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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Academic literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Academic_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Academic literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Academic_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lindahl_tax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lindahl_tax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Lindahl tax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lindahl_tax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vickrey–Clarke–Groves_mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vickrey–Clarke–Groves_mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Vickrey–Clarke–Groves mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vickrey–Clarke–Groves_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quadratic_funding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quadratic_funding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Quadratic funding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quadratic_funding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assurance_contracts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assurance_contracts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Assurance contracts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assurance_contracts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lotteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lotteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Lotteries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lotteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_non-profits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_non-profits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Role of non-profits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_non-profits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology,_and_types_of_goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology,_and_types_of_goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Terminology, and types of goods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Terminology,_and_types_of_goods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Terminology, and types of goods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Terminology,_and_types_of_goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition_matrix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition_matrix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Definition matrix</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition_matrix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges_in_identifying_public_goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges_in_identifying_public_goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Challenges in identifying public goods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges_in_identifying_public_goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_public_goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_public_goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Digital public goods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_public_goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Common_examples_of_public_goods_include" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_examples_of_public_goods_include"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Common examples of public goods include</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_examples_of_public_goods_include-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misclassified_public_goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misclassified_public_goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Misclassified public goods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misclassified_public_goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_rider_problem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_rider_problem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Free rider problem</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_rider_problem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficient_production_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficient_production_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Efficient production levels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficient_production_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_public_goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_public_goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Local public goods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_public_goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ownership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ownership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Ownership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ownership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Public good</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9" title="سلعة عامة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلعة عامة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bien_p%C3%BAblicu" title="Bien públicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Bien públicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ctimai_mal" title="İctimai mal – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İctimai mal" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%BE_%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Общо благо – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Общо благо" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9_p%C3%BAblic" title="Bé públic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bé públic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C5%99ejn%C3%BD_statek" title="Veřejný statek – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Veřejný statek" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96ffentliches_Gut" title="Öffentliches Gut – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Öffentliches Gut" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalik_h%C3%BCvis" title="Avalik hüvis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Avalik hüvis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bien_p%C3%BAblico" title="Bien público – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bien público" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komuna_bono_kaj_naturaj_bonoj" title="Komuna bono kaj naturaj bonoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Komuna bono kaj naturaj bonoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ondasun_publiko" title="Ondasun publiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ondasun publiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="کالای عمومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کالای عمومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bien_public" title="Bien public – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bien public" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_p%C3%BAblico" title="Ben público – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ben público" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EA%B3%B5%EC%9E%AC" title="공공재 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공공재" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javna_dobra" title="Javna dobra – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Javna dobra" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barang_publik" title="Barang publik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Barang publik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almannag%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Almannagæði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Almannagæði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beni_pubblici" title="Beni pubblici – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Beni pubblici" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%A8_%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99" title="מוצר ציבורי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוצר ציבורי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="საზოგადოებრივი საქონელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საზოგადოებრივი საქონელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visuomeninis_turtas" title="Visuomeninis turtas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Visuomeninis turtas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6zj%C3%B3sz%C3%A1g" title="Közjószág – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Közjószág" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B0" title="Нийтийн бараа – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Нийтийн бараа" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publieke_goederen" title="Publieke goederen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Publieke goederen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E8%B2%A1" title="公共財 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="公共財" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollektive_goder" title="Kollektive goder – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kollektive goder" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_public" title="Ben public – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ben public" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobra_publiczne" title="Dobra publiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dobra publiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bem_p%C3%BAblico" title="Bem público – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bem público" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bun_colectiv" title="Bun colectiv – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bun colectiv" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Общественные блага – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Общественные блага" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_good" title="Public good – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Public good" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julkishy%C3%B6dyke" title="Julkishyödyke – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Julkishyödyke" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollektiv_nyttighet" title="Kollektiv nyttighet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kollektiv nyttighet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_good" title="Public good – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Public good" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பொதுப் பண்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பொதுப் பண்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamusal_mal" title="Kamusal mal – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kamusal mal" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Суспільні блага – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Суспільні блага" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0ng_h%C3%B3a_c%C3%B4ng_c%E1%BB%99ng" title="Hàng hóa công cộng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hàng hóa công cộng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E7%94%A8%E5%93%81" title="共用品 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="共用品" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good_(economics)&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">Public good (economics)</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Good that is non-excludable and non-rival</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the general concept, see <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhareDeLaVieille_DSC08079_PtrQs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/PhareDeLaVieille_DSC08079_PtrQs.jpg/170px-PhareDeLaVieille_DSC08079_PtrQs.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/PhareDeLaVieille_DSC08079_PtrQs.jpg/255px-PhareDeLaVieille_DSC08079_PtrQs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/PhareDeLaVieille_DSC08079_PtrQs.jpg/340px-PhareDeLaVieille_DSC08079_PtrQs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1791" data-file-height="2686" /></a><figcaption>Aids to navigation are often used as an example of a public good, as they benefit all maritime users, but no one can be excluded from using them.