BB%9Bi+tri%E1%BB%81u+Nguy%E1%BB%85n+l%C3%A0+m%E1%BB%99t+s%E1%BB%B1+tr%C3%B9ng+h%E1%BB%A3p%2C+khi+Ph%C3%A1p+m%E1%BB%9F+%C4%91%E1%BA%A7u+cu%E1%BB%99c+t%E1%BA%A5n+c%C3%B4ng+1%2F9%2F1885+%28nh%E1%BA%B1m+v%C3%A0o+24%2F7%2F1858+%C3%A2m+l%E1%BB%8Bch%29+v%C3%A0+tr%E1%BA%ADn+chi%E1%BA%BFn+%C4%91%E1%BA%A5u+cu%E1%BB%91i+c%C3%B9ng+d%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bi+s%E1%BB%B1+l%C3%A3nh+%C4%91%E1%BA%A1o+c%E1%BB%A7a+tri%E1%BB%81u+%C4%91%C3%ACnh+nh%C3%A0+Nguy%E1%BB%85n+c%C5%A9ng+di%E1%BB%85n+ra+v%C3%A0o+5%2F7%2F1885.&rft.pub=B%E1%BA%A3o+t%C3%A0ng+L%E1%BB%8Bch+s%E1%BB%AD+Qu%E1%BB%91c+gia&rft.date=2016-07-28&rft.au=Nhu%E1%BA%A7n+%28t%E1%BB%95ng+h%E1%BB%A3p%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbaotanglichsu.vn%2Fvi%2FArticles%2F2001%2F66916%2Fnha-nguyen-va-nhung-thang-7-bien-djong.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Jonathan D. London Education in Vietnam, pg. 10 (2011): "The ultimately unsuccessful Cần Vương (Aid the King) Movement of 1885–89, for example, was coordinated by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Phan_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Ph%C3%B9ng" title="Phan Đình Phùng">Phan Đình Phùng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phan_Chu_Trinh" class="mw-redirect" title="Phan Chu Trinh">Phan Chu Trinh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_Qu%C3%BD_C%C3%A1p" title="Trần Quý Cáp">Trần Quý Cáp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_Th%C3%BAc_Kh%C3%A1ng" title="Huỳnh Thúc Kháng">Huỳnh Thúc Kháng</a>, who sought to restore sovereign authority to the Nguyễn throne." </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Fourniau, Annam–Tonkin, pp. 39–77 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrocheuxHémery200457–68-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrocheuxHémery200457–68_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrocheuxHémery2004">Brocheux & Hémery 2004</a>, pp. 57–68. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> David Marr (1971) Vietnamese Anticolonialism, pg. 68 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Huard, pp. 1096–1107; Huguet, pp. 133–223; Sarrat, pp. 271–273; Thomazi, Conquête, pp. 272–275; Histoire militaire, pp. 124–125 </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-French-Indochina_43-8">i</a> <a 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220812170510/http://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/indochina">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indochina+%28Version+1.0%29.&rft.pub=1914%E2%80%931918-online+%E2%80%93+International+Encyclopedie+of+the+First+World+War+%28Free+University+of+Berlin%2C+Bavarian+State+Library%2C+and+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische+Gymnasium%2C+among+others%29&rft.date=2022-01-11&rft.au=Claire+Thi+Li%C3%AAn+Tr%C3%A2n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Findochina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> – Thi Liên Trân, Claire: Indochina, in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> (11 January 2022). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15463%2Fie1418.11594">10.15463/ie1418.11594</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Osborne, Milton: Peasant politics in Cambodia. The 1916 Affair, in: Modern Asian Studies 12/2, 1978, pp. 226–228. </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Social-Conflicts-in-French-Indochina_45-28">ac</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPatrice_Morlat2017" class="citation web cs1">Patrice Morlat (6 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/social_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_indochina#GND_114768765X">"Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Indochina)"</a>. 1914–1918-online - International Encyclopedie of the First World War (<a href="/wiki/Free_University_of_Berlin" title="Free University of Berlin">Free University of Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_State_Library" title="Bavarian State Library">Bavarian State Library</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische_Gymnasium" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium">Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium</a>, among others). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220813073418/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/social_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_indochina#GND_114768765X">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Social+Conflict+and+Control%2C+Protest+and+Repression+%28Indochina%29&rft.pub=1914%E2%80%931918-online+-+International+Encyclopedie+of+the+First+World+War+%28Free+University+of+Berlin%2C+Bavarian+State+Library%2C+and+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische+Gymnasium%2C+among+others%29&rft.date=2017-12-06&rft.au=Patrice+Morlat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fsocial_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_indochina%23GND_114768765X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> – Morlat, Patrice: Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> (6 December 2017). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15463%2Fie1418.11199">10.15463/ie1418.11199</a>. Translated by: Jennings, Eric Thomas. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Chu Trinh Phan, Sính Vĩnh Phan Châu Trinh and his political writings, p. 7 2009 "Phan Boi Chau was the major figure within this group of literati.20 A founder of the Vietnam Modernization Association (Viet Nam Duy Tan Hoi, 1904), Phan Boi Chau went to Japan in 1905, primarily to ask for military aid. " </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Education in Vietnam, p. 48, Jonathan D London, 2011 "Phan Boi Chau (1867–1940) was founder of the Duy Tân Hội (Reformation Society) and Đông Du ("Go East") movement that encouraged nationalist Vietnamese youth to study in Japan. Later, he founded the Vietnam Quang Phuc Hoi ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Philip G. Altbach, Toru Umakoshi Asian Universities: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary ... 2004 p. 331 "Phong trao Duy Tan (The Duy Tan reform movement). Danang, Vietnam: Danang Publishing House. Pham, L. H. (2000, December 28)." </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> David P. Chandler, David Joel Steinberg In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History 1987 p. 315 "Phan Boi Chau himself, by this time the leader of a political group known as the "Renovation Society" (Duy Tan Hoi) initiated this" </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Van Thao Trinh Les compagnons de route de Hô Chi Minh: Histoire d'un engagement 2004 . p. 18 "Duy Tân (Modernisation)." </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Philippe M. F. Peycam The Birth of Vietnamese Political Journalism: Saigon, 1916–1930, p. 56. 2012 "During Chiêu's trial, the French discovered that he had been a central agent for an underground movement called the Association for the Modernization of Vietnam (Việt Nam Duy Tân Hội), based in Japan and led by Châu and Prince Cường Để..." </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Nguyễn Đình Hoà From the City Inside the Red River: A Cultural Memoir 1999 p. 76 "the Association for Mutual Education (Hội Trí Tri) at 59 Fan Street. ... 22 August 1907, of the same paper further revealed, on p. 348, that the three elementary grades were taught ... Trần Văn Hùng, Vũ Văn Trw and Phạm Duy Tốn, the latter a scholar-publicist and father of Professor Phạm Duy-Khiem and musician Phạm Duy-Ca'n, a.k.a. Phạm Duy. On 16 November 1943, Governor-General Decoux, resident-sup ... </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChapuis2000" class="citation book cs1">Chapuis, Oscar (2000). The last emperors of Vietnam: from Tu Duc to Bao Dai. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. pp. 90–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31170-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31170-6"><bdi>0-313-31170-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+last+emperors+of+Vietnam%3A+from+Tu+Duc+to+Bao+Dai&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E90-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-313-31170-6&rft.aulast=Chapuis&rft.aufirst=Oscar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLargo2002" class="citation book cs1">Largo, V. (2002). Vietnam: Current Issues and Historical Background. <a href="/wiki/Nova_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova Publishers">Nova Publishers</a>. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59033-368-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-59033-368-3"><bdi>1-59033-368-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam%3A+Current+Issues+and+Historical+Background&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-59033-368-3&rft.aulast=Largo&rft.aufirst=V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchulzinger1999" class="citation book cs1">Schulzinger, Robert D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeforwar00robe">A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941-1975</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> US. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512501-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-512501-0"><bdi>0-19-512501-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Time+for+War%3A+The+United+States+and+Vietnam%2C+1941-1975&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-512501-0&rft.aulast=Schulzinger&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftimeforwar00robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Peycam, Philippe M. F: The birth of Vietnamese political journalism. Saigon, 1916–1930, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> (2015): <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Gunn, Geoffrey C.: Rebellion In Northern Laos. The Revolts of the Lu and the Chinese Republicans (1914–1916), in: The Journal of The Siam Society 77/1 (1989), p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Stuart-Fox" title="Martin Stuart-Fox">Fox-Stuart, Martin</a> (Winter 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/french-in-laos-18871945/13C6371000B01530B3011FF9A0B6436C">"The French in Laos, 1887–1945"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180617012958/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/french-in-laos-18871945/13C6371000B01530B3011FF9A0B6436C">Archived</a> 17 June 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Modern Asian Studies. 29:1 p. 111. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X00012646">10.1017/S0026749X00012646</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuart-Fox-2nd-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Stuart-Fox-2nd_59-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Stuart-Fox" title="Martin Stuart-Fox">Stuart-Fox, Martin</a> (2001). Historical Dictionary of Laos. Second Edition. Asian/Oceanian Historical Dictionaries Series No. 35. Maryland: The Scarecrow Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-JSS_062_1e_Murdoch-60"><a href="#cite_ref-JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurdoch1974" class="citation journal cs1">Murdoch, John B. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf">"The 1901–1902 Holy Man's Rebellion"</a> (free). <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Siam_Society" title="Journal of the Siam Society">Journal of the Siam Society</a>. 62 (1). Siam Heritage Trust. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180713190437/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 13 July 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2013. <q>The 'Holy Man's' uprising of 1901–1902 was a large scale popular rebellion involving Northeast Thailand, Southern Laos, and the adjacent portion of the Vietnamese Central Highlands. Scholarship to date has not adequately considered the rebellion's character as transcending present national boundaries, having common leadership, and growing out of common regional causes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Siam+Society&rft.atitle=The+1901%E2%80%931902+Holy+Man%27s+Rebellion&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Murdoch&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.siamese-heritage.org%2Fjsspdf%2F1971%2FJSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BTLSQGVN-Bộ-Học-và-Bộ-Quốc-dân-giáo-dục_61-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFtapchisonghuong.com.vn2012" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">tapchisonghuong.com.vn (6 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/3096/11172/gioi-thieu-mot-so-van-ban-co-lien-quan-djen-bo-hoc-va-bo-quoc-dan-giao-duc.html">"Giới thiệu một số văn bản có liên quan đến Bộ Học và Bộ Quốc dân giáo dục. - Để điều hành đất nước, từ năm 1802–1906, nhà Nguyễn đã thiết lập 6 bộ là: Bộ Lại, Bộ Hộ, Bộ Lễ, Bộ Binh, Bộ Hình, Bộ Công"</a> (in Vietnamese). <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of Vietnamese History">BẢO TÀNG LỊCH SỬ QUỐC GIA (VIETNAM NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY)</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220616205334/http://baotanglichsu.vn/vi/Articles/3096/11172/gioi-thieu-mot-so-van-ban-co-lien-quan-djen-bo-hoc-va-bo-quoc-dan-giao-duc.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gi%E1%BB%9Bi+thi%E1%BB%87u+m%E1%BB%99t+s%E1%BB%91+v%C4%83n+b%E1%BA%A3n+c%C3%B3+li%C3%AAn+quan+%C4%91%E1%BA%BFn+B%E1%BB%99+H%E1%BB%8Dc+v%C3%A0+B%E1%BB%99+Qu%E1%BB%91c+d%C3%A2n+gi%C3%A1o+d%E1%BB%A5c.+-+%C4%90%E1%BB%83+%C4%91i%E1%BB%81u+h%C3%A0nh+%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t+n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc%2C+t%E1%BB%AB+n%C4%83m+1802%E2%80%931906%2C+nh%C3%A0+Nguy%E1%BB%85n+%C4%91%C3%A3+thi%E1%BA%BFt+l%E1%BA%ADp+6+b%E1%BB%99+l%C3%A0%3A+B%E1%BB%99+L%E1%BA%A1i%2C+B%E1%BB%99+H%E1%BB%99%2C+B%E1%BB%99+L%E1%BB%85%2C+B%E1%BB%99+Binh%2C+B%E1%BB%99+H%C3%ACnh%2C+B%E1%BB%99+C%C3%B4ng.&rft.pub=B%E1%BA%A2O+T%C3%80NG+L%E1%BB%8ACH+S%E1%BB%AC+QU%E1%BB%90C+GIA+%28VIETNAM+NATIONAL+MUSEUM+OF+HISTORY%29&rft.date=2012-04-06&rft.au=tapchisonghuong.com.vn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbaotanglichsu.vn%2Fvi%2FArticles%2F3096%2F11172%2Fgioi-thieu-mot-so-van-ban-co-lien-quan-djen-bo-hoc-va-bo-quoc-dan-giao-duc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn_62-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn_62-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn_62-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn_62-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cục-Văn-thư-và-Lưu-trữ-nhà-nước-Vài-nét-về-Bộ-Học-qua-châu-bản-triều-Nguyễn_62-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTh.S_Nguyễn_Thu_Hường_–_TTLTQG_I2015" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Th.S Nguyễn Thu Hường – TTLTQG I (26 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://luutru.gov.vn/vai-net-ve-bo-hoc-qua-chau-ban-trieu-nguyen-402-vtlt.htm">"Vài nét về Bộ Học qua châu bản triều Nguyễn. – 04:00 PM 26/11/2015 – Lượt xem: 482 – Có thể nói có không ít tư liệu viết về Bộ Học và những cách tân trong chương trình giáo dục Việt Nam thời thuộc Pháp, tuy nhiên Châu bản triều Nguyễn thực sự là nguồn sử liệu quan trọng cung cấp những thông tin xác thực, giá trị để chúng ta có cơ sở nghiên cứu về nền giáo dục Việt Nam thời thuộc địa"</a> (in Vietnamese). State Records and Archives Department of Vietnam (Cục Văn thư và Lưu trữ nhà nước). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220620222653/https://luutru.gov.vn/vai-net-ve-bo-hoc-qua-chau-ban-trieu-nguyen-402-vtlt.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=V%C3%A0i+n%C3%A9t+v%E1%BB%81+B%E1%BB%99+H%E1%BB%8Dc+qua+ch%C3%A2u+b%E1%BA%A3n+tri%E1%BB%81u+Nguy%E1%BB%85n.+%E2%80%93+04%3A00+PM+26%2F11%2F2015+%E2%80%93+L%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3t+xem%3A+482+%E2%80%93+C%C3%B3+th%E1%BB%83+n%C3%B3i+c%C3%B3+kh%C3%B4ng+%C3%ADt+t%C6%B0+li%E1%BB%87u+vi%E1%BA%BFt+v%E1%BB%81+B%E1%BB%99+H%E1%BB%8Dc+v%C3%A0+nh%E1%BB%AFng+c%C3%A1ch+t%C3%A2n+trong+ch%C6%B0%C6%A1ng+tr%C3%ACnh+gi%C3%A1o+d%E1%BB%A5c+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam+th%E1%BB%9Di+thu%E1%BB%99c+Ph%C3%A1p%2C+tuy+nhi%C3%AAn+Ch%C3%A2u+b%E1%BA%A3n+tri%E1%BB%81u+Nguy%E1%BB%85n+th%E1%BB%B1c+s%E1%BB%B1+l%C3%A0+ngu%E1%BB%93n+s%E1%BB%AD+li%E1%BB%87u+quan+tr%E1%BB%8Dng+cung+c%E1%BA%A5p+nh%E1%BB%AFng+th%C3%B4ng+tin+x%C3%A1c+th%E1%BB%B1c%2C+gi%C3%A1+tr%E1%BB%8B+%C4%91%E1%BB%83+ch%C3%BAng+ta+c%C3%B3+c%C6%A1+s%E1%BB%9F+nghi%C3%AAn+c%E1%BB%A9u+v%E1%BB%81+n%E1%BB%81n+gi%C3%A1o+d%E1%BB%A5c+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam+th%E1%BB%9Di+thu%E1%BB%99c+%C4%91%E1%BB%8Ba.&rft.pub=State+Records+and+Archives+Department+of+Vietnam+%28C%E1%BB%A5c+V%C4%83n+th%C6%B0+v%C3%A0+L%C6%B0u+tr%E1%BB%AF+nh%C3%A0+n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc%29&rft.date=2015-11-26&rft.au=Th.S+Nguy%E1%BB%85n+Thu+H%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng+%E2%80%93+TTLTQG+I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fluutru.gov.vn%2Fvai-net-ve-bo-hoc-qua-chau-ban-trieu-nguyen-402-vtlt.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-VnExpress-Triều-đại-phong-kiến-duy-nhất-có-Bộ-Học-63"><a href="#cite_ref-VnExpress-Triều-đại-phong-kiến-duy-nhất-có-Bộ-Học_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVõ_Thạnh2016" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Võ Thạnh (6 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vnexpress.net/trieu-dai-phong-kien-duy-nhat-co-bo-hoc-3509342.html">"Triều đại phong kiến duy nhất có Bộ Học"</a> (in Vietnamese). <a href="/wiki/VnExpress" title="VnExpress">VnExpress</a>. 