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg/230px-Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg/345px-Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg/460px-Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Coulee_Dam" title="Grand Coulee Dam">Grand Coulee Dam</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; padding:0.2em 0; background:lavender; text-align:center;"><div style="margin: 0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fixed_asset" title="Fixed asset">Assets</a> and facilities</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; text-align: center;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">Airports</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">Bridges</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Broadband" title="Broadband">Broadband</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canals</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Coastal management</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Critical_infrastructure" title="Critical infrastructure">Critical infrastructure</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">Electricity</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrigation scheme">Irrigation schemes</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levees</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Park" title="Park">Parks</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">Pipeline transport</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">Ports</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Mass transit</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">State schools</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">Public spaces</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">Roads</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage treatment</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sewerage" title="Sewerage">Sewerage</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sluice" title="Sluice">Sluices</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Snow_removal" title="Snow removal">Snow removal</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Solid waste</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">Telecommunication</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Trail" title="Trail">Trails</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Utilities</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_network" title="Water supply network">Water supply</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">Weirs</a> </li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; padding:0.2em 0; background:lavender; text-align:center;"><div style="margin: 0 4em">Concepts</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; text-align: center;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_asset_management" title="Infrastructure asset management">Asset management</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(law)" title="Appropriation (law)">Appropriation</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Lindahl_tax" title="Lindahl tax">Lindahl tax</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Build%E2%80%93operate%E2%80%93transfer" title="Build–operate–transfer">Build–operate–transfer</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Design%E2%80%93bid%E2%80%93build" title="Design–bid–build">Design–bid–build</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Design%E2%80%93build" title="Design–build">Design–build</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Earmark_(politics)" title="Earmark (politics)">Earmark</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/European_green_infrastructure" title="European green infrastructure">European green infrastructure</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Fixed_cost" title="Fixed cost">Fixed cost</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure#Engineering" title="Infrastructure">Engineering contracts</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Government_debt" title="Government debt">Government debt</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">Green infrastructure</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment" title="Life-cycle assessment">Life-cycle assessment</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Maintenance_(technical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maintenance (technical)">Maintenance</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Monopoly</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">Property tax</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership" title="Public–private partnership">Public–private partnership</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_capital" title="Public capital">Public capital</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_finance" title="Public finance">Public finance</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">Public good</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Upgrade" title="Upgrade">Replacement (upgrade)</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Spillover_(economics)" title="Spillover (economics)">Spillover</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Supply_chain" title="Supply chain">Supply chain</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation">Taxation</a> </li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; padding:0.2em 0; background:lavender; text-align:center;"><div style="margin: 0 4em">Issues and ideas</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; text-align: center;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">Air traffic control</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Brownfield_land" title="Brownfield land">Brownfield</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Containerization" title="Containerization">Containerization</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Congestion_pricing" title="Congestion pricing">Congestion pricing</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Ecotax" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecotax">Ecotax</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Fuel_tax" title="Fuel tax">Fuel tax</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail" title="High-speed rail">High-speed rail</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">Hybrid vehicles</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Land-use planning</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Mobile_data_terminal" title="Mobile data terminal">Mobile data terminal</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Pork_barrel" title="Pork barrel">Pork barrel</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Bus_rapid_transit" title="Bus rapid transit">Rapid bus transit</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewables</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">Smart growth</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">Urban sprawl</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Traffic_congestion" title="Traffic congestion">Traffic congestion</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Transit-oriented_development" title="Transit-oriented development">Transit-oriented development</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">Fuel efficiency</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Weatherization" title="Weatherization">Weatherization</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless technology</a> </li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; padding:0.2em 0; background:lavender; text-align:center;"><div style="margin: 0 4em">Fields of study</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; text-align: center;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public economics</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a> </li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; padding:0.2em 0; background:lavender; text-align:center;"><div style="margin: 0 4em">Examples</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; text-align: center;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Akashi_Kaiky%C5%8D_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Akashi Kaikyō Bridge">Akashi Kaikyō Bridge</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_System" title="Trans-Alaska Pipeline System">Trans-Alaska pipeline</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Autobahn" title="Autobahn">Autobahn</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_parking_station" title="Bicycle parking station">Bicycle parking station</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy policy of Brazil">Brazilian energy independence</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge" title="Brooklyn Bridge">Brooklyn Bridge</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Channel_Tunnel" title="Channel Tunnel">Channel Tunnel</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Water_Reclamation_District_of_Greater_Chicago" title="Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago">Chicago wastewater</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_China" title="High-speed rail in China">China's high-speed rail</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Rede_Integrada_de_Transporte" title="Rede Integrada de Transporte">Curtiba rapid bus transit</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Cycling_infrastructure" title="Cycling infrastructure">Cycling infrastructure</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_cycling_infrastructure" title="History of cycling infrastructure">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safety_of_cycling_infrastructure" title="Safety of cycling infrastructure">safety</a>) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Denmark" title="Wind power in Denmark">Danish wind-power</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_offshore_wind_farms_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of offshore wind farms in the United Kingdom">British offshore wind-power</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_France" title="Nuclear power in France">Nuclear power in France</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Solar power in Germany</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Dam" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dam</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_International_Airport" title="Hong Kong International Airport">Hong Kong Int'l Airport</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Intercity_Express" title="Intercity Express">Intercity Express</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate highways</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Reliance_Petroleum#Jamnagar_Refinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliance Petroleum">Jamnagar Refinery</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kansai_International_Airport" title="Kansai International Airport">Kansai Int'l Airport</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levee</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Offshore_wind_port" title="Offshore wind port">Offshore wind port</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Shanghai" title="Port of Shanghai">Port of Shanghai</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco Bay Bridge">San Francisco Bay Bridge</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Shinkansen" title="Shinkansen">Shinkansen</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_Spain" title="High-speed rail in Spain">Spanish high-speed rail</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/TGV" title="TGV">French TGV rail</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Spain" title="Highways in Spain">Spanish autovias and autopistas</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Transcontinental_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcontinental Railroad">Transcontinental Railroad</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission#Overhead_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Power transmission in the USA</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Wind farm</a> </li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-bottom:0.25em;background:lavender;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infrastructure_sidebar" title="Template:Infrastructure sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infrastructure_sidebar" title="Template talk:Infrastructure sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infrastructure_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infrastructure sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, a <b>public good</b> (also referred to as a <b>social good</b> or <b>collective good</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-Oakland_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oakland-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">good</a> that is both <a href="/wiki/Excludable" class="mw-redirect" title="Excludable">non-excludable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">non-rivalrous</a>. Use by one person neither prevents access by other people, nor does it reduce availability to others.<sup id="cite_ref-Oakland_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oakland-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the good can be used simultaneously by more than one person.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is in contrast to a <a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">common good</a>, such as wild fish stocks in the ocean, which is non-excludable but rivalrous to a certain degree. If too many fish were harvested, the stocks would deplete, limiting the access of fish for others. A public good must be valuable to more than one user, otherwise, its simultaneous availability to more than one person would be economically irrelevant. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Capital_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital good">Capital goods</a> may be used to produce public goods or services that are "...typically provided on a large scale to many consumers."<sup id="cite_ref-Tatom_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatom-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, using capital goods to produce public goods may result in the creation of new capital goods. In some cases, public goods or services are considered "...insufficiently profitable to be provided by the private sector.... (and), in the absence of government provision, these goods or services would be produced in relatively small quantities or, perhaps, not at all."<sup id="cite_ref-Tatom_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatom-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public goods include <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Official_statistics" title="Official statistics">official statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Common language">common languages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a>, broadcast radio,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Aids_to_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aids to navigation">aids to navigation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Street_lights" class="mw-redirect" title="Street lights">street lighting</a>. Collective goods that are spread all over the face of the Earth may be referred to as <a href="/wiki/Global_public_good" title="Global public good">global public goods</a>. This includes physical book literature<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (October 2023)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Public_good#Dubious" title="Talk:Public good">discuss</a></i>]</sup>, but also media, pictures and videos.<sup id="cite_ref-cowen_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cowen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, knowledge is well shared globally. Information about <a href="/wiki/Men%27s_health" title="Men's health">men's</a>, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">women's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Youth_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Youth health">youth</a> health awareness, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">environmental issues</a>, and maintaining <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> is common knowledge that every individual in the society can get without necessarily preventing others access. Also, sharing and interpreting <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">contemporary history</a> with a cultural lexicon (particularly about protected <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage sites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monuments" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments">monuments</a>) is another source of knowledge that the people can freely access. </p><p>Public goods problems are often closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Free_rider_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Free rider problem">"free-rider"</a> problem, in which people not paying for the good may continue to access it. Thus, the good may be under-produced, overused or degraded.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public goods may also become subject to restrictions on access and may then be considered to be <a href="/wiki/Club_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Club goods">club goods</a>; exclusion mechanisms include <a href="/wiki/Toll_roads" class="mw-redirect" title="Toll roads">toll roads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congestion_pricing" title="Congestion pricing">congestion pricing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pay_television" title="Pay television">pay television</a> with an encoded signal that can be decrypted only by paid subscribers. </p><p>There is a good deal of debate and literature on how to measure the significance of public goods problems in an economy, and to identify the best remedies. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_literature">Academic literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Academic literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Samuelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul A. Samuelson">Paul A. Samuelson</a> is usually credited as the economist who articulated the modern theory of public goods in a mathematical formalism, building on earlier work of <a href="/wiki/Knut_Wicksell" title="Knut Wicksell">Wicksell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erik_Lindahl" title="Erik Lindahl">Lindahl</a>. In his classic 1954 paper <i>The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he defined a public good, or as he called it in the paper a "collective consumption good", as follows:</p><blockquote><p>[goods] which all enjoy in common in the sense that each individual's consumption of such a good leads to no subtractions from any other individual's consumption of that good...</p></blockquote> <p>Many mechanisms have been proposed to achieve efficient public goods provision in various settings and under various assumptions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lindahl_tax">Lindahl tax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Lindahl tax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Lindahl_tax" title="Lindahl tax">Lindahl tax</a> is a type of taxation brought forward by <a href="/wiki/Erik_Lindahl" title="Erik Lindahl">Erik Lindahl</a>, an economist from Sweden in 1919. His idea was to tax individuals, for the provision of a public good, according to the marginal benefit they receive. Public goods are costly and eventually someone needs to pay the cost.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is difficult to determine how much each person should pay. So, Lindahl developed a theory of how the expense of public utilities needs to be settled. His argument was that people would pay for the public goods according to the way they benefit from the good. The more a person benefits from these goods, the higher the amount they pay. People are more willing to pay for goods that they value. Taxes are needed to fund public goods and people are willing to bear the burden of taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the theory dwells on people's willingness to pay for the public good. From the fact that public goods are paid through taxation according to the Lindahl idea, the basic duty of the organization that should provide the people with this services and products is the government.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vickrey–Clarke–Groves_mechanism"><span id="Vickrey.E2.80.93Clarke.E2.80.93Groves_mechanism"></span>Vickrey–Clarke–Groves mechanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Vickrey–Clarke–Groves mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vickrey%E2%80%93Clarke%E2%80%93Groves_mechanism" title="Vickrey–Clarke–Groves mechanism">Vickrey–Clarke–Groves mechanisms</a> (VCG) are one of the best-studied procedures for funding public goods. VCG encompasses a wide class of similar mechanisms, but most work focuses on the Clarke Pivot Rule which ensures that all individuals pay into the public good and that the mechanism is individually rational. </p><p>The main issue with the VCG mechanism is that it requires a very large amount of information from each user. Participants may not have a detailed sense of their utility function with respect to different funding levels. Compare this with other mechanisms that only require users to provide a single contribution amount. This, among other issues,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has prevented the use of VCG mechanisms in practice. However, it is still possible that VCG mechanisms could be adopted among a set of sophisticated actors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quadratic_funding">Quadratic funding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Quadratic funding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quadratic funding (QF) is one of the newest innovations in public goods funding mechanisms. The idea of <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_voting" title="Quadratic voting">Quadratic voting</a> was turned into a mechanism for public goods funding by Buterin, Hitzig, and Weyl <sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is now referred to as quadratic funding. </p><p>Quadratic funding has a close theoretical link with the VCG mechanism, and like VCG, it requires a subsidy in order to induce incentive compatibility and efficiency. Both mechanisms also fall prone to collusion between players and sybil attacks. However, in contrast to VCG, contributors only have to submit a single contribution – the total contribution to the public good is the sum of the square roots of individual contributions. It can be proved that there is always a deficit that the mechanism designer must pay. </p><p>One technique to reduce collusion is to identify groups of contributors that will likely coordinate and lower the subsidy going to their preferred causes.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assurance_contracts">Assurance contracts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Assurance contracts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>First proposed by Bagnoli and Lipman,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Assurance_contracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Assurance contracts">assurance contracts</a> have a simple and intuitive appeal. Each funder agrees to spend a certain amount towards a public good conditional on the total funding being sufficient to produce the good. If not everyone agrees to the terms, then no money is spent on the project. Donors can feel assured that their money will only be spent if there is sufficient support for the public good. Assurance contracts work particularly well with smaller groups of easily identifiable participants, especially when the game can be repeated. </p><p>Several crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter and IndieGoGo have used assurance contracts to support various projects (though not all of them are public goods). </p><p>Assurance contracts can be used for non-monetary coordination as well, for example, Free State Project obtained mutual commitments for 20,000 individuals to move to New Hampshire in a bid to influence the politics of the state. </p><p>Alex Tabarrok suggested a modification called dominant <a href="/wiki/Assurance_contracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Assurance contracts">assurance contracts</a> where the mechanism designer gives every contributor a refund bonus if the contract fails. For example, in addition to returning their contributions, the mechanism designer might give all contributors an additional $5 if the total donations aren’t sufficient to support the project. </p><p>If there’s a chance that the contract will fail, a refund bonus incentivizes people to participate in the mechanism, making the all-pay equilibrium more likely. This comes with the drawback that the mechanism designer must pay the participants in some cases (e.g. when the contract fails), which is a common theme. </p><p>Zubrickas <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed a simple modification of dominant assurance contracts where people are given a refund bonus proportional to the amount they offered to donate, this incentivizes larger contributions than the fixed refund from Tabarrok’s original proposal. </p><p>There have been many variations on the idea of conditional donations towards a public good. For example, the Conditional Contributions Mechanism <sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allows donors to make variable sized commitments to fund the project conditional on the total amount committed. Similarly, the Binary Conditional Contributions Mechanism <sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allows users to condition their donation on the number of unique funders. Extensions such as the Street Performer Protocol consider time-limited spending commitments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lotteries">Lotteries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lotteries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lotteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotteries">Lotteries</a> have historically been used as a means to finance public goods. Morgan <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> initiated the first formal study of lotteries as a public goods funding mechanism. Since then, lotteries have undergone extensive theoretical and experimental research. Combined with their historical success, lotteries are a promising crowdfunding mechanism. </p><p>They work by using an external source of funding to provide a lottery prize. Individual “donors” buy lottery tickets for a chance to receive the cash prize, knowing that ticket sales will be spent towards the public good. A winner is selected randomly from one of the tickets and the winner receives the entire lottery prize. All lottery proceeds from ticket sales are spent towards the public good. </p><p>Like the other mechanisms, this approach requires subsidies in the form of a lottery prize in order to function. It can be shown that altruistic donors can generate more funding for the good by donating towards the lottery prize rather than buying tickets directly. </p><p>Lotteries are approximately efficient public goods funding mechanisms and the level of funding approaches the optimal level as the prize grows. However, in the limit of large populations, contributions from the lottery mechanism converge to that of voluntary contributions and should fall to zero.