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Retrieved 21 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Between+Acceptance+and+Refusal+-+Soldiers%27+Attitudes+Towards+War+%28Indochina%29&rft.pub=1914%E2%80%931918-online+%E2%80%93+International+Encyclopedie+of+the+First+World+War+%28Free+University+of+Berlin%2C+Bavarian+State+Library%2C+and+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische+Gymnasium%2C+among+others%29&rft.date=2018-04-20&rft.au=Kimloan+Vu-Hill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fbetween_acceptance_and_refusal_-_soldiers_attitudes_towards_war_indochina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> Vu-Hill, Kimloan: Between Acceptance and Refusal – Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Indochina) (Version 1.1), in: 1914–1918-online. 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Retrieved 21 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indochinese+Workers+in+France+%28Indochina%29&rft.pub=1914%E2%80%931918-online+%E2%80%93+International+Encyclopedie+of+the+First+World+War+%28Free+University+of+Berlin%2C+Bavarian+State+Library%2C+and+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische+Gymnasium%2C+among+others%29&rft.date=2014-10-08&rft.au=Kimloan+Vu-Hill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Findochinese_workers_in_france_indochina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> - Vu-Hill, Kimloan: Indochinese Workers in France (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. 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Retrieved 21 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commemoration%2C+Cult+of+the+Fallen+%28Indochina%29.&rft.pub=1914%E2%80%931918-online+-+International+Encyclopedie+of+the+First+World+War+%28Free+University+of+Berlin%2C+Bavarian+State+Library%2C+and+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische+Gymnasium%2C+among+others%29&rft.date=2015-06-15&rft.au=Eric+Thomas+Jennings&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fcommemoration_cult_of_the_fallen_indochina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> – Jennings, Eric Thomas: Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. 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Retrieved 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=B%E1%BA%A3o+%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+-+V%E1%BB%8B+Ho%C3%A0ng+%C4%91%E1%BA%BF+cu%E1%BB%91i+c%C3%B9ng+trong+l%E1%BB%8Bch+s%E1%BB%AD+phong+ki%E1%BA%BFn+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam.+-+B%E1%BA%A3o+%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+t%C3%AAn+th%E1%BA%ADt+l%C3%A0+Nguy%E1%BB%85n+Ph%C3%BAc+V%C4%A9nh+Th%E1%BB%A5y%2C+l%C3%A0+v%E1%BB%8B+Ho%C3%A0ng+%C4%91%E1%BA%BF+th%E1%BB%A9+13+v%C3%A0+cu%E1%BB%91i+c%C3%B9ng+c%E1%BB%A7a+tri%E1%BB%81u+%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i+nh%C3%A0+Nguy%E1%BB%85n%2C+c%C5%A9ng+l%C3%A0+v%E1%BB%8B+Ho%C3%A0ng+%C4%91%E1%BA%BF+cu%E1%BB%91i+c%C3%B9ng+trong+l%E1%BB%8Bch+s%E1%BB%AD+phong+ki%E1%BA%BFn+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam.&rft.pub=B%E1%BA%A2O+T%C3%80NG+L%E1%BB%8ACH+S%E1%BB%AC+QU%E1%BB%90C+GIA+%28VIETNAM+NATIONAL+MUSEUM+OF+HISTORY%29&rft.date=2016-09-09&rft.au=Ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng+Anh+%28t%E1%BB%95ng+h%E1%BB%A3p%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbaotanglichsu.vn%2Fvi%2FArticles%2F3098%2F19511%2Fbao-djai-vi-hoang-dje-cuoi-cung-trong-lich-su-phong-kien-viet-nam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_G._Marr" title="David G. 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François Maspero, Paris. 1975, p. 388 </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Manfred McDowell, "Sky without Light: a Vietnamese Tragedy," New Politics, Vol XIII, No. 3, 2011, p. 1341 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://newpol.org/review/sky-without-light-vietnamese-tragedy/">https://newpol.org/review/sky-without-light-vietnamese-tragedy/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200817163919/https://newpol.org/review/sky-without-light-vietnamese-tragedy/">Archived</a> 17 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (accessed 10 October 2019). </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Ngô Văn, In the Crossfire: Adventures of a Vietnamese Revolutionary. AK Press, Oakland CA, 2010, p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTyson1974" class="citation journal cs1">Tyson, James L. (1974). "Labor Unions in South Vietnam". Asian Affairs. 2 (2): 70–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00927678.1974.10587653">10.1080/00927678.1974.10587653</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30171359">30171359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Affairs&rft.atitle=Labor+Unions+in+South+Vietnam&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E70-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00927678.1974.10587653&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30171359%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChonchirdsin1997" class="citation journal cs1">Chonchirdsin, Sud (1997). "The Indochinese Communist Party and the Nam Ky Uprising in Cochin China, November–December 1940". South East Asia Research. 5 (3): 269–293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0967828X9700500304">10.1177/0967828X9700500304</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23746947">23746947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+East+Asia+Research&rft.atitle=The+Indochinese+Communist+Party+and+the+Nam+Ky+Uprising+in+Cochin+China%2C+November%E2%80%93December+1940&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E269-%3C%2Fspan%3E293&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0967828X9700500304&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23746947%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chonchirdsin&rft.aufirst=Sud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaige1970" class="citation web cs1">Paige, Jeffery M. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181109153446/https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/star/images/231/2310402001.pdf">"Inequality and Insurgency in Vietnam: A re-analysis"</a> (PDF). cambridge.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/star/images/231/2310402001.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cambridge.org&rft.atitle=Inequality+and+Insurgency+in+Vietnam%3A+A+re-analysis&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Paige&rft.aufirst=Jeffery+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vietnam.ttu.edu%2Fstar%2Fimages%2F231%2F2310402001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerger2012" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Thomas U. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9EwgAwAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA126">War, Guilt, and World Politics after World War II</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139510875" title="Special:BookSources/978-1139510875"><bdi>978-1139510875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+Guilt%2C+and+World+Politics+after+World+War+II&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1139510875&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Thomas+U.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9EwgAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTruong1971" class="citation book cs1">Truong, Chinh (19 May 1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22establish+an+organization+of+Chinese+and+Vietnamese+Allied+against+Japan%22&pg=RA2-PA7">"I. DOCUMENTS FROM THE AUGUST REVOLUTION RESOLUTION OF THE TONKIN REVOLUTIONARY MILITARY CONFERENCE, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 TRANSLATIONS ON NORTH VIETNAM No. 940 DOCUMENTS ON THE AUGUST REVOLUTION"</a>. Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17. JPRS (Series). Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service. U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. pp. 1–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=I.+DOCUMENTS+FROM+THE+AUGUST+REVOLUTION+RESOLUTION+OF+THE+TONKIN+REVOLUTIONARY+MILITARY+CONFERENCE%2C+JPRS+53169+19+May+1971+TRANSLATIONS+ON+NORTH+VIETNAM+No.+940+DOCUMENTS+ON+THE+AUGUST+REVOLUTION&rft.btitle=Translations+on+North+Vietnam%2C+Volume+17&rft.series=JPRS+%28Series%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=U.S.+Joint+Publications+Research+Service.&rft.date=1971-05-19&rft.aulast=Truong&rft.aufirst=Chinh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsTrcAAAAIAAJ%26dq%3D%2522establish%2Ban%2Borganization%2Bof%2BChinese%2Band%2BVietnamese%2BAllied%2Bagainst%2BJapan%2522%26pg%3DRA2-PA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> I. DOCUMENTS FROM THE AUGUST REVOLUTION RESOLUTION OF THE TONKIN REVOLUTIONARY MILITARY CONFERENCE [Except from the Resolution of the Tonkin Revolutionary Military Conference Held Between 15 and 20 April 1945; Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 25 August 1970, pp 1.4] </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTruong1971" class="citation book cs1">Truong, Chinh (19 May 1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Wherever+they+went%2C+the+Japanese+forces+burned+down+homes%2C+murdered+law-abiding+citizens%2C+raped+women%2C+and+stole+possessions.%22&pg=RA2-PA9">"Policy of the Japanese Pirates Towards Our people, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 Translations on North Vietnam No. 940 Documents on the August Revolution"</a>. Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17. JPRS (Series). Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service. U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. pp. 8–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Policy+of+the+Japanese+Pirates+Towards+Our+people%2C+JPRS+53169+19+May+1971+Translations+on+North+Vietnam+No.+940+Documents+on+the+August+Revolution&rft.btitle=Translations+on+North+Vietnam%2C+Volume+17&rft.series=JPRS+%28Series%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.pub=U.S.+Joint+Publications+Research+Service.&rft.date=1971-05-19&rft.aulast=Truong&rft.aufirst=Chinh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsTrcAAAAIAAJ%26dq%3D%2522Wherever%2Bthey%2Bwent%252C%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2Bforces%2Bburned%2Bdown%2Bhomes%252C%2Bmurdered%2Blaw-abiding%2Bcitizens%252C%2Braped%2Bwomen%252C%2Band%2Bstole%2Bpossessions.%2522%26pg%3DRA2-PA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Article by Truong Chinh, chairman of the National Assembly: "Policy of the Japanese Pirates Towards Our people"; Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 17 August 1970, pp. 1, 3] </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTruong1971" class="citation book cs1">Truong, Chinh (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22The+Japanese+were+disarmed+in+many+places%22&pg=RA2-PA13">"Revolution or Coup d'Etat, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 TRANSLATIONS ON NORTH VIETNAM No. 940 DOCUMENTS ON THE AUGUST REVOLUTION"</a>. Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17. JPRS (Series). Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service. U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. pp. 14–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Revolution+or+Coup+d%27Etat%2C+JPRS+53169+19+May+1971+TRANSLATIONS+ON+NORTH+VIETNAM+No.+940+DOCUMENTS+ON+THE+AUGUST+REVOLUTION&rft.btitle=Translations+on+North+Vietnam%2C+Volume+17&rft.series=JPRS+%28Series%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.pub=U.S.+Joint+Publications+Research+Service.&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Truong&rft.aufirst=Chinh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsTrcAAAAIAAJ%26dq%3D%2522The%2BJapanese%2Bwere%2Bdisarmed%2Bin%2Bmany%2Bplaces%2522%26pg%3DRA2-PA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> [Article by Truong Chinh, chairman of the National Assembly: "Revolution or Coup d'Etat"; Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 16 August 1970, pp 1, 3] *Reprinted from Co Giai Phong [Liberation Banner], No 16, 12 September 1945. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHo_Chi_Minh1971" class="citation book cs1">Ho Chi Minh (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Our+newly+won+national+independence+is+threatened+by+foreign%22&pg=RA2-PA17">Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17</a>. JPRS (Series). Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service. U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. pp. 17, 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translations+on+North+Vietnam%2C+Volume+17&rft.series=JPRS+%28Series%29&rft.pages=17%2C+18&rft.pub=U.S.+Joint+Publications+Research+Service.&rft.date=1971&rft.au=Ho+Chi+Minh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsTrcAAAAIAAJ%26dq%3D%2522Our%2Bnewly%2Bwon%2Bnational%2Bindependence%2Bis%2Bthreatened%2Bby%2Bforeign%2522%26pg%3DRA2-PA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Ho Chi Minh's Letter to the Cochin–China Compatriots, Letter written by President Ho after the war of resistance had broken out in Cochin China: "To the Nam Bo Compatriots"; Hanoi, THong Nhat, Vietnamese, 18 September 1970, p. 1] 26 September 1945 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHo" class="citation book cs1">Ho, Chi Minh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/hochiminhselectedwritings/hochiminhselectedwritings_djvu.txt">Selected Writings (1920–1969)</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Writings+%281920%E2%80%931969%29&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Chi+Minh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhochiminhselectedwritings%2Fhochiminhselectedwritings_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406163303/https://ur.eu1lib.org/book/18433157/2965f6">"Z-Library single sign on"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ur.eu1lib.org/book/18433157/2965f6">the original</a> on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Z-Library+single+sign+on&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fur.eu1lib.org%2Fbook%2F18433157%2F2965f6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMin2021" class="citation book cs1">Min, Pyong Gap (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Filipino%2C+Vietnamese%2C+Thai%2C+Indonesian+and+Burmese+women+collectively+also+seem+to+have+made+up+a+significant+proportion+of+the+ACW.%22&pg=PT70">Korean "Comfort Women": Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement</a>. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1978814981" title="Special:BookSources/978-1978814981"><bdi>978-1978814981</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korean+%22Comfort+Women%22%3A+Military+Brothels%2C+Brutality%2C+and+the+Redress+Movement&rft.series=Genocide%2C+Political+Violence%2C+Human+Rights&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1978814981&rft.aulast=Min&rft.aufirst=Pyong+Gap&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj5QdEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Filipino%252C%2BVietnamese%252C%2BThai%252C%2BIndonesian%2Band%2BBurmese%2Bwomen%2Bcollectively%2Balso%2Bseem%2Bto%2Bhave%2Bmade%2Bup%2Ba%2Bsignificant%2Bproportion%2Bof%2Bthe%2BACW.%2522%26pg%3DPT70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTanaka2003" class="citation book cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=%22verify+that+other+Asian+women,+such+as+Vietnamese+and+Malaysians,+were+also+exploited+for+the+same+purpose+by+the+Japanese%22&pg=PA60">Japan's Comfort Women</a>. Routledge. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134650124" title="Special:BookSources/1134650124"><bdi>1134650124</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Comfort+Women&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1134650124&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Yuki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmV5dymPXNBgC%26dq%3D%2522verify%2Bthat%2Bother%2BAsian%2Bwomen%2C%2Bsuch%2Bas%2BVietnamese%2Band%2BMalaysians%2C%2Bwere%2Balso%2Bexploited%2Bfor%2Bthe%2Bsame%2Bpurpose%2Bby%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2522%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html">Alt URL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220725051737/https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html">Archived</a> 25 July 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLee2015" class="citation web cs1">Lee, Morgan Pōmaika'i (29 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/Mepaynl/status/593405098983878657">"Comfort women were Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Burmese, Thai, Dutch, Australian, and Vietnamese women and girls forced into sexual slavery"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220617211149/https://twitter.com/mepaynl/status/593405098983878657">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comfort+women+were+Chinese%2C+Korean%2C+Filipino%2C+Burmese%2C+Thai%2C+Dutch%2C+Australian%2C+and+Vietnamese+women+and+girls+forced+into+sexual+slavery&rft.date=2015-04-29&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Morgan+P%C5%8Dmaika%27i&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2FMepaynl%2Fstatus%2F593405098983878657&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStetzOh2015" class="citation book cs1">Stetz, Margaret D.; Oh, Bonnie B. C. (12 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA126">Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317466253" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317466253"><bdi>978-1317466253</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+the+Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=126&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-02-12&rft.isbn=978-1317466253&rft.aulast=Stetz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+D.&rft.au=Oh%2C+Bonnie+B.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRW2mBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFQuinones2021" class="citation book cs1">Quinones, C. Kenneth (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3NjEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA230">Imperial Japan's Allied Prisoners of War in the South Pacific: Surviving Paradise</a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 230. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1527575462" title="Special:BookSources/978-1527575462"><bdi>978-1527575462</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Japan%27s+Allied+Prisoners+of+War+in+the+South+Pacific%3A+Surviving+Paradise&rft.pages=230&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1527575462&rft.aulast=Quinones&rft.aufirst=C.+Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ3NjEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMin2021" class="citation book cs1">Min, Pyong Gap (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PT70">Korean "Comfort Women": Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement</a>. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1978814981" title="Special:BookSources/978-1978814981"><bdi>978-1978814981</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korean+%22Comfort+Women%22%3A+Military+Brothels%2C+Brutality%2C+and+the+Redress+Movement&rft.series=Genocide%2C+Political+Violence%2C+Human+Rights&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1978814981&rft.aulast=Min&rft.aufirst=Pyong+Gap&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj5QdEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPT70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nIeBYY-TpMsC&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA209">Double Agency: Acts of Impersonation in Asian American Literature and Culture</a>. Stanford University Press. 2005. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804751862" title="Special:BookSources/0804751862"><bdi>0804751862</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Double+Agency%3A+Acts+of+Impersonation+in+Asian+American+Literature+and+Culture&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0804751862&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnIeBYY-TpMsC%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThoma2004" class="citation book cs1">Thoma, Pamela (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CNZ-DsVg5T8C&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA175">"Cultural Autobiography, Testimonial, and Asian American Transnational Feminist Coalition in the 'Comfort Women of World War II' Conference"</a>. In Vo, Linda Trinh; Sciachitano, Marian (eds.). Asian American Women: The Frontiers Reader (illustrated, reprint ed.). U of Nebraska Press. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0803296274" title="Special:BookSources/0803296274"><bdi>0803296274</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cultural+Autobiography%2C+Testimonial%2C+and+Asian+American+Transnational+Feminist+Coalition+in+the+%27Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II%27+Conference&rft.btitle=Asian+American+Women%3A+The+Frontiers+Reader&rft.pages=175&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0803296274&rft.aulast=Thoma&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCNZ-DsVg5T8C%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYoon2015" class="citation book cs1">Yoon, Bang-Soon L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Tq2CAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA464">"20: Sexualized Racism, Gender and Nationalism: The Case of Japan's Sexual Enslavement of Korean 'Comfort Women'"</a>. In Kowner, Rotem; Demel, Walter (eds.). Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Interactions, Nationalism, Gender and Lineage. Brill's Series on Modern East Asia in a Global Historical Perspective (reprint ed.). Brill. p. 464. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004292932" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004292932"><bdi>978-9004292932</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=20%3A+Sexualized+Racism%2C+Gender+and+Nationalism%3A+The+Case+of+Japan%27s+Sexual+Enslavement+of+Korean+%27Comfort+Women%27&rft.btitle=Race+and+Racism+in+Modern+East+Asia%3A+Interactions%2C+Nationalism%2C+Gender+and+Lineage&rft.series=Brill%27s+Series+on+Modern+East+Asia+in+a+Global+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=464&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-9004292932&rft.aulast=Yoon&rft.aufirst=Bang-Soon+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Tq2CAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFQiuSuChen2014" class="citation book cs1">Qiu, Peipei; Su, Zhiliang; Chen, Lifei (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HDyFAwAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA215">Chinese Comfort Women: Testimonies from Imperial Japan's Sex Slaves</a>. Oxford oral history series (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199373895" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199373895"><bdi>978-0199373895</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Comfort+Women%3A+Testimonies+from+Imperial+Japan%27s+Sex+Slaves&rft.series=Oxford+oral+history+series&rft.pages=215&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0199373895&rft.aulast=Qiu&rft.aufirst=Peipei&rft.au=Su%2C+Zhiliang&rft.au=Chen%2C+Lifei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHDyFAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSoh2020" class="citation book cs1">Soh, C. Sarah (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ddfkDwAAQBAJ&q=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese">The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan</a>. Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture. University of Chicago Press. pp. 159, 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226768045" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226768045"><bdi>978-0226768045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Comfort+Women%3A+Sexual+Violence+and+Postcolonial+Memory+in+Korea+and+Japan&rft.series=Worlds+of+Desire%3A+The+Chicago+Series+on+Sexuality%2C+Gender%2C+and+Culture&rft.pages=159%2C+279&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226768045&rft.aulast=Soh&rft.aufirst=C.+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DddfkDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuff2020" class="citation book cs1">Huff, Gregg (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=waECEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA386">World War II and Southeast Asia: Economy and Society under Japanese Occupation</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 386. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1108916080" title="Special:BookSources/978-1108916080"><bdi>978-1108916080</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+II+and+Southeast+Asia%3A+Economy+and+Society+under+Japanese+Occupation&rft.pages=386&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1108916080&rft.aulast=Huff&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwaECEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTran_Thi2017" class="citation news cs1">Tran Thi, Minh Ha (24 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sg.news.yahoo.com/60-years-japan-army-husband-fled-vietnam-war-074526016.html">"60 years after Japan army husband fled, Vietnam war bride clings to love"</a>. AFP. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211121123926/https://sg.news.yahoo.com/60-years-japan-army-husband-fled-vietnam-war-074526016.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AFP&rft.atitle=60+years+after+Japan+army+husband+fled%2C+Vietnam+war+bride+clings+to+love&rft.date=2017-02-24&rft.aulast=Tran+Thi&rft.aufirst=Minh+Ha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsg.news.yahoo.com%2F60-years-japan-army-husband-fled-vietnam-war-074526016.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFindomemoires2016" class="citation web cs1">indomemoires (20 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/23318">"Ben Valentine : Photographing the Forgotten Vietnamese Widows of Japanese WWII Soldiers"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.58079%2Fq5o2">10.58079/q5o2</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209095521/https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/23318">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ben+Valentine+%3A+Photographing+the+Forgotten+Vietnamese+Widows+of+Japanese+WWII+Soldiers&rft.date=2016-07-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.58079%2Fq5o2&rft.au=indomemoires&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findomemoires.hypotheses.org%2F23318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFValentine2016" class="citation web cs1">Valentine, Ben (19 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hyperallergic.com/306502/photographing-the-forgotten-vietnamese-widows-of-japanese-wwii-soldiers/">"Photographing the Forgotten Vietnamese Widows of Japanese WWII Soldiers"</a>. Hyperallergic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209111206/https://hyperallergic.com/306502/photographing-the-forgotten-vietnamese-widows-of-japanese-wwii-soldiers/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hyperallergic&rft.atitle=Photographing+the+Forgotten+Vietnamese+Widows+of+Japanese+WWII+Soldiers&rft.date=2016-07-19&rft.aulast=Valentine&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhyperallergic.com%2F306502%2Fphotographing-the-forgotten-vietnamese-widows-of-japanese-wwii-soldiers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunn2015" class="citation web cs1">Gunn, Geoffrey (17 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endofempire.asia/0817-6-the-great-vietnam-famine-4/">"The great Vietnam famine"</a>. End of Empire. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220617211855/https://www.endofempire.asia/0817-6-the-great-vietnam-famine-4/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=End+of+Empire&rft.atitle=The+great+Vietnam+famine&rft.date=2015-08-17&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.endofempire.asia%2F0817-6-the-great-vietnam-famine-4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunn2011" class="citation journal cs1">Gunn, Geoffrey (24 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/2011/9/5/Geoffrey-Gunn/3483/article.html">"The Great Vietnamese Famine of 1944–45 Revisited 1944–45 年ヴィエトナム大飢饉再訪"</a>. The Asia-Pacific Journal. 9 (5 Number 4). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190107131837/https://apjjf.org/2011/9/5/Geoffrey-Gunn/3483/article.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Asia-Pacific+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Great+Vietnamese+Famine+of+1944%E2%80%9345+Revisited+1944%E2%80%9345+%E5%B9%B4%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A8%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%E5%A4%A7%E9%A3%A2%E9%A5%89%E5%86%8D%E8%A8%AA&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5+Number+4&rft.date=2011-01-24&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapjjf.org%2F2011%2F9%2F5%2FGeoffrey-Gunn%2F3483%2Farticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDũng1995" class="citation journal cs1">Dũng, Bùi Minh (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/japans-role-in-the-vietnamese-starvation-of-194445/8A5205371AAECFB6D6CBE8AD7F70C41F">"Japan's Role in the Vietnamese Starvation of 1944–45"</a>. Modern Asian Studies. 29 (3). Cambridge University Press: 573–618. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X00014001">10.1017/S0026749X00014001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145374444">145374444</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180610045032/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/japans-role-in-the-vietnamese-starvation-of-194445/8A5205371AAECFB6D6CBE8AD7F70C41F">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+Role+in+the+Vietnamese+Starvation+of+1944%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E573-%3C%2Fspan%3E618&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X00014001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145374444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=D%C5%A9ng&rft.aufirst=B%C3%B9i+Minh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fmodern-asian-studies%2Farticle%2Fjapans-role-in-the-vietnamese-starvation-of-194445%2F8A5205371AAECFB6D6CBE8AD7F70C41F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHien2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hien, Nina (Spring 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/t/tap/7977573.0003.202/--good-the-bad-and-the-not-beautiful-in-the-street?rgn=main;view=fulltext">"The Good, the Bad, and the Not Beautiful: In the Street and on the Ground in Vietnam"</a>. Local Culture/Global Photography. 3 (2). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421041425/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/t/tap/7977573.0003.202/--good-the-bad-and-the-not-beautiful-in-the-street?rgn=main;view=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Local+Culture%2FGlobal+Photography&rft.atitle=The+Good%2C+the+Bad%2C+and+the+Not+Beautiful%3A+In+the+Street+and+on+the+Ground+in+Vietnam&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Hien&rft.aufirst=Nina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Ft%2Ftap%2F7977573.0003.202%2F--good-the-bad-and-the-not-beautiful-in-the-street%3Frgn%3Dmain%3Bview%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.akg-images.com/archive/-2UMEBM2Y85NV.html">Vietnam: Corpses in a mass grave following the 1944–45 famine during the Japanese occupation. Up to 2 million Vietnamese died of starvation</a>. AKG3807269. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220622003638/https://www.akg-images.com/archive/-2UMEBM2Y85NV.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vietnam%3A+Corpses+in+a+mass+grave+following+the+1944%E2%80%9345+famine+during+the+Japanese+occupation.+Up+to+2+million+Vietnamese+died+of+starvation.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.akg-images.com%2Farchive%2F-2UMEBM2Y85NV.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://japanesevietnam.weebly.com/vietnamese-famine-of-1945.html">"Vietnamese Famine of 1945"</a>. Japanese Occupation of Vietnam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220617211855/https://japanesevietnam.weebly.com/vietnamese-famine-of-1945.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Japanese+Occupation+of+Vietnam&rft.atitle=Vietnamese+Famine+of+1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjapanesevietnam.weebly.com%2Fvietnamese-famine-of-1945.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF早乙女勝元1993" class="citation book cs1">早乙女勝元 (September 1993). ベトナム"200万人"餓死の記録. 大月書店. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-272-33029-2" title="Special:BookSources/4-272-33029-2"><bdi>4-272-33029-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%83%99%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%22200%E4%B8%87%E4%BA%BA%22%E9%A4%93%E6%AD%BB%E3%81%AE%E8%A8%98%E9%8C%B2&rft.pub=%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%88%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97&rft.date=1993-09&rft.isbn=4-272-33029-2&rft.au=%E6%97%A9%E4%B9%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%8B%9D%E5%85%83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bui_1999_39,_40-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bui_1999_39,_40_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bui_1999_39,_40_144-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBuiChanoff1999" class="citation book cs1">Bui, Diem; Chanoff, David (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Opb_14GLdXcC&pg=PA40">In the Jaws of History</a>. Vietnam war era classics series (illustrated, reprint ed.). Indiana University Press. pp. 39, 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253335396" title="Special:BookSources/0253335396"><bdi>0253335396</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Jaws+of+History&rft.series=Vietnam+war+era+classics+series&rft.pages=39%2C+40&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0253335396&rft.aulast=Bui&rft.aufirst=Diem&rft.au=Chanoff%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOpb_14GLdXcC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF早乙女勝元1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Katsumoto_Saotome" title="Katsumoto Saotome">早乙女勝元</a> (10 September 1993). "第6章誰に責任が?". ベトナム"200万人"餓死の記録. <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%88%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97" class="extiw" title="ja:大月書店">大月書店</a>. pp. 151–152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-272-33029-2" title="Special:BookSources/4-272-33029-2"><bdi>4-272-33029-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E7%AC%AC6%E7%AB%A0+%E8%AA%B0%E3%81%AB%E8%B2%AC%E4%BB%BB%E3%81%8C%3F&rft.btitle=%E3%83%99%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%22200%E4%B8%87%E4%BA%BA%22%E9%A4%93%E6%AD%BB%E3%81%AE%E8%A8%98%E9%8C%B2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E152&rft.pub=%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%88%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97&rft.date=1993-09-10&rft.isbn=4-272-33029-2&rft.au=%E6%97%A9%E4%B9%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%8B%9D%E5%85%83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Furuta_Rec_97-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Furuta_Rec_97_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Furuta_Rec_97_146-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF古田元夫1997" class="citation book cs1">古田元夫, ed. (25 March 1997). 写真記録東南アジア歴史・戦争・日本 5 ベトナム・ラオス・カンボジア. ほるぷ出版. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-593-09513-1" title="Special:BookSources/4-593-09513-1"><bdi>4-593-09513-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%86%99%E7%9C%9F%E8%A8%98%E9%8C%B2+%E6%9D%B1%E5%8D%97%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2+%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2%E3%83%BB%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89%E3%83%BB%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC+5+%E3%83%99%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%82%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%B3%E3%83%9C%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=%E3%81%BB%E3%82%8B%E3%81%B7%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88&rft.date=1997-03-25&rft.isbn=4-593-09513-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Furuta-10-152-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Furuta-10-152_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF古田元夫2021" class="citation book cs1">古田元夫 (18 June 2021). 