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_non-profits">Role of non-profits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Role of non-profits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Public goods provision is in most cases part of governmental activities.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the introductory section of his book, <i>Public Good Theories of the Nonprofit Sector</i>, <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Kingma" title="Bruce Kingma">Bruce R. Kingma</a> stated that; </p><blockquote><p>In the Weisbrod model nonprofit organizations satisfy a demand for public goods, which is left unfilled by government provision. The government satisfies the demand of the median voters and therefore provides a level of the public good less than some citizens'-with a level of demand greater than the median voter's-desire. This unfilled demand for the public good is satisfied by nonprofit organizations. These nonprofit organizations are financed by the donations of citizens who want to increase the output of the public good.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology,_and_types_of_goods"><span id="Terminology.2C_and_types_of_goods"></span>Terminology, and types of goods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Terminology, and types of goods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Non-rivalrous:</b> accessible by all while one's usage of the product does not affect the availability for subsequent use.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Non-excludability:</b> that is, it is impossible to exclude any individuals from consuming the good. Pay walls, memberships and gates are common ways to create excludability. </p><p><b>Pure public</b>: when a good exhibits the two traits, non-rivalry and non-excludability, it is referred to as the pure public good. Pure public goods are rare. </p><p><b>Impure public goods:</b> the goods that satisfy the two public good conditions (<i><a href="/wiki/Non-rival_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rival good">non-rivalry</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Non-excludability" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-excludability">non-excludability</a></i>) only to a certain extent or only some of the time. For instance, some aspects of cybersecurity, such as threat intelligence and vulnerability information sharing, collective response to cyber-attacks, the integrity of elections, and critical infrastructure protection, have the characteristics of impure public goods.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Private_good" title="Private good">Private good</a></b>: The opposite of a public good which does not possess these properties. A loaf of bread, for example, is a private good; its owner can exclude others from using it, and once it has been consumed, it cannot be used by others. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></i>: A good that is rivalrous but <i>non-excludable</i>. Such goods raise similar issues to public goods: the mirror to the <i>public goods problem</i> for this case is the '<a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of the commons</a>', where the unfettered access to a good sometimes results in the overconsumption and thus depletion of that resource. For example, it is so difficult to enforce restrictions on <a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep-sea fishing">deep-sea fishing</a> that the world's <a href="/wiki/Fish_stocks" title="Fish stocks">fish stocks</a> can be seen as a non-excludable resource, but one which is finite and diminishing. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Club_good" title="Club good">Club goods</a></b>: are the goods that are excludable but are non-rivalrous such as private parks. </p><p><b>Mixed good</b>: final goods that are intrinsically private but that are produced by the individual consumer by means of private and public good inputs. The benefits enjoyed from such a good for any one individual may depend on the consumption of others, as in the cases of a crowded road or a congested national park.<sup id="cite_ref-Palgrave_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palgrave-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition_matrix">Definition matrix</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Definition matrix"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Goods#Goods_classified_by_exclusivity_and_competitiveness" title="Goods">Goods § Goods classified by exclusivity and competitiveness</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludable</a> </th> <th>Non-excludable </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalrous</a> </th> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Private_good" title="Private good">Private goods</a></b><br />eg. food, clothing, <a href="/wiki/Parking_space" title="Parking space">parking spaces</a> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resources</a></b> <br />eg. fish stocks, timber </td></tr> <tr> <th>Non-rivalrous </th> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Club_good" title="Club good">Club goods</a></b><br />eg. cinemas, software, private parks </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">Public goods</a></b><br />eg. <a href="/wiki/Free-to-air" title="Free-to-air">free-to-air television</a>, air, <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national defense</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenges_in_identifying_public_goods">Challenges in identifying public goods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Challenges in identifying public goods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The definition of non-excludability states that it is impossible to exclude individuals from consumption. Technology now allows radio or TV broadcasts to be encrypted such that persons without a special decoder are excluded from the broadcast. Many forms of <a href="/wiki/Information_good" title="Information good">information goods</a> have characteristics of public goods. For example, a poem can be read by many people without reducing the consumption of that good by others; in this sense, it is non-rivalrous. Similarly, the information in most patents can be used by any party without reducing consumption of that good by others. <a href="/wiki/Official_statistics" title="Official statistics">Official statistics</a> provide a clear example of information goods that are public goods, since they are created to be non-excludable. Creative works may be excludable in some circumstances, however: the individual who wrote the poem may decline to share it with others by not publishing it. <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyrights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a> both encourage the creation of such non-rival goods by providing temporary monopolies, or, in the terminology of public goods, providing a legal mechanism to enforce excludability for a limited period of time. For public goods, the "lost revenue" of the producer of the good is not part of the definition: a public good is a good whose consumption does not reduce any other's consumption of that good.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public goods also incorporate private goods, which makes it challenging to define what is private or public. For instance, you may think that the community soccer field is a public good. However, you need to bring your own cleats and ball to be able to play. There is also a rental fee that you would have to pay for you to be able to occupy that space. It is a mixed case of public and private goods. </p><p>Debate has been generated among economists whether such a category of "public goods" exists. <a href="/wiki/Steven_Shavell" title="Steven Shavell">Steven Shavell</a> has suggested the following: </p> <blockquote><p>when professional economists talk about public goods they do <i>not</i> mean that there are a general category of goods that share the same economic characteristics, manifest the same dysfunctions, and that may thus benefit from pretty similar corrective solutions...there is merely an infinite series of particular problems (some of <a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">overproduction</a>, some of underproduction, and so on), each with a particular solution that cannot be deduced from the theory, but that instead would depend on local empirical factors.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>There is a common misconception that public goods are goods provided by the <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a>. Although it is often the case that government is involved in producing public goods, this is not always true. Public goods may be <i>naturally</i> available, or they may be produced by private individuals, by firms, or by non-state groups, called <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Touffut_2006_p._26_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Touffut_2006_p._26-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theoretical concept of public goods does not distinguish geographic region in regards to how a good may be produced or consumed. However, some theorists, such as <a href="/wiki/Inge_Kaul" title="Inge Kaul">Inge Kaul</a>, use the term "<a href="/wiki/Global_public_good" title="Global public good">global public good</a>" for a public good that is non-rivalrous and non-excludable throughout the whole world, as opposed to a public good that exists in just one national area. Knowledge has been argued as an example of a global public good,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also as a commons, the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">knowledge commons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ostrom_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ostrom-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuelson_condition.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Samuelson_condition.png/220px-Samuelson_condition.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Samuelson_condition.png/330px-Samuelson_condition.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Samuelson_condition.png/440px-Samuelson_condition.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Aggregate demand (ΣMB) is the sum of individual demands (MBi)</figcaption></figure> <p>Graphically, non-rivalry means that if each of several individuals has a demand curve for a public good, then the individual demand curves are summed vertically to get the aggregate demand curve for the public good. This is in contrast to the procedure for deriving the aggregate demand for a private good, where individual demands are summed horizontally. </p><p>Some writers have used the term "public good" to refer only to non-excludable "pure public goods" and refer to excludable public goods as "<a href="/wiki/Club_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Club goods">club goods</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_public_goods">Digital public goods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Digital public goods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Digital_public_goods" title="Digital public goods">Digital public goods</a></div> <p>Digital public goods include software, data sets, AI models, standards and content that are <a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">open source</a>. </p><p>Use of the term “digital public good” appears as early as April, 2017 when Nicholas Gruen wrote Building the Public Goods of the Twenty-First Century, and has gained popularity with the growing recognition of the potential for new technologies to be implemented at scale to effectively serve people. Digital technologies have also been identified by countries, NGOs and private sector entities as a means to achieve the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (SDGs). </p><p>A digital public good is defined by the UN Secretary-General's Roadmap for Digital Cooperation, as: “open source software, open data, open AI models, open standards and open content that adhere to privacy and other applicable laws and best practices, do no harm, and help attain the SDGs.” </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Half_Dome_with_Eastern_Yosemite_Valley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Half_Dome_with_Eastern_Yosemite_Valley.jpg/220px-Half_Dome_with_Eastern_Yosemite_Valley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Half_Dome_with_Eastern_Yosemite_Valley.jpg/330px-Half_Dome_with_Eastern_Yosemite_Valley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Half_Dome_with_Eastern_Yosemite_Valley.jpg/440px-Half_Dome_with_Eastern_Yosemite_Valley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="18002" data-file-height="11406" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park" title="Yosemite National Park">Yosemite National Park</a>, an example of an environmental good.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_examples_of_public_goods_include">Common examples of public goods include</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Common examples of public goods include"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>public <a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">clean air</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">environmental goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_good" title="Information good">information goods</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Official_statistics" title="Official statistics">official statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">free and open-source software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authorship" class="mw-redirect" title="Authorship">authorship</a></li> <li>public <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">herd immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a></li> <li>national defense</li> <li>fire service</li> <li>flood defense</li> <li>street lights</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Further examples of public goods<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Class and type of good </th> <th>Nonexcludable </th> <th>Nonrival </th> <th>Common problem </th></tr> <tr> <td>Ozone layer </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>No </td> <td>Overuse </td></tr> <tr> <td>Atmosphere </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>No </td> <td>Overuse </td></tr> <tr> <td>Universal human rights </td> <td>Partly </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Underuse (repression) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Knowledge </td> <td>Partly </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Underuse (lack of access) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Internet </td> <td>Partly </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Underuse (entry barriers) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misclassified_public_goods">Misclassified public goods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Misclassified public goods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Some goods, like <a href="/wiki/Orphan_drug" title="Orphan drug">orphan drugs</a>, require special governmental incentives to be produced, but cannot be classified as public goods since they do not fulfill the above requirements (non-excludable and non-rivalrous.)</li> <li>Law enforcement, streets, libraries, museums, and education are commonly misclassified as public goods, but they are technically classified in economic terms as quasi-public goods because excludability <i>is</i> possible, but they do still fit some of the characteristics of public goods.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ppp_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ppp-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The provision of a <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">lighthouse</a> is a standard example of a public good, since it is difficult to exclude ships from using its services. No ship's use detracts from that of others, but since most of the benefit of a lighthouse accrues to ships using particular <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">ports</a>, lighthouse maintenance can be profitably bundled with port fees (<a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lighthouse_in_Economics" title="The Lighthouse in Economics">The Lighthouse in Economics</a></i> 1974). This has been sufficient to fund actual lighthouses.</li> <li>Technological progress can create new public goods. The most simple examples are street lights, which are relatively recent inventions (by historical standards). One person's enjoyment of them does not detract from other persons' enjoyment, and it currently would be prohibitively expensive to charge individuals separately for the amount of light they presumably use.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_statistics" title="Official statistics">Official statistics</a> are another example. The government's ability to collect, process and provide high-quality information to guide decision-making at all levels has been strongly advanced by technological progress. On the other hand, a public good's status may change over time. Technological progress can significantly impact excludability of traditional public goods: encryption allows <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasters</a> to sell individual access to their programming. The costs for electronic <a href="/wiki/Road_pricing" title="Road pricing">road pricing</a> have fallen dramatically, paving the way for detailed billing based on actual use.</li></ul> <p>Public goods are not restricted to human beings.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is one aspect of the study of cooperation in biology.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Free_rider_problem">Free rider problem</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Free rider problem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Free_rider_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Free rider problem">Free rider problem</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stowaways_climbing_over_fence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Stowaways_climbing_over_fence.jpg/200px-Stowaways_climbing_over_fence.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Stowaways_climbing_over_fence.jpg/300px-Stowaways_climbing_over_fence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Stowaways_climbing_over_fence.jpg/400px-Stowaways_climbing_over_fence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>Stowaway passengers who avoid payment turnstiles are "free-riding" on the train.</figcaption></figure> <p>The free rider problem is a primary issue in <a href="/wiki/Group_decision-making" title="Group decision-making">collective decision-making</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is that some firms in a particular industry will choose not to participate in a lobby whose purpose is to affect government policies that could benefit the industry, under the assumption that there are enough participants to result in a favourable outcome without them. The free rider problem is also a form of <a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">market failure</a>, in which market-like behavior of individual gain-seeking does not produce <a href="/wiki/Economically_efficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Economically efficient">economically efficient</a> results. The production of public goods results in positive <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">externalities</a> which are not remunerated. If private organizations do not reap all the benefits of a public good which they have produced, their incentives to produce it voluntarily might be insufficient. Consumers can take advantage of public goods without contributing sufficiently to their creation. This is called the <a href="/wiki/Free_rider_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Free rider problem">free rider problem</a>, or occasionally, the "easy rider problem". If too many consumers decide to "free-ride", private costs exceed private benefits and the incentive to provide the good or service through the market disappears. The market thus fails to provide a good or service for which there is a need.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The free rider problem depends on a conception of the human being as <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_economicus" title="Homo economicus">Homo economicus</a></i>: purely rational and also purely selfish—extremely individualistic, considering only those benefits and costs that directly affect him or her. Public goods give such a person an incentive to be a free rider. </p><p>For example, consider national defence, a standard example of a pure public good. Suppose <i>Homo economicus</i> thinks about exerting some extra effort to defend the nation. The benefits to the individual of this effort would be very low, since the benefits would be distributed among all of the millions of other people in the country. There is also a very high possibility that he or she could get injured or killed during the course of his or her military service. On the other hand, the free rider knows that he or she cannot be excluded from the benefits of national defense, regardless of whether he or she contributes to it. There is also no way that these benefits can be split up and distributed as individual parcels to people. The free rider would not voluntarily exert any extra effort, unless there is some inherent pleasure or material reward for doing so (for example, money paid by the government, as with an all-volunteer army or <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a>). </p><p>The free-riding problem is even more complicated than it was thought to be until recently. Any time non-excludability results in failure to pay the true marginal value (often called the "demand revelation problem"), it will also result in failure to generate proper income levels, since households will not give up valuable leisure if they cannot individually increment a good.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This implies that, for public goods without strong special interest support, under-provision is likely since <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost–benefit analysis</a> is being conducted at the wrong income levels, and all of the un-generated income would have been spent on the public good, apart from general equilibrium considerations. </p><p>In the case of <a href="/wiki/Information_good" title="Information good">information goods</a>, an inventor of a new product may benefit all of society, but hardly anyone is willing to pay for the invention if they can benefit from it for free. In the case of an information good, however, because of its characteristics of non-excludability and also because of almost zero reproduction costs, commoditization is difficult and not always efficient even from a neoclassical economic point of view.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficient_production_levels">Efficient production levels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Efficient production levels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The socially optimal provision of a public good in a society occurs when the sum of the marginal valuations of the public good (taken across all individuals) is equal to the marginal cost of providing that public good. These marginal valuations are, formally, <a href="/wiki/Marginal_rate_of_substitution" title="Marginal rate of substitution">marginal rates of substitution</a> relative to some reference private good, and the marginal cost is a <a href="/wiki/Marginal_rate_of_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal rate of transformation">marginal rate of transformation</a> that describes how much of that private good it costs to produce an incremental unit of the public good. This contrasts to the social optimality condition of private goods, which equates each consumer's valuation of the private good to its marginal cost of production.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For an example, consider a community of just two consumers and the government is considering whether or not to build a <a href="/wiki/Public_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Public park">public park</a>. One person is prepared to pay up to $200 for its use, while the other is willing to pay up to $100. The total value to the two individuals of having the park is $300. If it can be produced for $225, there is a $75 surplus to maintaining the park, since it provides services that the community values at $300 at a cost of only $225. </p><p>The classical theory of public goods defines efficiency under idealized conditions of <a href="/wiki/Complete_information" title="Complete information">complete information</a>, a situation already acknowledged in Wicksell (1896).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Samuelson emphasized that this poses problems for the efficient provision of public goods in practice and the assessment of an efficient <a href="/wiki/Lindahl_tax" title="Lindahl tax">Lindahl tax</a> to finance public goods, because individuals have incentives to underreport how much they value public goods.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent work, especially in <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_design" title="Mechanism design">mechanism design</a> and the theory of <a href="/wiki/Public_finance" title="Public finance">public finance</a> developed how valuations and costs could actually be elicited in practical conditions of incomplete information, using devices such as the <a href="/wiki/Vickrey%E2%80%93Clarke%E2%80%93Groves_mechanism" title="Vickrey–Clarke–Groves mechanism">Vickrey–Clarke–Groves mechanism</a>. Thus, deeper analysis of problems of public goods motivated much work that is at the heart of modern economic theory.