東南アジア10講. 岩波新書. 岩波書店. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-00-431883-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-00-431883-5"><bdi>978-4-00-431883-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%9D%B1%E5%8D%97%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A210%E8%AC%9B&rft.series=%E5%B2%A9%E6%B3%A2%E6%96%B0%E6%9B%B8&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=%E5%B2%A9%E6%B3%A2%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97&rft.date=2021-06-18&rft.isbn=978-4-00-431883-5&rft.au=%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%B0%E5%85%83%E5%A4%AB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF古田元夫2015" class="citation book cs1">古田元夫 (25 September 2015). 増補新装版ベトナムの世界史中華世界から東南アジア世界へ. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tokyo_Press" title="University of Tokyo Press">東京大学出版会</a>. p. 303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-13-006534-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-13-006534-4"><bdi>978-4-13-006534-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%A2%97%E8%A3%9C%E6%96%B0%E8%A3%85%E7%89%88+%E3%83%99%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%E3%81%AE%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%8F%B2+%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E3%81%8B%E3%82%89%E6%9D%B1%E5%8D%97%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E3%81%B8&rft.pages=303&rft.pub=%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E4%BC%9A&rft.date=2015-09-25&rft.isbn=978-4-13-006534-4&rft.au=%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%B0%E5%85%83%E5%A4%AB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF早乙女勝元1993" class="citation book cs1">早乙女勝元 (10 September 1993). "第6章誰に責任が?". ベトナム"200万人"餓死の記録. 大月書店. pp. 151–175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-272-33029-2" title="Special:BookSources/4-272-33029-2"><bdi>4-272-33029-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E7%AC%AC6%E7%AB%A0+%E8%AA%B0%E3%81%AB%E8%B2%AC%E4%BB%BB%E3%81%8C%3F&rft.btitle=%E3%83%99%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%22200%E4%B8%87%E4%BA%BA%22%E9%A4%93%E6%AD%BB%E3%81%AE%E8%A8%98%E9%8C%B2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E175&rft.pub=%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%88%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97&rft.date=1993-09-10&rft.isbn=4-272-33029-2&rft.au=%E6%97%A9%E4%B9%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%8B%9D%E5%85%83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF早乙女勝元1993" class="citation book cs1">早乙女勝元 (10 September 1993). "第6章誰に責任が?". ベトナム"200万人"餓死の記録. 大月書店. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-272-33029-2" title="Special:BookSources/4-272-33029-2"><bdi>4-272-33029-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E7%AC%AC6%E7%AB%A0+%E8%AA%B0%E3%81%AB%E8%B2%AC%E4%BB%BB%E3%81%8C%3F&rft.btitle=%E3%83%99%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%22200%E4%B8%87%E4%BA%BA%22%E9%A4%93%E6%AD%BB%E3%81%AE%E8%A8%98%E9%8C%B2&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%88%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97&rft.date=1993-09-10&rft.isbn=4-272-33029-2&rft.au=%E6%97%A9%E4%B9%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%8B%9D%E5%85%83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF小倉貞男1997" class="citation book cs1">小倉貞男 (25 July 1997). 物語ヴェトナムの歴史. <a href="/wiki/Chuokoron-Shinsha" title="Chuokoron-Shinsha">中央公論社</a>. pp. 345–346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-12-101372-7" title="Special:BookSources/4-12-101372-7"><bdi>4-12-101372-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%89%A9%E8%AA%9E+%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A7%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E345-%3C%2Fspan%3E346&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E5%85%AC%E8%AB%96%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1997-07-25&rft.isbn=4-12-101372-7&rft.au=%E5%B0%8F%E5%80%89%E8%B2%9E%E7%94%B7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hung-viet.org/a5222/doi-thoai-nam-2000">"Dân chủ: Vấn đề của dân tộc và thời đại"</a>. 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Đối Thoại Năm 2000. 25 March 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200928222053/https://hung-viet.org/a5222/doi-thoai-nam-2000">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H%C6%B0ng+Vi%E1%BB%87t%3A+TRANG+CH%C3%81NH+%E2%80%93+Trang+1&rft.atitle=D%C3%A2n+ch%E1%BB%A7%3A+V%E1%BA%A5n+%C4%91%E1%BB%81+c%E1%BB%A7a+d%C3%A2n+t%E1%BB%99c+v%C3%A0+th%E1%BB%9Di+%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i&rft.date=2000-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhung-viet.org%2Fa5222%2Fdoi-thoai-nam-2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Tuchman, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Addington, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Neville, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Duong, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Tønnesson, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Errington, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> The Vietnam War Seeds of Conflict 1945–1960. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunn2014" class="citation book cs1">Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4T7oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA224">Rice Wars in Colonial Vietnam: The Great Famine and the Viet Minh Road to Power</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442223035" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442223035"><bdi>978-1442223035</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rice+Wars+in+Colonial+Vietnam%3A+The+Great+Famine+and+the+Viet+Minh+Road+to+Power&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1442223035&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4T7oAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoySaha2016" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Kaushik; Saha, Sourish (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dwLeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84">Armed Forces and Insurgents in Modern Asia</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317231936" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317231936"><bdi>978-1317231936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armed+Forces+and+Insurgents+in+Modern+Asia&rft.pages=84&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317231936&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rft.au=Saha%2C+Sourish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdwLeCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2016" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Edward (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MzpcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40">The Vietnam War: A Documentary Reader</a>. Uncovering the Past: Documentary Readers in American History (illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405196789" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405196789"><bdi>978-1405196789</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vietnam+War%3A+A+Documentary+Reader&rft.series=Uncovering+the+Past%3A+Documentary+Readers+in+American+History&rft.pages=40&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1405196789&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMzpcCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDonaldson1996" class="citation book cs1">Donaldson, Gary (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jOHR0neab58C&pg=PA75">America at War Since 1945: Politics and Diplomacy in Korea, Vietnam, and the Gulf War</a>. Religious Studies; 39 (illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275956601" title="Special:BookSources/0275956601"><bdi>0275956601</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+at+War+Since+1945%3A+Politics+and+Diplomacy+in+Korea%2C+Vietnam%2C+and+the+Gulf+War&rft.series=Religious+Studies%3B+39&rft.pages=75&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0275956601&rft.aulast=Donaldson&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjOHR0neab58C%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNeville2007" class="citation book cs1">Neville, Peter (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u5DzbRINYkIC&pg=PA66">Britain in Vietnam: Prelude to Disaster, 1945–46</a>. Military History and Policy. Routledge. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134244768" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134244768"><bdi>978-1134244768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+in+Vietnam%3A+Prelude+to+Disaster%2C+1945%E2%80%9346&rft.series=Military+History+and+Policy&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1134244768&rft.aulast=Neville&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du5DzbRINYkIC%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuiker2012" class="citation book cs1">Duiker, William J (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRKZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT371">Ho Chi Minh: A Life</a>. Hachette Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1401305611" title="Special:BookSources/978-1401305611"><bdi>978-1401305611</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ho+Chi+Minh%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Hachette+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1401305611&rft.aulast=Duiker&rft.aufirst=William+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuRKZAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fJtqjYiVbUAC&pg=PA108">Ho Chi Minh: A Biography</a>. Translated by Claire Duiker (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2007. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521850629" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521850629"><bdi>978-0521850629</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ho+Chi+Minh%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=108&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0521850629&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfJtqjYiVbUAC%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPatti1980" class="citation book cs1">Patti, Archimedes L. A. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xbFx8OhYSjcC&pg=PA336">Why Viet Nam?: Prelude to America's Albatross</a> (illustrated ed.). University of California Press. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520041569" title="Special:BookSources/0520041569"><bdi>0520041569</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Viet+Nam%3F%3A+Prelude+to+America%27s+Albatross&rft.pages=336&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0520041569&rft.aulast=Patti&rft.aufirst=Archimedes+L.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxbFx8OhYSjcC%26pg%3DPA336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHo1995" class="citation book cs1">Ho, Chi Minh (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SVtNalqmYgAC&pg=PA47">"9. Vietnam's Second Appeal to the United States: Cable to President Harry S Truman (October 17, 1945)*"</a>. In Gettleman, Marvin E.; Franklin, Jane; Young, Marilyn Blatt; Franklin, Howard Bruce (eds.). Vietnam and America: A Documented History (illustrated, revised ed.). Grove Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802133622" title="Special:BookSources/0802133622"><bdi>0802133622</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9.+Vietnam%27s+Second+Appeal+to+the+United+States%3A+Cable+to+President+Harry+S+Truman+%28October+17%2C+1945%29%2A&rft.btitle=Vietnam+and+America%3A+A+Documented+History&rft.pages=47&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+revised&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0802133622&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Chi+Minh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSVtNalqmYgAC%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSarDesai2018" class="citation book cs1">SarDesai, D.R. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yJZNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT65">Vietnam: Past and Present</a> (4th reprint ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0429975196" title="Special:BookSources/978-0429975196"><bdi>978-0429975196</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.edition=4th+reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0429975196&rft.aulast=SarDesai&rft.aufirst=D.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyJZNDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHearden2016" class="citation book cs1">Hearden, Patrick J. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yg03DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">Tragedy of Vietnam</a> (4, revised ed.). Routledge. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1315510842" title="Special:BookSources/978-1315510842"><bdi>978-1315510842</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tragedy+of+Vietnam&rft.pages=67&rft.edition=4%2C+revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1315510842&rft.aulast=Hearden&rft.aufirst=Patrick+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyg03DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarr2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Marr, David G. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CVMA0mk6_6kC&pg=PA269">Vietnam: State, War, and Revolution (1945–1946)</a>. Philip E. Lilienthal book. Vol. 6 of From Indochina to Vietnam: Revolution and War in a Global Perspective (illustrated ed.). University of California Press. pp. 269–271, 274–275. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520274150" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520274150"><bdi>978-0520274150</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2691-0403">2691-0403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam%3A+State%2C+War%2C+and+Revolution+%281945%E2%80%931946%29&rft.series=Philip+E.+Lilienthal+book&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E269-%3C%2Fspan%3E271%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E274-%3C%2Fspan%3E275&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=2691-0403&rft.isbn=978-0520274150&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCVMA0mk6_6kC%26pg%3DPA269&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuiker2018" class="citation book cs1">Duiker, William J (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QVJPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119">The Communist Road To Power In Vietnam: Second Edition</a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0429972546" title="Special:BookSources/978-0429972546"><bdi>978-0429972546</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Communist+Road+To+Power+In+Vietnam%3A+Second+Edition&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0429972546&rft.aulast=Duiker&rft.aufirst=William+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQVJPDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCalkins2013" class="citation book cs1">Calkins, Laura M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G9Ppu-zcqTIC&pg=PA12">China and the First Vietnam War, 1947-54</a>. Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia (reprint ed.). Routledge. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134078479" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134078479"><bdi>978-1134078479</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+the+First+Vietnam+War%2C+1947-54&rft.series=Routledge+Studies+in+the+Modern+History+of+Asia&rft.pages=12&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1134078479&rft.aulast=Calkins&rft.aufirst=Laura+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG9Ppu-zcqTIC%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Fall, Street Without Joy, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Edward Rice-Maximin, Accommodation and Resistance: The French Left, Indochina, and the Cold War, 1944–1954 (Greenwood, 1986). </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChen2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Chen, King C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TQrWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA195">Vietnam and China, 1938–1954</a>. Vol. 2134 of Princeton Legacy Library (reprint ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400874903" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400874903"><bdi>978-1400874903</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam+and+China%2C+1938%E2%80%931954&rft.pages=195&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1400874903&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=King+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTQrWCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlitton2011" class="citation web cs1">Flitton, Dave (7 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/eQdFGr7NQ4o">"Battlefield Vietnam – Dien Bien Phu, the legacy"</a>. Public Broadcasting System PBS. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQdFGr7NQ4o">the original</a> on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Battlefield+Vietnam+%E2%80%93+Dien+Bien+Phu%2C+the+legacy&rft.pub=Public+Broadcasting+System+PBS&rft.date=2011-09-07&rft.aulast=Flitton&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DeQdFGr7NQ4o&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140726175311/http://www.montrealgazette.com/business/aerospace/entertainment/Photos/996953/story.html">"A picture taken on ngày 4 tháng 6 năm 1954 shows Vietnamese Prime Minister Buu Loc and French council president Joseph Laniel (R) preparing to sign two Franco-Vietnamese treaties by which France recognised Vietnam as an independent state at the Hotel Matignon in Paris, on ngày 4 tháng 6 năm 1954. These signatures took place one month after the defeat of Dien Bien Phu and a few days before the fall of Laniel's government"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.montrealgazette.com/business/aerospace/entertainment/Photos/996953/story.html">the original</a> on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+picture+taken+on+ng%C3%A0y+4+th%C3%A1ng+6+n%C4%83m+1954+shows+Vietnamese+Prime+Minister+Buu+Loc+and+French+council+president+Joseph+Laniel+%28R%29+preparing+to+sign+two+Franco-Vietnamese+treaties+by+which+France+recognised+Vietnam+as+an+independent+state+at+the+Hotel+Matignon+in+Paris%2C+on+ng%C3%A0y+4+th%C3%A1ng+6+n%C4%83m+1954.+These+signatures+took+place+one+month+after+the+defeat+of+Dien+Bien+Phu+and+a+few+days+before+the+fall+of+Laniel%27s+government&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.montrealgazette.com%2Fbusiness%2Faerospace%2Fentertainment%2FPhotos%2F996953%2Fstory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-indo-179"><a href="#cite_ref-indo_179-0">^</a> The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans: Nationalism and Communism in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Arthur J. Dommen. Indiana University Press, 2002. p. 240. Trích: The question remains of why the treaties of independence and association were simply initialed by Laniel and Buu Loc and not signed by Coty and Bao Dai… Many writers place the blame for the non-signature of the treaties on the Vietnamese. But there exists no logical explanation why it should have been the Vietnamese, rather than French, who refused their signature to the treaties which had been negotiated. Bao Dai had arrived in French in April believing the treaty-signing was only a matter of two or three weeks away. However, a quite satisfactory explanation in what was happening in Geneva, where the negotiations were moving ahead with suprising rapidity.… After Geneva, Bao Dai’s treaties was never completed </li> <li id="cite_note-Logevall-180"><a href="#cite_ref-Logevall_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLogevall2012" class="citation book cs1">Logevall, Fredrik (2012). Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64519-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64519-1"><bdi>978-0-679-64519-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Embers+of+War%3A+The+Fall+of+an+Empire+and+the+Making+of+America%27s+Vietnam&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-679-64519-1&rft.aulast=Logevall&rft.aufirst=Fredrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarder1984" class="citation news cs1">Marder, Murrey (22 August 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1982/08/22/when-ike-was-asked-to-nuke-vietnam/305c4152-202e-4303-9bdc-3424f4f7376b/">"When Ike Was Asked to Nuke Vietnam"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210928084305/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1982/08/22/when-ike-was-asked-to-nuke-vietnam/305c4152-202e-4303-9bdc-3424f4f7376b/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=When+Ike+Was+Asked+to+Nuke+Vietnam&rft.date=1984-08-22&rft.aulast=Marder&rft.aufirst=Murrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fopinions%2F1982%2F08%2F22%2Fwhen-ike-was-asked-to-nuke-vietnam%2F305c4152-202e-4303-9bdc-3424f4f7376b%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCuddy2003" class="citation journal cs1">Cuddy, Edward (2003). "Vietnam: Mr. Johnson's War. Or Mr. Eisenhower's?". The Review of Politics. 65 (4): 351–374. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0034670500039073">10.1017/S0034670500039073</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1408716">1408716</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145582758">145582758</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Politics&rft.atitle=Vietnam%3A+Mr.+Johnson%27s+War.+Or+Mr.+Eisenhower%27s%3F&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E351-%3C%2Fspan%3E374&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145582758%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1408716%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0034670500039073&rft.aulast=Cuddy&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011-183">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-2011_183-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPham_Diem_(State_and_Law_Research_Institute)2011" class="citation news cs1">Pham Diem (State and Law Research Institute) (24 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/the-state-structure-in-french-ruled-vietnam-1858-1945-4404.html">"The state structure in French-ruled Vietnam (1858–1945)"</a>. Vietnamlawmagazine.vn. Vietnam Law and Legal Forum magazine, Vietnam News Agency – Your gateway to the law of Vietnam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220419085145/https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/the-state-structure-in-french-ruled-vietnam-1858-1945-4404.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vietnamlawmagazine.vn&rft.atitle=The+state+structure+in+French-ruled+Vietnam+%281858%E2%80%931945%29.&rft.date=2011-02-24&rft.au=Pham+Diem+%28State+and+Law+Research+Institute%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvietnamlawmagazine.vn%2Fthe-state-structure-in-french-ruled-vietnam-1858-1945-4404.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam-Law-Magazine-French-Indochina-laws-2011_184-14">o</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPham_Diem_(State_and_Law_Research_Institute)2011" class="citation news cs1">Pham Diem (State and Law Research Institute) (24 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/legislation-in-french-ruled-vietnam-4504.html">"Legislation in French-ruled Vietnam"</a>. Vietnamlawmagazine.vn. Vietnam Law and Legal Forum magazine, Vietnam News Agency – Your gateway to the law of Vietnam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220426113007/https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/legislation-in-french-ruled-vietnam-4504.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vietnamlawmagazine.vn&rft.atitle=Legislation+in+French-ruled+Vietnam.&rft.date=2011-02-24&rft.au=Pham+Diem+%28State+and+Law+Research+Institute%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvietnamlawmagazine.vn%2Flegislation-in-french-ruled-vietnam-4504.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hương-ước-Radio-Free-Asia-185">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hương-ước-Radio-Free-Asia_185-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hương-ước-Radio-Free-Asia_185-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThông_tín_viên_RFA2018" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Thông tín viên RFA (23 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfa.org/vietnamese/news/reportfromvn/the-village-laws-now-and-then-03232018123259.html">"Hương ước – xưa và nay. Hương ước – hay còn gọi là lệ làng, là một giá trị văn hóa, truyền thống, gắn liền với lịch sử dân tộc Việt Nam. Trải qua bao biến cố, Hương ước đến nay vẫn còn được lưu giữ và đóng vai trò trong nền văn hóa và phong tục, tập quán của người Việt"</a> (in Vietnamese). <a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Asia" title="Radio Free Asia">Đài Á Châu Tự Do</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220511203459/https://www.rfa.org/vietnamese/news/reportfromvn/the-village-laws-now-and-then-03232018123259.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng+%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc+%E2%80%93+x%C6%B0a+v%C3%A0+nay.+H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng+%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc+%E2%80%93+hay+c%C3%B2n+g%E1%BB%8Di+l%C3%A0+l%E1%BB%87+l%C3%A0ng%2C+l%C3%A0+m%E1%BB%99t+gi%C3%A1+tr%E1%BB%8B+v%C4%83n+h%C3%B3a%2C+truy%E1%BB%81n+th%E1%BB%91ng%2C+g%E1%BA%AFn+li%E1%BB%81n+v%E1%BB%9Bi+l%E1%BB%8Bch+s%E1%BB%AD+d%C3%A2n+t%E1%BB%99c+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam.+Tr%E1%BA%A3i+qua+bao+bi%E1%BA%BFn+c%E1%BB%91%2C+H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng+%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc+%C4%91%E1%BA%BFn+nay+v%E1%BA%ABn+c%C3%B2n+%C4%91%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c+l%C6%B0u+gi%E1%BB%AF+v%C3%A0+%C4%91%C3%B3ng+vai+tr%C3%B2+trong+n%E1%BB%81n+v%C4%83n+h%C3%B3a+v%C3%A0+phong+t%E1%BB%A5c%2C+t%E1%BA%ADp+qu%C3%A1n+c%E1%BB%A7a+ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di+Vi%E1%BB%87t.&rft.pub=%C4%90%C3%A0i+%C3%81+Ch%C3%A2u+T%E1%BB%B1+Do&rft.date=2018-03-23&rft.au=Th%C3%B4ng+t%C3%ADn+vi%C3%AAn+RFA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfa.org%2Fvietnamese%2Fnews%2Freportfromvn%2Fthe-village-laws-now-and-then-03232018123259.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Key P. Yang; Gregory Henderson: An Outline History of Korean Confucianism: Part II: The Schools of Yi Confucianism. In: The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2. (Feb. 1959), pp. 259–276. Retrieved on 3 August 2005 "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2941686">Stable URL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220511205001/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2941686">Archived</a> 11 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Jennings, Eric. (2001). p136. Vichy in the Tropics: Pétain's National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–1944. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoskins_(a)2012" class="citation cs2">Hoskins (a), Janet Alison (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/edit/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/NL643-6.pdf">What Are Vietnam's Indigenous Religions?</a> (PDF), Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, pp. 4–6, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181944/http://www.cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/edit/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/NL643-6.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016, retrieved 5 August 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Are+Vietnam%27s+Indigenous+Religions%3F&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.pub=Center+for+Southeast+Asian+Studies%2C+Kyoto+University&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Hoskins+%28a%29&rft.aufirst=Janet+Alison&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp%2Fedit%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F02%2FNL643-6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWerner2006" class="citation book cs1">Werner, Jayne S. (October 2006). "Vietnamese Religious Society". In <a href="/wiki/Mark_Juergensmeyer" title="Mark Juergensmeyer">Juergensmeyer, Mark</a> (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195137989.003.0011">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195137989" title="Special:BookSources/9780195137989"><bdi>9780195137989</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vietnamese+Religious+Society&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Global+Religions&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2006-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195137989.003.0011&rft.isbn=9780195137989&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Jayne+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Pierre Brocheux and Daniel Hémery (2001), Indochine : la colonisation ambiguë 1858–1954, La Découverte, 2001, p. 178. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7071-3412-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7071-3412-7">978-2-7071-3412-7</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/asie/vietnam-3Pol-lng-off.htm">Vietnam – La politique linguistique</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806230835/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/asie/vietnam-3Pol-lng-off.htm">Archived</a> 6 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde (in French) </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBakerJones1998" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Colin; Jones, Sylvia Prys (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Multilingual Matters. p. 384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781853593628" title="Special:BookSources/9781853593628"><bdi>9781853593628</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Bilingualism+and+Bilingual+Education&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Multilingual+Matters&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781853593628&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft.au=Jones%2C+Sylvia+Prys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichardson1993" class="citation news cs1">Richardson, Michael (16 October 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/16/style/IHT-french-declines-in-indochina-as-english-booms.html">"French Declines in Indochina, as English Booms"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Herald_Tribune" title="International Herald Tribune">International Herald Tribune</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231001081055/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/16/style/IHT-french-declines-in-indochina-as-english-booms.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Herald+Tribune&rft.atitle=French+Declines+in+Indochina%2C+as+English+Booms&rft.date=1993-10-16&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1993%2F10%2F16%2Fstyle%2FIHT-french-declines-in-indochina-as-english-booms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Peters. </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia-1914-1918-Food-and-Nutrition-in-French-Indochina_196-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFErica_J._Peters2014" class="citation web cs1">Erica J. Peters (8 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/food_and_nutrition_indochina">"Food and Nutrition (Indochina)"</a>. 1914–1918-online – International Encyclopedia of the First World War (<a href="/wiki/Free_University_of_Berlin" title="Free University of Berlin">Free University of Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_State_Library" title="Bavarian State Library">Bavarian State Library</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische_Gymnasium" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium">Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium</a>, among others). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326033112/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/food_and_nutrition_indochina">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Food+and+Nutrition+%28Indochina%29&rft.pub=1914%E2%80%931918-online+%E2%80%93+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War+%28Free+University+of+Berlin%2C+Bavarian+State+Library%2C+and+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sische+Gymnasium%2C+among+others%29&rft.date=2014-10-08&rft.au=Erica+J.+Peters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Ffood_and_nutrition_indochina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> – Peters, Erica J.: Food and Nutrition (Indochina), in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> (8 October 2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15463%2Fie1418.10321">10.15463/ie1418.10321</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer in Aix-en-Provence (hereafter CAOM): Archives of the Governor General of Indochina (hereafter GGI), dossier 19457: 20 November 1914 letter from Governor General Vollenhoven to the Minister of Colonies. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Bulletin de la Chambre de Commerce de Saigon: minutes from 26 February 1915. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2022.2052853">"Adrien Jean-Guy Passant: Educating indigenous commercial executives. A business school in colonial context: The case of the Indochina Higher School of Commerce (1920–1932), Business History, Volume 66, Issue 5, pp. 955–1000, 2022"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00076791.2022.2052853">10.1080/00076791.2022.2052853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Adrien+Jean-Guy+Passant%3A+Educating+indigenous+commercial+executives.+A+business+school+in+colonial+context%3A+The+case+of+the+Indochina+Higher+School+of+Commerce+%281920%E2%80%931932%29%2C+Business+History%2C+Volume+66%2C+Issue+5%2C+pp.+955%E2%80%931000%2C+2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00076791.2022.2052853&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F00076791.2022.2052853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomas2007" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Martin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pXrXQU33avQC&q=1937+Saigon+busy+port&pg=PA331">The French Empire Between the Wars: Imperialism, Politics and Society</a>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-7755-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-7755-5"><bdi>978-0-7190-7755-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Empire+Between+the+Wars%3A+Imperialism%2C+Politics+and+Society&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-7755-5&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpXrXQU33avQC%26q%3D1937%2BSaigon%2Bbusy%2Bport%26pg%3DPA331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chfer-persee2-201"><a href="#cite_ref-chfer-persee2_201-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geo_0003-4010_1924_num_33_185_9449">Les chemins de fer de l'Indochine française</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131101152021/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geo_0003-4010_1924_num_33_185_9449">Archived</a> 1 November 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Arnaud Georges. In: <a href="/wiki/Annales_de_G%C3%A9ographie" title="Annales de Géographie">Annales de Géographie</a>. 