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_public_goods">Local public goods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Local public goods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic theory of public goods as discussed above begins with situations where the level of a public good (e.g., quality of the air) is equally experienced by everyone. However, in many important situations of interest, the incidence of benefits and costs is not so simple. For example, when people at a workplace keep an office clean or residrnts <a href="/wiki/Neighborhood_watch" title="Neighborhood watch">monitor a neighborhood for signs of crime</a>, the benefits of that effort accrue to some people (those in their <i>neighborhoods</i>) more than to others. The overlapping structure of these neighborhoods is often modeled as a <a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">network</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BK_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BK-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (When neighborhoods are totally separate, i.e., non-overlapping, the standard model is the <a href="/wiki/Tiebout_model" title="Tiebout model">Tiebout model</a>.) </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ETS_Bus_University.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/ETS_Bus_University.jpg/200px-ETS_Bus_University.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/ETS_Bus_University.jpg/300px-ETS_Bus_University.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/ETS_Bus_University.jpg/400px-ETS_Bus_University.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption>A transit service provides benefits for a wide range of people.</figcaption></figure> <p>An example of locally public good that could help everyone, even ones not from the neighborhood, is a bus service. If you are a college student who is visiting their friend who goes to school in another city that has bus service, you get to benefit from this bus service just like everyone that resides in and goes to school in said city. There is also a correlation of benefits and costs that you are now a part of. You are benefiting by not having to walk to your destination and taking a bus instead. However, others might prefer to walk, so they do not become a part of the problem, which is pollution due to gas emitted by automobiles and congestion. </p><p>In 2019, economists developed the theory of local public goods with overlapping neighborhoods, or <i>public goods in networks</i>: both their efficient provision, and how much can be provided voluntarily in <a href="/wiki/Nash_equilibrium" title="Nash equilibrium">a non-cooperative equilibrium</a>. When it comes to socially <a href="/wiki/Efficient_frontier" title="Efficient frontier">efficient</a> provision, networks that are more dense or close-knit in terms of how much people can benefit each other have more scope for improving on an inefficient status quo.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, voluntary provision is typically below the efficient level, and equilibrium outcomes tend to involve strong specialization, with a few individuals contributing heavily and their neighbors free-riding on those contributions.<sup id="cite_ref-BK_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BK-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ownership">Ownership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ownership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economic theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hart_(economist)" title="Oliver Hart (economist)">Oliver Hart</a> (1995) have emphasized that ownership matters for investment incentives when contracts are incomplete.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_contracts" title="Incomplete contracts">incomplete contracting</a> paradigm has been applied to public goods by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Besley" title="Tim Besley">Besley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maitreesh_Ghatak" title="Maitreesh Ghatak">Ghatak</a> (2001).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They consider the government and a non-governmental organization (NGO) who can both make investments to provide a public good. Besley and Ghatak argue that the party who has a larger valuation of the public good should be the owner, regardless of whether the government or the NGO has a better investment technology. This result contrasts with the case of private goods studied by Hart (1995), where the party with the better investment technology should be the owner. However, it has been shown that the investment technology may matter also in the public-good case when a party is indispensable or when there are bargaining frictions between the government and the NGO.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Halonen-Akatwijuka and Pafilis (2020) have demonstrated that Besley and Ghatak's results are not robust when there is a long-term relationship, such that the parties interact repeatedly.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Schmitz (2021) has shown that when the parties have private information about their valuations of the public good, then the investment technology can be an important determinant of the optimal ownership structure.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-rival_good" title="Anti-rival good">Anti-rival good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindahl_tax" title="Lindahl tax">Lindahl tax</a>, a method proposed by Erik Lindahl for financing public goods</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private-collective_model_of_innovation" title="Private-collective model of innovation">Private-collective model of innovation</a>, which explains the creation of public goods by private investors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bad" title="Public bad">Public bad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_trust_doctrine" title="Public trust doctrine">Public trust doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_goods_game" title="Public goods game">Public goods game</a>, a standard of experimental economics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">Public works</a>, government-financed constructions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_group" title="Privileged group">Privileged group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">Tragedy of the anticommons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadratic_funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadratic funding">Quadratic funding</a>, a mechanism to allocate funding for the production of public goods based on democratic principles</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Oakland-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oakland_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oakland_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oakland, W. H. (1987). Theory of public goods. In Handbook of public economics (Vol. 2, pp. 485–535). Elsevier.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For current definitions of public goods see any mainstream microeconomics textbook, e.g.: <a href="/wiki/Hal_R._Varian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hal R. Varian">Hal R. Varian</a>, <i>Microeconomic Analysis</i> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-95735-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-95735-7">0-393-95735-7</a>; <a href="/wiki/Andreu_Mas-Colell" title="Andreu Mas-Colell">Andreu Mas-Colell</a>, Whinston & Green, <i>Microeconomic Theory</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507340-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507340-1">0-19-507340-1</a>; or Gravelle & Rees, <i>Microeconomics</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-40487-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-40487-8">0-582-40487-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tatom-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tatom_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tatom_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatom, J. A. (1991). Should government spending on capital goods be raised?. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, 73(3), 3–15. Accessed at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/91/03/Government_Mar_Apr1991.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417104338/https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/91/03/Government_Mar_Apr1991.pdf">Archived</a> 17 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Stiglitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph E. Stiglitz">Joseph E. Stiglitz</a>, "Knowledge as a Global Public Good" in <i>Global Public Goods</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513052-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513052-2">978-0-19-513052-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeach2004" class="citation book cs1">Leach, John (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gEI-pIkI4a8C&q=Public+goods+include+knowledge%7Clanguage"><i>A Course in Public Economics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53567-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53567-0"><bdi>978-0-521-53567-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2021</span>. <q>Knowledge is a pure public good: once something is known, that knowledge can be used by anyone, and its use by any one person docs not preclude its use by others.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Public+Economics&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53567-0&rft.aulast=Leach&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgEI-pIkI4a8C%26q%3DPublic%2Bgoods%2Binclude%2Bknowledge%257Clanguage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumar" class="citation web cs1">Kumar, V. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newsandsociety.expertscolumn.com/why-government-is-needed-to-supply-public-goods">"Why Government is Needed to Supply Public Goods?"</a>. <i>newsandsociety.expertscolumn.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newsandsociety.expertscolumn.com&rft.atitle=Why+Government+is+Needed+to+Supply+Public+Goods%3F&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewsandsociety.expertscolumn.com%2Fwhy-government-is-needed-to-supply-public-goods&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cowen-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cowen_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowen2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Cowen" title="Tyler Cowen">Cowen, Tyler</a> (December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/PublicGoods.html">"Public Goods"</a>. In David R. Henderson (ed.). <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</i>. The Library of Economics and Liberty. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100328090105/http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/PublicGoods.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Public+Goods&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Economics&rft.pub=The+Library+of+Economics+and+Liberty&rft.date=2007-12&rft.aulast=Cowen&rft.aufirst=Tyler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.econlib.org%2Flibrary%2FEnc%2FPublicGoods.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rittenberg and Tregarthen. <i>Principles of Microeconomics</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/ECON101-3.2.pdf">Chapter 6, Section 4. p. 2</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130319152336/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/ECON101-3.2.pdf">Archived</a> 19 March 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 20 June 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuelson1954" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson, Paul A.</a> (1954). 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(2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047272721000608">"Optimal ownership of public goods under asymmetric information"</a>. <i>Journal of Public Economics</i>. <b>198</b>: 104424. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jpubeco.2021.104424">10.1016/j.jpubeco.2021.104424</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0047-2727">0047-2727</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236397476">236397476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Economics&rft.atitle=Optimal+ownership+of+public+goods+under+asymmetric+information&rft.volume=198&rft.pages=104424&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236397476%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0047-2727&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jpubeco.2021.104424&rft.aulast=Schmitz&rft.aufirst=Patrick+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0047272721000608&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChattopadhyay2012" class="citation book cs1">Chattopadhyay, Saumen (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/b/oxp/obooks/9780198082255.html"><i>Education and Economics: Disciplinary Evolution and Policy Discourse</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198082255" title="Special:BookSources/9780198082255"><bdi>9780198082255</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+and+Economics%3A+Disciplinary+Evolution+and+Policy+Discourse&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780198082255&rft.aulast=Chattopadhyay&rft.aufirst=Saumen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fideas.repec.org%2Fb%2Foxp%2Fobooks%2F9780198082255.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoase,_Ronald1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Coase, Ronald</a> (1974). "The Lighthouse in Economics". <i>Journal of Law and Economics</i>. <b>17</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">357–</span>376. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F466796">10.1086/466796</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153715526">153715526</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+and+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Lighthouse+in+Economics&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E357-%3C%2Fspan%3E376&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F466796&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153715526%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Coase%2C+Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_Acocella" title="Nicola Acocella">Acoella, Nicola</a> (2006), ‘<i>Distributive issues in the provision and use of global public goods</i>’, in: ‘<i>Studi economici</i>’, 88(1): 23–42.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnomaly2015" class="citation journal cs1">Anomaly, Jonathan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1470594X13505414">"Public Goods and Government Action"</a>. <i>Politics, Philosophy & Economics</i>. <b>14</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">109–</span>128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1470594X13505414">10.1177/1470594X13505414</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10161%2F9732">10161/9732</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154904308">154904308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics%2C+Philosophy+%26+Economics&rft.atitle=Public+Goods+and+Government+Action&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E128&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10161%2F9732&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154904308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1470594X13505414&rft.aulast=Anomaly&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1177%2F1470594X13505414&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipsey,_Richard2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lipsey" title="Richard Lipsey">Lipsey, Richard</a> (2008). <i>Economics</i> (11 ed.). pp. <span class="nowrap">281–</span>283.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E281-%3C%2Fspan%3E283&rft.edition=11&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Lipsey%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Zittrain" title="Jonathan Zittrain">Zittrain, Jonathan</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Future_of_the_Internet:_And_How_to_Stop_It" class="mw-redirect" title="The Future of the Internet: And How to Stop It">The Future of the Internet: And How to Stop It</a></i>. 2008</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lessig, Lawrence</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Code:_Version_2.0" title="Code: Version 2.0">Code 2.0</a></i>, Chapter 7, What Things Regulate</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_good&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Public good</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Public+good">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Public+good&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linfo.org/public_good.html"><i>Public Goods: A Brief Introduction</i></a>, by The Linux Information Project (LINFO)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowen2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Cowen" title="Tyler Cowen">Cowen, Tyler</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/PublicGoods.html">"Public Goods"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/David_R._Henderson" title="David R. Henderson">David R. Henderson</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Concise Encyclopedia of Economics">Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</a></i> (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Economics_and_Liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Library of Economics and Liberty">Library of Economics and Liberty</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-665-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-665-8"><bdi>978-0-86597-665-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/237794267">237794267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Public+Goods&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Economics&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Library+of+Economics+and+Liberty&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F237794267&rft.isbn=978-0-86597-665-8&rft.aulast=Cowen&rft.aufirst=Tyler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.econlib.org%2Flibrary%2FEnc%2FPublicGoods.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+good" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/gpg/index.htm">Global Public Goods</a> – analysis from Global Policy Forum</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/public.htm"><i>The Nature of Public Goods</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/free-rider/">Hardin, Russell, "The Free Rider Problem", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/19px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/29px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/38px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Business and economics">Business and economics</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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.navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_goods18" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Types_of_goods" title="Template:Types of goods"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Types_of_goods" title="Template talk:Types of goods"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Types_of_goods" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Types of goods"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_goods18" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">goods</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-rival_good" title="Anti-rival good">Anti-rival goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital good">Capital goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_good" title="Club good">Club goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_good" title="Complementary good">Complementary goods</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Substitute_good" title="Substitute good">Substitute goods</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Independent_goods" title="Independent goods">Independent goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composite_good" title="Composite good">Composite goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credence_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Credence good">Credence goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durable_good" title="Durable good">(Non-)durable goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Experience good">(Post-)experience goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_good" title="Final good">Final goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_good" title="Free good">Free goods</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Positional_good" title="Positional good">Positional goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giffen_good" title="Giffen good">Giffen goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_public_good" title="Global public good">Global public goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_good" title="Inferior good">Inferior goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_good" title="Information good">Information goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_good" title="Intangible good">Intangible goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_good" title="Intermediate good">Intermediate goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxury_goods" title="Luxury goods">Luxury goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_good" title="Merit good">Merit goods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demerit_good" title="Demerit good">demerit goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_good" title="Neutral good">Neutral goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_good" title="Normal good">Normal goods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_good" title="Necessity good">Necessity goods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_good" title="Ordinary good">Ordinary goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_good" title="Private good">Private goods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Household_goods" title="Household goods">Household goods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">Public goods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_public_goods" title="Digital public goods">Digital public goods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">(Non-)rivalrous goods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">(Non-)excludable goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Search good">Search goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior good">Superior goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Used_good" title="Used good">Used goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veblen_good" title="Veblen good">Veblen goods</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_infrastructure124" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_infrastructure_topics" title="Template:Public infrastructure topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_infrastructure_topics" title="Template talk:Public infrastructure topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_infrastructure_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public infrastructure topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_infrastructure124" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Public infrastructure">Public infrastructure</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fixed_asset" title="Fixed asset">Assets</a><br />and<br />facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">Airports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadband" title="Broadband">Broadband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_infrastructure" title="Critical infrastructure">Critical infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">Electricity generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park" title="Park">Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">Public spaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Public utilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">Public works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">State schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_square" title="Town square">Town square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">Wastewater treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_network" title="Water supply network">Water supply network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(law)" title="Appropriation (law)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_asset_management" title="Infrastructure asset management">Infrastructure asset management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Build%E2%80%93operate%E2%80%93transfer" title="Build–operate–transfer">Build–operate–transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design%E2%80%93build" title="Design–build">Design–build</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earmark_(politics)" title="Earmark (politics)">Earmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure#Engineering" title="Infrastructure">Engineering contracts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_cost" title="Fixed cost">Fixed cost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_debt" title="Government debt">Government debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_bond" title="Infrastructure bond">Infrastructure bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment" title="Life-cycle assessment">Life-cycle assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindahl_tax" title="Lindahl tax">Lindahl tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maintenance,_repair,_and_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Maintenance, repair, and operations">Maintenance, repair, and operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">Property tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_capital" title="Public capital">Public capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_finance" title="Public finance">Public finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">Public good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership" title="Public–private partnership">Public–private partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_(economics)" title="Spillover (economics)">Spillover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_chain" title="Supply chain">Supply chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upgrade" title="Upgrade">Upgrade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues<br />and<br />ideas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">Air traffic control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownfield_land" title="Brownfield land">Brownfield land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bus_rapid_transit" title="Bus rapid transit">Bus rapid transit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congestion_pricing" title="Congestion pricing">Congestion pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containerization" title="Containerization">Containerization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">Fuel efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_tax" title="Fuel tax">Fuel tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail" title="High-speed rail">High-speed rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">Hybrid vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Land-use planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_data_terminal" title="Mobile data terminal">Mobile data terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pork_barrel" title="Pork barrel">Pork barrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">Smart growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urban_infrastructure" title="Sustainable urban infrastructure">Sustainable urban infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_congestion" title="Traffic congestion">Traffic congestion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit-oriented_development" title="Transit-oriented development">Transit-oriented development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">Urban sprawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weatherization" title="Weatherization">Weatherization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields<br />of study</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Examples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akashi_Kaiky%C5%8D_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Akashi Kaikyō Bridge">Akashi Kaikyō Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobahn" title="Autobahn">Autobahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge" title="Brooklyn Bridge">Brooklyn Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bus_rapid_transit_systems" title="List of bus rapid transit systems">Bus rapid transit systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Tunnel" title="Channel Tunnel">Channel Tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_controlled-access_highway_systems" title="List of controlled-access highway systems">Controlled-access highway systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission#Overhead_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_high-speed_trains" title="List of high-speed trains">High-speed trains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_International_Airport" title="Hong Kong International Airport">Hong Kong International Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Dam" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humber_Bridge" title="Humber Bridge">Humber Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansai_International_Airport" title="Kansai International Airport">Kansai International Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millau_Viaduct" title="Millau Viaduct">Millau Viaduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_offshore_wind_farms" title="List of offshore wind farms">Offshore wind farms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Shanghai" title="Port of Shanghai">Port of Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco%E2%80%93Oakland_Bay_Bridge" title="San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge">San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">Solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_System" title="Trans-Alaska Pipeline System">Trans-Alaska pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcontinental_railroad" title="Transcontinental railroad">Transcontinental railroads</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microeconomics291" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Microeconomics" title="Template:Microeconomics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Microeconomics" title="Template talk:Microeconomics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Microeconomics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Microeconomics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microeconomics291" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregation_problem" title="Aggregation problem">Aggregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budget_set" title="Budget set">Budget set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_choice" title="Consumer choice">Consumer choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convexity_in_economics" title="Convexity in economics">Convexity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-convexity_(economics)" title="Non-convexity (economics)">non-convexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_cost" title="Economic cost">Cost</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Average_cost" title="Average cost">Average</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_cost" title="Marginal cost">Marginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">Opportunity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_cost" title="Implicit cost">Implicit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cost" title="Social cost">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunk_cost" title="Sunk cost">Sunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">Transaction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">Cost–benefit analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadweight_loss" title="Deadweight loss">Deadweight loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(economics)" title="Distribution (economics)">Distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">Economies of scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scope" title="Economies of scope">Economies of scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(economics)" title="Elasticity (economics)">Elasticity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross_elasticity_of_demand" title="Cross elasticity of demand">Cross elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_elasticity_of_demand" title="Income elasticity of demand">Income elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_demand" title="Price elasticity of demand">Price elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_supply" title="Price elasticity of supply">Price elasticity of supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_equilibrium" title="Economic equilibrium">Equilibrium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium_theory" title="General equilibrium theory">General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_firm" title="Theory of the firm">Firms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">Goods and services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">Goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income%E2%80%93consumption_curve" title="Income–consumption curve">Income–consumption curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indifference_curve" title="Indifference curve">Indifference curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertemporal_choice" title="Intertemporal choice">Intertemporal choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_structure" title="Market structure">Market structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monopolistic_competition" title="Monopolistic competition">Monopolistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duopoly" title="Duopoly">Duopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_monopoly" title="Bilateral monopoly">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_monopoly" title="Complementary monopoly">Complementary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">Monopsony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopsony" title="Oligopsony">Oligopsony</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pareto_efficiency" title="Pareto efficiency">Pareto efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_(economics)" title="Preference (economics)">Preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">Price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">Price controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_ceiling" title="Price ceiling">Price ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_floor" title="Price floor">Price floor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_discrimination" title="Price discrimination">Price discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_signal" title="Price signal">Price signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_system" title="Price system">Price system</a>/<a href="/wiki/Free_price_system" title="Free price system">Free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pricing" title="Pricing">Pricing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_set" title="Production set">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">Public goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationing" title="Rationing">Rationing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_rent" title="Economic rent">Rent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Returns_to_scale" title="Returns to scale">Returns to scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion" title="Risk aversion">Risk aversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage" title="Shortage">Shortage</a>/<a href="/wiki/Excess_supply" title="Excess supply">Excess supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_effect" title="Substitution effect">Substitution effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_surplus" title="Economic surplus">Surplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand" title="Demand">Demand</a>/<a href="/wiki/Law_of_demand" title="Law of demand">Law of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_(economics)" title="Supply (economics)">Supply</a>/<a href="/wiki/Law_of_supply" title="Law of supply">Law of supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">Utility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expected_utility_hypothesis" title="Expected utility hypothesis">Expected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">Marginal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">Wage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_decision_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical decision theory">Statistical decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics_(civil_engineering)" title="Engineering economics (civil engineering)">Civil engineering economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfoundations" title="Microfoundations">Microfoundations of macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Microeconomics" title="Category:Microeconomics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economics681" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economics" title="Template:Economics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economics" title="Template talk:Economics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economics681" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics#Theoretical_research" title="Economics">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">Decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Price theory">Price theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_design" title="Mechanism design">Mechanism design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complexity_economics" title="Complexity economics">Complexity economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_computational_economics" title="Agent-based computational economics">Agent-based computational economics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_in_economics" title="Pluralism in economics">Pluralism in economics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics#Empirical_research" title="Economics">Empirical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Economic statistics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Social choice">Social choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">history</a>)<br /></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_economy" title="Attention economy">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American (National)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_economic_thought" title="Ancient economic thought">Ancient thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist economics">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lausanne_School" title="Lausanne School">Lausanne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a 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<span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>42 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-ptjbj","wgBackendResponseTime":130,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.820","walltime":"1.031","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5122,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":244064,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2744,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":11,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":246146,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 823.891 1 -total"," 42.62% 351.144 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.12% 141.046 30 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