1924, t. 33, n°185. pp. 501–503. </li> <li id="cite_note-vr-haiphong-202"><a href="#cite_ref-vr-haiphong_202-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101214173515/http://www.vr.com.vn/Gioithieuvecacgacuadsvn/gahaiphong.htm">"Ga Hải Phòng"</a> (in Vietnamese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vr.com.vn/Gioithieuvecacgacuadsvn/gahaiphong.htm">the original</a> on 14 December 2010. Retrieved 30 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ga+H%E1%BA%A3i+Ph%C3%B2ng&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vr.com.vn%2FGioithieuvecacgacuadsvn%2Fgahaiphong.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rousseau-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rousseau_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rousseau_203-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rousseau_203-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau2014" class="citation journal cs1">Rousseau, Jean-François (June 2014). "An Imperial Railway Failure: The Indochina-Yunnan Railway, 1898–1941". Journal of Transport History. 35 (1): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7227%2FTJTH.35.1.2">10.7227/TJTH.35.1.2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:111066738">111066738</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Transport+History&rft.atitle=An+Imperial+Railway+Failure%3A+The+Indochina-Yunnan+Railway%2C+1898%E2%80%931941&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7227%2FTJTH.35.1.2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A111066738%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> David Del Testa, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ip/sear/2011/00000019/00000004/art00006?crawler=true">"Vietnamese railway workers during the revolutionary high tide."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160407023427/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ip/sear/2011/00000019/00000004/art00006?crawler=true">Archived</a> 7 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> South East Asia Research, Volume 19, Number 4, December 2011, pp. 787-816(30) </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> The Country's Cultural and Tourist Center. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Bailey. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAddington,_Larry_H.2000" class="citation book cs1">Addington, Larry H. 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Queen's University at Kingston, Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190523081659/http://www.colonialarchitectureproject.org/index?/category/2310-indochine_cambodia_laos_vietnam">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2019. 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Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-0951-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-0951-9"><bdi>0-8014-0951-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Nationalism+in+Vietnam%2C+1900%E2%80%931941&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-8014-0951-9&rft.aulast=Duiker&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofnationalis0000duik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuong,_Van_Nguyen2008" class="citation book cs1">Duong, Van Nguyen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pVNaoUu7veUC&pg=PA21">The Tragedy of the Vietnam War: a South Vietnamese Officer's Analysis</a>. 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Crow's Nest, Australia: Allen and Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000MBU21O">B000MBU21O</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Laos&rft.place=Crow%27s+Nest%2C+Australia&rft.pub=Allen+and+Unwin&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB000MBU21O%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Grant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFForbesHenley2012" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2012). Vietnam Past and Present: The North (History of French colonialism in Tonkin). 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NYu4JuWyhNcC&pg=PA48">The A to Z of Vietnam</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7646-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7646-0"><bdi>978-0-8108-7646-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 27 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+Vietnam&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7646-0&rft.aulast=Lockhart&rft.aufirst=Bruce+McFarland&rft.au=Duiker%2C+William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNYu4JuWyhNcC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Logevall, Fredrik. Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam (2014). Pulitzer Prize</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarr1971" class="citation book cs1">Marr, David (1971). Vietnamese Anticolonialism, 1885–1925. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-01813-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-01813-3"><bdi>0-520-01813-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese+Anticolonialism%2C+1885%E2%80%931925&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-520-01813-3&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarr1982" class="citation book cs1">Marr, David (1982). Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-04180-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-04180-1"><bdi>0-520-04180-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese+Tradition+on+Trial%2C+1920%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-520-04180-1&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarr1995" class="citation book cs1">Marr, David (1995). Vietnam 1945: The Quest for Power. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07833-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07833-0"><bdi>0-520-07833-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam+1945%3A+The+Quest+for+Power&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-520-07833-0&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcLeod1991" class="citation book cs1">McLeod, Mark (1991). The Vietnamese Response to French Intervention, 1862–1874. New York: Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-93562-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-93562-0"><bdi>0-275-93562-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vietnamese+Response+to+French+Intervention%2C+1862%E2%80%931874&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-275-93562-0&rft.aulast=McLeod&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurray1980" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Martin J. (1980). The Development of Capitalism in Colonial Indochina (1870–1940). Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-04000-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-04000-7"><bdi>0-520-04000-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Capitalism+in+Colonial+Indochina+%281870%E2%80%931940%29&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-520-04000-7&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNeville,_Peter2007" class="citation book cs1">Neville, Peter (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o1t8-EjWyrgC&pg=PA119">Britain in Vietnam: Prelude to Disaster, 1945–6</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35848-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35848-4"><bdi>978-0-415-35848-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+in+Vietnam%3A+Prelude+to+Disaster%2C+1945%E2%80%936&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35848-4&rft.au=Neville%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do1t8-EjWyrgC%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOsborne1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Milton_Osborne" title="Milton Osborne">Osborne, Milton</a> (1969). The French Presence in Cochinchina and Cambodia: Rule and Response (1859–1905). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000K13QGO">B000K13QGO</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Presence+in+Cochinchina+and+Cambodia%3A+Rule+and+Response+%281859%E2%80%931905%29&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB000K13QGO%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Osborne&rft.aufirst=Milton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOwen,_Norman_G.2005" class="citation book cs1">Owen, Norman G. 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AltaMira Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Appetites+and+Aspirations+in+Vietnam&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Erica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStuart-Fox1997" class="citation book cs1">Stuart-Fox, Martin (1997). A History of Laos. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59235-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59235-6"><bdi>0-521-59235-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Laos&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-59235-6&rft.aulast=Stuart-Fox&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTarling2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Tarling" title="Nicholas Tarling">Tarling, Nicholas</a> (2001). Imperialism in Southeast Asia: "A Fleeting, Passing Phase". London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23289-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23289-9"><bdi>0-415-23289-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperialism+in+Southeast+Asia%3A+%22A+Fleeting%2C+Passing+Phase%22&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-23289-9&rft.aulast=Tarling&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomazi1934" class="citation book cs1">Thomazi, Auguste (1934). La Conquête de l'Indochine. Paris: Payot.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Conqu%C3%AAte+de+l%27Indochine&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Payot&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Thomazi&rft.aufirst=Auguste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTønnesson,_Stein2010" class="citation book cs1">Tønnesson, Stein (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1I4HOcmE4XQC&pg=PA41">Vietnam 1946: How the War Began</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25602-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25602-6"><bdi>978-0-520-25602-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam+1946%3A+How+the+War+Began&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25602-6&rft.au=T%C3%B8nnesson%2C+Stein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1I4HOcmE4XQC%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTuchman,_Barbara_Werheim1985" class="citation book cs1">Tuchman, Barbara Werheim (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v5YlBtzklvQC&pg=PA235">The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-30823-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-30823-9"><bdi>0-345-30823-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+March+of+Folly%3A+From+Troy+to+Vietnam&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-345-30823-9&rft.au=Tuchman%2C+Barbara+Werheim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv5YlBtzklvQC%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTucker1999" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vietnam00tuck">Vietnam</a>. University Press of Kentucky. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vietnam00tuck/page/29">29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8131-0966-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8131-0966-3"><bdi>0-8131-0966-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8131-0966-3&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Spencer+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvietnam00tuck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTully2003" class="citation book cs1">Tully, John (2003). France on the Mekong: A History of the Protectorate in Cambodia, 1863–1953. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7618-2431-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7618-2431-6"><bdi>0-7618-2431-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+on+the+Mekong%3A+A+History+of+the+Protectorate+in+Cambodia%2C+1863%E2%80%931953&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7618-2431-6&rft.aulast=Tully&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/asie/vietnam.htm">"Vietnam"</a>. L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde (in French). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220121095348/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/asie/vietnam.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22French-language+text%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22fr%22%3EL%27am%C3%A9nagement+linguistique+dans+le+monde%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+French-language+text&rft.atitle=Vietnam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca%2Fasie%2Fvietnam.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/vietnam/index-1945.html">"The Vietnam War Seeds of Conflict 1945–1960"</a>. The History Place. 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217062228/http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/vietnam/index-1945.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Vietnam+War+Seeds+of+Conflict+1945%E2%80%931960&rft.pub=The+History+Place&rft.date=1999&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyplace.com%2Funitedstates%2Fvietnam%2Findex-1945.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Watson, D. R. (1970) "The French and Indo-China" History Today (Aug 1970, Vol. 20 Issue 8, pp 534–542; online survey</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWoodside1976" class="citation book cs1">Woodside, Alexander (1976). Community and Revolution in Modern Vietnam. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-20367-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-20367-8"><bdi>0-395-20367-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Community+and+Revolution+in+Modern+Vietnam&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-395-20367-8&rft.aulast=Woodside&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZinoman2001" class="citation book cs1">Zinoman, Peter (2001). The Colonial Bastille: A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22412-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22412-4"><bdi>0-520-22412-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Colonial+Bastille%3A+A+History+of+Imprisonment+in+Vietnam%2C+1862%E2%80%931940&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-520-22412-4&rft.aulast=Zinoman&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Indochina" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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class="extiw" title="commons:Category:French Indochina">French Indochina</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/120px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of a 1922 <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article about "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Indo-China,_French" class="extiw" title="s:1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Indo-China, French">French Indochina</a>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li>(in English and French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2392">The Colonization of Indochina</a>, from around 1892</li> <li>(in English and French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/310">Indochina</a>, a tourism book published in 1910</li> <li>Pierre Brocheux: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_society_indochina/">Colonial Society (Indochina)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb32697929f/date">Annuaire général de l'Indo-Chine française</a> – <a href="/wiki/BnF" class="mw-redirect" title="BnF">BnF</a> (in French)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_Indochina188" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_Indochina" title="Template:French Indochina"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_Indochina" title="Template talk:French Indochina"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_Indochina" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French Indochina"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_Indochina188" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Indochina</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Asia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="France–Asia relations">France–Asia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Vietnam_relations" title="France–Vietnam relations">France–Vietnam relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Thailand_relations" title="France–Thailand relations">France–Thailand relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93France_relations" title="China–France relations">France–China relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constituent territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangzhouwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Central_Government_of_Vietnam" title="Provisional Central Government of Vietnam">Provisional Central Government of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">State of Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_assistance_to_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_%C3%81nh" title="French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh">French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh (1777–1820)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_V%C4%83n_Kh%C3%B4i_revolt" title="Lê Văn Khôi revolt">Lê Văn Khôi revolt (1833–35)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tourane_(1847)" title="Bombardment of Tourane (1847)">Bombardment of Tourane (1847)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Vietnam" title="French conquest of Vietnam">French conquest of Vietnam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tourane" title="Siege of Tourane">Siege of Tourane (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">Cochinchina campaign (1858–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_campaign" title="Tonkin campaign">Tonkin campaign (1883–1886)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War (1884–1885)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Tonkin" title="Pacification of Tonkin">Pacification of Tonkin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1893_Franco-Siamese_crisis" title="1893 Franco-Siamese crisis">Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Man%27s_Rebellion" title="Holy Man's Rebellion">Holy Man's Rebellion (1901-1936)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam_during_World_War_I" title="History of Vietnam during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1916 Cochinchina uprising">1916 Cochinchina uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A1i_Nguy%C3%AAn_uprising" title="Thái Nguyên uprising">Thái Nguyên uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vue_Pa_Chay%27s_revolt" title="Vue Pa Chay's revolt">Vue Pa Chay's revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_the_recruiter_Bazin" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of the recruiter Bazin">Bazin assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_mutiny" title="Yên Bái mutiny">Yên Bái mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">French–Thai War (1940–1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Independence_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam">Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Permanent_Military_Tribunal_in_Saigon" title="French Permanent Military Tribunal in Saigon">French Permanent Military Tribunal in Saigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Battle of Dien Bien Phu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Partition of Vietnam">Partition of Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1787)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1787)">Treaty of Versailles (1787)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saigon_(1862)" title="Treaty of Saigon (1862)">Treaty of Saigon (1862)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hu%E1%BA%BF_(1863)" title="Treaty of Huế (1863)">Treaty of Huế (1863)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saigon_(1874)" title="Treaty of Saigon (1874)">Treaty of Saigon (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hu%E1%BA%BF_(1883)" title="Treaty of Huế (1883)">Treaty of Huế (1883)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hu%E1%BA%BF_(1884)" title="Treaty of Huế (1884)">Treaty of Huế (1884)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin_(1885)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Tientsin (1885)">Treaty of Tientsin (1885)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">Geneva Conference (1954)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">French personalities</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pigneau_de_Behaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Pigneau de Behaine">Pierre Pigneau de Behaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Chaigneau" title="Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau">Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_C%C3%A9cille" title="Jean-Baptiste Cécille">Jean-Baptiste Cécille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Montigny" title="Charles de Montigny">Charles de Montigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rigault_de_Genouilly" title="Charles Rigault de Genouilly">Charles Rigault de Genouilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Courbet" title="Amédée Courbet">Amédée Courbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Rivi%C3%A8re_(naval_officer)" title="Henri Rivière (naval officer)">Henri Rivière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Garnier" title="Francis Garnier">Francis Garnier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Doudart_de_Lagr%C3%A9e" title="Ernest Doudart de Lagrée">Ernest Doudart de Lagrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Pavie" title="Auguste Pavie">Auguste Pavie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sarraut" title="Albert Sarraut">Albert Sarraut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Foreign_Missions_Society" title="Paris Foreign Missions Society">Paris Foreign Missions Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirailleurs_indochinois" title="Tirailleurs indochinois">Tirailleurs indochinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Expeditionary_Corps" title="Tonkin Expeditionary Corps">Tonkin Expeditionary Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkinese_Rifles" title="Tonkinese Rifles">Tonkinese Rifles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors-general_of_French_Indochina" title="List of governors-general of French Indochina">Governor-General of French Indochina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_overseas_empire62" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_overseas_empire" title="Template:French overseas empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_overseas_empire" title="Template talk:French overseas empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_overseas_empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French overseas empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_overseas_empire62" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French overseas empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> in Africa and the Indian Ocean</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">North Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="French protectorate in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">West Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="French Ivory Coast">Côte d'Ivoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Dahomey" title="French Dahomey">Dahomey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Sudan" title="French Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guinea" title="French Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Mauritania" title="Colonial Mauritania">Mauritania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arguin" title="Arguin">Arguin Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Niger" title="Colony of Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senegal">Senegal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Communes" title="Four Communes">Four Communes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Upper_Volta" title="French Upper Volta">Upper Volta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Togoland" title="French Togoland">Togoland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunta_Kinteh_Island" title="Kunta Kinteh Island">James Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albreda" title="Albreda">Albreda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">Equatorial Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">Middle Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangi-Shari" title="Ubangi-Shari">Ubangi-Shari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Cameroons" class="mw-redirect" title="French Cameroons">Cameroons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Comoros" class="mw-redirect" title="French Comoros">Comoros</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anjouan" title="Anjouan">Anjouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grande_Comore" title="Grande Comore">Grande Comore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moh%C3%A9li" title="Mohéli">Mohéli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland" title="French Somaliland">Somaliland (Djibouti)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_de_France_(Mauritius)" title="Isle de France (Mauritius)">Isle de France</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Template:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas274" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">in the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">French North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Terre Neuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Florida" title="French Florida">French Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_Texas" title="French colonization of Texas">French Texas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadines" title="Grenadines">The Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ha%C3%AFti" class="mw-redirect" title="Haïti">Haïti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Era_de_Francia" title="Era de Francia">Dominican Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts_%26_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Kitts & Nevis">Saint Kitts & Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Vincent_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Vincent (island)">Saint Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the British Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Equinoctial France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berbice" title="Berbice">Berbice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">France Antarctique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inini" title="Inini">Inini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_India_Company" title="French West India Company">French West India Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Template:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania270" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> in Asia and Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandannagar" title="Chandannagar">Chandernagor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chennai" title="History of Chennai">Madras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_India" title="Mahé, India">Mahé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puducherry" title="History of Puducherry">Pondichéry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaikal" title="Karaikal">Karaikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanam" title="Yanam">Yanaon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indochinese Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Kouang-Tchéou-Wan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Aleppo" title="State of Aleppo">Aleppo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Damascus" title="State of Damascus">Damascus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawite_State" title="Alawite State">Alawite State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabal_Druze_State" title="Jabal Druze State">Jabal al-Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Alexandretta" title="Sanjak of Alexandretta">Sanjak of Alexandretta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vanuatu" title="History of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanto-Bordelaise_Company" title="Nanto-Bordelaise Company">Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Asia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="France–Asia relations">France–Asia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV%27s_East_India_Company" title="Louis XIV's East India Company">Louis XIV's East India Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Overseas_France" title="Template:Overseas France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Overseas_France" title="Template talk:Overseas France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Overseas_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Overseas France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Overseas_France298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_France" title="Overseas France">Overseas France</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Inhabited_territories298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Inhabited territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">Overseas regions</a>1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_collectivity" title="Overseas collectivity">Overseas collectivities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin" title="Collectivity of Saint Martin">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">Sui generis</a> collectivity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Uninhabited_territories298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Uninhabited territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">North Pacific Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clipperton_Island" title="Clipperton Island">Clipperton Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_territory_(France)" title="Overseas territory (France)">Overseas territory</a> (<a href="/wiki/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands" title="French Southern and Antarctic Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crozet_Islands" title="Crozet Islands">Crozet Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_domains_of_Saint_Helena" title="French domains of Saint Helena">French domains of Saint Helena</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_domains_of_the_Holy_Land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French domains of the Holy Land (page does not exist)">French domains of the Holy Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Islands" title="Kerguelen Islands">Kerguelen Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Saint-Paul" title="Île Saint-Paul">Saint Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Amsterdam" title="Île Amsterdam">Amsterdam Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Scattered_Islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean">Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bassas_da_India" title="Bassas da India">Bassas da India</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Island" title="Europa Island">Europa Island</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorioso_Islands" title="Glorioso Islands">Glorioso Islands</a>2, 3 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banc_du_Geyser" title="Banc du Geyser">Banc du Geyser</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Nova_Island" title="Juan de Nova Island">Juan de Nova Island</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tromelin_Island" title="Tromelin Island">Tromelin Island</a>4</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>1 Also known as <a href="/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">overseas departments</a></li> <li>2 Claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li>3 Claimed by <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li>4 Claimed by <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vietnamese_independence_movements327" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vietnamese_independence_movement" title="Template:Vietnamese independence movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vietnamese_independence_movement" title="Template talk:Vietnamese independence movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vietnamese_independence_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vietnamese independence movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Vietnamese_independence_movements327" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnamese</a> independence movements</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Saigon" title="Siege of Saigon">Siege of Saigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Saigon" title="Citadel of Saigon">Capture of the Citadel of Saigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">Cochinchina Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%E1%BA%A7n_V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_movement" title="Cần Vương movement">Ba Dinh uprising / Cần Vương</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Tonkin" title="Pacification of Tonkin">Pacification of Tonkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A3i_S%E1%BA%ADy_uprising" title="Bãi Sậy uprising">Bãi Sậy uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanoi_Poison_Plot" title="Hanoi Poison Plot">Hanoi Poison Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_Th%E1%BA%BF_Insurrection" title="Yên Thế Insurrection">Yên Thế Insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam_during_World_War_I" title="History of Vietnam during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1916 Cochinchina uprising">1916 Cochinchina uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A1i_Nguy%C3%AAn_uprising" title="Thái Nguyên uprising">Thái Nguyên uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_the_recruiter_Bazin" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of the recruiter Bazin">Bazin assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_mutiny" title="Yên Bái mutiny">Yên Bái mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngh%E1%BB%87-T%C4%A9nh_Soviets" title="Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviets">Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnam in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1940 Cochinchina uprising">1940 Cochinchina uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Independence_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam">Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Battle of Dien Bien Phu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">Geneva Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C%E1%BA%A7n_V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_movement" title="Cần Vương movement">Cần Vương</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%C3%B4ng_Du" title="Đông Du">Đông Du</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duy_T%C3%A2n_H%E1%BB%99i" title="Duy Tân Hội">Duy Tân Hội</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Nguyễn dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Free_School" title="Tonkin Free School">Tonkin Free School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Quang_Ph%E1%BB%A5c_H%E1%BB%99i" title="Việt Nam Quang Phục Hội">Việt Nam Quang Phục Hội</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Revolutionary_Youth_League" title="Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League">Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Minh" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Minh">Việt Minh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Communist Party of Vietnam">Communist Party of Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uprising Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A1m_B%C3%A0nh" title="Phạm Bành">Phạm Bành</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Quang_B%C3%ADch" title="Nguyễn Quang Bích">Nguyễn Quang Bích</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B5_Duy_D%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Võ Duy Dương">Võ Duy Dương</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh" title="Trương Định">Trương Định</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nguy%E1%BB%85n_H%E1%BB%AFu_Hu%C3%A2n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nguyễn Hữu Huân (page does not exist)">Nguyễn Hữu Huân</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phan_X%C3%ADch_Long" title="Phan Xích Long">Phan Xích Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Xu%C3%A2n_%C3%94n" class="mw-redirect" title="Nguyễn Xuân Ôn">Nguyễn Xuân Ôn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phan_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Ph%C3%B9ng" title="Phan Đình Phùng">Phan Đình Phùng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E1%BB%91ng_Duy_T%C3%A2n" title="Tống Duy Tân">Tống Duy Tân</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho%C3%A0ng_Hoa_Th%C3%A1m" title="Hoàng Hoa Thám">Hoàng Hoa Thám</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Thi%E1%BB%87n_Thu%E1%BA%ADt" title="Nguyễn Thiện Thuật">Nguyễn Thiện Thuật</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%B4n_Th%E1%BA%A5t_Thuy%E1%BA%BFt" title="Tôn Thất Thuyết">Tôn Thất Thuyết</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%E1%BA%A7m_B%C3%A1_Th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc" title="Cầm Bá Thước">Cầm Bá Thước</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_C%C3%B4ng_Tr%C3%A1ng" title="Đinh Công Tráng">Đinh Công Tráng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Trung_Tr%E1%BB%B1c" title="Nguyễn Trung Trực">Nguyễn Trung Trực</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Revolutionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_V%C4%83n_Can" title="Lương Văn Can">Lương Văn Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_Qu%C3%BD_C%C3%A1p" title="Trần Quý Cáp">Trần Quý Cáp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%90%E1%BB%83" title="Cường Để">Cường Để</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phan_Ch%C3%A2u_Trinh" title="Phan Châu Trinh">Phan Châu Trinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_Th%C3%BAc_Kh%C3%A1ng" title="Huỳnh Thúc Kháng">Huỳnh Thúc Kháng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c_K%E1%BA%BF" title="Ngô Đức Kế">Ngô Đức Kế</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Th%E1%BA%A7n_Hi%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nguyễn Thần Hiến">Nguyễn Thần Hiến</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Th%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3ng_Hi%E1%BB%81n" title="Nguyễn Thượng Hiền">Nguyễn Thượng Hiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Th%C3%A1i_H%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Nguyễn Thái Học">Nguyễn Thái Học</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_Ch%C3%AD_Minh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hồ Chí Minh">Hồ Chí Minh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_An_Ninh" title="Nguyễn An Ninh">Nguyễn An Ninh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Quy%E1%BB%81n" title="Nguyễn Quyền">Nguyễn Quyền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Th%C3%A0nh" title="Nguyễn Thành">Nguyễn Thành</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E1%BA%A1_Thu_Th%C3%A2u" title="Tạ Thu Thâu">Tạ Thu Thâu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phan_V%C4%83n_Tr%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng" title="Phan Văn Trường">Phan Văn Trường</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_Cao_V%C3%A2n" title="Trần Cao Vân">Trần Cao Vân</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C5%A9_H%E1%BB%93ng_Khanh" title="Vũ Hồng Khanh">Vũ Hồng Khanh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emperors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T%E1%BB%B1_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Tự Đức">Tự Đức</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A0m_Nghi" title="Hàm Nghi">Hàm Nghi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh_Th%C3%A1i" title="Thành Thái">Thành Thái</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duy_T%C3%A2n" title="Duy Tân">Duy Tân</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i" title="Bảo Đại">Bảo Đại</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">French rulers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sarraut" title="Albert Sarraut">Albert Sarraut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Decoux" title="Jean Decoux">Jean Decoux</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Indochina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors-general_of_French_Indochina" title="List of governors-general of French Indochina">Governor-General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">French protectorate of Annam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_administrators_of_the_French_protectorate_of_Annam" title="List of administrators of the French protectorate of Annam">Administrator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">French protectorate of Tonkin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_administrators_of_the_French_protectorate_of_Tonkin" title="List of administrators of the French protectorate of Tonkin">Administrator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">French colony of Cochinchina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_administrators_of_the_French_colony_of_Cochinchina" title="List of administrators of the French colony of Cochinchina">Administrator</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ho%C3%A0ng_Cao_Kh%E1%BA%A3i" title="Hoàng Cao Khải">Hoàng Cao Khải</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tr%E1%BA%A7n_B%C3%A1_L%E1%BB%99c&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trần Bá Lộc (page does not exist)">Trần Bá Lộc</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Tr%E1%BB%8Dng_H%E1%BB%A3p&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nguyễn Trọng Hợp (page does not exist)">Nguyễn Trọng Hợp</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_C%C3%B4ng_T%E1%BA%A5n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Huỳnh Công Tấn (page does not exist)">Huỳnh Công Tấn</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Th%C3%A2n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nguyễn Thân (page does not exist)">Nguyễn Thân</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=L%C3%AA_Hoan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lê Hoan (page does not exist)">Lê Hoan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Wars_in_Vietnam_(1858%E2%80%931886)" title="Template:Wars in Vietnam (1858–1886)">Wars in Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Vietnamese_independence_movement" title="Template:Vietnamese independence movement">independence movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style 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plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_and_territories_in_the_sphere_of_influence_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Template:States and territories in the sphere of influence of the Empire of Japan during World War II"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_and_territories_in_the_sphere_of_influence_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Template talk:States and territories in the sphere of influence of the Empire of Japan during World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_and_territories_in_the_sphere_of_influence_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States and territories in the sphere of influence of the Empire of Japan during World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_and_territories_in_the_sphere_of_influence_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_during_World_War_II197" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">States and territories in the sphere of influence of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/23px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/35px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/45px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/East_Hebei_Autonomous_Government" title="East Hebei Autonomous Government">East Hebei Autonomous Government</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Jinbei.svg/23px-Flag_of_Jinbei.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Jinbei.svg/35px-Flag_of_Jinbei.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Jinbei.svg/45px-Flag_of_Jinbei.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/North_Shanxi_Autonomous_Government" title="North Shanxi Autonomous Government">North Shanxi Autonomous Government</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Chanan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Chanan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Chanan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Chanan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/South_Chahar_Autonomous_Government" title="South Chahar Autonomous Government">South Chahar Autonomous Government</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /> <a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang United Autonomous Government</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Flag_of_the_Great_Way_Municipal_Government_of_Shanghai.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Great_Way_Municipal_Government_of_Shanghai.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Flag_of_the_Great_Way_Municipal_Government_of_Shanghai.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Great_Way_Municipal_Government_of_Shanghai.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Flag_of_the_Great_Way_Municipal_Government_of_Shanghai.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Great_Way_Municipal_Government_of_Shanghai.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Great_Way_Government" title="Great Way Government">Shanghai Great Way Government</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_%281939%E2%80%931940%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_%281939%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_%281939%E2%80%931940%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_%281939%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_%281939%E2%80%931940%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_%281939%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1937%E2%80%931940)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)">Provisional Government of China</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Reformed Government of the Republic of China">Reformed Government of China</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China-Nanjing_%28Peace%2C_Anti-Communism%2C_National_Construction%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China-Nanjing_%28Peace%2C_Anti-Communism%2C_National_Construction%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China-Nanjing_%28Peace%2C_Anti-Communism%2C_National_Construction%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China-Nanjing_%28Peace%2C_Anti-Communism%2C_National_Construction%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="587" /> <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Reorganized National Government of China</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Kingdom of Thailand</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Burma_1943.svg/40px-Flag_of_Burma_1943.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Burma_1943.svg/60px-Flag_of_Burma_1943.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/1931_Flag_of_India.svg/23px-1931_Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/1931_Flag_of_India.svg/35px-1931_Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/1931_Flag_of_India.svg/45px-1931_Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Provisional Government of Free India</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281943%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281943%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281943%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281943%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281943%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281943%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="450" /> <a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Republic of the Philippines</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/60px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Indochina</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_Vietnam_%281945%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_Vietnam_%281945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_Vietnam_%281945%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_Vietnam_%281945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_Vietnam_%281945%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_Vietnam_%281945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Cambodia_%281863%E2%80%931948%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cambodia_%281863%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Cambodia_%281863%E2%80%931948%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Cambodia_%281863%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="640" /> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kampuchea_(1945)" title="Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)">Kingdom of Kampuchea</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Laos_%281952%E2%80%931975%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Laos_%281952%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Laos_%281952%E2%80%931975%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Laos_%281952%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Laos_%281952%E2%80%931975%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Laos_%281952%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luang_Prabang_(Japanese_puppet_state)" title="Kingdom of Luang Prabang (Japanese puppet state)">Kingdom of Luang Prabang</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Occupied Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_West_Sumatra" title="Japanese occupation of West Sumatra">Occupied West Sumatra</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Occupied Malaya</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Occupied British Borneo</a></div></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Occupied Hong Kong</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Occupied Singapore</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Guam" title="Japanese occupation of Guam">Occupied Guam</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Nauru" title="Japanese occupation of Nauru">Occupied Nauru</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Gilbert_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands">Occupied Gilbert Islands</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands">Occupied Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">Occupied New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Conference" title="Greater East Asia Conference">Greater East Asia Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185682#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1957" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185682#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185682#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121834360">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/149958130">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJwhyxfv8jmpGP9HF9byBP">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/115041-8">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50055276">United States</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85065716">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12086315d">France</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119342407">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12086315d">BnF data</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119342407">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563739">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36588782">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987013003071505171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02065415?l=en">CiNii</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027262006">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&oldid=1283065967">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_Indochina&oldid=1283065967</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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</div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-65585cc8dc-7gd89","wgBackendResponseTime":308,"wgKartographerLiveData":{"_19daeb8e3808f1aa85ad490f39d7ec9a34f2eec3":[{"type":"ExternalData","service":"geoshape","url":"https://maps.wikimedia.org/geoshape?getgeojson=1\u0026ids=Q185682","properties":{"title":"French Indochina","fill-opacity":0.5,"stroke":"#FF0000","stroke-width":3,"fill":"#606060"}},{"type":"ExternalData","service":"geoline","url":"https://maps.wikimedia.org/geoline?getgeojson=1\u0026ids=Q185682","properties":{"stroke-width":5,"stroke":"#FF0000","title":"French Indochina"}},{"type":"Feature","geometry":{"coordinates":[105.85,21.033333333333],"type":"Point"},"properties":{"title":"French 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